Radiographic Sensitivity: Topics Index

Radiographic Sensitivity Page 1 of 17
Radiographic Sensitivity
Topics Index
1. Back to Module Index

2. Introduction
3. Radiographic Sensitivity
4. Radiographic Contrast
5. Subject Contrast
6. Film Contrast
7. Radiographic Definition
8. Definition – Geometric Factors
9. Activity – Geometric Factors
10. Definition – Graininess Factors
11. Review
12. Check Your Progress
13. Your Task
14. Glossary
Introduction
The ultimate purpose of industrial radiography is to produce a quality radiograph that is

free of artefacts and has the sensitivity required to reveal unacceptable defects in the test
object or test material.
Every radiographer needs to determine the optimum conditions for producing a quality
radiograph for each job they inspect. After completing this task, you will be able to:
define radiographic sensitivity

distinguish between contrast and definition
list the factors that affect contrast and definition
describe how to optimise or improve contrast and definition
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Radiographic Sensitivity
Radiographic sensitivity is the ability to detect a small discontinuity in a test

material
The ability to detect small flaws with radiography is obviously dependent upon how clearly
these features can be seen in the completed radiograph. Radiographic sensitivity is a
figure that quantifies the ability to detect these small features.
Radiographic sensitivity is the smallest change in thickness that is detectable on the

radiograph, expressed as a percentage of the total thickness of the object. Thus the
smaller the number, the better the sensitivity, i.e. a 1% sensitivity is better than a 2% or
5% sensitivity, because a 1% sensitivity implies that the technique can detect
discontinuities as small as 1% of the thickness being radiographed.
If you are radiographing a 20 mm thick specimen:
a 1% sensitivity implies that the smallest detectable defect is 1% of 20 mm = 0.2

mm.
http://onlineshowcase.tafensw.edu.au/ndt/content/radiographic/task4/accessible.htm 9/21/2009

mm.
mm.
The images on a film are ultimately viewed and interpreted by humans. The ease with
which the human eye can detect an image on a film is dependent on the two main factors
listed below. These are the factors that control radiographic sensitivity.
1. Radiographic contrast, which is the difference in blackness between the image and its
background.
2. Radiographic definition, which is the sharpness of the image.
The factors that affect radiographic sensitivity are shown in the diagram below. You will
see a number of diagrams like this in this task. The red boxes indicate the factors that are
currently being discussed. Click on each box to view the sub-factors of that type.
Factors affecting Radiographic sensitivity
Activity – Contrast and Definition

Below is a demonstration showing the visible effects of contrast and definition on a
radiograph. The demonstration shows the radiograph of a square, sharp-edged step, with
a thinner section on the left, and a thicker section on the right.
Contrast and definition demonstration

Start the demonstration, and vary the sliders to gain an appreciation of the
difference between contrast and definition.
Notice that two factors here affect the definition of the image. One is the “unsharpness”
or “fuzziness” of the image, similar to out-of-focus effects in a photograph. The second is
the “graininess”, caused by the characteristics of the film.
Note that it is entirely possible to have any of the following combinations of contrast and
definition:
high contrast, high definition
high contrast, low definition

low contrast, high definition
low contrast, low definition.
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Radiographic Contrast
Radiographic contrast is the total effect of subject contrast and film contrast
Radiographic contrast is the measurable difference in film density between one area and
another on a radiographic film. Without contrast, the entire radiograph would be the same
density, and so nothing would be visible! Generally speaking, the more contrast we have
in a radiograph, the more clearly it will display the structure of the item, and any possible
flaws.
If we require a high radiographic sensitivity in a radiograph (e.g. 1%), it should be

obvious that we must achieve a high degree of contrast.
The radiographic contrast in a completed radiograph is broken down into:
the inherent contrast of the specimen itself in the given exposure, called “subject
contrast”
the properties of the film and its development, called “film contrast”.
Factors affecting radiographic contrast
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Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of transmitted intensities at two chosen points

The internal structure of a specimen can be determined only because of the intensity
differences in the radiation as it emerges from the specimen. It is these intensity
differences that cause density (opacity) differences in the completed radiograph. The
greater the difference in intensity of radiation transmitted through two different
thicknesses in a specimen, the greater will be the difference in film density in the image
of the object as seen in the processed film.
Subject contrast is defined as the ratio of intensities of radiation transmitted through a

specimen at two different points. Typically the points of interest will be at sections of
different thickness.
Subject contrast is affected by the factors illustrated below:

Subject contrast
Thickness differences in the specimen affect subject contrast

Obviously, the greater the difference in thickness between two sections of a specimen,
the greater will be the difference in intensity of the emerging radiation. In practice, the
important thickness differences are mostly due to the presence of discontinuities and
defects that result in thickness differences, and so are beyond the control of the
radiographer.
Subject contrast depends on the wavelength of the radiation

The formation of the image on the film depends upon the amount of radiation reaching
the film, which in turn, depends on the amount of radiation emerging from the test
object. This, of course, depends on the relative thickness differences in the object and the
absorption of radiation through those different thicknesses.
Absorption in a test specimen may be determined mathematically from the Lambert’s law
equation:
Where:
It is the intensity of transmitted radiation in milli-sieverts per hour
(mSv/hour)
I0 is the intensity of incident radiation in milli-sieverts per hour (mSv/hour)
e is the exponential constant (2.718)
µ is the linear absorption coefficient per millimeters (mm-1)
d is the thickness of the material in millimeters (mm)
The linear absorption coefficient ( µ) is a function of both the material and the wavelength
of the radiation used. For a given material, the linear absorption coefficient decreases
with decreasing wavelength (increasing energy). Hence shorter wavelength, higher
energy radiation is more penetrating (less absorbed) than longer wavelength lower
energy radiation.
Short wavelength (high energy) radiation is often referred to as hard radiation and longer
wavelength (lower energy) radiation is called soft radiation. Because soft radiation is
more easily absorbed, it follows that soft radiation will be more sensitive to thickness
variations than hard radiation.
A table of linear absorption coefficients for steel is shown below:

Linear radiation absorption coefficients for steel
Radiation Type Linear absorption coefficient
Co60 0.034
Ir192 0.053
Yb169 0.073
200 kV X-rays 0.165
Example: Contrast of 15/20 mm step wedge

Let us look at a simple steel test block, with two steps: one 20 mm thick, the other 15
mm thick, with Co60 radiation.
15 - 20 mm step wedge
By applying the above absorption equation:
For the 20 mm step:
For the 15 mm step:
The ratio of the emergent intensities through these two thicknesses is:
That is, the intensity of radiation emergent from the 15 mm step using Co60 is 1.19 times
greater than that emerging through the 20 mm step.
If we repeat the same calculation for Ir192, we obtain a contrast of 1.30. Hence for Ir192
there is 1.3 times more radiation emergent from the 15 mm step than from the 20 mm
step. The results are summarised below:
Subject contrast for 15/20 mm step wedge
Radiation type Subject Contrast
Ir192 1.30
Co60 1.19
Notice that the lower-energy Ir192 gives a greater contrast, because the different
thicknesses of steel will give a greater difference in absorption for low-energy radiation.
Example: Contrast of 19/20 mm step wedge

The previous example was for a 5 mm step in a 20 mm thickness - a 25% change in
thickness. Defects that you will be looking for in steel will be much smaller than this. Lets
repeat the calculation for a wedge with one 20 mm step and one 19 mm step, as shown
below:
19/20 mm step wedge
Repeating the calculation we get these results:
Subject contrast for 19/20 mm step wedge

Radiation type Subject Contrast
Ir192 1.05
Co60 1.03
200 kV X-rays 1.18
For Co60 there is 3% more radiation emerging from the 19 mm step than from the 20
mm step. For Ir192, there is 5% more radiation emerging from the 19 mm step that from
the 20 mm step. You can see that the subject contrast with Ir192 radiation is better than
that with Co60 radiation.
If you use X-rays, which have even lower linear absorption coefficients, the subject
contrast improves even further. The third row shows that for X-rays, there is 18% more
radiation emergent from the 19 mm step than from the 20 mm step. This is a significant
improvement over Ir192 and Co60.
You may notice another trend here. Considering the 20 mm step in each case:
for Co60, 50% of the incident radiation passes through the 20 mm step
for Ir192, 35% of the incident radiation passes through the 20 mm step
for 200 kV X-rays, only 3.6% of the incident radiation passes through the 20 mm
step.
You can see that hard radiation is much more penetrating, with much less being absorbed
than for soft radiation. So radiation quality has a dramatic effect on subject contrast. It is
for this reason that the lowest practicable energy should be used when planning a
radiographic procedure. Some codes prohibit the use of gamma rays for this very reason.
Activity – Subject Contrast

The subject contrast demonstration below, and shows why subject contrast decreases
with increasing gamma ray or X-ray energies.
Demonstration of subject contrast

Start the demonstration, and familiarise yourself with the controls. Begin by
verifying the subject contrast results obtained in the previous examples.
Now experiment with the demonstration in more detail, paying attention to the relative
amounts of radiation that penetrate the different thicknesses. Change the energy of the
radiation and check again. Think about what you have seen. Visit the forum, and
discuss/answer the following questions under the item “Subject contrast”.
1. Why does activity (or intensity for X-rays) have no effect on subject contrast?
2. Why does higher energy radiation (e.g. Co60) give lower contrast than lower energy
radiation (e.g. 200 kV X-rays)
Scattered radiation affects subject contrast

Scattered radiation is caused when the primary beam interacts with the specimen, or
other bodies. When this happens, secondary photons with lower energy result, and the
direction of these secondary photons is relatively random. Thus scattered radiation, as
the name suggests, is “scattered” in all directions. Of course, these scattered photons
may in turn also interact, giving more scattered photons.
Scatter can be classified as internal scatter or external scatter, depending upon whether
the scattered photons come from inside or outside the specimen. Scattered radiation
causes an overall blackening of the film without contributing to the quality of the image.
Internal scatter can be reduced by screens

Internal scatter - scatter from within the specimen - is often the more difficult to control.
The primary means for minimising internal scatter is the use of lead screens between the
specimen and the film. These screens are loaded into the film cassette with the film. They
work by preferentially blocking the longer wavelength (lower energy) scattered radiation,
while allowing the more energetic photons (from the primary beam) to pass through.
These screens, called intensifying screens, have an additional benefit. Some of the
radiation entering the screen produces electrons via the photoelectric effect. These
electrons enter the film, and also lead to a darkening of the processed film. The result is
that the effect the radiation on the film is enhanced.
Various types of masking can be used to shield the film from external scattered radiation.
Masks may be made from sheet metal, such as sheet copper or lead, cut or machined to
match the contour of the part. The mask is fitted around or within the part to shield the
film from the scattered radiation. Alternatively, masking may be done with metal shot
(lead shot or nickel shot) that is poured into a bore or cavity in the specimen to prevent
scattered radiation. Another mouldable form of mask is barium putty, a type of plasticine
with a high barium content. Barium, or more correctly a barium salt, is used because it is
non-toxic and is a reasonably heavy metal salt. Lead salts are not used because lead is a
toxic metal that can cause illness if ingested.
Another means used to reduce the effects of scatter when working with X-rays, but not
with gamma rays, is to place a thin metal (lead, copper, steel) filter in the primary X-ray
beam between the source of X-rays and the test specimen. This filters out some of the
longer wavelength, more easily scattered X-rays in the primary X-ray beam. However, it
is often necessary to increase exposure times to offset the reduction in intensity of X-rays
when using this procedure.
Activity – Scatter
The demonstration below demonstrates some of the important factors operating with
scatter and its effect on subject contrast. The demonstration shows X- or gamma ray
photons entering from the left, and passing through a step wedge. You can control the
thickness of each step. To the right of the step is an approximation of the appearance of
the completed radiograph. The source type can be selected, and the exposure can be
varied also. The red dots represent scattered photons. A lead screen can be added in
front of the film.
Demonstration of scatter
Start the demonstration, and answer the questions below.
Visit the online forum, and provide your answers to these questions under the item
“Scatter”.
1. Why is the film darker for the Co60 source than for Ir192 or 200 kV X-rays?
2. The radiation from which source has the greater proportion of scattered photons?
Why?
3. What does the screen do? Describe the effect of the screen on the radiograph.
Radiographic undercut can obscure the edges of a specimen

Another effect of scattered radiation is a phenomenon called radiographic undercut.
Scattered radiation overexposes the film near the edges of the specimen, causing a very
black border that conceals the edge detail. The following photographs are taken from
radiographs of a pair of step wedges lying on their sides. There is a small hole about 5
mm deep in each step.
The step wedges used
(click photos to enlarge)
Radiograph with no screen showing severe undercut

(click radiograph to enlarge)
The next radiograph was taken using the same exposure, but with lead screens loaded in
with the film. The difference is very noticeable, with most of the undercut eliminated.
Radiograph with lead screen showing reduced undercut

(click radiograph to enlarge)
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Film Contrast
The properties of the film affect the final radiographic contrast

We know that different thicknesses of material lead to different intensities of emerging
radiation, but that is only half of the contrast story. The properties of the film itself affect
the contrast of the completed radiograph.
Film contrast is the ratio of film blackening produced by two beams of radiation of
different intensities incident on the film. Here are the factors affecting film contrast.
Film Contrast
Different film types have different speed, contrast, and graininess

Just as with photographic film, radiographic film is available in different “speeds”.
slow films require relatively long exposures to reach the required film density
fast films require relatively short exposures to reach the required film density
As with photographic film, the slower film speeds have finer grain size and higher film
contrast while faster films have a courser grain size and lower film contrast.
Film types are classified in Australian standard AS2177 as shown in the table below:
AS2177 film type classification
Film Type Film Speed Grain Size Film Contrast
Type 0 Very low Ultra fine Very high
Type 1 Low Very fine Very high
Type 2 Medium Fine High

Type 3 High Medium Medium
Type 4 Very High Dependent on screens
Film contrast increases with density

For any particular film, film contrast depends on the density of the exposed film. The
higher the film density, the higher is the film contrast.
Film density is a measure of the blackness of a film. When we look at a radiograph, it is

the variations in density that form the image itself. The formula for density is shown
below. It is simply the logarithm of that fraction of the incident light that will pass through
a film.
Where:
I0 is the incident light intensity
It is the transmitted light intensity
Hence film density is a function of the ratio of the intensity of light illuminating the film to
the intensity of light passing through the film.
Typical film densities range from 0 to 4. The following table provides a guide to these film
density values:
Film density values
Film Density Ratio I0 / It % Light transmitted
0 1 100
0.6 4 25
1.0 10 10
2.0 100 1
3.0 1000 0.1
4.0 10000 0.01
Thus for a typical radiographic film density of 2, only 1% of the light from the film viewer
is transmitted through the film.
The reason industrial radiographs are exposed to give high film densities is due to a
property called the characteristic curve, also known as a sensitometric or H & D Curve
(for Hurter & Driffield).
The figure below shows a typical characteristic curve. You can see that the higher you go
on this curve, the steeper the curve becomes. Thus at low film densities, the difference in
density between two different exposures is very small. The same difference in exposure
at higher film densities provides a much greater difference in film density. In other words,
film contrast increases with film density
Characteristic curve
Position your mouse over the red tags in the diagram to see the difference in Log
Relative Exposures.
It is important to remember that a film’s characteristic curve is a property of the film and
its development. It is not affected by the type of radiation to which the film is exposed.
The horizontal axis of this graph is ‘Log relative exposure’. Relative exposure enables the
graph to be used at any exposure because it compares the film density difference across
two different exposures relative to each other. Logarithm relative exposure condenses the
data onto a shorter axis. A difference of 1.0 between log relative exposures means that
the higher exposure is ten times larger than the lower.
You can see from this curve that a relative exposure difference of 0.5 at the low end of
the curve, e.g. changing from LRE = 1.0 to LRE = 1.5, produces a very small change in
film density of about 0.2. The same change in relative exposure further up the curve, e.g.
LRE = 2.0 to LRE = 2.5, produces a much greater difference in film density with an
increase of about 2.4.
You will become more familiar with characteristic curves in a later task, which covers
radiographic exposure calculations.
Film contrast is also affected by film processing.

Under-processing means that insufficient time has been given for the exposed silver
halide grains to fully develop (to be reduced to metallic silver). This will result in a
lowered film contrast. Over-processing will cause unexposed silver halide grains to begin
to be reduced to metallic silver. This causes a background darkening or fog in the film
emulsion, again reducing the overall film contrast.
The type of screen affects film contrast

Screens are sheets placed up against a film as it is loaded into a cassette for an exposure.
There are two types:
1. Metallic screens, typically made from lead.

2. Fluorescent screens (now known as fluoro-metallic screens), typically made from a
salt that emits visible or ultraviolet light when exposed to radiation.
Most industrial radiography is done with lead screens. Fluorescent screens are only used
for very thick materials requiring very long exposures. Fluorescent screens result in a
much lower film contrast than lead screens.
To summarise, film contrast is affected by:
type of film
film density
film processing
type of screens used.
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Radiographic Definition
Radiographic definition is a measure of the sharpness of a radiographic image

The second factor that affects radiographic sensitivity is radiographic definition, or the
overall sharpness of the image. A sharp image is much easier to distinguish in a
radiograph than a diffuse image.
There are two main types of factor affecting radiographic definition. These are geometric
factors and graininess factors as shown below. Geometric factors concern the size and
physical arrangement of the source, the subject, and the film. Graininess factors concern
the random density variations on the film that could be described as “noise”.
Factors affecting radiographic definition
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Definition – Geometric Factors
Image sharpness depends upon the size of the source of radiation

In order to produce a sharply defined image in a radiograph, the ideal source size is a
small point. Unfortunately it is not possible to achieve this, although some X-ray
equipment does have very small focal spot sizes.
Most sources of radiation, be they X-ray or gamma ray, range from 1 mm × 1 mm to 4

mm × 4 mm in size. This results in a penumbra or blurring of the edges of an image,
known as geometric unsharpness. The geometric unsharpness of an image can be
determined from the simple formula:
Where:
Ug is the geometric unsharpness in millimeters (mm)
S is the source size in millimeters (mm)
t is the object thickness (or top of object to film distance if film is removed
from object) in millimeters (mm)
d is the source to object distance in millimeters (mm)
Geometric unsharpness
Most radiographic codes specify a maximum geometric unsharpness of 0.2 mm or 0.4

mm. In general the 0.4mm value may be applied to some gamma radiographic
applications, whereas 0.2 is common for X-ray applications. Technicians must always
apply the geometric unsharpness requirements as set out in the relevant code or
specification.
Source to object distance can influence Ug
The equation for Ug accounts for the factors that affect geometric unsharpness. However,
most of these factors are not readily under the control of the radiographer.
By increasing the source to object distance, geometric unsharpness improves. This is

the factor that can be readily controlled.
By using a smaller source, geometric unsharpness improves. However, this option is
generally not available to the industrial radiographer as they must use the available X-
ray tube or gamma ray source that has a known physical size for the focal spot or the
isotope. Likewise, object thickness is fixed.
Object to film distance can also be a factor if the film is not in contact with the test
specimen. Moving the film away from the test object will worsen geometric
unsharpness.
Another factor beyond the control of the radiographer is the shape of the discontinuity
itself. An abrupt section change will provide a sharper image than a gradual change in
section or thickness of a discontinuity.
Geometric factors
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Activity – Geometric Factors
The demonstration below demonstrates the effect of the various geometric factors on
radiographic definition.
Demonstration of geometric unsharpness

Start the demonstration and experiment with the controls.
With a 2 mm source size, a 20 mm object thickness, and the film in contact with the
object, find the minimum source to object distance (SOD) that will give a geometric
unsharpness of 0.2 mm? What is the minimum SOD if the source size is doubled to 4
mm?
Go online, and visit the forum. Think about which factors are easily controlled, and which
cannot be controlled. List the geometric factors in order of this “ease of control”, and
present your list on the forum. Give reasons for the order of your list.
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Definition – Graininess Factors
Graininess factors affect radiographic definition

Graininess results from the size of the groups or clumps of microscopic silver halide
crystals in the processed radiographic film emulsion. All films exhibit a tendency for this
effect. However, it is the ‘faster’ radiographic films that suffer more from inherent
graininess. So once again, it is the faster films that produce a lower quality radiograph,
this time due to graininess effects.
The type of screen used can also give rise to a graininess effect. Fluorescent screens, due
to their salt crystal structure, result in grainy radiographs with poor definition.
Radiation quality, or radiation energy can also contribute to graininess in a radiograph.

Higher energy radiation can result in lateral scatter of electrons within a film emulsion,
thus exposing adjacent grains in the emulsion as if they were exposed by the radiation
itself. The end effect can be a very grainy appearance in the radiograph.
Film processing has previously been referred to as a most important factor in the quality
of a radiograph. Excessive development time, and high development temperatures, will
cause grains to clump together and create excessive graininess in the emulsion.
Graininess can be quantified as inherent unsharpness (Ui)
Inherent unsharpness , also called film unsharpness, is a function of the primary grain
size in the particular radiographic film, and the generation of secondary electrons when
ionising radiation strikes the film. The energy from the X-rays and gamma rays striking
atoms in the film emulsion can dislodge electrons that travel through the emulsion to
strike adjacent grains and so cause them to become ‘exposed’. Higher radiation energies
amplify this effect so that a single photon of radiation energy can result in exposure of
several hundred grains in the film emulsion.
The total effect of geometric unsharpness (Ug) and inherent unsharpness (Ui) is given by
the value total unsharpness (Utotal):
The factors that affect graininess are:
type of film
type of screen
radiation quality
film processing.
Graininess factors
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Review
There are a number of factors that have an effect on the final quality of a radiograph.
Many of these factors can be controlled by the radiographer.
The following chart brings these factors together:
All radiographic sensitivity factors
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Check Your Progress
1. Which of the following radiographs of a 20 mm thick steel test specimen represents

the best sensitivity?
a. 2% sensitivity
b. 5% sensitivity
Answer: a - 2% sensitivity
2. The two primary factors that control sensitivity of a radiograph are:

a. radiographic contrast and film contrast.
b. subject contrast and film contrast.
c. radiographic contrast and radiographic definition.
d. radiographic contrast and source to film distance.
Answer: c - Radiographic contrast and radiographic defintion are two primary factors
that control sensitivity.
3. Subject contrast and film contrast together control:

a. radiographic sensitivity.
b. radiographic contrast.
c. radiographic definition.
d. radiographic density.
Answer: b - Radiographic contrast is controlled by subject contrast and film contrast.
4. The primary factor that affects subject contrast is:

a. energy of the radiation used
b. type of film used
c. source to object distance
d. film density
Answer: a - A primary factor affecting subject contrast is the energy of the radiation
used.
5. Name 4 factors that affects film contrast.
Answer: Film type, film density, film processing, type of screens used.
6. How can you determine geometric unsharpness for a radiographic image?
Answer: Ug = S×t/d where s = source size, t = object thickness and d = source to

object distance
7. Name 2 factors that affect radiographic definition.
Answer: Geometric factors and graininess factors.
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Your Task
Answer the questions below on the answer sheet provided, and e-mail the form to your
teacher.
Click here to open the answer sheet for this task.
1. Describe in your own words the difference between contrast and definition.
2. Determine the geometric unsharpness for the following exposure conditions. (SOD
means source to object distance)
a. source size = 2 mm, SOD = 200 mm, specimen thickness = 40 mm
b. source size = 3 mm, SOD = 250 mm, specimen thickness = 35 mm
c. source size = 2 mm, source to film distance = 300 mm, specimen thickness
= 40 mm
3. If the maximum geometric unsharpness is specified as 0.2 mm, what is the minimum
SOD for the following:
a. source size = 3.5 mm, specimen thickness = 45 mm
b. source size = 2 mm, specimen thickness = 30 mm
4. What would the source to film distance be in each of these cases in the previous
question?
5. If you are employed in a company where radiography is performed, discuss with your
supervisor the reasons for selecting particular film types in different situations. Make
mention of what you have learned at the on-line forum under “film types”.
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Radiographic Sensitivity Page 1 of 17

1. Back to Module Index

The ultimate purpose of industrial radiography is to produce a quality radiograph that is

define radiographic sensitivity

Radiographic sensitivity is the ability to detect a small discontinuity in a test

Radiographic sensitivity is the smallest change in thickness that is detectable on the

If you are radiographing a 20 mm thick specimen:

a 1% sensitivity implies that the smallest detectable defect is 1% of 20 mm = 0.2

a 2% sensitivity implies that the smallest detectable defect is 2% of 20 mm = 0.4

Factors affecting Radiographic sensitivity

Activity – Contrast and Definition

Contrast and definition demonstration

high contrast, high definition

high contrast, low definition

If we require a high radiographic sensitivity in a radiograph (e.g. 1%), it should be

The radiographic contrast in a completed radiograph is broken down into:

Factors affecting radiographic contrast

Subject contrast is the ratio of transmitted intensities at two chosen points

Subject contrast is defined as the ratio of intensities of radiation transmitted through a

Subject contrast is affected by the factors illustrated below:

Thickness differences in the specimen affect subject contrast

Subject contrast depends on the wavelength of the radiation

A table of linear absorption coefficients for steel is shown below:

Example: Contrast of 15/20 mm step wedge

By applying the above absorption equation:

For the 20 mm step:

For the 15 mm step:

Example: Contrast of 19/20 mm step wedge

19/20 mm step wedge

Repeating the calculation we get these results:

Subject contrast for 19/20 mm step wedge

Activity – Subject Contrast

Demonstration of subject contrast

Scattered radiation affects subject contrast

Internal scatter can be reduced by screens

Radiographic undercut can obscure the edges of a specimen

Radiograph with no screen showing severe undercut

Radiograph with lead screen showing reduced undercut

The properties of the film affect the final radiographic contrast

Different film types have different speed, contrast, and graininess

Type 2 Medium Fine High

Film contrast increases with density

Film density is a measure of the blackness of a film. When we look at a radiograph, it is

Film contrast is also affected by film processing.

The type of screen affects film contrast

1. Metallic screens, typically made from lead.

To summarise, film contrast is affected by:

Radiographic definition is a measure of the sharpness of a radiographic image

Definition – Geometric Factors

Image sharpness depends upon the size of the source of radiation

Most sources of radiation, be they X-ray or gamma ray, range from 1 mm × 1 mm to 4

d is the source to object distance in millimeters (mm)

Most radiographic codes specify a maximum geometric unsharpness of 0.2 mm or 0.4

Source to object distance can influence Ug

By increasing the source to object distance, geometric unsharpness improves. This is

Activity – Geometric Factors

Demonstration of geometric unsharpness

Definition – Graininess Factors

Graininess factors affect radiographic definition

Radiation quality, or radiation energy can also contribute to graininess in a radiograph.

Graininess can be quantified as inherent unsharpness (Ui)

The factors that affect graininess are: