Final Thesis PDF

Running&head:&DEVELOPING&FEMALE&COACHES& 1&
Underrepresentation of Females in the MLB
Bryce Adrian
Endicott College&
DEVELOPING&FEMALE&COACHES& 2&
Table of contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………5
Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………………6
Statement of the problem……………………………………………….…………………7
Definition of terms…………………………………………………...……………………7
Delimitations………………………………………………………………………………8
Limitations……………………………………………………...…………………………8
Hypotheses…………………………………………………...……………………………9
Significance of the problem………………………………….……………………………9
Chapter 2: Review of literature…………………………………….…………………………….11
Constraints against female coaches……………………………...………………………11
Developing female coaches…………………………………...…………………………15
Female coaches having a positive impact…………………….………………………….21
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………26
Chapter 3: Procedure……………………………………………….……………………………28
Source of data……………………………………………………………………………28
Instrumentation……………………………………………………………….………….28
Procedures………………………………………………………………….…………….28
Treatments of data…………………………………………………….………………….30
Chapter 4: Results and discussions………………………………………………………………31
Results……………………………………………………………………………………31
Discussion…………………………………………………………….………………….40
Chapter 5: Summary and conclusions……………………………………………………………44

Summary…………………………………………………………………………………44
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….…45
References………………………………………………………………………….…………….47
Appendices……………………………………………………………………….………………50
Appendix A: Informed consent…………………………………………………………..50
Appendix B: Parent consent form………………………………………………………..51
Appendix C: Survey……………………………………………...………………………52
&
& &
Table of figures
Figure 1: Years in organized sport……………………………………………………………….32
Figure 2: Sports watched on television…………………………………………………………..34
Figure 3: Amount of Male vs Female coaches…………………………………………………..35
Figure 4: Levels of sport females should coach…………………………………………………36
Figure 5: Characteristics of coaches……………………………………………………………..37
Figure 6: Male vs Female characteristics………………………………………………………...37
Figure 7: Preferred coach for specific sports…………………………………………………….38
Figure 8: Preferred coach for non-specific sports………………………………………………..38

Abstract
The implementation of Title IX was the first step in creating some equality for women in
the sporting industry. Although times have changed since then, and women are more accepted
and integrated into sports these days, women still face discrimination in the coaching industry.
The purpose of this study is to expand on previous research and expand on previous information
which supports that female coaches have a positive impact in sports, including male dominated
sports. There is a need for more female coaches and fairer hiring processes, especially at the
middle school and high school level. A survey, completed by 124 male and female students in
both middle school and high school in New York State, gathered information and perceptions
about the female coaches that these students had, the impact that these coaches had, and the
knowledge, information, and awareness concerning the discrimination that female coaches face.
The results from this survey were then analyzed using descriptive statistics to determine the
relationship that female coaches bring to the coaching industry and the way that these coaches
are perceived. The results demonstrated that females need a larger presence in the public eye, as
well as in children’s and young adults’ sports, to subsequently increase the awareness of these
athletes. In conclusion, the results from this study supported that discrimination is a barrier that
still exists in professional coaching.

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Throughout history, in countries all over the globe, sports have been a part of our lives in
one aspect or another. As we take a closer look into the sports’ world, we soon realize that many
of the male dominated sports do not have many female coaches. On the other side of the
spectrum, female dominated sports have a considerable number of male coaches. Why is this
happening to a sports industry that supports all different races, cultures, beliefs, and countries?
Last year the Buffalo Bills were the first team in history to hire a full-time female coach
(special team’s quality control coach), although her time was short lived in the NFL when she
was asked to leave after former head coach Rex Ryan was fired. Now the San Francisco 49ers
are becoming the second team to hire a female coach to work with wide receivers. Since the
National Football League is such a male dominated sport it is exciting to see the changes and
think about what is yet to come in the world of sports.
This translates to females facing discrimination and perceived stereotypes when entering
the field. The first step in the awareness of few female coaches included the use of Title IX to
combat the equality of women is sport (Morris, Arthur-Banning, & McDowell, 2014, p.175).
Although there will always be two sides to the spectrum, improvement will be slow and the
numbers will take a while before they even become close to 50% (Ladda, 2015). It is important
to see change as well as bring awareness to an issue that not only needs to be addressed in Major
League Baseball, but all male dominated sports. So, how can the role of female coaches impact
the morale/cohesion in the male dominated sport of Major League Baseball?” This topic can
become a controversial one in view of the women’s fight for equality and the few opportunities
women have been given to reach their full potential.

Women have been facing diversity for years and, although there are currently probably
more female sport coaches than ever before, their numbers are still small compared to their male
counterparts. Women are concerned that career opportunities for them at higher levels in sport
are shrinking. While the number of female athletes has increased substantially the number of
women in high coaching positions is relatively low. This is due to the fact that sport, being a
male-dominated domain, appears to discriminate against women thereby preventing their
advancement to high level positions (Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2015, p.81). More research
will continue to improve on the resources and conditions women coaches face.
Statement of the problem
The lack of female coaches or coaching positions has vaguely been researched in other
sports as well as the statistical numbers that they are facing, however more research needs to be
developed in the areas where male coaches are most predominant. Previous studies have found
that discrimination is one of the leading factors that contributes to women not obtaining
positions. Also, the perceived image of women is not in favor of their work image. Further
investigation should be done regarding the players within the MLB and their perceptions and
thoughts of female coaches. The purpose of this study is to examine the issues facing women
coaches as they enter the professional coaching field, predominately in major league baseball,
and to bring awareness and resources to those who still aspire to be coaches.
Definition of terms
•! Discrimination - The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people,
especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex (Walker, & Bopp, 2010, p.50).
•! Stereotype - A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type
of person or thing (Walker, & Bopp, 2010, p.51).

•! Male Dominated - dominant, and prone to act as a leader, and these characteristics are
credited to men (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015, p.313).
•! Controversial - Prolonged public disagreement or heated discussion between females and
the stereotypes (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015, p.306).
•! Constraints - Severely restrict the scope, extent, or activity on female coaches (Kubayi,
Coopoo, & Morris-Eyton, 2017, p.107).
•! Cohesion - The action or fact of forming a united whole between all female coaches
(Norman, 2012, p.235).
•! Morale - The confidence, enthusiasm, and discipline of a person or group at a particular
time (Norman, 2012, p.233).
Delimitations
The current study is delimited in the following areas:
1.! The participants of the study will reside within states that have major league baseball
teams (New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Ohio).
2.! The target sample will consist of baseball players at the middle/ high school level.
3.! This study will focus on boys who are currently playing or have played baseball.
Limitations
The current study is limited in the following areas:
1.! Due to the low response rate, it is possible the sample does not represent the population.
2.! Due to the low racial diversity expressed in this study, the study is unable to compare
results based on racial background.
3.! Due to the responses coming from one state, the study results cannot be generalized to
different states or the entire state of New York.

4.! Due to the low sample size, more responses would increase the sample size and the
accuracy of the study.
Hypotheses
This study will address different hypotheses
1.! Female coaches perceive discrimination as a barrier into professional coaching of male
sports.
2.! The greater the female presence in sports in public view, the greater the recognition and
appeal in further generations.
3.! The greater the female presence in children’s sports, the greater turnover for more female
coaches.
Significance of the problem
This research question is significant because there have been some studies that have
addressed the issue on a smaller scale, but have yet to address the major sports that contribute to
fewer women coaches. At the moment, the research provided some main themes that emerged
including the development of opportunities for female coaches, constraints against female
coaches, and women coaches having a positive impact on morale and cohesion within male
dominated sports. Questions arise as to why women are not pursuing coaching positions. Are
there enough opportunities for women to enter the sports industry? Are resources available for
women to achieve the positions that they desire? What is the perceived image of women coaches,
especially in a male dominated sport like major league baseball? There are opportunities for
women, so they just need to follow their dreams and they will obtain their goals. With this
knowledge, it provides a theoretical significance to the study which will determine how to
minimize the discrimination of women, what practices are not effective on male athletes, and
what attributes deter women from continuing to coach male athletes. Furthermore, to help
enhance effective coaching methods. This research can have practical significance for women
coaches who will have the opportunity to learn more information before entering this industry or
coaching a male dominated sport. The information can then grow and be passed along to help
and continue to impact more females and their coaching methods as they enter the coaching
industry.
&
! !
Chapter!2!
REVIEW&OF&LITERATURE&
Throughout history, in countries all over the globe, sports have been a part of our lives in
one aspect or another. As we take a closer look into the sports’ world, we soon realize that many
of the male dominated sports do not have many female coaches. On the other side of the
spectrum, female dominated sports have a considerable number of male coaches. Therefore,
“How can the role of female coaches impact the morale/cohesion in male dominated sports?”
This topic can become a controversial one in view of the women’s fight for equality and the few
opportunities women have been given to reach their full potential. Through my research, I will
touch upon topics that include the development of opportunities for female coaches, constraints
against female coaches, and women coaches having a positive impact on morale and cohesion
within male dominated sports. It is important to support the incoming females and further their
impact in male dominated professional sports.
Constraints Against Female Coaches
Female coaches encounter many constraints during their journey to become a coach or
even when they are a coach. All constraints and difficulties come in many different forms,
including: a lack of mentoring and role models gender-role stereotyping over sexualization and
marginalization of women by the media intention-related variables such as interest and self-
efficacy and homologous reproduction, and lesbophobia (Keats, 2016). All the constraints that
they endue can be overcome, but the first step is being aware of these constraints so they are
prepared.
Many of the gender role stereotypes have led to the media portrayal of women in
athletically marginalizing and stereotypical ways, both suggest that gender stereotypes have been
very influential in the media’s portrayal of women as being overly involved in feminine sports,
while men have been portrayed as being involved in masculine sports (Kubayi, Coopoo, &
Morris-Eyton, 2017). Although the term “hegemony” was first coined by Gramsci (1971) to
explain political and economic strife in Europe, many scholars have applied the term to the
explanation of gender and power issues. Masculine hegemony plays a role in the way we view
women in workplaces such as those found in sport organizations (Kubayi, Coopoo, & Morris-
Eyton, 2017). Women’s integration into the sporting world has been met with considerable
resistance, and continues to pose a threat to male hegemony. Female participation in sport has
called into question the “natural” meanings of gender roles and hence the exclusivity of sport as
part of the masculine realm (LaFountaine, & Kamphoff, 2016).
Key elements as to why females are not in leadership positions are opportunity, power,
and gender proportion. (LaFountaine, & Kamphoff, 2016). Meaning, if there are few women in
an occupation, they have a difficult time forming a network and developing power alliances. The
work place has been described as a ‘‘labyrinth’’ or a male-dominated work culture that females
need to negotiate in order to feel fully accepted. The ‘‘labyrinth’’ is filled with subtle messages,
barriers, and norms that men have established, and can be applied to better understand the
challenges female coaches face when attempting to navigate the world of coaching males
(LaFountaine, & Kamphoff, 2016). Women are concerned that career opportunities for them at
higher levels in sport are shrinking. This, attributes this to the fact that sport, being a male-
dominated domain, appears to discriminate against women thereby preventing their advancement
to high level positions. Several researchers found that the number of women in top-tier positions
in sport organizations continues to decrease while the number of positions continues to increase
(Kubayi, Coopoo, & Morris-Eyton, 2017). Throughout history, women have been and continue
to be oppressed and discriminated against in ways that are different than men.
Sport, being generally a male- dominated domain, appears to discriminate against women
thereby preventing their advancement to high level positions in many sport organizations
(Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2015). In particular, women tended to rate administrative
duties and the intensity of recruitment higher than men did. This was corroborated by the fact
that female coaches tended to cite the increased time required for coaching, increased intensity of
recruiting, and discriminatory' practices of the administration as the most important reasons for
leaving coaching (Pastore, 1992). It may be that as the popularity of women's sports increases,
the time demanded for recruiting increases. Female coaches who have not been previously
exposed to such demands may find this situation more problematic. (Pastore, 1992).
Participants found that the male- dominated environment in which they worked to be
challenging (Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2015). It is conceivable that both male and female
coaches feel pressure to continually prove the worth of women’s sports, and that female coaches
are feeling this pressure more than male coaches (Pastore, & Judd, 1993). If people perceive that
female coaches have stereotypical feminine traits, such as caring, reassuring, and kindness, the
can be seen as better suited for a supporting role such as an assistant coach, volunteer, or
“cheerleader,” not as a head coach. This may help explain the lack of female head coaches.
Some feel that: “The only challenge is that females battle to get promotions.” or “Male coaches
get first preference here.” As just a few of the complaints. (Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad,
2015). Findings showed that some of the ways in which discrimination in male-dominated
settings, are through subtle questioning of women’s competence and social isolation. In an
earlier study also found subtle discrimination perceived by female athletic administrators as a
barrier to women progressing in the organization (Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2015).
Thus, women coaches may experience a ‘glass ceiling’, which obstructs their
professional upward movement. The so-called “glass ceiling” refers to an invisible barrier that
prevents one from progressing up the ranks in a hierarchical organization. In the context of sport
coaching, it often refers to women who cannot advance to higher levels within the sport
organization (Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2015). While in theory there is nothing which
prevents, women climbing the hierarchical ladder in an organization, the glass ceiling represents
the invisible, but very prevalent, forces which prevent them moving to higher positions in an
organization. The glass ceiling has frequently been used to describe different discriminatory
practices which prevail in many organizations (Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2015).
Although several other reasons have been stated, another theory contributes burn out, as
one of the reasons as to why the number of female coaches may be leaving the industry instead
of joining. Burnout can be identified as “the state of fatigue of frustration brought about by
devotion to a cause of way of life.” (Pastore, & Judd, 1993). Institutions at the collegiate level
experienced higher levels of burnout in female coaches than male coaches particularly in 2-year
colleges due to the increased turnover in athletes. The major reasons identified for women
leaving the coaching profession are gender discrimination, burnout, inadequate coaching skills,
and time commitment (Pastore, & Judd, 1993).
Among these unequal practices are unequal pay rates, gender bias and selective career
paths. career paths of individuals in an organization is often institutionalized. The methods used
include, among others, planned executive career programs, mentoring by senior-level officers,
grooming, sponsoring promotion from within, and rotational assignments (Surujlal, & Vyas-
Doorgapersad, 2015). Heterosexual women were deterred from traditionally male sports for fears
of being labelled a lesbian, and homosexual women in sport risked disclosure and violence.
Those who did participate experienced immense pressure to project an at- tractive image of
femininity, and the most acceptable female athletes were those who displayed heterosexual
beauty and sex appeal as they were the least likely to betray their gender role (Keats, 2016).
The context in sporting is a homophobic environment for sexual minority groups such as
lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT). Sexual discrimination emerges in sport as
discriminative language, derogatory initiation rituals and hazing, promotion of a heterosexual
ideal, and prejudiced hiring practices by athletic departments, among other practices that serve to
marginalize groups and individuals that deviate from the institutionalized norm (Keats, 2016).
Women’s participation in sport has been affected by homophobia since sexologists marked
same-sex relationships as pathological in the early 1900s (Keats, 2016). Even today, evidence of
the pressure for women in sport to demonstrate their femininity and heterosexuality is pervasive
in uniform regulations, advertisements, sponsorships, and media portrayals. The glorification of
heterosexuality inevitably leads to the devaluation of any form of non-heterosexuality, which is
not only harmful to LGBT individuals, but to everyone (Keats, 2016). An inequitable
environment is certainly negative; entitled individuals constantly feel threatened by the under-
valued and need to reaffirm their social status, and the under-valued feel attacked or segregated
by the entitled and have little hope of ever attaining a more positive social standing. By better
understanding the barriers that potential coaches may be facing, we can better prepare, and help
develop the incoming and current coaches that impact the sports world.
Development of Female Coaches

The first step to having more female coaches in the industry is by developing more. To
develop more coaches, we have to learn from the previous experiences as well as encouraging
others to enter the male dominated field. Title IX was is one of the main factors why we have
female coaches today (Morris, Arthur-Banning, & McDowell, 2014). Specifically, in 1972, the
year Title IX was implemented over 90% of women’s teams were coached by women, but
currently this rate is at an all-time low of 43% (Morris, Arthur-Banning, & McDowell, 2014).
Title IX of the Education Amendment Acts of 1972 (Title IX) states that “No person in the
United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits
of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal
financial assistance” (Morris, et al., 2014). Although Title IX has led to enormous progress in
terms of the participation rates of girls and women in sports it is unable to fix all problems that
may occur. There are claims that is has it fails to address discrimination in athletic leadership
roles (Morris, et al., 2014). All roles will not change rapidly, but throughout time there has been
a steady change. With the help of programs and other sources the numbers will continue to rise
overtime (Morris, et al., 2014). Many obstacles remain before women can attain true equal
status in athletics but the first step in a female coaching movement, especially women’s and now
men’s sports started with giving women power in sports through the use of Title IX (Morris, et
al., 2014).
Through interviews and research some common themes that emerged in how to
develop more female coaches were (1) role modelling and mentoring, (2) greater frequency and
quality of coaching opportunities, (3) the creation of supportive networks, and (4) a policy of
positive discrimination (Walker, & Bopp, 2010). Some others were optimism, the role of
education, making coaching connections, and leadership roles in athletes. Female coaches serve
to show female players that coaching is, in fact, an obtainable profession, and female players
with female coaches are more likely to perceive coaching as a viable career option to them than
those with male head coaches (Ladda, 2015). Some factors of having a female coach can also be
broken down into five categories: feeling competent to do the job, type of job and compensation,
work schedule, adequate training and supervision and love of the sport (Demers, 2007). The
athletes believe that the female coach makes a significant contribution to developing the whole
person. The coach is there to launch the athlete into adulthood.
In their view, the coach plays numerous roles in support of the athlete (Demers, 2007).
Female coaches give social and psychological support, acts as the athletes’ confidante, manages
their personal problems and keeps them motivated. Coaches are more strongly focused on
interpersonal relations and are “more human than men are.” (Demers, 2007). It is important for a
female coach to have experience as an athlete, it gives the coach credibility, which in their view
is essential if she is to win the athletes’ trust.
This is when the leadership attributes play a role. Through this they believed that their
positions as captains on their teams allowed them to learn leadership skills that transfer to
coaching. As team leaders, they had to be assertive and believe in their abilities as athletes and as
leaders. As a result, in contrast to research that suggests female coaches have low coaching
efficacy, the women have increased self-efficacy through practicing leadership as athletes and
have the knowledge and ability to lead a group of athletes (Ladda, 2015). The assistant coaches
explain how their varsity athletic experience and time in leadership positions as athletes helped
their coaching careers. Credibility also is a function of the level of performance achieved by the
coach in her athletic career: the higher the level and the better the results, the greater the
credibility. (Demers, 2007). By acknowledging all the potential constraints on female coach’s,
we can better prepare for the development and advancement of female coaches.
When kids have a role model to look up to they are hoping to follow in their footsteps
while still creating a name for themselves. One of the strongest influences on current perceptions
and expectations of situations is past experience. Past experiences lead people to develop certain
perceptions and expectations which they carry with them to work in organizations (Ladda, 2015).
It is important at a young age to show kids that there are male and female coaches that are
equally as good. Female coaches, like diversity and opportunity in all jobs, serves to improve
everyone’s lives and creating a cohesive world. Creating an image imprinted into their heads that
they could one day do that. Growing up and playing on teams throughout school is very likely,
and the stage where they will learn most of their skills, become more social, and determine the
sports that they like most before entering competitive sports through the school (Ladda, 2015).
When athletes preferred female coaches, there were a high percentage of female coaches in the
participants’ past. Similarly, in the studies suggesting relatively equal preference for male and
female coaches, the majority of the participants had experience playing for both male and female
coaches (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015).
Many factors, such as mentorship, playing experience, and coaching education, influence
women’s career decisions in coaching. Being a coach requires time and effort spent on and off
the field. Along with self-awareness, broad vision with focus on important details, good
communication skills, allow for different perspectives and styles, creative and discipline are just
some of the qualities that a coach may possess. By focusing clinics on social capital, it addresses
the women’s discussion of net-working and mentoring. Through research they discovered that
they all had mentors, but desired stronger networks with other female coaches and
administrators. They discussed how having a female mentor who they can turn to when facing
challenges, such as balancing child rearing expectations with work, is extremely useful in
navigating their careers (Grevers, 2017). Since women are significantly underrepresented in
coaching, they likely experience different barriers and use different strategies than men to
succeed. By creating opportunities for women there will be a continual change in the industry.
One of the main ways that coaches can learn more is through the use of clinics. Clinics provide
an open forum for potential coaches to ask questions as well as gain insight and talk to others
(Grevers, 2017).
An important study that was conducted mainly about the preferences of athletes can
attribute to the need of female coaches during the training and growing up years of kids. Through
this process there will then be a mindset that there are coaching jobs. It also gives kids a role
model to look up to. The data was then analyzed to show that “The data showed that 57% of
participants preferred a male coach while 17% of participants preferred a female coach, and 26%
of participants did not have a preference. Sixty-four percent of participants’ current head coaches
were female. In addition, while 90% of participants had a male high school head coach in the
past, only 39% of participants had a female high school head coach.” (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015).
Kalin’s study examined high school volleyball players, high school basketball players,
and elite and youth athletes from a variety of sports (Waldron, 2015). This theory examined if
“(a) if female collegiate basketball players have a preference toward male or female head
basketball coaches, (b) if the gender and enjoyment level of past head coaches influence
preferences toward a male or female head coach and/or influence the perceived roles of women’s
basketball head coaches, and (c) if there is a relationship between the perceived roles of women’s
basketball head coaches and female collegiate basketball players’ preferences toward male or
female head coaches.” (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015). Fifty-nine women’s basketball players from 10
Division I universities completed a survey that included a consent form, demographic questions,
the list of managerial sub roles, and questions regarding preferences, gender, and enjoyment
level of past and current coaches (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015).
Millennials grew up in a culture that was more female friendly and accepting of women
in equal positions in society, this taught them more collectivist and team oriented ways of
thinking and away from the individualistic approach that persons from older generations tend to
have (Morris, et al., 2014). Although many females in this generation do not openly identify as
feminists, the society they grew up in, that feminists in previous generations helped create, has
instilled in them confidence, a desire for equality, and a more liberal outlook. They are
beneficiaries of feminist movements, changes in prevalent gender ideologies and civil rights laws
(Morris, et al., 2014). Millennials are unlike previous youth generations that entered the
workforce, as they tend to be better educated, and to have a more optimistic outlook on life
(Morris, et al., 2014). This heightened optimistic outlook of women in sport is likely attributed to
their experience as millennials. Although the millennials have created a new way of life there are
many other factors that contribute to how millennials handle sports. Sports now are more
competitive, they are the popular thing to do, there are many people that strive to make it to the
higher level in sports as well as their friends and family that are doing it or have done it. Lastly
there is the social part and wanting to be included with others and the family like aspect that it
creates.
Feminist standpoint theory is grounded in feminist methods that give a voice to women’s
experiences in a male dominated world. There is a need to critically examine how the sport
industry functions to understand why women have limited coaching opportunities available to
them (Morris, et al., 2014). Men can and will continue to coach and advance in leadership
positions in women’s sports, while the authority of women remains marginalized in sports as a
whole. Additionally, this trend demonstrates that as women’s sports have become more
important, men have developed more interest in developing a career in women’s athletics.
Although these numbers are significant, they all mean nothing unless we try and change
the problem. Females can have an impact that is noticeable if we allow them to be present and
impact children’s lives. This means that starting with integrating female coaching and creating a
base for them to feel comfortable to coach is the first step. By creating a platform there will be an
increase in female coaches.
Female Coaches Having a Positive Impact
As the amount of female coaches continues to increase, so does the amount of
information regarding the processes that they went through that we can learn from as well as the
possible new constraints that other female coaches may face. Although they are solely dependent
on the sport that they are coaching. Females can make an impact not just in the office or in the
background, they are qualified as well as eager to accomplish tasks, and prove others wrong who
do not agree with females coaching.
For coaches, it is for a call for the most qualified to be hired. In many instances, the most
qualified coach may be a female. When Becky Hammon was hired to be an assistant coach for
the National Basketball Association’s (NBA) San Antonio Spurs, it became a leading story in the
popular news media as she became the first female assistant coach in NBA history. High profile
individuals from President Barack Obama (Jackson, 2014) to Billie Jean King (“Spurs,” 2014)
were excited for what it meant for females in the sport industry (Schaeperkoetter, Mays, & Bass,
2017). Such trends can be combatted if there is greater awareness of the powerful impact role
incongruity and homologous reproduction can have on the organizational structure in an athletic
department. Such increased awareness can illuminate the seemingly different expectations that
exist for male coaches and female coaches and move administrators closer to hiring practices
based in a system of meritocracy (Schaeperkoetter, et al., 2017).
The main reason Brenda Van Tighem coach’s athletes predominantly men was because
“It was very rewarding to see my athletes achieve and exceed their goals... I really started to love
coaching,” says the National Coaching Certification Program Level 4 certified coach. “So, when
I was asked to coach with the Dinos [at the University of Calgary], I knew that it was the right
thing for me.” (Carver-Dias, 2011). She still never really gave much thought, however, to the
fact that she was one of the very few women coaching men at the elite level. According to
Brenda, that just happened, and as she began to coach her athletes to higher and higher levels in
sport, it happened more and more (Carver-Dias, 2011). All three coaches within the article have
demonstrated that a healthy approach to coaching is an individualized one that looks not solely at
the gender of the athletes they are coaching, but seeks to understand and cater to the individual
needs and style of the athletes regardless of their gender (Carver-Dias, 2011). Results also show
that coaches, who work with more successful athletes, emphasize the importance of
achievement, but they also report their work to be more problematic or troublesome than that of
coaches, who work with less successful athletes (Kajtna, & Topic, 2017).
When there was no money in it there were more female coaches. Many females were
coaching, because they loved the sport and were not concerned with the pay. The men have since
dominated the industry with their roles and salaries unfortunately which has pushed the female
population out (Schaeperkoetter, et al., 2017). Coaching is not about the extra money that you
will receive it is about bettering the lives of young children and teenagers while teaching them
the sport especially in the middle and high school level. It is widely acknowledged that coaches
have an important role in athletes’ lives (Hodgson, Butt, & Maynard, 2017). At this level money
is not as substantial as higher levels and have less responsibility than a professional level would.
The main reason that women become coaches is because of their love of the sport.
In 1993, more than 3 million female students in kindergarten through grade 12 participated in
organized sports. In 1971, before the advent of the Title IX, only 300,000 female students
participated in intercollegiate athletics. Foundations were then set up to support women like
Women’s Sport Foundation (Eguaoje, 2009). As women started to make moves there were more
that followed with on the movement.
It is important to note that we acknowledge there are differences between female coaches
rather than analyzing females as one distinct group. Future research should examine differences
between female coaches including, but not limited to, coaches’ motivations and intentions for
their careers as well as additional information including age, years coaching, number of coaching
jobs, and levels of coaching (high school, college, professional, etc.) (Schaeperkoetter, et al.,
2017).
Through female coaches there were nine generated themes related to psychological
attributes: (a) attitude, (b) confidence, (c) resilience, (d) focus, (e) drive for personal
development, (f) being athlete centered, (g) emotional awareness, (h) emotional understanding,
and (i) emotional management. In addition, three higher order themes were generated related to
factors perceived to influence attribute development: (a) education, (b) experience, and (c)
conscious self-improvement (Hodgson, et al., 2017). Findings indicated that several attributes
perceived to be essential to coaching effectiveness related to the emotional nature of coaching,
where coaches’ abilities to identify, understand, and manage emotions in both themselves and
others had many positive effects. Coaches can influence an athletes’ performance, behavior, and
psychological well-being (Hodgson, et al., 2017).
In comparison to athletes, much less consideration has been directed towards identifying
and supporting the psychological needs of coaches. Much attention should be given to coaches’
preparation and performance as has been given to athletes, research has increasingly recognized
that coaches are indeed ‘performers in their own right’ (Hodgson, et al., 2017). In a way, we
seem to expect female coaches to be as successful as male coaches, but we seem to recognize
some different characteristics (Kajtna, & Topic, 2017). Coaches, like athletes, are often required
to coach in highly pressurized environments, make critical decisions, deal with adversity, and are
held to incredibly high expectations. (Hodgson, et al., 2017). Female coaches are qualified and
have proven to be mentally stable on the job by obtaining these coaching positions. Continuing
to prove that they are capable will continue to motivate others to become coaches.
Female coaches display some very “stereotypically feminine” characteristics, such as
lower emotional stability, greater openness to communication, more attention to social skills.
Similar results were found also in research, where they monitored how PE teaching students
view male and female coaches who were described as more caring, more athlete-oriented, more
understanding and more communicative (Kajtna, & Topic, 2017). Specifically, male players with
female coaches tended to prefer democratic behavior, autocratic behavior, and social support
behavior more than did those with male coaches. Conversely, female players with male coaches
showed greater preferences for these types of behavior than did those with female coaches (Cruz,
& Hyun-Duck, 2017). There are no significant differences in attitudes between male and female
coaches, that coaches in team sports more frequently state the importance of achievement and
that they have fewer problems with their work than coaches in individual sports (Kajtna, &
Topic, 2017). There is no reason that a female coach should not be hired when they are
attributing the same or if not better characteristics as a male coach in either an individual or team
sport.
In an article by Cruz, they found that both boys and girls showed the greatest preference
for training and instruction behavior, followed by positive feedback, democratic behavior, social
support, and autocratic behavior (Hyun-Duck, 2017). Emotions certainly play a part in good
coaching, and while all generalizations should be suspect, women tend to bring to sport those
that tilt toward fairness and balance as opposed to the more commonplace bravado and posturing
of their male counterparts. More to the point is the fact that there are as many styles of coaching
as there are coaches, but the one that works is inevitably based on mutual respect (Carver-Dias,
2011). Female coaches, through a steadfast commitment to their individual coaching
philosophies, they have been able to dispel some of the gender stereotype biases around women
coaches, carve their own paths, gain the trust and respect of their male athletes, and consistently
generate success.
For instance, in one study by Hastie (1993) about the coaching preferences of high school
girl volleyball players, he found no significant main effect between the coach gender on any of
the leadership subscales (Cruz, & Hyun-Duck, 2017). Furthermore, while the interaction effect
did not reach statistical significance for training and instruction and positive feedback, a similar
pattern of results was observed for these subscales. Taken together, the findings suggest that
degree of athletes’ leadership preferences are greater for an opposite-gender coach than for a
similar-gender coach (Cruz, & Hyun-Duck, 2017). With findings that support opposite gender
coaches it questions why there are not more female coaches if this is what the athlete prefers.
The main goal of a coach is to push the athlete to their fullest potential, yet there is a need to
meet the athletes needs as well so they will comply to the coach and succeed in the best way that
they can.
Previous research has proven that female coaches are as effective as male coaches>
Female coaches bring different aspects to the table. “There are many women out there with the
ability to coach athletes, male and female, to the highest levels of performance... The question is
not really whether women can coach men. We can. We have. We can do it well. First we need to
increase the number of professional women coaches.” (Carver-Dias, 2011). By showing how
females can have a positive impact along with educating them about the constraints that they will
face before becoming a coach there will be more females entering the coaching industry, and
making a positive impact.
Summary
With the presence of discrimination and constraints against female coaches it can lead to
decreased opportunities for women overall and the loss of a female voice in sports as a whole
(Kubayi, 2017). Furthermore, it often does not allow women to advance to higher levels within
the sport organization (Surujlal, 2015). Female coaches feel pressure to continually prove their
worth of women’s sports, and that female coaches are feeling this pressure more than male
coaches but can overcome it if they continue to pursue their rights as coaches (Pastore, 1993).
Female coaching movement, especially women’s and now men’s sports started with
giving women power in sports through the use of Title IX (Morris, 2014). Some others were
optimism, the role of education, making coaching connections, and leadership roles in athletes.
Female coaches serve to show female players that coaching is, in fact, an obtainable profession,
and female players with female coaches are more likely to perceive coaching as a viable career
option to them than those with male head coaches (Ladda, 2015). Athlete’s leadership
preferences are greater for an opposite-gender coach than for a similar-gender coach leading to
more females coaching male dominated sports (Cruz, 2017). Female coaches, through
commitment to their individual coaching philosophies, they have been able to carve their own
paths, gain the trust and respect of their male athletes, and consistently generate success (Carver-
Dias, 2011). Lastly, many were excited for what it meant for females in the sport industry
(Schaeperkoetter, 2017).
! !
Chapter 3
PROCEDURES
Through the years there has been a decrease in the amount of female coaches, particularly
in male dominated sports. Women are now less entitled to such roles yet they are more than
qualified in many cases. By understanding how many female coaches there are in a kids past we
can better explain why females are effective coaches. Through this kids will be more open to
having a female coach. This study expands on previous literature to determine the impact of
female coaches, especially in male dominated sports.
Source of Data
For this study, there were a total of 124 respondents, with 66.4% (85) female and 29.7%
(38) male, with 3.9% (5) preferring not to say. Based on ethnicity there were 87.4% (111) were
White 3.1% (4) Black or African American 3.1% (4) prefer not to say, and 2.4% (3) Hispanic/
Latino. Of all respondents, 82.7% (105) 13-17 years old, 12.6% (16) younger than 13 and 4.7%
(6) over the age of 18. The participant’s responses were 86.4% (102) from 14530 (Perry, NY)
1.7% (2) were from 14550 (Silver Springs, NY), 2.5% (3) were from 14569 (Warsaw, NY), and
1.7% (2) were from 14510 (Mt. Morris, NY).
Instrumentation
The questionnaire will be used to fulfil the information needed within the study. All of
the questions in the survey were developed by the researcher. There are 5 demographic
questions, 21 questions about school and sports related activities, and 19 questions about female
coaches. There are 18 multiple choice questions, 24, 5 point Likert scale questions, and 3 short
answer questions.
Procedures
Once the survey it is complete it will be sent out to the participants. The survey was
created using Google Forms. This service was selected due to the free service, and it allowed for
a greater number of items to be asked. Responses were then automatically generated into Google
Sheets document for further evaluation.
The subjects will be contacted through the use of email. They did not receive
compensation for their time completing the survey. The school will first be contacted with the
athletic director being the primary contact point. The secondary contact is the superintendent or
the principal of the high school or middle school. The contact information for these people was
taken off the corresponding school webpages in the staff directory or athletic department home
page. These schools were selected based off the closeness to Endicott College and the close
schools from where the researcher. There were a total of 8 schools contacted for this study.
Schools were sent the link to the survey so they could distribute the survey to the students
by their chosen method. In addition, the link could be sent out to student emails or be put on
school webpage. If a school required that the survey be reviewed by a board, it was decided to
not go through with the survey process due to the limited time frame. Following these steps
allowed for the widest range of potential candidates to complete the survey.
Students will be given consent forms to fill out before the survey is sent through an email
to them to complete. There is an additional consent form for parents to complete regarding the
information in the survey and full disclosure of information. The informed consent will explain
what will be covered in the survey, along with a request to have the surveys completed within a
week. Responses to questions are not required and students may opt out at any point if they wish
to do so. The survey will be open for 2 weeks before being closed to respondents. Once all data
is tallied and analyzed athletic directors may receive a copy of the results if desired.
Treatments of Data
The information gathered through the results in Google Forms will be translated in
Google Sheets. This will allow for further interpretation of the data by using percentages and
charts with corresponding data points. This will include demographics and relationships between
the information.
& &
Chapter 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
With an extensive focus that has been being put on coaches over the years in order to
make sure that their child is successful in sports or extracurricular activities. It is shocking that
there was little information regarding the diversity of coaches who help our children learn the ins
and outs of the sports that they choose to play. This study was completed through a survey that
was submitted to athletes both male and female in high school and middle school. One the
surveys were collected, the data was analyzed using percentages, mean and mode, and the range
to determine the relationship between the demographic information and the given variables.
Results
Of the 124 responses, the majority of the athletes play basketball 41%(51), soccer 36.3%
(45) and track and field 28.2% (35). This was followed with asking at what level of sport are they
currently playing at? 58.5% (72) are high school, 37.4% (46) in middle school, and 4.1%(5) are
on a travel team. Of these students 68.5% (85) participate in extracurricular activities outside of
school, and 31.5% (39) don’t. These extracurricular activities include chorus 34.8% (31), band
10.1% (9), theater 7.9%(7), and dance 6.7%(6) being the top three followed behind by, chess, tech
club, showing animals, shooting, art, and 4H/ scouts, all being 5 or less. The average of years
Figure 1. Years in organized sport
in organized sports is 8.07 years. Many participants participate in athletics everyday 65.8% (79)
with 25.8% (31) 2-3 times a week, 3.3 % (4) one a week and 4.2%(5) rarely. The amount of time
spent on athletics varied greatly between participants 53.7% (66) spent less than 8 hours on sports
and 46.3% (57) spent 9+ hours. More than 50% of the participants said that their reputation of their
peers was important to them. The average was 20.02% (24.4) with the weighted average being
31.20% since 9% (11) don’t practically care what others think. This was based on a 5 point Likert
scale from not at all to very important.
The next question was also a 5 point Likert scale if they considered themselves to be a
leader with all but 8.2% (10) people considering themselves a leader in some way. The mean would
be 20% (24.4) of people being a leader, and the weighted average is 32.33%. The next question
can be related to being a leader if they are the captain of their team. 54.5% (67) had been the
captain of their team while 45.5% (56) had not been a captain. Captains in this study have ranged
from the highest being not at all 1 out of 5 27.7% (33) not feeling additional pressure to the lowest
at 2 out of 5 and had 12.6% (15) feeling pressure to being a captain. The difference between the
two is 15.1% (18), and the weighted average being 23.87%. Comparatively this is the smallest
margin between the highest and lowest of all questions that participants answered.
In the study only 7.4% (9) thought that their school does not give much attention to sports
programs while 73% (89) thought their school did. Only 19.7% or (24) where in the middle or
neutral on the question. The mean or average 20% (24.4) was above half or above a ranking of 3
out of 5 for this question, while the weighted average was 33.87%. In this Likert scale participants
found it not hard to balance academic and athletic responsibilities 61.8% (76) agreed while 12.2%
(15) found it challenging. 26% (32) stayed neutral. The weighted average of this question was
20.20%. The range varied from 33.3% (41) to 4.1% (5) which were 2 out of 5 and 4 out of 5 on
the scale. The understanding of teachers when it comes to a student’s athletic responsibilities is
overwhelmingly neutral with 31.7% (39) while the weighted average is 26.47%. On the flipside, a
coaches’ understanding when it comes to a student’s academic responsibility is the greatest in the
very understanding category. 43.9% (54) was the greatest with 32.5% (40) answering
understanding (4 out of 5), only 3.3% (4) found them not understanding. The weighted average for
this question was 34.80%. This is 8.33% higher than the last question. The average of the
participants 20% (24.6) was greater than the median 13.8% (17). Parents were considered
supportive of their sports activities with 72.1% (88) being the most supportive, but all than 1.6%
(2) said that they were supported. The weighted average is 38.47%, which is one of the highest
weighted averages out of all of the 5 point Likert scale questions.
For the next questions, the students were satisfied with their overall athletic experience.
78.9% (97) were satisfied with only 5.7% (7) not being satisfied and 15.4% (19) being neutral.
The average 20% (24.6) is more than the median again for this question as well as the weighted
average since it is 35.0%. The question following asked how likely they plan on continuing to play
sports at a higher level. 65.9% (81) said that they were going to continue, but the other responders
were unsure with all other levels being between 3.3%(4) and 13.8% (17) for answers (1-4 out of
5). The weighted average supports this by being 36.40%. The majority of participants watch
football 67%(73) on television on a regular basis with basketball 55%(60) and NASCAR 26.6%
(29) in third. This is relevant to how many female coaches there are in the sports that the
participants are watching. Figure 2 displays the rest of the sports.
Figure 2. Sports watched on television

The main questions pertaining to the impact of females starts a new section in the survey.
It starts with the question if they have ever had a female coach before, 80.3% (98) had, while
19.7% (24) had not. Figure 3 compares the next two questions of how manly female and male
coaches they have had in their sports career. The two are similar until the 8+ category where there
is 20.3% (25) more cases of a participant having that many more male coaches to female coaches.
Figure 3. Levels of Male vs Female coaches
The next question was a Likert scale of how much they consider their coach as a role model
or a person to look up to from not at all to a lot. Only 14.9% (18) said that they do not look up to
their coach, while 59.5% (72) said that they did. 25.6% (31) stayed neutral. The mean 20% (24.2)
is lower than the median, but the weighted average was higher at 30.87%. The next question asked
about assistant coaches rather than head coaches. The median had the largest response with
43.4%(53) and 2 out of 5 and 4 out of 5 having 17.2% (21) as well as 1 out of 5 and 5 out of 5
having 11.5%(14). The weighted average came out to be 25.60%. Lastly in the coaching staff,
there was a question if they felt closer to athletic trainers than head coaches. The overwhelming
response was that they don’t share with their trainer. Only 2.5% (3) said that they feel closer to a
trainer than a head coach while 34.2%(41) completely disagreed. The weighted average was the
lowest of all of the Likert scale questions with an average of 19.13%. Going of being with the
coaches, the next question was how much personal information they share with their coach. The
rang varied form 30.9% (38) to 19.5%(24) on options from 1-4 out of 5 and 5 out of 5 received
4.9%(6). The most came from the 3 out of 5 the neutral option 30.9 (38). The weighted average of
23.20% was slightly over the mean of 20% (24.2).
Of these participants, their current feelings towards female coaches were positive with
44.6% (54) liking them. The Likert scale pointed out that 12.4% (15) did not like female coaches,
and 19.8% (24) were neutral. The average 20% (24.2) is above the median and so was the weighted
average at 33.40%. Figure 4 shows a graph of the level that participants feel that female coaches
should only be allowed to teach. The lowest percentage was professional sports at 9.8%(12).
Figure 4. Levels of sport females should coach
On a scale of 1 to 5 the mode of the responses was a 5 out of 5 with 45.5% (55) and then 4 out of
5 being next and then 3 out of 5. Between 1 and 2 out of 5 there 17.4% (21). The weighted average
was 32.47% for this question which was above the mean of 20% (24.2).
There are different characteristics that are key on what makes an ideal. The six
characteristics that were discussed were: confident, strong, assertive, independent, achievement
oriented, and compassionate.
Figure 5. Characteristics of coaches
Figure 5 shows this. Next shows the gender that the participants associate with certain
characteristics. These characteristics were: confident, string, assertive, independent, achievement
oriented, and compassionate again. Figure 6 explains this. The next question was
Figure 6. Male vs Female characteristics
to select which gender they felt would be the best head coach for that sport. Figure 7 shows the
results, especially the men’s sports being coached by males and women’s sports being coached by
women in every case. The next question removed which gender the sport was in in whether men’s
or women’s and was neutral. In 4 of 6 sports women were the favorable coach. Figure 8
Figure 7. Preferred coach for specific sports
Figure 8. Preferred coach for non-specific sports
shows the results of this and shows how close the decision is between male and female coaches.
After answering questions about the coaches, they have had, participants were asked if they were
considering being a coach when they are older. The most said not at all on the Likert scale with
29.8% (36), and the least being very likely 14% (17). The weighted average for this question was
one of the lowest as well with 22.27%. The next question asked if they would support a female
friend or a significant other if they wanted to coach. 78.9% (97) said that they would, while as a
combined 1-4 out of 5 21.3% (26) were not as supportive. The median 20% (24.6) would be
between 4 and 5 out of 5 due to low percentages of 1-4 out of 5, as well as the weighted average
of 39.26%. This was the 2nd highest Likert scale weighted percentage of all questions.
Next, if you had more female coaches in your past would you be open to having more in
your future? 59% (72) said they would be, 24.6% (30) were neutral, and 16.4% (20) would not be
open to having more. The weighted average of 32.20% would be above neutral while the mean of
20% would not be. Do you believe that females are just as qualified for the job as men was the
next question asked? 82.8% (101) agreed that they were qualified. This is the largest percentage
of participants agreeing throughout the entire survey. Combined 17.2% (21) were not as sold on
the idea. Only 2.5% (3) participants believed that they were not qualified. The weighted percentage
for this question was the highest out of all the questions being 39.47%. From that, do you think
that female coaches are harder on athletes? 46.3% (57) were neutral in their response and more
responses with 1 and 2 out of 2 32.5% (40) than 4 and 5 out of 5 21.2% (26). The weighted average
supports the numbers with 23.53%. The previous information that participants knew/realized about
the lack of female coaches varied from 13%(16) at 2 out of 5 to 26.8% (33) at 3 out of 5. The range
is a difference of 13.8% (17). The average between numbers on the scale was only 5.38% (6.6).
The weighted average for this question was 27.87% which is higher than all the percentages that
were recorded on the scale between 1-5. Also asked was if they believe there should be gender
equality in sports? 62.8% (76) agreed that there should be and 11.6% (14) considered that there
should be while 16.6% (20) didn’t think there needed to be equality. 9.1% (11) remained neutral
on this question. The weighted average supports the fact that there should be gender equality with
34.73%. The last question of the survey was, would you ever look up to a female? 68.3% (84) said
it was very likely, 12.2% (15) said it was likely and were neutral, while 7.4% (9) found it unlikely
they would. This last question had a weighted average of 37.87% which was between 4 and 5, as
well as over the mean of 20% (24.4).
Discussion
From these results, it is possible to discuss the impact that females have on the cohesion
or morale of male dominated sports. Regarding the first hypothesis that the female coaches
perceive discrimination as a barrier into professional coaching of male sports, the results
supported the hypothesis. When assessing how similar the constraints are with female coaches
in sport. This is further demonstrated when considering that with only 62.8% (76) agreeing that
there should be equality and 11.6% (14) considering that there should be while 16.6% (20) didn’t
think there needed to be equality. Women’s integration into the sporting world has been met with
considerable resistance, and continues to pose a threat to male hegemony. Female participation
in sport has called into question the “natural” meanings of gender roles and hence the exclusivity
of sport as part of the masculine realm (LaFountaine, & Kamphoff, 2016). As well as the number
or female coaches to male coaches that participants have had within their career. Only one
participant 0.8% had, had over eight female coaches while there were 26 (21.1%)people that had
more than eight male coaches. Masculine hegemony plays a role in the way we view women in
workplaces such as those found in sport organizations (Kubayi, Coopoo, & Morris-Eyton, 2017).
As well as several researchers found that the number of women in top-tier positions in sport
organizations continues to decrease while the number of positions continues to increase. This
reflects the findings of Kubayi, Coopoo, & Morris-Eyton (2017) that females are still being
discriminated.
The second hypothesis that the greater the female presence in sports in public view, the
greater the recognition and appeal in further generations. Of the respondents, they indicated that
many have watched female coaches before or seen them on television, and the amount of
coaches that they have had in previous years. Participants were asked if they had more female
coaches in your past would they be open to having more in your future? 59% (72) said they
would be, 24.6% (30) were neutral, and 16.4% (20) would not be open to having more. This
relates to the findings of Ladda. One of the strongest influences on current perceptions and
expectations of situations is past experience. Past experiences lead people to develop certain
perceptions and expectations which they carry with them to work in organizations (2015). When
athletes preferred female coaches, there were a high percentage of female coaches in the
participants’ past. Similarly, in the studies suggesting relatively equal preference for male and
female coaches, the majority of the participants had experience playing for both male and female
coaches (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015). The most common sport watched on a regular basis was
football 67%(73), then basketball 55%(60) and NASCAR 26.6% (29) in third. These sports are
male dominated sports. According to Demers the coach plays numerous roles in support of the
athlete. Female coaches give social and psychological support, acts as the athletes’ confidante,
manages their personal problems and keeps them motivated. Coaches are more strongly focused
on interpersonal relations and are “more human than men are.” (2007). This demonstrates that
women should pursue more coaching opportunities with younger athletes to have an influence on
their future coaches.
The third hypothesis was that the greater the female presence in children’s sports, the
greater turnover for more female coaches. The results of this showed that students had put
limitations on what age range females should be coaching mainly young children. The level that
participants feel that female coaches should only be allowed to teach varied between young
children, high school sports, college sports, professional sports, and all levels. The lowest
percentage was professional sports at 9.8%(12), and 89.3%(109) had said all levels. Also, on a
scale of 1 to 5 if they liked their female coach the mode of the responses was a 5 out of 5 with
45.5% (55) and then 4 out of 5 being next and then 3 out of 5. Between 1 and 2 out of 5 there
17.4% (21) that did not like their female coach. This can be related to the work of Kalin, &
Waldron. Their study was conducted mainly about the preferences of athletes can attribute to the
need of female coaches during the training and growing up years of kids. Through this process
there will then be a mindset that there are coaching jobs. It also gives kids a role model to look
up to (2015). Another study that reinforces this idea is that for coaches, it is for a call for the
most qualified to be hired. In many instances, the most qualified coach may be a female. Such
increased awareness can illuminate the seemingly different expectations that exist for male
coaches and female coaches and move administrators closer to hiring practices based in a system
of meritocracy (Schaeperkoetter, Mays, & Bass, 2017). This demonstrates that women are
qualified for the job and should pursue coaching positions.
Some other trends that were noticed that are not directly tied to the hypotheses of this
study focused on was the lack of trust in others or the support that would be given to those in
coaching roles. With the lack of reputation among peers: More than 50% of the participants said
that their reputation of their peers was important to them and 20.5% (25) don’t see this as a big
factor of what others think of them, the current feelings of female coaches: were positive with
44.6% (54) liking them. The Likert scale pointed out that 12.4% (15) did not like female
coaches, and 19.8% (24) were neutral, and if they would support their female friends or a
significant other if they wanted to coach: 78.9% (97) said that they would, while as a combined
1-4 out of 5 21.3% (26) were not as supportive. Being a female coach is not easy, there are many
constraints that they face. Supporting one another is important to help gain awareness and help
from others. Since women are significantly underrepresented in coaching, they likely experience
different barriers and use different strategies than men to succeed. By creating opportunities for
women there will be a continual change in the industry. One of the main ways that coaches can
learn more is through the use of clinics. Clinics provide an open forum for potential coaches to
ask questions as well as gain insight and talk to others (Grevers, 2017). This study supports the
need for women to have a sense of comfort and help, although the need is not being recognized.
&
& &
Chapter 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study was conducted to investigate why there is a lack of female coaches
particularly male dominated sports. A survey was distributed electronically to athletes in middle
and high school in New England and Western New York focused on the perception of female
coaches in this setting, what qualities that they should possess, and the impact of the sport that
they are playing.
Summary
In the world of sports much of our time is spent around others and bettering ourselves to
compete against other teams. A great amount of time is put into sport, but how much do we
appreciate our coaches? Although there has been little exploration of female coaches, the amount
of men that have influenced our lives continues to grow and become the norm. This study fills
the gap of previous research and focuses on the impact that female coaches can have on children
in sport when they are given the opportunity.
This study presented three hypotheses which were all supported by the findings. The first
hypothesis was that female coaches perceive discrimination as a barrier into professional
coaching of male sports. This was supported because the results demonstrated that there are
perceived sports that participants preferred men and the lack of realization about the number of
female coaches in sports. The second hypothesis was that the greater the female presence in
sports in public view, the greater the recognition and appeal in further generations. The results
showed that many have watch female coaches before or seen them on television, and the amount
of coaches that they have had in previous years. The third hypothesis was that the greater the
female presence in children’s sports, the greater turnover for more female coaches. The results of
this showed that students had put limitations on what age range females should be coaching
mainly young children, and the fact that they had enjoyed their female coach. More than half
stated that they would be open to having more female coaches in their future.
Conclusion
This study is significant as very few studies have been done regarding the impact that
female coaches can have at all different age levels and skill types when they are given the
opportunity. This study reflected of many of the findings from studies about the dominance of
male coaches and the discrimination that women face trying to become a coach, especially in a
male dominated sport. From the results in this study, it was evident that female coaches are just
as qualified and should be given the opportunity to coach at all levels of sport. Although there
was a limited amount of diversity represented within this study the results that were gathered
from the students strongly support the hypothesis that were presented. Females have slowly
become more incorporated and accepted throughout the years. Discrimination is based on the
sole fact of gender in sports. Many challenges have been faced, but there are ways for women to
continue to be coaches and advocate for those who continually want to become a coach, but do
not get the opportunity.
With the knowledge that we have we can help females be aware of the challenges that
they may face while entering the coaching field, yet realizing the acceptance that they will be
supported by the athletes, due to the fact that they are the ones that they will be interacting with,
and not the ones that are doing the hiring process. Ladda (2015) explored that being a female
coach is obtainable and should not be discouraged by the process.
Further research can be conducted to expand to a larger audience and then how this
information can be translated or relayed to the female coaches that are trying to continue their
career. Through the use of college programs and coaching certification classes, much of this
information can be implemented and passed along. Although the information can bias and
diminish hopes of being a coach, it will help them in the long run. This study focused on the age
frame of middle and high school students within a particular location. The professionals in the
field can better tailor their information and coaching styles to best fit the needs of the children,
and the styles to create a winning atmosphere if that is the goal of the organization. By proving
their credentials and being confident in what they stand for, or the techniques that they use can
help others and the morale of all around the sport.
Therefore, in the future, the geographical location can encompass more individuals to
have a larger database in the United States. By doing this it would also address one of the
limitations of this study, which is the location of the study or diversity of the participants.
Another aspect that could be studied in the future is how females have obtained their coaching
roles. With more females in middle and high school than professional teams, an interesting point
would be if they are content with their job or the motives that they have for being a coach at that
level. By doing this it would help understand the mindset of females and what is the motivation
that they share in having this position. A third aspect that could be studied is considering the
person that is doing the hiring and figuring out the rationale behind their decision making. This
would help understand why less female coaches are chosen for the job, especially in male
dominated sports.
& &
References
Blom, L. C., Abrell, L., Wilson, M. J., Lape, J., Halbrook, M., & Judge, L. W. (2011). Working
with male athletes: The experiences of U.S. female head coaches. ICHPER-SD Journal of
Research, 6(1), 54-61.
Carver-Dias, C. (2011). Three pioneers: Women who coach male athletes. Canadian Journal for
Women in Coaching, 11(2), 1-9.
Cruz, A. B., & Hyun-Duck, K. (2017). Leadership preferences of adolescent players in sport:
Influence of coach gender. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 16(2), 172-179.
Demers, G. (2007). To coach or not? Soccer Journal, 52(3), 24-30.
Eguaoje, T. (2009). Why are there fewer female coaches? Soccer Journal, 54(3), 44-45.
Grevers, A. (2017). What can be done to encourage the hiring of more female coaches at the
senior and collegiate level? Swimming World, 58(3), 44-45.
Hodgson, L., Butt, J., & Maynard, I. (2017). Exploring the psychological attributes underpinning
elite sports coaching. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 12(4), 439-
451.
Kajtna, T., & Topic, M. D. (2017). Attitudes of coaches considered by their gender, the sports
and the athletes they coach. Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts
Anthropology, 17(3), 48-55.
Kalin, J. L., & Waldron, J. J. (2015). Preferences toward gender of coach and perceptions of
roles of basketball coaches. International Journal of Exercise Science, 8(4), 303-317.
Keats, T. T. (2016). Lesbophobia as a barrier to women in coaching. Taboo: The Journal of
Culture & Education, 15(1), 79-92.

Kubayi, A., Coopoo, Y., & Morris-Eyton, H. (2017). Work-related constraints in sports
coaching: Perceptions of South African female coaches. International Journal of Sports
Science & Coaching, 12(1), 103-108.
Ladda, S. (2015). Where are the female coaches? JOPERD: The Journal of Physical Education,
Recreation & Dance, 86(4), 3-4.
LaFountaine, J., & Kamphoff, C. S. (2016). Coaching boys' high school teams: Female coaches'
experiences and perceptions. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 11(1),
27-38.
Morris, E., Arthur-Banning, S., & McDowell, J. (2014). Career strategies of millennial
generation female assistant coaches. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 7(2), 175-197.
Norman, L. (2012). Developing female coaches: strategies from women themselves. Asia-Pacific
Journal of Health, Sport & Physical Education, 3(3), 227-238.
Pastore, D. L. (1992). Two-year college coaches of women's teams: Gender differences in
coaching career selections. Journal of Sport Management, 6(3), 179-190.
Pastore, D. L., & Judd, M. R. (1993). Gender differences in burnout among coaches of women's
athletic teams at 2-year colleges. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10(2), 205-212.
Schaeperkoetter, C., Mays, J., & Bass, J. R. (2017). "When there was no money in it, there were
no men in it": Examining gender differences in the evaluation of high performance
coaches. International Sport Coaching Journal, 4(1), 95-100.
Surujlal, J., & Vyas-Doorgapersad, S. (2015). The glass ceiling in sport coaching: Perceived
challenges of female coaches. African Journal for Physical, Health Education,
Recreation & Dance, 80-94.

Walker, N. A., & Bopp, T. (2010). The underrepresentation of women in the male-dominated
sport workplace: Perspectives of female coaches. Journal of Workplace Rights, 15(1), 47-
64.
Weiss, M. R., & Stevens, C. (1993). Motivation and attrition of female coaches: An application
of social exchange theory. Sport Psychologist, 7(3), 244-261.
& &
Appendices!
&
Appendix!A:!Informed!consent!!
&
&
Dear&Athletic&Director:&
&
&
I&am&conducting&a&study&on&the&impact&of&female&coaches&in&male&dominated&sports&and&I&am&
inviting&your&athletic&students&to&participate&in&this&research.&Their&input&is&critical&to&the&success&
of&this&study.&It&is&important&to&gather&information&in&our&youth&to&better&prepare&for&what&it&yet&
to&come&and&help&others&along&the&way.&With&your&help,&we&can&expand&the&information&to&
greater&lengths&within&the&sports&world.&&
&
They&may&withdraw&from&the&study&at&any&point&without&penalty&and&may&refuse&to&answer&any&
questions&that&make&you&feel&uncomfortable.&By&completing&this&survey,&they&consent&to&
participate.&It&is&anticipated&the&questionnaire&will&take&approximately&5&minutes&to&complete.&
Please&consider&letting&your&athletic&students&to&participate.&&
&
Please&be&assured&that&the&responses&will&be&anonymous.&The&results&of&the&study&will&not&be&
linked&to&any&individual,&and&any&discussion&will&be&based&only&on&group&data.&&If&you&have&any&
questions&concerning&your&research&rights&at&any&time,&contact&me&at&the&number&or&email&listed&
below.&&
&
Thank&you,&
Bryce&Adrian&
&
&
Bryce&Adrian& & & & & &
Endicott&College& & & & &
badri513@mail.endicott.edu&
(585)&689^9819& & &
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
&
&
& &
Appendix!B:!Parent!consent!form!
&
&
Dear&Parents/&Guardian:&
&
&
I&am&conducting&a&study&on&the&impact&of&female&coaches&in&male&dominated&sports&and&I&am&
asking&your&son/daughter&to&participate&in&this&research.&Your&son/daughter’s&input&is&critical&to&
the&success&of&this&study.&&&
&
They&may&withdraw&from&the&study&at&any&point&without&penalty&and&may&refuse&to&answer&any&
questions&that&make&them&feel&uncomfortable.&Please&be&assured&that&their&responses&will&be&
anonymous.&The&results&of&the&study&will&not&be&linked&to&any&individual,&and&any&discussion&will&
be&based&only&on&group&data.&
&
If&your&son/daughter&would&like&to&participate&please&sign&on&the&lines&below&acknowledging&
that&they&can&participate.&It&is&anticipated&the&questionnaire&will&take&approximately&5&minutes&
to&complete&and&would&be&sent&to&them&via&email.&If&you&have&any&questions&concerning&your&
child’s&research&rights&at&any&time,&contact&me&at&the&number&or&email&listed&below.&&
&
&
&
&
________________________________________& & & ________________________&
&
Students&Signature&& & & & & & & Date&
&
&
&
&
________________________________________& & & ________________________&
&
Parent&Signature&& & & & & & & Date&
&
&
&
&
&
Bryce&Adrian& & & & & &
Endicott&College& & & & &
badri513@mail.endicott.edu&
(585)&689^9819& & &
&
& &
Appendix!C:!Survey!
&
What gender are you?
o! Female
o! Male
o! Prefer not to say
What ethnicity are you?

o! Hispanic/ Latino
o! White
o! Black or African American
o! Asian
o! Prefer not to say
o! Other:
What is your current age range?

o! younger than 13
o! 13-17
o! 18+
What is your zip code?
What sports do you play?

o! Basketball
o! Football
o! Soccer
o! Track & Field
o! Tennis
o! Golf
o! Cheerleading
o! Swimming
o! Lacrosse
o! Field Hockey
o! Softball
o! Volleyball
o! Other:
At what level are you currently playing sports?

o! High School
o! Middle School
o! Travel Team
Do you participate in other extra curricular activities outside of school?

o! Yes
o! No
What extra curricular activities?

o! Band
o! Chorus
o! Dance
o! Taekwondo/ Karate
o! Chess/ Checkers
o! Drams/ Theater
o! Other:
How many years have you participated in organized sport?
How often do you participate in athletics?

o! Everyday
o! 2-3 Times a week
o! Once a week
o! Every other week
o! Once a month
o! Rarely
How many hours do you spend in a week on athletics?

o! 1-4
o! 5-8
o! 9-12
o! 13-15
o! 16+
My reputation among peers is important to me

1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Very Important
Do you consider yourself to be a leader?

1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Very much so
Have you ever been the captain of your team?

o! Yes
o! No
Have you ever felt additional pressure to perform or lead others while being the
captain?
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all All the time
What level of attention does your school give to its sports programs?
1 2 3 4 5
Very low High
How difficult do you find it to balance your academic and athletic responsibilities?
1 2 3 4 5
Not hard Very hard

How understanding are your teachers when it comes to your athletic

responsibilities?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Understanding Very Understanding
How understanding are your coaches when it comes to your academic

responsibilities?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Understanding Very Understanding
How supportive are your parents of your sports activities?

1 2 3 4 5
Not Supportive Very Supportive
How satisfied are you with your overall athletic experience?

1 2 3 4 5
Not Satisfied Very Satisfied
How likely do you plan on continuing to play sports at a higher level?

1 2 3 4 5
Not very likely Very likely

What sports do you watch on tv on a regular basis?

o! Basketball
o! Soccer
o! Football
o! Hockey
o! Tennis
o! Golf
o! Car racing (NASCAR)
o! Other:
Have you ever had a female coach before?

o! Yes
o! No
How many female coaches have you had in your sports career?
o! 0
o! 1-3
o! 4-7
o! 8+
How many male coaches have you had in your sports career?
o! 0
o! 1-3
o! 4-7
o! 8+
How much do you consider your coach as a role model or person to look up to?
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all A lot
Do you feel closer to assistant coaches than head coaches?

1 2 3 4 5

Do you feel closer to athletic trainers than head coaches?

1 2 3 4 5
How much personal information do you share with your coach?

1 2 3 4 5
None Everything
What are your current feelings regarding female coaches?

1 2 3 4 5
Don't like them Like them
I feel female coaches should only be allowed to coach:

o! Young Children
o! High School Sports
o! College Sports
o! Professional Sports
o! All Levels
On a scale of 1 to 5 did you like your female coach?

1 2 3 4 5
Not Very Much Very Much

What makes an ideal coach

Not Somewhat Pretty Very
Neutral
Important Important Important Important
Confident
Strong
Assertive
Independent
Achievement
Oriented
Compassionate
Which gender do you associate with these characteristics

Male Female
Confident
Strong
Assertive
Independent
Achievement Oriented
Compassionate
Please select which gender you feel would be the best head coach for each team.
Male Female
Men's Basketball
Baseball
Men's Soccer
Women's Basketball
Softball
Women's Soccer
Please choose which gender you feel would have the most adequate knowledge about
each sport listed
Male Female
Basketball
Soccer
Swimming
Volleyball
Tennis
Golf
How likely is it that you will want to be a coach when you are older?
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Very
Would you support your female friends or a significant other if they wanted to
coach?
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Yes I would
If you had more female coaches in your past would you be open to having more in
your future?
1 2 3 4 5
Do you believe that females are just as qualified for the job as men?
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Yes they are

Do you think female coaches are harder on athletes?

1 2 3 4 5
How much do you know/realize about the lack of female coaches?

1 2 3 4 5
Nothing Good Amount
Do you believe there should be gender equality in sports?

1 2 3 4 5
No there doesn't need to be There should be
Would you ever look up to a female?

1 2 3 4 5
Not likely Very likely
&

Final Thesis PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Final Thesis PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Running&head:&DEVELOPING&FEMALE&COACHES& 1&

Underrepresentation of Females in the MLB

Statement of the problem……………………………………………….…………………7

Significance of the problem………………………………….……………………………9

Chapter 2: Review of literature…………………………………….…………………………….11

Constraints against female coaches……………………………...………………………11

Developing female coaches…………………………………...…………………………15

Female coaches having a positive impact…………………….………………………….21

Chapter 4: Results and discussions………………………………………………………………31

Chapter 5: Summary and conclusions……………………………………………………………44

Appendix A: Informed consent…………………………………………………………..50

Appendix B: Parent consent form………………………………………………………..51

Figure 1: Years in organized sport……………………………………………………………….32

Figure 2: Sports watched on television…………………………………………………………..34

Figure 3: Amount of Male vs Female coaches…………………………………………………..35

Figure 4: Levels of sport females should coach…………………………………………………36

Figure 5: Characteristics of coaches……………………………………………………………..37

Figure 6: Male vs Female characteristics………………………………………………………...37

Figure 7: Preferred coach for specific sports…………………………………………………….38

Figure 8: Preferred coach for non-specific sports………………………………………………..38

still exists in professional coaching.

think about what is yet to come in the world of sports.

women have been given to reach their full potential.

male-dominated domain, appears to discriminate against women thereby preventing their

Statement of the problem

•! Discrimination - The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people,

of person or thing (Walker, & Bopp, 2010, p.51).

credited to men (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015, p.313).

•! Controversial - Prolonged public disagreement or heated discussion between females and

the stereotypes (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015, p.306).

Coopoo, & Morris-Eyton, 2017, p.107).

(Norman, 2012, p.235).

•! Morale - The confidence, enthusiasm, and discipline of a person or group at a particular

time (Norman, 2012, p.233).

The current study is delimited in the following areas:

The current study is limited in the following areas:

results based on racial background.

different states or the entire state of New York.

accuracy of the study.

This study will address different hypotheses

appeal in further generations.

Significance of the problem

impact in male dominated professional sports.

Constraints Against Female Coaches

part of the masculine realm (LaFountaine, & Kamphoff, 2016).

(Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2015). In particular, women tended to rate administrative

barrier to women progressing in the organization (Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2015).

practices which prevail in many organizations (Surujlal, & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2015).

and time commitment (Pastore, & Judd, 1993).

discriminative language, derogatory initiation rituals and hazing, promotion of a heterosexual

in uniform regulations, advertisements, sponsorships, and media portrayals. The glorification of

heterosexuality inevitably leads to the devaluation of any form of non-heterosexuality, which is

Development of Female Coaches

person. The coach is there to launch the athlete into adulthood.

is essential if she is to win the athletes’ trust.

coaches (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015).

level of past and current coaches (Kalin, & Waldron, 2015).

increase in female coaches.

Female Coaches Having a Positive Impact

As the amount of female coaches continues to increase, so does the amount of

do not agree with females coaching.

based in a system of meritocracy (Schaeperkoetter, et al., 2017).

that followed with on the movement.