01 - An Overview of Pipeline Design

COURSE NOTE - 1
AN OVERVIEW OF PIPELINE DESIGN

Module on Pipeline Engineering

D-l: An Overview of Pipeline Design

D 1: AN OVERVIEW OF PIPELINE DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

2 PROJECT INITIATION

3 DESIGN PROCESS

3.1 Definitions

3.2 Basis Of Design

3.3 Codes, Standards And Regulations

3.4 Pipeline route

3.5 Process Studies and Hydraulic Analysis

3.6 Pipe Material

3.7 Loads

3.8 Wall Thickness

3.9 Pipeline Stability

3.10 Buckling

3.11 Scour and Liquefaction

3.12 Spans

3.13 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection

3.14 Pipeline Expansion

3.15 Riser Design

3.16 Protection

3.17 Other Design Topics

4 CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS

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4.1 Coatings
4.2 Pipelay
4.3 Shore Approaches and Landfalls
4.4 Riser Installation
4.5 Riser Tie-ins
4.6 Pigging
4.7 Pre-commissioning
4.8 Commissioning APPENDIX AI: LIST OF COMMONL Y USED DESIGN CODES

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1

AN OVERVIEW OF PIPELINE DESIGN

1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

For an engineer who is new to pipeline design, it is imperative that he should have some understanding of the purpose of each Course Note with regard to overall pipeline design. It is to be recognised that a pipeline system design involves several engineering disciplines, e.g., process, materials, civil, mechanical systems, controls systems and corrosion contro!' This Course Note is intended to present an overview of pipeline design to introduce various steps in the design process and to establish links between different Course Notes.

2 PROJECT INITIATION

For those who are not involved in oil and gas industry, some understanding of an overall oil and gas project will be helpful. The various stages of development of an oil and gas project are illustrated graphically in Figure 1.1. The project starts with the mapping of earth formations deep below the surface and studies to identify locations of underground reservoirs of hydrocarbon deposits. Petroleum engineers and geologists/geophysicists perform this work. Having established the possible presence of hydrocarbon reservoirs, further seismic surveys are carried out to determine the nature and extent of these deposits. By interpretation of seismic survey data, it is possible to assess if the hydrocarbon deposits have commercial potential before further investigations by exploratory drilling are undertaken.

The second stage involves exploratory drilling to confirm the seismic survey findings and to collect hydrocarbon samples. The samples of hydrocarbons and other data, e.g., pressure, temperature, etc., obtained from the exploratory drilling are analysed by petroleum engineers and process engineers to determine the expected chemical composition of the product, reservoir pressure and temperature, and production capabilities over a period of time. From these data, anticipated flow rates, pressures and temperatures of the product at the wellhead can be determined. The hydrocarbons coming out of the reservoir could be a mixture of oil and gas and may contain impurities like water, wax, sand, carbon dioxide and other chemicals. In almost all cases, it is necessary to fully or partially process the produced hydrocarbons before these can be transported for sales or for further processing.

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D-1: An Overview of Pipeline Design

Third stage of initial development consists in the assessment of the economic and logistical feasibility of the field development. Matters to be considered in the overall feasibility study pertain to number of wellheads required, methods of production, i.e., platform or subsea, processing requirements of the produced product, transportation of the processed products, etc. Transportation of the processed products is of vital importance. The possible methods of transportation of hydrocarbon products from offshore are by underwater pipelines or by tankers. In general, transportation is carried out by pipelines installed on the seabed and constitute a major component of the overall field development cost. Tankers are used for small developments and for a limited period where an underwater pipeline may not be

economic.

3 DESIGN PROCESS

Pipeline design activities are generally performed in the following sequence. A flowchart showing the sequence of these activities is shown in Figure 1.2. A number of computer programs are commercially available to perform the calculations for the pipeline design in an efficient manner. The intent of following sections is to briefly introduce the sequence prior to details. The level of activities to be performed depends on the nature of a design project. For example, in a feasibility study for a field development, preliminary routing and pipeline size (diameter and wall thickness) may be sufficient to estimate the costs.

3.1 Definitions

For the benefit of those who are not involved in pipeline design, a few basic definitions used in pipeline engineering are given hereunder:

Pipe: A hollow cylinder as of reed, straw, wood, plastic or metal. A pipe can have any shape, e.g., circular cylindrical, elliptical, square, etc. For the purpose of this book, a pipe shall always mean a hollow circular cylinder or a solid surrounded by two co-axial circular cylindrical surfaces.

Pipe can be made of a variety of materials: wood, concrete, plastic, metal, etc. This book deals with metal pipe and that too of steel only.

Pipeline: A pipeline comprises a series of pipes joined together inline. Dictionary definition of a pipeline is any channel to conveyor supply something. Pipelines are used for conveying gases, liquids, solids, and even messages. This discussion will be limited to pipelines used in the oil and gas industry to convey fluids such as the gas, water, oil and service fluids.

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Difference between a Pipe, Piping and Pipeline: The term 'pipe' is used for individual lengths of a pipe prior to assembly; 'piping' is used for the pipework comprising normally of short lengths of assorted pipes as in petro-chemical or similar plants including the pipework on platform topsides; 'pipeline' is always used for long stretches of pipe assembly whether offshore or on land.

Classification of Pipelines: Pipelines are classified into two broad categories, VIZ., transmission lines and distribution lines, Figure 1.3. As the names suggest, transmission lines are used for bulk conveyance over long distances without frequent branches whereas distribution lines are used for the distribution of a product. For example, distribution pipelines carry out water and gas supplies to households and have numerous branches. This book deals with transmission lines.

Classification of Transmission Lines: Transmission lines are generally divided into three categories, viz., trunklines, infield or intra-field lines, and service lines. Infield or intra-field lines carry the product from a source to a collection station, for example, hydrocarbons produced from different fields may be collected and processed on central processing platform before export. Trunklines or export lines carry the product from a collection station to the receiving station; service lines are pipelines generally used for carrying service fluids to and from the production stations; examples of service lines are gas lift, glycol injection lines, etc

Subsea Pipeline: Subsea pipeline is part of a pipeline system that is located below the water surface which may be wholly or in part suspended above the seabed, rest on the seabed or be buried below the seabed. If a subsea pipeline continues overland, then the section located below high water mark is also considered as the subsea pipeline. Some codes use the term, submarine pipeline instead of subsea pipeline.

Riser: A riser is a length of pipe, steel or flexible, which connects the pipeline on the seabed to the pipework above water on an installation. The installation may be a fixed or floating platform.

Pipeline System: It is important to understand the extent of a 'pipeline system' early on during the discussion.

A pipeline system comprises an interconnected system of subsea pipelines including any short sections of land pipelines, risers, supports, isolation valves, safety systems and corrosion protection systems. The definition of a pipeline system is not universal; it depends on the


Module on Pipeline Engineering D-l: An Overview of Pipeline Design

applicable regulations or design codes. The limits of some pipeline systems, shown 111 Figures 1.3-1.5, are as follows:

• Up to and including the pig launcher/receiver (pig trap) on an installation

• If a pig trap is not present in the system, then the first valve within the facilities

• For a branch of the main pipeline, it will extend up to and including the first valve on any such branch

• At a subsea wellhead, the pipeline normally terminates at the connection point to the christmas tree or wing valve; christmas tree is not part ofthe system

• At other subsea installations, the pipeline terminates at the connection to the subsea installation

3.2 Basis Of Design

The first task in any pipeline design is to perform a detailed review of the agreed scope of work to understand the extent of design requirements. Included in this task will be the review of all available design data and to identify further data/information required for the completion of a design. Following these reviews, applicable design data, design criteria, outline design philosophies, and applicable design codes, standards and regulations are identified. This information is collated in a document entitled "Basis of Design" or "Design Premise" or "Design Criteria. This document becomes the basis for the performance of all further pipeline design work. As the design proceeds, there may be changes to the basic data or design philosophies, these are reflected in the basis of design.

As a minimum, the following information is summarised in the basis of design:

Service Data: Product composition, density, flowrate, pressure, temperature during different phases of operation.

Route Data: Locations, co-ordinates, water depths, seabed profile, seabed soils, etc.

Met-ocean Data: Waves, current, wind, seawater density, salinity, etc. Environmental Considerations: Special requirements to protect the environment Design Factors and Code Requirements: These depend on the selected code.

The extent of information to be collated in such a document depends on the nature of a design project and availability of the information. As the project moves towards detailed design, information generated during earlier studies can be incorporated into the basis for detailed design.




3.3 Codes, Standards And Regulations

To ensure that the pipelines conform to certain minimum quality and safety requirements, a number of codes, standards and regulations are used as the basis for pipeline system design. These documents are based on research, experience and safety considerations and are prepared by national and international regulatory organisations.

Codes specify minimum requirements for design, manufacture, construction and operation of pipelines. Standardisation of manufactured items is controlled by Standards. Regulations are issued by national governments and local authorities, and by international organisations which prescribe various national and international requirements for safety and environmental protection.

A number of internationally recognised codes and standards for pipelines are used for the design of pipeline systems and for the manufacture of associated equipment. Most of these codes and standards have common requirements, however, certain differences do exist. Regulatory authorities in every country either require or indicate their preference for certain codes and standards. Concerted efforts have been made to develop international codes and standards under the auspices of International Standards Organisation. To ensure that pipeline design conforms to internationally recognised quality standards, it is important to determine the applicable codes and standards at the start of a design project. Some of the most commonly used codes and are listed in Appendix 1.

Most countries have their local and national regulations, in addition to the internationally agreed regulations, for the construction and use of a pipeline system. A pipeline system that passes through the jurisdiction of more than one local authority or more than one sovereign state, will need to satisfy the statutory requirements of each local authority and/or state. Before starting the design, it will be important to determine the statutory requirements that would govern a proposed pipeline system.

3.4 Pipeline route

One of the first tasks in a pipeline system design is to plan for product transportation. This has commercial and logistical implications in addition to design. After a destination for the product is agreed, preliminary route for the pipeline is developed using available published charts, maps or any such information. Charts and maps providing an overview of the major seabed features are available for almost the entire world. Obviously, a straight line is the



D-I: An Overview of Pipeline Design

shortest and easiest path between two locations, however, various considerations lead to 'generally winding pipeline routes, Detailed information on water depths, seabed features (e.g. seabed topography, obstructions, etc.) and seabed soils is obtained by surveying the proposed route to perform the detailed design of the pipeline route,

3.5 Process Studies and Hydraulic Analysis

Before starting the design of a pipeline system, it is essential to understand the service requirements by carrying out process studies and hydraulics analyses.

Process studies involve review of the product chemical and physical characteristics and their impact on pipeline design and operation. This information is used for the determination of processing required before the product is transported. The chemical composition of the product is further used in the selection pipeline material, and for the assessment of chemical injection and pipeline cleaning requirements.

Hydraulic analyses are performed to study the flow characteristics of the product in the pipelines. Hydraulic analysis leads to the determination of pipeline diameter, pressure and temperature profiles. pressure drops and physical changes in the product during transportation. The analysis results are used in the design of the pipeline system in several ways. For example, if the product contains wax, the analysis will predict the amount of wax that would deposit as the temperature drops along the route. This information can be used to assess if the wax deposits would interfere with the product transportation and to determine the methods to mitigate the effect of wax build up. Pressure drop information is used to determine pumping/compression power required to push the product to the intended destination.

Hydraulic studies may comprise steady state and transient (dynamic or time-domain) analyses. Most optimisation studies are carried out by relatively simpler steady state analyses. However, in many cases it will be necessary to perform transient analyses. A number of proprietary computer programs are available for flow analysis (hydraulics analysis).

3.6 Pipe Material

A fundamentally important aspect of pipeline design is the selection of pipe material. Material composition and manufacturing processes depend on the tthe product to be transported, and mechanical strength requirements during operation, installation and testing. Without exception, transmission pipelines are constructed of steel with an overwhelming majority of these using carbon steel pipe.




Carbon steel materials tend to corrode due to a combination of CO2 and water, and due to H2S which can also initiate various forms of cracking. The steel chemistry is determined by consideration of chemistry of the product and its corrosivity. The aim will be to select a steel pipe that would provide the service for the intended period.

In certain cases, the level and nature of corrodants in the product may be such that special corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) steel pipelines have to be used. The CRA steel pipe and construction cost can be several magnitudes greater than that for the carbon steel pipe.

Pipe material strength is expressed in terms of its yield and ultimate tensile strengths. Most of the discussion here will consider pipe material yield strength.

Line pipe used for pipeline systems is manufactured to internationally acceptable standards. The most commonly used standard for carbon steel pipe is API 5L issued by the American Petroleum Insttiutue. It is common practice in oil and gas industry to supplement the standard requirements with more stringent requirements on manufacture and testing to enhance the pipe quality.

3.7 Loads

Loads on a pipeline system during various phases will comprise of one or more of the following:

I. Self-weight: steel, coatings, contents, marine growth, etc.

2. Internal fluid loads due to product pressure, friction, inertia, etc.

3. External fluid loads: hydrostatic pressure, buoyancy

4. Loads caused by changes of pressure and temperature of the contents

5. Seabed friction, soil pressure

6. Environmental loads due to wind, waves and currents, and ice

7. Loads caused by platform movements and seabed settlements

8. Construction loads: during handling, storage, installation, testing, etc.

9. Accidental loads: caused by fishing and shipping activities or dropped objects offshore and due to human activities around land pipelines

These loads will be discussed in more detail in relevant sections.




3.8 Wall Thickness

Having established design data base of operating pressures, temperatures and diameter for the given flow rates from hydraulic analysis, pipe material and steel grade are selected together with an assessment of loss of wall thickness due to internal corrosion over the life span of the pipeline, if the selected material is carbon steel. The assessment of wall thickness loss is based on empirical methods derived from statistical analysis of observations.

Wall thickness of a pipeline is primarily based on its capacity to contain the pressures by consideration of hoop stress due to the maximum internal operating pressure. The computed wall thickness is such that the hoop stress does not exceed a certain percentage of the material specified minimum yield strength. This percentage factor that is specified in the applicable design codes is based on service and safety considerations. The selected wall thickness should never be less than the calculated value plus the expected loss due to corrosion.

The wall thickness computed on the basis of hoop stress is subjected to further analyses using other load data to ensure that the final selected wall thickness is adequate during all phases of installation, testing and operation.

3.9 Pipeline Stability

Subsea pipelines are subjected to environmental forces due to waves and currents. To ensure long term operation, pipelines are designed to be stable on the seabed under worst waves and current loads expected during its life time, i.e., the pipeline should not travel too far from its installed position. Small movements may be allowed as long as these do not damage the pipeline or its coatings.

Waves give rise to cyclic variations in water particle velocities and accelerations both in time and space. Currents induce time-constant water particle velocities that vary with depth. Worst wave and current conditions are determined by applying statistical analysis to the observed or derived sea states. Generally, loads associated with extreme storms that have probability to occur once in 100 or 50 year are considered for long term design, and loads associated with storms with probability of occurrence once in 5 or one year are considered for short term installation conditions.

Water particle velocities and accelerations along the depth and nearer the seabed caused by a wave can be calculated by using one of the applicable wave theories. These will be discussed

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in one of the Course Notes. Forces on a pipeline due to waves and current consist of a drag force, a lift force and an inertia force. These forces are computed from wave and current induced water particle velocities.

Pipelines are designed so that the submerged weight of the pipe is greater than the lift force in the vertical direction (vertical stability) and the horizontal friction force is greater than the combined drag and inertia force (horizontal stability). If steel weight of the pipe and contents is not sufficient to satisfy these criteria, then pipelines are coated on the outside with high density concrete to increase the weight. In certain cases, pipelines are trenched for safety reasons. In such cases, pipelines are generally designed only to be vertically stable with the trench sides resisting the horizontal displacement.

3.10 Buckling

Pipelines can buckle locally, i.e., point buckle, or affecting a short length of less than 10-20 diameters only, due to the following loads, acting alone or in combinations:

• External pressure: hydrostatic pressure due the surrounding water head

• Axial compressive forces induced by operating pressures and temperatures

• Bending

• Torsion.

Pipeline will buckle if the net applied load exceeds a certain value, defined as the critical load. Hence, the design to avoid buckling is to ensure that the net applied load does not exceed the critical load.

Buckling due to the external pressure is referred to as 'collapse' and IS caused by the hydrostatic pressure particularly in deep waters.

Axial loads result from pipeline expansion due to temperature and pressure. If the ends are restrained mechanically or due to friction, the pipeline will tend to buckle. This type of buckling can take the form of horizontal snaking in unburied pipelines laid on the seabed, or vertical buckling for trenched or laterally restrained pipelines, the latter type of buckling is also commonly referred to as the "upheaval buckling". Upheaval buckling generally occurs in small diameter pipelines operating at high temperatures.




Bending buckles can results when the pipeline is subjected to high bending moments. The potential sources of such damage are: body loads on long unsupported spans, hooking of the pipeline by anchors or fishing gear, severe bending during.

Torsional buckling is not generally a problem for pipelines except during pipelay of small diameter pipelines in deep waters

Apart from local buckling, pipelines may be subjected to the general buckling commonly referred to as "propagation buckles" when a buckle propagates along the pipeline under an external load. The propagation buckle is exasperated by local and large imperfections in a circular cylindrical pipe. In subsea pipelines, the propagation buckle is driven solely by the water pressure. The local buckle initiated by any of the above mechanisms can propagate down the pipeline if the external pressure exceeds a critical value known as the propagation pressure.

Buckling, whether local or general, is a serious problem since the damaged section has to be replaced at considerable cost for repairs and loss of production.

3.11 Scour and Liquefaction

Seabed scour is a common problem in many areas of offshore oil and gas production caused by high water particle velocities close to the seabed.

For scour to occur, the water particle velocity must be sufficiently high to lift and carry the seabed sediments. The presence of a pipeline generally modifies the equilibrium flow velocities of water particles to initiate scour underneath it and thus cause a suspended span.

The oscillatory nature of wave induced water particle velocities and construction activities lead to soil liquefaction, i.e., fluidisation of the soils. This process can cause the pipeline to float due to increased specific density of the surrounding fluid

3.12 Spans

Unsupported pipeline spans can occur during installation if the seabed is uneven and during operation due to scour and liquefaction. Unacceptably high stresses and strains can be induced in unsupported spans due to steady state and dynamic loads resulting in rendering the pipeline in-operable.




Simplified static analysis is normally used to determine the maximum acceptable unsupported spans during different phases of the pipeline's life cycle.

Unsupported spans can vibrate due to vortex-induced oscillations that can cause fatigue failure due to cyclic loads.

3.13 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection

Internal corrosion of carbon steel pipelines can be caused due the corrodants in the product.

The seawater causes external corrosion and is minimised by coating the pipeline with anticorrosion materials such as coal tar enamel, asphalt or fusion bonded epoxy. If the pipeline is concrete weight coated, the adhesion between concrete and the anti-corrosion coating must be strong enough to resist shear loads during installation. Coal tar enamel and asphalt provide good adhesion.

Anti-corrosion coatings can be damaged or cracked during installation and operation allowing seawater to seep in. To overcome the corrosion problem from coatings breakdown, additional protection is provided in the form of 'cathodic' protection.

3.14 Pipeline Expansion

Due to the combined effects of product temperature and pressure, the pipeline expands longitudinally until frictional force equalises the expansion force.

Pipeline end expansion is transmitted to the equipment to which the pipeline is connected. The tendency of end expansion displacement can also cause over-stressing in the pipeline system if the ends are not allowed to expand freely. To overcome the problem of overstress, a device is introduced into the system that absorbs the majority of expansion. The device is known as the expansion offset.

3.15 Riser Design

Riser is a vertical or near vertical section of pipe that connects the subsea pipeline to the pipe work on a platform.

Riser design is an important part of a pipeline system design. Safety of the host platform, production and personnel all depend on the riser integrity. Some may view the riser design



D-I: An Overview of Pipeline Design

similar to any structural member of the platform but that is not strictly true. Riser is a , structure with high pressure, and possibly high temperature, hazardous product. Riser must be designed more like a pressure vessel than a pure structural item.

3.16 Protection

A pipeline system can be damaged, apart from natural causes, by other activities in its proximity. A few of these causes are listed as follows:

• Dropped Objects: From the platform, construction vessels or other shipping

activities

• Anchors: Dropping on top of the pipeline or hooking

• Boat impact: For risers

• Fishing Gear: Trawling by door type trawls or Dutch Beam Trawls

• Constriction: Activities in pipeline vicinity such at pipelay

Damage to a component of a pipeline system can lead to serious consequences with loss of revenue. Pipeline system is therefore designed to minimise the possibility of damage.

3.17 Other Design Topics

Other items that may form part of a design are

• J-tubes

• Pipeline crossings

4 CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS

4.1 Coatings

The quality of corrosion protection coatings and concrete and their application are extremely important to get the desired operating life from a pipeline. The process normally is carried out in three major stages:

• Corrosion Protection coating

• Anode installation

• Concrete coating

4.2 Pipelay

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Subsea pipelines are installed primarily by pipelay vessels. Coated pipes are stored on the installation vessel and welded and laid on to the seabed.

Subsea pipelines can be installed by the following methods:

• S-Lay: Most commonly used technique; suspended pipeline configuration during pipelay is a form of'S'

• Reel Lay: Pipe is welded onshore and reeled onto large drums, unreeled offshore and laid on seabed; suspended pipeline configuration during pipelay is again'S'; not suitable for concrete coated lines. Suitable for small diameter pipelines, maximum diameter 16 inches.

• .l-Lay: Suitable for deep-water pipelay; suspended section forms a '1'.

• On- or Off-Bottom Tow: Pipe strings are welded onshore and towed on or off the seabed; suitable for short lengths in general; installation site should not be too far from the stringing site; useful for bundled systems; maximum length for tow approximately seven kilometres.

Conventional S-lay method is discussed. Three types of vessels can be used:

• Semi-submersible barge: very stable and can be used in relatively rough seas

• Flat bottom barge: not so stable and usable in fairly calm seastates

• Ship shape vessel: generally used with DP for positioning; latest vessel has high performance specifications

4.3 Shore Approaches and Landfalls

If the pipeline is destined for an onshore location, the sections the route towards the shore where water depth becomes shallow or other changes occur so that the pipelay vessel can not operate in its normal operational mode is strictly the 'shore approach'. The term landfall includes a certain length of land section up to a point where the subsea pipeline ties-into a plant pipework or a pig-receiver. The length of shore approach/landfall depends on the draft of the vessel(s) used for pipelay and on the location of onshore termination. Generally, shore approach comprises a length of approximately 2-3 km offshore from the shoreline and the landfall could be up to 1-2 km onshore.

Construction of pipeline in the shore approach/ lanfall may consist of two stages: offshore construction and onshore construction. Following three methods of offshore construction are commonly used.

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• Offshore to onshore pull: In this method, pipes are welded on the pipe lay vessel and pulled towards the shore with winches on the beach

• Onshore to offshore pull: In this method pipe strings are fabricated on land and pulled from the offshore vessel.

• Directional drilling: The method consists In drilling a hole and pulling the pipeline.

4.4 Riser Installation

Most risers on new platforms are pre-installed on the jacket and located within the jacket framing for added protection.

In certain cases, risers are installed after the jacket is in place. The method most commonly used is referred to as the 'stalk-on' method. In this method the riser is fabricated on the deck of a derrick barge, lifted, pipeline is also lifted to surface and connected to the pipeline, and the riser is located into the pre-installed riser supports on the platform.

4.5 Riser Tie-ins

One of the riser installation methods mentioned in Section 4.4, is the stalk-on installation method. In stalk-on method, the riser is tied into the pipeline during riser installation. Where stalk-on method is not feasible or the riser is pre-installed, the connection of the pipeline to the riser, i.e., tie-in, is performed underwater on the seabed. There are two methods of subsea tie-in:

• Flanged connection

• Welded connection

4.6 Pigging

'Pig' is the most widely accepted term for a device which is inserted into a pipeline and that travels through it driven by the product flow. A pig is in effect a free moving piston. Pigs are used for a variety of operations in a pipeline system. These include cleaning, sealing, inspection.

4.7 Pre-commissioning

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Pipeline pre-commissioning in this document relates to pipeline cleaning and testing activities starting soon after pipeline installation and continue until the commencement of activities to fill the pipeline with product. The pre-commissioning activities include thc following:

• Filling: with clean seawater which is mixed with corrosion inhibitors

• PIpeline Cleaning: cleaning by pigs is generally performed soon after filling the pipeline with the inhibited clean sea water..

• Pipeline Gauging: pipeline is gauged during installation to check if it is dented during installation. Another gauging pig is run to confirm the pipeline condition

• Hydrotesting: After cleaning and gauging, pipeline is subjected to a hydrostatic test to confirm the strength and integrity of the completed pipeline pipeline, the pipeline is depressurised, repaired and re-hydrotested.

4.8 Commissioning

Before the hydrocarbons can be introduced into a pipeline system, the water in the system must be removed and inside of the pipeline dried to a certain level as determined by the pipeline operational criteria. The pipeline commissioning comprises the following three stages:

• Dewatering

• Drying

• Introduction of product

The commissioning activities are performed by specialists who should be fully involved in planning the whole operation.

It is pointed out that gas pipeline commissioning is generally more hazardous compared to an oil pipeline.




APPENDIX Al: LIST OF COMMONLY USED DESIGN CODES

1.0 British Standards Institution BS8010: Part 1: 1993. Pipelines on land:
general
2.0 British Standards Institution BS8010: Part 2:1993. Pipelines on land:
design, construction and installation
3.0 British Standards Institution BS8010: Part 3:1993. Pipelines subsea: design,
construction and installation
4.0 Det Norske Veritas Offshore Standard OS-FIOI: Submarine
pipeline systems, 2000
5.0 Det Norske Veritas Rules for Submarine Pipel ine Systems (1981).
6.0 Institute of Petroleum IP6: Pipeline Safety Code.
7.0 ASME/ANSI Code B31.4: Liquid transportation systems for
hydrocarbons, liquid petroleum gas, anhydrous
ammonia and alcohol
8.0 ASME/ANSI Code B31.8: Gas transmission and
distribution piping systems
9.0 American Petroleum Institute API Recommended Practice 1111: Design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of
offshore hydrocarbon pipelines
10.0 American Petroleum Institute API Specification 5L: Specification for line
pIpe
11.0 International Standards ISO 13623: Pipeline transportation systems for
Organisation the petroleum and natural gas industries Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK ©Dr. R. K. Jain. Hi herdesi ns Ltd.

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8~ D-l: An Overview of Pipeline Design


Design Buckle Arrestors

Coatings & CP Spec/Data

Trenching spec/Data

Seabed Rectification/Route Modification

Pipcl ay Vessel Data

Input for Spools & Risers

Figure 1.2: FLOW CHART FOR A TYPICAL OFFSHORE PIPELINE

Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK ©Dr. R. K. Jain. Higherdesigns Ltd.

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