ECV 5701: Basic Notes for Inspection of Concrete Structures

1.0 Introduction
Concrete is inherently a durable material, but its durability under any given set of exposure conditions
varies with the concrete mixture proportions; the presence and positioning of reinforcement; and the
detailing, placing, finishing, curing, and protection it received. In service, it may be exposed to
conditions of abrasion, moisture cycles, cycles of freezing and thawing, temperature cycles, corrosion
of reinforcement, and chemical attack. Deterioration of the concrete and the potential reduction of its
service life can result.
Plain and reinforced concrete structures do not always behave as intended. When the performance of a
concrete structure is less than desirable, the structure must be evaluated. The inspector must identify
the type of deterioration, its causes and recommend ways to repair or correct the deficiency. Figure 1
is a flow diagram outlining the typical activities involved in the inspection and repair of concrete
structures.

Figure 1. Steps in the Inspection and Repair of Concrete Structures

There are two distinct groups of concrete deficiencies: structural failures, and lack of durability and
serviceability.
Structural failures usually result from a design deficiency or an overloading condition. Overloads
may be either manmade or natural. An example of a man made overload is a load that exceeds the
allowable floor loading in a building. An example of a natural overload is an earthquake.
Concrete deficiencies that result in lack of durability and serviceability may be caused by material,
production, or environmental factors. These three factors were discussed in the three previous modules
and will not be covered again.

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2.0 Determining the conditions of concrete structures
All concrete structures deteriorate with time. The anatomy of life cycle of a typical concrete structure
is shown in Figure 2. Following a trouble-free period, the deterioration continues to build up and the
cumulative damage will require a repair at some stage to restore its original strength. Thereafter, the
cycle is repeated again as shown in Figure 2. Accordingly, all structures should be inspected
periodically. In an inspection, a process or object is viewed closely with critical appraisal. Inspections
are usually carried out by an inspector or a professional engineer.
The following items are important when making these inspections:
 Reasons for conducting the inspections
 Preliminary inspections
 Detailed inspections

Figure 2. Anatomy of Life Cycle for a Structure

3.0 Reasons for Conducting Inspections

Inspections of concrete structures are carried out for one or more of the following reasons:
 To determine the present condition of the structure
 To determine the type and extent of deterioration
 To determine the causes of deterioration and whether the deterioration is still active
 To estimate the rate of deterioration
 To estimate the time remaining before repair or replacement
 To estimate the effects of deterioration on serviceability if repair or replacement is deferred
 To determine if the proposed changes to the structure will affect the structure’-s safety and
service life
 To estimate the most cost-effective means to prevent further deterioration to the structure
 To study the performance of a material under a specific exposure condition

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To assess the condition of an existing concrete structure, the engineer must assemble and systematically
analyze the relevant structural information and data. Because comprehensive assessments can be
costly, experts generally recommend a two-step approach consisting of a preliminary inspection and a
detailed inspection. In the two-step approach, perform the detailed inspection only if the preliminary
inspection indicates that it is necessary. The next two subsections discuss the preliminary and detailed
inspection.

4.0 Preliminary Inspection

The preliminary inspection is the first and most important single effort in the evaluation of a structure
before rehabilitation. The preliminary inspection provides the initial analytical data that are used to
assess the structural adequacy of an existing structure. The preliminary inspection is normally a walk-
through examination of the structure to visually evaluate the structural components. No elaborate
physical tests are performed. When the results of the preliminary inspection are available, the decision
can be made whether or not it is necessary to conduct a detailed inspection.
The basic steps of the preliminary inspection are as follows:
 Review the available documents to gather relevant information.
 Conduct a site inspection to gather descriptive information of problems.
 Perform a preliminary analysis to classify the situation.
 Present the preliminary findings and recommendations for the detailed inspection and
rehabilitation alternatives.

4.1 Gather Relevant – Information

Before conducting a preliminary inspection, the inspector normally reviews the available plans,
specifications, and construction records (site-related documentation). These documents, if available,
will not only expedite the site inspection, but will facilitate an evaluation that is more accurate and’
easier to perform. When possible, assemble the site related documentation before the on-site inspection.
Summarize the site-related documents in a format that can serve as a checklist to support the on-site
inspection.
Some of the data items that are useful in most investigations are as follows:
 Name, location, type and size of structure
 Date constructed
 Project engineer, contractor when built
 Concrete supplier
 Materials used and sources; test reports
 Code requirements that were applicable at the time of design.
 Previous inspection reports
 Sketch map
 Photographs
 Exposure conditions
 Changes to structure since constructed
When any of these items is not available, the inspector must obtain the required information from the
plant operators or maintenance personnel, in the course of the on-site inspection.

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4.2 Identify problems
As early as possible in his inspection, the inspector should attempt to determine if it is safe to continue
to use the structure or if the structure poses a threat to the safety of personnel in the area. If the structure
appears to pose a safety hazard, defer the inspection, and notify the proponent immediately. Continue
the inspection only after correction of the unsafe or hazardous conditions.
The inspector may use a maintenance rating scale to help him decide if the situation is safe or unsafe.
The maintenance rating scale also helps the inspector decide what action is required by the condition
rating of a structure.
Once it is determined that the structure is safe, the inspection can continue. During the preliminary
inspection, the inspector records the nature and extent of the observed problems and identifies the
affected members. Record the frequency and severity of the problems throughout the
structure.
A walk-through of the structure may be adequate to establish the structure’s condition. The walk-
through is easy to do, quickly carried out, and requires no expensive equipment. The only requirement
for the walk-through is adequate illumination of the area to be inspected and some recommended items.
The walk-through analysis provides visual documentation and evaluation of the nature and extent of
any deterioration, defects or damage. Use photographs to record the level and extent of deterioration.
Besides physical damage or deterioration, the inspector will also look for displacement or misalignment
of elements, foundation settlement, joint movement, staining, and dampness. Also note the following
effects of humidity: condensation, steel corrosion, sulfate attack, and popouts.
Unless the proponent identifies only specific areas for inspection, the walk-through should begin at one
end of the structure and proceed in a systematic manner until all surfaces have been viewed. If these
surfaces can be accessed, inspect both the external and internal surfaces of a structure. If possible,
photograph the areas of significant distress for later reference. Place a familiar object or scale in the
photograph to show the relative size of the included area.
Describe each observed problem in clear, concise detail. Avoid generalization unless an observation is
common to more than one area. Use three-dimensional isometric drawings to show offsets or
distortions of structural features, depth of delaminations, location of reinforcement steel, and extent of
steel corrosion.

4.3 Determine Possible Causes

During the walk-through, the inspector should not only be aware of the nature and extent of the
problems observed, but also of the items that may be responsible for, or contribute to, those problems.
It is extremely important that the causes of a problem are properly identified in order to achieve a
successful repair. The major causes of concrete problems are the environment, construction practices,
materials, structural movement and previous repairs.
To help identify the causes of the problem, the inspector should evaluate and record the answers to the
questions that are related to:
 Environment
 Construction Procedure
 Materials
 Structure
 Previous Repairs

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The inspector should assess all the possible causes of each problem and eliminate the causes that are
not probable.

4.4 Classify the Situation

The inspector should classify the severity of the identified problems. Severity classifications include:
 Light,
 Medium,
 Severe,
 or Very Severe.

These classifications may be determined on the basis of the area affected, the depth affected, the volume
of concrete affected, the width of cracks, the total length of cracks in a given area, or other relevant
factors.
Classify the structural components to pinpoint the critical elements that most urgently need repairs.
Use classification techniques to evaluate the changes that occur in the condition of the structure from
one inspection to the next. Use this evaluation of change to estimate the rate of deterioration.

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5.0 Detailed Inspection
The following conditions indicate the need for a detailed inspection:
 When the information gathered during a preliminary inspection indicates a need for closer
examination
 When either the inspectors or plant operators note potentially serious deterioration
 When there is a plan to increase significantly the loads on a structure
 When the condition of the structure has changed significantly since the last inspection
A detailed inspection generally involves several tasks which are shown schematically in a flow chart
in Figure 3.
Field measurements and tests include the following:
 Delamination, voids, crack mapping
 Corrosion activity/potential mapping
 Carbonation
 Concrete cover, spacing of rebars
 Concrete strength and variability
 Concrete quality (other than strength)

Various nondestructive test methods are used in the field tests.

Samples are collected from the site to determine various properties of in-situ concrete. Samples are
generally in the form of:
 cores
 broken concrete pieces
 powdered samples extracted by drilling
 sawed beams
Samples collected from the fields are tested in the laboratory to obtain necessary information which
may include:
 Compressive strength of concrete
 Cement content
 Chloride and sulfa
 te content
 Permeability
 Aggregate type and gradation
 Alkali-aggregate reactivity
 Density, air voids

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 Figure 3. General Flow Chart of Inspection

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This section will cover the following specific types of detailed inspections:
 Delamination Survey
 Crack Survey
 Half-Cell Potentials
 Pachometer (Cover) Survey
 Chloride Content
 Moisture Content
 Ultrasonic Testing
 Rebound Hammer Test
 Impact-Echo Test
 Concrete Core Extraction and Test

Delamination Survey
Delaminations are not usually visible on the concrete surface, but wet stains my indicate
delaminations.
Sounding is a simple and effective method to identify and locate delamination below the concrete
surface. The inspector strikes the surface of a concrete section with an inspector’s hammer or steel bar
to detect planes of delamination. A change in sound near the area of the delamination indicates the
presence of delamination. The surface over a defective area emits a “hollow” or “drum-like” sound. A
sound area that is not delaminated emits a “ringing” noise.
To sound slabs, the inspector drags a heavy steel chain or sections of chain over the slab surface to
detect delaminated areas. ASTM D 4580 recommends the sounding procedures to detect delaminations
in pavements and slabs.
The inspector may also use automatic electromechanical devices and infrared thermography to detect
delamination.
To conduct a delamination survey, perform the following procedures:
 Locate the delaminated areas of the concrete structure
 Outline the delaminated areas in paint or permanent ink
 Record the delaminated areas on a structural plan or sketch.

The survey may require the removal of some of the delaminated sections to determine the depth of the
delamination and the condition of the reinforcement steel. Record all information relevant to the
delaminated sections.

Crack Survey
Cracks are characterized by length, direction, width, and depth. A crack may be active or passive.
Active cracks may be caused by variations in atmospheric or internal temperature, changes in moisture
content, reinforcement corrosion, chemical reactions, settlement, or various loading conditions. The
width of an active crack changes as the magnitude of the cause of the crack changes. For example, an
active crack will increase in size (width and depth) as the moisture content of the concrete decreases.
When the moisture content of the concrete increases, the width of the crack will diminish.

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Passive cracks are sometimes called “dormant” or “inactive” cracks. Passive cracks may be caused by
construction errors, shrinkage, dead loads, variations in internal temperature, or shock waves. After a
passive crack has formed, the size of the crack rarely changes.

A good crack survey includes the following steps:

a. Locate all cracks.
b. Measure or estimate the widths and lengths of all cracks and then record the results. Measure
the width of cracks with a crack comparator or crack microscope.
c. Record the size and location of the cracks on a structural plan, grid sheet, or sketch. Label and
record the leached or stained cracks separately. Also record sealed cracks.
d. Classify the cracks using the following scale:
H (hairline), less than 0.1 mm,
N (narrow), 0.1 to 0.3 mm,
M (medium), 0.3 to 0.7 mm,
or W (wide) greater than 0.7
These letters should be noted beside each crack listed on the sketch.
e. Classify each crack as active (A) or passive (P). The letter “A” should be noted beside each
active crack on the grid sheet. It is not necessary to label passive cracks.
f. Always determine the causes of all cracks, if possible, especially the active cracks and cracks
that affect the structural integrity of the concrete member.
g. The inspector usually locates the cracks visually. To locate very fine cracks, wet the concrete
surface and allow it to dry. Water trapped in the cracks will cause the cracks to appear as dark
lines.
h. Locate internal cracks by sounding, impact echo testing, or ultrasonic pulse velocity methods.
If there is limited access to certain parts of the structure, remote viewing may be the only way
to inspect for cracks. Fiber optic methods (the borescope), periscopes, and video cameras are
the tools that the inspector may use for remote viewing.
If it is not obvious whether a crack is active or passive, it may be necessary to monitor the crack through
the use of one of the following tools:
 Optical comparator.
 Glued glass strips (“tell-tale”)
 Glued in-place crack gauges
 Electrical transducers (LVDTs)
 Extensometers.

Make a “tell-tale” of two thin glass or metal strips and position them side-by-side over the crack. Bond
the two plates on opposite sides of the crack, and make aligned marks across each plate (see Figure 4).
Any changes in the distance between these two marks indicate relative movement of the parts separated
by the crack.

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Other methods can be used, as follows:
 Make a mark at the end of the crack.
 Progressive cracking causes the crack to extend beyond the mark.
 Wedge a pin or toothpick into the crack. Extension of the crack causes the pin to loosen and
move.
 Tape a piece of notched tape or paper across the crack. When the crack widens, the tape tears.
When the crack narrows, the tape wrinkles.
 Glue gauge points on opposite sides of the crack. Measure the distance between the gauge with
calipers or an extensometer. If this distance changes, the crack is active. The difference in the
measurement indicates the amount of movement.

Figure 4. “Tell-tale” Installed over a Crack to Evaluate Movement

Half-cell Potential
Corrosion of the steel occurs when the passivity of the steel is destroyed by carbonation or by chloride
ions. When steel corrodes in concrete, a potential difference develops between the anodic and cathodic
areas of the steel. To detect this difference, place a reference cell (copper/copper sulfate halfcell) on
the surface of the concrete, and measure the potential difference between the reinforcing steel and the
standard reference electrode. Figure 5 shows the test setup. The copper/copper sulfate half-cell is
recommended because it is rugged and stable.
To locate the reinforcing steel, a structural diagram or a Pachometer can be used.
The Half-Cell Potential test is often referred to as the corrosion potential survey. This module uses both
terms. Use the corrosion potential survey to measure the “actual” corrosion activity of reinforcing steel.
ASTM C 876 specifies the procedures for performing the corrosion potential survey. Mark a grid
system on the surface of the concrete. Take the measurements on the grid system.

Figure 5. Test Setup for Potential Measurement

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Note: The corrosion potential survey should not be carried out on concrete members that contain
epoxy-coated reinforcement steel. The epoxy coating will make the results invalid.
For accurate results, the concrete should have sufficient moisture to be conductive but no standing
water at the time of the corrosion potential survey. The test grid points should be wet when performing
the surveys during prolonged dry spells. On exposed concrete decks, the presence of contaminants may
influence the measurement results. Therefore, recommend chipping hammers or grinding devices to
remove 2 mm (0.08 inch) of concrete from the surface at each grid point.
The interpretations of half-cell potential measurements taken with copper/copper sulfate electrodes are
as follows:
a. If the potentials over an area are numerically less than -0.20 volts (V), there is a greater than
90% probability that no reinforcing steel corrosion is in progress in that area, at the time of
measurement.
b. If the potentials over an area are in the range from -0.20V to -0.35 V, the corrosion activity of
the reinforcing steel in that area is uncertain.
c. If potentials over an area are numerically greater than -0.35 V, there is a greater than 90%
probability that reinforcing steel corrosion is in process in that area, at the time of measurement.
d. Positive readings usually mean that insufficient moisture is available in the concrete and that
the readings are invalid.
e. The half-cell test does not indicate the rate of corrosion, nor can the test detect corrosion in
post-tensioned strands or corrosion in discontinuous reinforcing steel.
It is often necessary to supplement the half-cell potential measurements with other data, such as,
resistivity of concrete, chloride content, depth of carbonation, delamination survey findings, rate of
corrosion results, and environmental exposure conditions.
These additional tests are needed to formulate solid conclusions relative to corrosion activity of
embedded steel and its probable effect on the service life of the structure.

Pachometer (Cover) Survey

Inadequate cover of reinforcing steel is one of the primary causes of steel corrosion and subsequent
deterioration of the concrete. To establish that the steel is adequately protected, it is necessary to
measure the depth of the outer layer above the reinforcing steel.
Magnetic devices known as pachometers or covermeters are used to determine the location of
embedded steel reinforcement in concrete. If the size of the reinforcement is known, the amount of
concrete cover can be determined. The two categories of magnetic equipment that are used to locate
reinforcing steel and to measure its size are the handheld pachometer and an automated device that is
mounted on wheels. The automated device has a data recording system that can perform rapid
measurement over a large area. The hand-held pachometer is used more frequently.
A pachometer measures the disturbance in a magnetic field. The magnitude of the disturbance is
proportional to the size of the steel reinforcing bar and the distance from the bar to the probe.
Pachometers or covermeters can determine the depth of concrete cover to an accuracy of 6 mm (1/4
in.) when the reinforcement steel is at a depth of 0 to 75 mm (0 to 3 in.). The accuracy of these devices
is inversely proportional to the amount of reinforcing steel (rebar) that is present in the concrete. The
devices are less accurate when they are used to measure more heavily reinforced concrete. In some
cases, where the reinforcement is heavily congested, the devices cannot identify either the location of
the rebar or the depth of cover.

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Chloride Content Determination
Chloride salts are present, to some extent, in most, if not all, concrete structures. Experts consider an
amount of chloride less than about 0.01 per cent chloride ion by weight of concrete to be insignificant
in all types of concrete. Higher proportions of chloride are potentially hazardous to embedded metals.
The risk of corrosion of the embedded steel increases sharply with the increase of chloride content of
the concrete above the threshold limit.
The chloride ion content may be determined from powdered concrete samples that are obtained from
holes drilled in the concrete or from pulverized concrete cores. Field powder samples are usually taken
from the structural members under investigation at various locations and at various depths.
At each sample level, the pulverized material is collected and stored in a clean container. The hole
should be cleaned (vacuum cleaning is recommended) and the next sample should be drawn at the next
desired depth. Samples may be taken at depths of 0 to 12 mm (0 to 0.5 in.), 12 to 25 mm (0.5 to 1.0
in.), 25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in.), 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3 in.), 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in.), and at greater depths.
Where deep holes are to be drilled, care must be taken to prevent contamination of the sample from the
abrasion of the rotary drill bit against the sides of the hole. The location and depth of the samples must
be recorded.
When concrete cores are tested for chloride content, the cores are usually cut into slices of 10 mm (3/8
in.) thick. The chloride content is measured on powdered samples made from alternate 10 mm (3/8 in.)
slices taken to a depth of 90 mm (3 in.).
Powdered samples should be representative of the depth level that is sampled. They should consist of
at least 30 grams of pulverized material that is finer than a 315 µm sieve. The powdered samples are
usually analyzed in a laboratory through the use of a standard, wet-chemical method. Laboratory
analysis may determine the total chlorides (acid-soluble chlorides) or the water-soluble chlorides in the
sample.
AASHTO T-260 specifies test procedures for chloride. This standard may be obtained in the Technical
Library in the industry standards.
Normally, the report presents the result of the chloride analysis as a percentage of chloride ion by
weight of concrete. When the cement content of the concrete is known, the report may express the
percentage of chloride ion content by weight of cement.
To avoid confusion, all reports must specify the basis of the results, whether the weight of concrete or
weight of cement. It is also essential that the report clearly specifies the basis of the test method (either
acid-soluble or water-soluble). Normally, the acid-soluble chloride content will be higher than the
water-soluble chloride content for the same sample.
It is usually best to present the chloride test results in tabular form to make it easier to compare chloride
levels at different locations and depths. Table 1 presents a sample chloride test summary.
Chloride test results may also be presented in a graph that provides a “chloride profile” of chloride
content at each depth for each location as shown in Figure 6. “Cast-in”, admixed or original chlorides,
will generally have similar chloride concentrations throughout the member (Sample A in Figure 6). In
contrast, chlorides that have entered the concrete after the member was cast will have higher
concentrations at the surface and lower Ievels further into the member.

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 Table 1. Chloride Content by Weight of Cement
Depth, mm
Sample Location
0 -10 1 0 – 30 30 – 50
A 0.30 0.44 0.65
B 0.38 0.71 0.38
C 0.33 0.33 0.30
D 1.05 1.08 0.94
E – 1.50 0.05
F 0.30 0.30 0.30
G 0.55 0.95 0.05
H – 1.50 0.05
Average 0.48 0.70 0.34
Maximum 1.05 1.50 0.94
Minimum 0.30 0.30 0.05

Figure 6. Chloride Content (%) in Cement

The chloride content of the concrete will usually be highest adjacent to an external surface (Sample B
in Figure 6). Test results that produce an unexpected profile through the thickness of the member should
be verified through the use of a duplicate test.

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Moisture Content Determination
The following are some of the reasons why it may be necessary to determine the moisture content of
concrete:
 To assess the probability of steel corrosion, carbonation, alkali-aggregate reaction and
chemical attack
 To determine when coatings, sealers or floor coverings may be applied.
 To assess the effectiveness of coatings or sealers.
The moisture content of the concrete may be determined through the use of the following:
 Oven-drying powdered concrete samples that are obtained from holes drilled in the concrete.
 Oven-drying of cores that are taken from the concrete

Moisture meters that operate on the principle that the dielectric properties of concrete change with
changes in the moisture content.

A nuclear moisture gauge.

Nuclear moisture meters operate on the principle that materials such as water decrease the speed of
fast neutrons in accordance with the amount of hydrogen produced in the test specimen. The nuclear
moisture meter must be operated by trained and licensed personnel.

The moisture content of the concrete can be estimated through the measurement of the relative humidity
in the concrete. Humidity measurement techniques include relative humidity meters and the Hum-
Meter crystal.
Relative humidity meters (electronic hygrometers) are surface gauges that usually give average
moisture content to a depth of 100 mm (4 in.). Probes will measure the relative humidity in holes that
are drilled in the concrete.
The Hum-Meter crystals are inserted into an 18 mm (0.7 in.) hole that is drilled to the required depth
and sealed with an airtight connector ring. After eight hours, equilibrium is established between the
concrete humidity and the crystals in the probe. A scale that is buried with the crystals changes color
in accordance with the degree of humidity. The probe is removed and the relative humidity is read. This
meter measures the relative humidity between 40% and 95% RH with an accuracy of 3%.
To establish the presence of moisture in concrete, a 1.2 m x 1.2 m (4 x 4 ft.) clear polyethylene sheet
is taped to the concrete. If moisture collects under the sheet, one of the quantitative methods discussed
previously may be used to determine the actual moisture content. However, inspectors should exercise
care in the use of quantitative measurements of moisture content because of the following:
 The readings from moisture meters are based on the dielectric properties of the concrete and are
influenced by the salt content and temperature of the concrete.
 The readings from nuclear moisture meters may be influenced by moisture gradients in the
concrete, which will cause erroneous measurement results.
 Moisture content is reported as the ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the mass of water in the
concrete sample to the oven-dry weight of the sample.

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6.0 Identify Rehabilitation Alternatives
Summarize the results of the preliminary inspection in a report that accomplishes the following
objectives:
 Record the nature and extent of the observed problems.
 Identify the affected members or areas.
 Estimate or define the causes of the problems.
 State the requirement for a detailed investigation.

If the preliminary inspection has identified the concrete problems, and a detailed investigation is not
required, the report may also state the conclusions and make recommendations for the rehabilitation of
the structure.
Rehabilitation options can be divided into the following four categories:
 No repair
 Cosmetic Repair
 Structural Repair
 Replacement

For structures in the “no repair” category, no repairs are required in the immediate future, but the
structure should be inspected on a regular basis. Often, the “no repair“ option is overlooked, although
this option is frequently the most advisable choice from an economic and functional point of view. If
damage is very slight and does not pose a safety hazard, it may be preferable to let the structure continue
to deteriorate until repairs are economically feasible or until the structure no longer meets the safety
requirements. In some cases, it may be better to let the structure deteriorate to the lowest acceptable
service level that is consistent with safety.
Situations that would allow the structure to deteriorate include structures that have been damaged
extensively and require costly repairs. Another example would be the structures that are old and
outdated. When the structure has reached its lowest acceptable service level, it may be repaired,
replaced or abandoned.
Cosmetic repairs restore the initial appearance of the structure. The repairs may or may not correct
the causes of the deterioration of the structure. If the selected repairs do not consider the causes of the
original deterioration, the decision will reduce the service life of the repaired areas. For example, a
concrete patch made with Type I Portland Cement that is applied to a structure made of Type V Portland
Cement will fail if the patch is subjected to sulfates, even though the patch corrects the appearance of
the structure.
For structural repairs, replace or repair the distressed sections to restore the structural integrity of the
section. Repair or replacement reduces or eliminates the causes of the deterioration. These types of
repairs may include surface protection, cathodic protection, chloride extraction, and realkalization.
If the damage is very extensive and the repair is expensive, the optimal repair approach may be to
demolish the deteriorated section and replace it with a new section. If a section can be formed and cast
with ready-mix concrete, it may be cheaper to replace the section than to use shotcrete methods,

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specialty repair mortars, or hand-applied concrete mixtures. When comparing the costs of alternate
repair on a cubic meter or cubic yard basis, repair mortar or concrete mixtures are often 10 to 15 times
more expensive than ready-mixed concrete.
Repair of concrete is needed time to time as the structure gets old due to several reasons. We will
discuss the steps involved in the process of repair of concrete structures.

Following are the steps involved in the repair of damaged concrete:

1. Determination of cause of Concrete defects:
The first and important step for repairing a damaged concrete structure is to identify the causes
responsible for the damage. Because, if the cause of the damage to concrete structure is not
identified or misidentified, then the same damage can repeat even if the repairing work have been
done. Based on the causes of concrete damage, the nature of the cause can be identified. If the
cause of damage is repetitive in nature then the structural repair will have to consider the effect of
the cause, but if the cause is one time event, then that can be neglected.

2. Evaluation of extent of concrete damage:

Evaluation of the extent of damage to concrete helps to understand severity of damage and its
effect on the life and serviceability of the structure. This activity includes prediction of how
quickly the damage is occurring and what progression of the damage is likely. Knowing the extent
of the damage to concrete, decision can be made weather the damage can be repaired or the
structural members have to be replaced. It also helps to take precautionary measures to stop the
damage in future for the known cause of the damage. The main difference in severity lies in the
fact that proper maintenance can reduce or eliminate damage caused to the structural members.

The most common technique used to determine the extent of damage is sounding the damaged and
surrounding undamaged concrete with a hammer. If performed by experienced personnel, this
simple technique, when combined with a close visual inspection, will provide the needed
information in many instances of concrete damage. In sounding suspected delaminated or

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 disbonded concrete, it should be remembered that deep delaminations or delaminations that contain
only minute separation may not always sound drummy or hollow. The presence of such
delaminations can be detected by placing a hand close to the location of hammer blows or by
closely observing sand particles on the surface close to the hammer blows. If the hand feels
vibration in the concrete, or if the sand particles are seen to bounce however slightly due to the
hammer blows, the concrete is delaminated.
Strength of concrete can also be determined while evaluation of the extend of damage by hammer
blows. High strength of concrete gives distinct ring from a hammer blow and hammer rebounds
smartly. Low strength of concrete rebounds with dull thud and little rebound of the hammer.
Non-Destructive Testing of concrete can also be done to evaluate the extent of damage of
concrete structures and also to get its strength. More details about NDT tests on concrete.

3. Evaluate the Need for Concrete Repair:

Repair of concrete structural members required cost and time. So, it should be evaluated whether
the structure needs the repair or can serve its intended purpose. Not all damaged concrete requires
immediate repair. Repairs should be carried out immediately on concrete if the damage affects the
safety and serviceability of structure. Also, if the damage has reached to the stage or progressing at
a rate that soon the structure will become unserviceable, then repair should be carried out. Most
concrete damage, however, progresses slowly, and several options are usually available if the
deterioration is detected early. With early detection, it may be possible to arrest the rate of
deterioration using maintenance procedures. Even if repair is required, early detection of damage
will allow orderly budgeting of funds to pay the costs of repair.

4. Select the Concrete Repair Method:

There is a tendency to attempt selection of repair methods/materials too early in the repair process.
This should be guarded against. With insufficient information, it is very difficult to make proper,
economical, and successful selections. Once the above three steps of the repair process have been
completed, or upon completion of a detailed condition survey, the selection of proper repair
methods and materials usually becomes very easy. These steps define the types of conditions the
repair must resist, the available repair construction time period, and when repairs must be
accomplished. This information, in combination with data on the volume and area of concrete to
be repaired, will usually determine which standard repair materials should be used. Also, this
information will determine when the standard repair materials cannot be expected to perform well
and when nonstandard materials should be considered.

5. Prepare the Old Concrete for Repair:

Preparation of the old concrete for application of the repair material is of primary importance in
the accomplishment of durable repairs. The very best of repair materials will give unsatisfactory
performance if applied to weakened or deteriorated old concrete. The repair material must able to
bond to sound concrete. It is essential that all of the unsound or deteriorated concrete be removed
before new repair materials are applied. Saw cutting of perimeter, removal of concrete, preparation
of reinforcement, maintenance of prepared damaged area should be carried out before application
of concrete repair.

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6. Apply the Suitable Repair Method:
There are many different standard concrete repair methods and materials available based on type
of damage. More details about these will be discussed in future post. Suitable methods and
materials should be used based on types of concrete damage.

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7. Cure the Concrete Repair Properly:
Concrete damage when applied with repair materials, it requires proper curing to gain the
required strength and durability. Curing is usually the final step of the repair process, followed
only by cleanup and demobilization. It should be noted that if the proper curing has not been done
to the concrete repair works, then the concrete will not gain required strength and all the cost and
time invested to the repair work goes waste. So, special attention is required for the curing the
concrete repair.

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