Applied

Protective
Relaying

Westinghouse Electric Corporation

Relay-lnstrument Division
Coral Springs, Florida 33065
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapters and Authors Page Chapters and Authors Page

1 - lntroduction and General Philosophies - IJI. Grourid-Fault Protection . 6-3

J. L. Blackburn IV. Backup Protection . 6-4
l. lntroduction . 1-1 V. Overload Protection . 6-7
ll. Classiñcatíon of Relays . 1-1 V l. Overspeed Protection . 6-8
111. Protective Relaying Systems and their Vil. Loss-of-Excitation Protection . 6-8
Design . 1-2
VIII. KLF and KLF-1 Curves . 6-1 O
IV. Applying Protectíve Relays . 1-5
IX. Two-Zone KLF Scheme . 6-11
V. Relays and Application Data . 1-6
X. Protection Against Generator Motoring 6-12
VI. Circuit Breaker Control . 1-8
XI. Field Ground Protection . 6-13
XJ1. Alternating-Current Overvoltage
2 - Technical Tools of the Relay Engineer · Protection for Hydroelectric
Phasors, Polarity, and Symmetrical Generators . 6-14
Components · J. L. Blackburn
XIII. Generator Protection at Reduced
l. lntroduction . 2-1 Frequencies . 6-1 5
IJ. Phasors . 2-1 XIV. Recommended Protection . 6-16
fil. Polarity in Relay Circuits . 2-5 XV. Out-of-Step Protection . 6-16
IV. Faults on Power Systems . 2-8 XVI. Bus Transfer Systems for Station
V. Symmetrical Components . 2-10 Auxiliarles . 6-18
VI. Syrnmetrical Components and Relaying 2-32
7 - Motor Protection · W. A. Elmore
3 - Basic Relay Units. J. V. Kresser and l. Jntroduction . 7-1
J. L. Blackburn 11. Phase-Fault Protection . 7-2
l. Lnlroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 IIJ. Ground-Fault Protection . 7-2
JI. Electromechanical Units . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 IV. Locked-Rotor Protection . 7-4
III. Sequen ce Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 V. Overload Protection . 7-6
IV. Solid-State Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 VI. Thermal Relays . 7-7
V. Basic Logic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 5 VII. COM Relays for Overload Protection .. 7-8
VI. lntegrated Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26 Vlll. Low Voltage Protection . 7-8
IX. Phase-Rotation Protection . 7-9
4 - Protection Against Transients · W. A. El more X. Negative Sequence Voltage Relay . 7-9
l. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 XI. Phase-U n balance Protection . 7-10
íl. Transients Originating in the High XII. Negative Sequen ce Current Relays . 7-11
Voltage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
XIII. Out-of-Step Protection . 7-11
III. Transients Originating in the Low
Voltage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4 XIV. Loss of Excitation . 7-11
IV. Protective Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 XV. Typical Application Combinations . 7-1 1

8 - Transformer Protection · H. J. Li
5 - lnstrument Transformers for Relaying ·
W. A. Elmore
l. Introduction . 8-1
l. lntroduction . 5-1 11. Magnetizing I nrush . 8-2
Il. Currcnt Transformers . 5-1 III. DifferentiaI Relays for Transf'orrner
Protection . 8-4
IIJ. Voltage Transformers and Coupling
Capacitance Voltage Transformcrs ..... 5-11 IV. General Gu.idelines for Transformer
Differential Relaying . 8-8
V. Sample Checks for Applying
6 - Generator Protection · W. A. Elmore Transformer Differential Relays ..... 8-10
l. Introduction . 6-1 VI. Typical Applications of Transformer
JI. Fault Detection . 6-1 Differential Protection . 8-15
/
ii

Chapler~ and Aulhors Page Chapters and Authors Page

VII. 1 ypical Protective Schcmcs for 111. System M ap Response . 12-4

Industrial and Com mcrcial Power rv. Program Application . 12-8
Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19
VIII. Rcmotc Tripping ofTransformer
13 - Protection of Network Systems, Utility/
Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22
Industrial Plant Tics, and Automatic
IX. Protcction of Phase-Angle Regularor Transfer Schemes . J. V. Kresser
and Voltage Regulat ors . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22
l. lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
X. Zig-Zag Transformer Protection . . . . . 8-24 13-1
11. Protection of Nctwork Systems .
XI. Interconnected, Wye-Delta Transformcr
Protcction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25
111. Protection of Utilily/lnclustrial Plant
Ties . 13-10
XI l. Protcction of Shunt Reactors . . . . . . . 8-26
IV. /1.utomatic Transfcr Schernes , 13-J 5

9 - Sration-Bus Protection -11. J. Li

14 - Pilot Wire Protection. R. L. Ray
l. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
J. Introduction . 14-1
11. Linear Couplcr Diffcrenlial Syste m . . . . 9-1
11. IICB and HC'B-1 Pilot Wirc Systerns .. 14-1
111. Multi-Rcstraint Diffcrcntial System . . . 9-7
111. Criteria for Set ting HCB arvd IICB-1
IV. J!igh-Impedance Ditferent ial Systern . . • 9-8 Relays . l4-3
V. Sctting Exarnple for KAB Bus IV. Example of IICB-1 Relay Selting . 14-5
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11
V. Relay Systern Testmg . 14-6
VI. Protccting a Bus that lncludes a 14-6
VI. Pilot Wire Requirernents .
Transforrner Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11
Vil. Protectivc Devices for Pilot Wires . 14-8
VI l. Othcr Bus-Protcctive Schernes . . . . . . . 9-12
VIII. Pilot \Vire Supervision........... 14-10

10 - Line and Circuit Protection · J. V. Kresser

and J. L. Blackburn 15 - Pilo! Channels for Protective Relaying ·
10-2 11. W. Lensner
l. lntroduction .
11. Dislribution Circuir Protcction ...•.. 10-4 l. lntroduction . 15-1
11. Power-line Carrier Channels . 15-2
111. Subtransmission Circuit Protection •.. 10-14
IV. Transmission Circuit Protection . 10-26
111. Carrier Transmiltcrs & Reccivers . 15-22
IV. Audio Tone Channels . 15-30
V. Ground Fault Protection . 10-46
VI. Series Compensated Transmission
V. Microwave Channels . 15-37
Line Protection . . . . . . 10-65
VI l. Protecting Direct-Current Systerns 10-65 16 - Transmission Line Relaying: Pilot Relay-
ing and Tripping Systerns for Circuit
Breakers · R. E. Ray
11 - System Grounding and Proteclive
l. l ntroduction . 16-1
Relaying. J. L. Blackburn and J. V. Krcsser
!l. Classification of Pilot Systerns . 16-1
l. 1 ntroduction . . . . . . . . . 1 1-1
11. Ungroundcd Systerns . 11-2
lll. Dircctional Comparison Pilot
Relaying Systems . 16-2
111. Reactance Grounding 11-4
IV. Phasc Cornparison Pilot Relaying
JV. Resistan ce Grounding . 11-7 Systerns . 16-7
V. Sensitive Ground Relaying . 11-8 V. Additional Security & Protcction
VI. Ground Faull Protcction for Three- Techniques . 16-14
Phasc, Four-Wire Systerns . 1 1-1 1 VI. Selccting a Pilot Transmission Lino
Rclaying System . 16-16
12 - Application and Setting by Computers · VII. Tripping Systcrns for Circuir
V. F. Wilrckcr and R. /1.. Wilson Breakers . 16-23
l. lnlrocluction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 12-1 VIII. Breaker Pote Disagrcernent
Protection . 16-26
11. Pr otcctivc Device Coordination
Prograrn Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2 IX. Direct Transfcr-Trip Systems . 16-27
 üi

Chapters and Authors Page Chapters and Authors

17 - Multi-Terminal, Tapped Lines, and Weak- 11.System Operating Limits . 2 l-3

Feed Protection · W. L. llinman IV. Load-Shedding. . . . . . 21-4
l. In troduction . . . 17-1 V. Frequency Relays. . . . . . . . . 21-4
11. Multí-Terrrunal Line Protectíon . 17-2 VI Formulating a l.oad-Shcddmg
III. Tapped Line Protection . . . . 17-10 Scherne . 21-8
IV. Protecting Wcak-Fced Tcrrmnals 17-12 VII Spccial Considerations for
Industrial Systerns . . . . . . 21-12
18 Backup Protection - W. l . Hinman VIII. RcstoringScrvice. 21-14
l. lnlroduction . . . . . . . . 18-1 IX. Other Frequency Relay Applications 21-15
11. Remole versus Local Backup . 18-2
111. Breaker-l-arlure/Local Backup 22 - Testing and Maintenance of Protective
A pplication . . . 18-4 Relnys - L. J. Schulze
IV. Timing Characteristics . 18-7 l. Introduction . 22-1
V. Brcaker-FailurejLocal Backup Re lay 11. Test lntervals ....•.•..•••..• 22-1
Charactcristics . 18-7 111. Test Conccpts . :n-1
IV. I'est Object ives .....•...•.... 22-1
19 - System Stability and Out-of-Step V. Acccssories for Testing .
Relaying - W. A. Elmore V l. Typical Relay Tests . 22-3
l. Introduction . 19-1
VII. Typical Relay Test Equipment . 22-4
11. Steady-State Stability . 19-2 VJII. T.:st Circuits . . . . . . . . . 22-5
III. Transient Stability . 19-2
IX. Testing Potential Polarized Ground
TV. Relay Quantities During Swings . 19-3 Relays wilh Load Curren! . 22-7
V. Effects of Out-of-Step (OS)
Conditions . 19-5 Appendix I Formulas Commonly used in
Vl. Out-of-Step Relaying . 19-6 Relaying
Vil. Philosophies of Out-of-Step
Relaying . 19-8
Appendix IJ - Electrical Power System Device
Vlll. Types of Out-of-Step Schemes . 19-8 Numbers & Functions
IX. Relays for Out-of-Step Systerns . 19-1 O
X. Selection of an Out-of-Step Relay Bibliography
System . 19-14

20 - Reclosing and Synchronizing -

W. A. Elmore
l. 1 ntroduction . 20-1
JI. Reclosing Systern Considerations . 20-1
111. Considcrations for Application of
lnstantaneous Reclosing . 20-3
IV. Rcclosing Rclays & 1 heir
Operation . 20-4
V. Synchrorusm Check . 20-11
VI. Dead Line or Dead Bus Reclosing 20-12
VII. Sclcctivc lnitiauon . 20-12
VIII. A u toma tic Synchroruzing . 20-13

21 - Load-Shedding and Frequency Relaying -

1. A. Udrcn
l. lntroduction . 21-1
11. Ratc of Frcquency Decline . 21-1
 1-1

Chaptcr I l. INTRODUCTION

Rclays are co mpuct analog networks that are connected

lntroduction and General throughou l the power system Lo dctcct mtolcrable or un-
Philosophies wanteJ condttions within an assigned arca. lhcy are, in ef-
Author. J. L. Blackburn f'ect , a form of active insurance dcsigned to mamtuin a htgh
dcgrec ot service continuity. ami limit equiprnent durnage.
They are "Silcnt Scnunels." Whtle prot ect ive relays \\ ill be
l. lntroduction
thc main ernphasis of this book. ot her types of relays. up-
phcd on a more J1111ited basis or medas pan of a total pro-
tect rve reluy systern will also be covered ,
111. Protective Relaying Syvtcms anti t hcir Dcsign

A De,11•n Criterra
t Reliah11ity 11. CLASSIFICATJON OF RELA YS
2. Specd
3. Selcctivity versus Fcononucs
4. Sun plicity Relays can he dividcd into í'ive Iunctional ca tegoriev:
B. Faciors lnf'luencing Rclay Pcrtorrnunce
C'. Zones of Protecuon a. Protcctive Relays, which detect defectivo lines. dcfect ivc
IV. Applying Protecuve Rclays appuratus. or oihcr dangerous or intolerable conduions.
fhesc relays can euher irnuate or perrrut swilching or
A. Systern C'onfiguration simply providc an alarrn.
B. Existing Syst ern Protection and Proccdures
C. Degree of Protection Require d
D. Fault Study h. Moniloring Relays, which vcrify conditions on l hc power
1 . Máximum Loads. Transformer Data, and Imped- systern or in the protection systern. These relays in-
anees
elude Iault de tectors. alarm uníts, channel-rnonitoring
V. Relays and Application Data rclays, synchronism verification, anti network phasing.
Power syst crn condit ions that do not involve opening
A. Switchboard Relays
circuir breakers during Iaults can he monitored by veri-
B. Rack-Mounted Relays
l'icalion relays.
VI. Circuir Brcaker Control
c. Programming Relays, which evrablish or detect electrical
sequen ces. Programrning relays are used for reclosing
and synclu onizing.

d. Regularing Relays, which are activuted when an operut-

ing parame tct dcviutcs trom predct ermined linuts Rcg·
ulating rclays Iuncuon (hrough supplementary equip-
1111.'nl io rcstore thc quanuty to thc prcscrihe d lirnus.

c. Auxiliary Relays. which operatc 111 response to thc open·

ing 01 closing til the operuung crrcuit to supplcment
unot her re lay or dcvice 1 hese include t imers, contad
multiphe i relayv, vcahng u111h, receivei rcluyx, lock-out
rclays, closing rclays, anti t rrp rclays,
1-2

In addition to thcsc Iuncuonal catcgories, rclays may be diately available lo handle intolerable system conditions
clussified by input, operating principie or structure, :111d and avoid serious outages and damage. Thus, t he true op-
performance charactensnc eruting life ol these relays can be on thc order of ,1 few soc-
onds, eve n lhough they are connectcd in a sysle m Ior many
a. Input
years. In practice, t he rclays opcratc fur more during test-
• ( urrent
ing and maintenance than in response lo adverse service
• Volt age
condiuons,
• Power
• Pressu re
In lhcory, a relay system should be a ble to respond to the
• 1 rcqucncy
iní'init y of abnorrnahucs thal can possihly occur within Lhc
• 1 emperature
power systern. In pracuce, thc rclay cnginecr must urrivc
• rlow
ata comprornise hased on thc tour l'actors that inrluence
• Vibration.
tJIIY rclay applicution:
h Operaung Prmcrple or Sl ructure
• Pcrcentage a. Econormcs initial, operut ing, and rnaintenance.
• Mulu-rest raint
h. Available measures oí fault or trouhles faull magni-
• Product
tudes and location ol curren! transformers and voltage
• Solid statc
l ransforrners.
• l- lect rornecharucal
• Thermal. c. Operaling practices conformity lo vtandards and ac-
c. Performance Characteristic cepted practices: ensuring efficient system operation.
• Distance
d. Previous cxperíence-chistory anti anticipation of t he
• Directionul-overcurrent
typcs of trouhlc hkely lo he encountcrcd wrthin thc sys-
• lnverse time
tem.
• Definite time
• Undervoltage The third and Iourth considerations are perhaps better ex-
• Ground or phase pressed as the "personality of lhe system and lhe relay en-
• lligh- or slow-speed gineer."
• Phase comparison
• Dírectional comparison Since il is sirnply not feasible to designa protectivc rclay-
• Scgregated phase. ing systern capa ble of handling any potenual problem, com-
pro mises must be made. In general, only those problcrns
The ahove classifications ami definitions are hased on the which, according lo past e xperience , are lil,.. cly lo occur,
ANSI Standard C 37.90 (IE:H 313). receive primary considcration. Naturally , thís makes rclay-
1ng somewhat of an arl. Oíl fercnl relay engineers will, us-
mg sound logic, dcsign significanlly tlifforcnt protecllvc
111. PROTECTIVE RELA YING SYSTEMS ANO THEIR syslt!ms f<>r esscntially the sarnc power systcm. As a rcsull,
DESIGN there is liltle standard1¿at1on m protect1ve rclaying. Not
only may lhc typc of relay1ng system v.iry, hul so will lhc
Technicially, most relays are small systems within thern- exlcnt of lhe protect1ve coveragc. roo much protccllon 1s
selvcs, Throughout this book , howevcr, thc tcrrn syst ems almost as hadas too ltlllt!
will he used to indicate a combination of reluys of lile same
or different types. Properly speaking, the prol cctive rclay- Nonethcless. proteclive relaying is a highly specializcd
ing systern includes circuit breakers as well as rclays. Re- tcchnology rcqu1nng an m-depth understand 1ng of the
lays anti circuit brcakers must function together ; thcrc is power system as a whole. The relay engineer must know
little 01 no valué in applying one without the ot hcr. not only thc technology of the abnormal, but have a basic
understanding of ali the system componcnts and their o p-
Protcctive relays or systerns are not required to Iunction eral ion in the system. Relaymg, then, is a "vertical" spe-
d .rrmg normal power systern operation, hul musl be im me- cialily requiring a "horiwntal" viewpoint. This horizont:il,
 1-3

or total systern, concept of relaying includes Iault protec- erat ion in response Lo systern trouble, while securíly is the
tion and the performance of the protection systern during ability of the systern lo avoid misoperatton between faulls.
abnorrnal system operation such as severe overloads, gen- Unfortunutely , these two aspects of reliability tend to
erauon deficiency, out-of-step condittons, and so torlh. Al- countcr one another. mcreasrng security tcnds to decrcase
though these ureas are vilally importunt lo the relay engi- dependabilíty and vice versa. In general, howcver , modcrn
necr, his concern has not always been fully appreciated or rcluying systerns are highly rchable and provrde prucucal
shared by his colleagues. For this reusen, close and con- com prom ise bet ween security and dependubility ,
unucd cornrnunication betwcen the planrung, relay dcsign,
and operation departments is essent ial. Frequenl reviews Protecuve relay systerns must perform correctly undcr ad-
of protcctivc systems should be mandatory, since powcr verse systcm and environrnental conditions. Rcgardlcss o í

systerns grow and operaling conditions change. whether other systerns are momentarily blinded during this
pcriod, thc relays musí perform accurately and dcpcndably.
t\ cornplex relaying systern may resull from poor systern They rnust euher opcrate 111 response to troublc in thcir as-
design or thc econormc need to use fewer circuit breakcrs, signcd arca or block correctly if the trouble is outside thcrr
Considerable savings can be reulized by usmg fewer circuit designated arca.
brcakers anda more complex relay system. Such systems
usually involve design compromises requiring careful evalu- Dependubility can be checked relatively easily in the labora-
atíon if acceptable protection is to be maintained. tory or dunng installation by simulated tests or staged
faults. Securily, on the other hand, is much more d1fficult
111.A. Design Criteria to check. A true test of system security would have to
measure response to an almost infi111te variety of potential
The applicat ion logic of protective relays divides the power transients and counterleit trouble indications in the power
systern into severa) zones, each requiring its own group of system and its environment. A secure system is usually the
relays, resull of a good background in design c.:ombined with ex-
tensive miniature power system testing, and can only be
In ali cases, the five design criteria listed below are common confirmed in the power system itself and its environment.
to any well-designed and efficient protective systern or sys-
tem segment III.A.2. Speed

a. Reliability the ability of the relay or relay systern Lo

Relays that could anltc1pate a fault would be utop1an. But,
perform correctly when needed (dependability) and lo
even if available, they would doubtlessly raise the question
avoid unnecessary operation (securuy).
of whether or nol the fault or trouble rcally rcq uired a lrip-
out. The development of faster relays must always be
b. Speed mínimum fault time and equipment darnage.
rncasured against lhe increased probability ot more un-
wanted or unexplained operations. Time, no matter how
c. Select ivity maxirnum service continuity wilh mínimum
shorl, 1s still the best mcthod of distmguishing bctwcen real
systern disconnection.
and countcrfcit trouble.

d. l conomics maximum protection al rrururnu rn cost.

Applted Lo a n:lay, lugh speed tndicates that the operat1ng
e. Simplicity minimum equiprnent and circuilry. lime usually <loes not exceed 50 ms (3 cycles on a 60-hcrtz
base). Thc term i11sra11tuneous 111d1catcs that no dclay 1s
Since it is impractical to fully satísfy all these design criterio purposely introduced in the operation. In prac.:tic.:e, thc
simultaneously , the necessary comprorruses rnust be cvalu- tcrms h1gh speed and i11sta11ta11ev11s are frequently used in-
ated on the basís of comparative risks. tcrchangea bly.

111.A.1 Reliability 111.A.3. Selcctivity versus Economics

Systern reliability consists of two elernents dependability rngh speed rclays offcr grcater service continuity by reduc-
and sccurity. Dependabilrty ts the certamty of corrcct op- ing faull damagc and hazards to personncl. Thcse rclays
 1-4

generally have a higher mitial cost , which, however, cannot 2. ·¡ ransformers

always be justified. Consequently , both low und high speed
rclays are used Lo protect powcr systerns. Both types have 3. Buses
hígh reliability récords. Récords on protectíve relay opera-
tions consistently show 99.S pcrcenl and bel ter relay per- 4 Transmissíon and distribution circuits
íorrnance.
S Motors,
111.A.4. Simplicity
A ty pical power system and its iones ol protecnon are
As in any other engineerrng discipline, simplicity in a pro- shown in Figure 1-1. The purpose of the protect ive systern
tective rclay systcm rs always the hallmark of good desígn. is to provide the Iirst line of protecnon, withm thc guide-
The simples! rclay systern, howcver, is not always thc most lincs outhned above. Since Iailures do occur, however,
econormcal. As prcviously indicated, major econornies are sorne form of backup protccuon is provided to l rip out thc
possible with a cornplex relay systcm that uses a minimum adjaccnt breakers or zones surrounding the trou ble a rea.
nurnber of circuit breakcrs. Other factors being equal, sim-
phcity of design improves system rehubílity if only be-
cause there are fewer elcrnents thal can malfunclion.

111.B. Factors lníluencing Relay Performance

Relay performance is generally classed as: ( 1) correct ,

(2) no conclusion, or (3) incorrect. lncorrect operation
may be either failure to trip or false tripping. The cause ot
incorrcct operation may be: (1) poor application, (2) incor-
rcct set ungs, (3) a personnel error, or (4) equipmenl mal·
function. Equiprncnt thal can cause an incorrect operat ion
includes current transformers, voltage lransformers, break·
crs, cable and wiring, relays, channels, or station ba tt eries,

lncorrect trrppmg of circuir breakers not associated wilh

the trouble arca is often as disastrous as a failure Lo t np.
Hcnce, special care must be taken in both application and
installat íon to ensure against the possibility ol incorrect
t r ippi ng

Figure 1 · 1 A Typicat System and lts Zones of Protect,on

"No conclusión" is the last resort when no cvidence is avail-
able tora corrector incorrect operation. Quite often t his
is a personuel involvernent. Protection in each zone is overlapped to avoid lhe possibil-
ity of unprotccled oreas Th1s ovcrlap 1s accomplished by
III C. Zones of Protection conncctmg the relays to curren! Lransformers, as shown in
Figure 1 -2. Figure l -2a shows the conncct ions for "dead
The general philosophy ot relay applicat ion is lo divide the tank" breakc1s, and rigure l-2b for the "hve tank" breals-
power systern mto protccuve zoncs that can be protcctcd ers commonly used w1th l·JIV circu1ts Any troublc in lhe
adequately wuh thc minimum arnount ol thc systcm dis- small arca bctween the curren! transtormers will operate
connect cd. Thc power system 1s divided mio protecttve both Zone A and Zone B rclays and trip all brcakcrs m lhe
zones tor: lwo 1oncs. In Hgure 1 -2a, lhis small arca represents lhe
breaker and, in Figure 1-::?b, thc cum:nt transtormer, which
1. Generators mayor may not be parl of lhe breaker.
 1-5

IV.A. System Configuration

~---------• CT b' ZllneB

CtrCIII B<eoker Systern configuration is rcprescnted by a single line dia-

grarn sbowíng the area of the system involved in the pro-
tecí ion problcm. This diagram should show in sorne dclail
the location of the breakers, the bus arrangements, the taps
CT fo, ZoneA 4-----------~ on lines and their capacrty , the location and siz e ol thc gen-
erution. the location, síze and connections of the power
a) Dead Tank Breaker and Breakers W1th Separata Currenl
1 ranstormers on Both S,des of Breakers trunsformcrs and systcm írequency

C,rcu,t Breoker
Transíorrner connections are particularly irnportunt For
• ZoreB ground relaymg, the location ol the ground sources must
also be known.

.
CT f()( Zone B
IV.B. Existing System Protection and Procedur es

b) l1v!' Tank and Breakers W11h Separare Current Transformcrs Thc cxrst ing prot cctrve cquiprnent and the rcasons Ior the
on One s.oe Only
desired changets) should be outlined Ditficulues with thc
Figure 1 ·2 The Principie of Overlapping Protection Around a prescnt relaying systern are a valuablc guidc to im prove
Circuit Breaker ments. New installations should be so specífied. As new re-
(
lay systerns will often be required to opera te with or utilize
parts of the exisling relaying, details on these existing sys-
IV. APPL YING PROTECTIVE RELA YS terns are important.

The Iirst step in apply ing protecuvc relays is to state the Whcrcver possible , changes m systern protection should
protectlon problern accurately , Although developing a conform with existing operat ing procedures and practices,
clear, accurate statement of the problem can often be thc Exceptions to standard procedures tend to increase the
mosl difficult par!, the lime spent will pay dividends par- risk of personnel error and may disrupt the etficient opera-
licularly when assistance from others is desired. lnforma- tion of lhe systern. Anticipated systcrn expansio ns can also
tion on the following associated or supporting arcas is nec- grcatly influcnce the choice of protect ion.
ess:iry.
IV.C. Degree of Protection Required
a. System configuralion
f
To determine the degree ol protecuon required , the general
b. l:.xisting systcms protcction and ils tlifticullies type of pro tecuon being considered should be outlined. lo·
gether with the systern condiuons or operaung provcdures
c. Existing operating procetlures and practices; possiblc and pracuccs lhal will intluence the final choice. These
future expansions dala will provide answers to the t ollow ing typc, ot ques-
uons. Is pilot , high-speed , rnedrum-, or slow-speed reluying
d. l)cgree ot prolcclion rcquirctl rcquircd? Is sunult aneous tnpping ol ali breakcrs ola
( transmission linc desired? Is instanlaneous reclosing
e. Faull stutly nccdcd?

t. Max1mum load, curren! transtormcr rat1os IV.O. Fault Study

g Yoltage lransformcr locat1ons, connections, and ralios An adequatc fault study is nccessary m almost ali relay ap-
plications. Three-phase faults , hne-t o-ground Iaults, and
h lmpcdan1..e of the lines antl transformcrs. lme-end faults should ali be includcd in che study. Lme-end
1-6

Iault " data die important in cuses whcrc onc brcaker muy
opérate ahead of another. For ground-relaymg, the fault
study should include zero sequence voltage and negative
sequcnce currents und voltages. These quantities are casily
obtained during the course of a fault study and are oftcn
extremely useful rn solving a díf'Iicult relaying problem
IV.E. Maxlmum Loads, Transformer Data, und lmpedonccs
Máximum louds, current and potenhal transformer connec-
tions, ralios and locauons are required Cor proper relay ap-
plicallun. Muximum loads should be consisten! wllh the
faull data, and should be bascd on the sume systern condi
tions. Líne and lransformer irnpedances should also be
known. Phase sequence should be specrned 11 three-line
connection drawings are lnvolved.
can be convenienlly removed fnr testing and mnintenance.
The case rs usually mounted llush and is permanently
wired to the mput and control circuits. In the Westing-
house Flcxitest cuse, the electrical connections are made
through srnall, Iront-accessíblc, knife-blade switches. A
typical switchboard relay is shown 111 ¡..1gure 1-3, us cor-
responding internnl schernatic is shown 111 figure 1-4.
Whilc the example shown is an clcctromechanical relay, u
numbcr of sctidstate relays are in the Flexitest case tor
switchboard mountmg.

Obvious'y, not ali the above data are necessary In every ap-
plication. lt is desirable, however, to at least revíew the
systern with respect to the above points and, wherever ap-
plicable to compile necessary data.

In any event, no amount of data can ensure u successful

relay application unless the protectlon problems are first
defined In fact, the application problern is essentially
solved ,,., hen the available measures (handles) for distin-
guishing between tolerable and intolerable condilions can
be idenlified and specified.

V. RELAYS ANO APPLICATION DATA Figure 1-3: A Typicel Switchboerd Type Reley !Th• CR Oirectlonel
Time Overcurrent Reley !87) In The Flexlteat Ca1e.)

Connected to the power system through the current and

The important des1gnations m the ac schcmatic for the re·
voltagc transformers, protecnve relays are wircd into the
luy, i;uch a~ thal &hown in [,lyurc 1-5, are:
control circuir to trlp the proper circuil breukers. ln the
Iollowmg discussion, typical connectíons for relays
a. !'hase rotation
mounted on conventional switchboards and Ior rack·
mountcd solíd-statc rcluys will be used to illustrate the
b. Tnpp1ng d1rcclion
standard application pructices and techniques.

c. Curren! and voltage translormer polarities

V.A. Switchboard Relays

d. Relay polarily and terminal numbers

Most relays are supphed in a rectangular cuse whích is per-
manently mounted on u switch board located in the station
e. Phasor diagram.
control house. fhe relay chassis slídes into the case and

Ali lhese designalions are required for a dirccllonal reluy:

-The llne-cnd fault is the three-phnse or llne-to-ground fault on the m other applications, some may not apply ln accordance
line side of a breaker, with that breaker open Aftrr the near
breaker clears, fault current is redistrtbuted through rhe remete w1th convention, ali relay contacts are shown in the posl·
breaker. tion they assume when the relay is deencrgized.
 1·7

A typical control circuir is shown in Figure 1-6. Three

phase rclays und one ground relay are used to protect a cir-
lnd,cohnc¡
r--'!---------------L-_..:~Con10c10r Sw,rch
cuit , but any one could trip the associatcd circuir breaker

oQco . . ... - lnduct,onUn,1

lo isolate the trouble or fault area. A station battcry,
either 125 Vdc, or 250 Vdc, is commonly used for t rippmg.
Lowcr voltage bat teries are not rccommendcd lor tripping
,---"T""---+--...L..- Direct,onot Unil service.

Phosa Phose Phose

Pos,1,ve o b e

10 10 10 10
...-CoseTes,
,•c;:;,i;=--....c...=...1.._ Choss,s Operored Sw,tch
Sharting Switch
_......._ Term,not

Note Front View

W1th Reiauve lnstantaneousPolarity as Shown The DirectionAI unu
Contacts Clase

Figure 1-4: Typical Interna! Schematic for a Switchboard Mounted

Relay. (The Circuit Shown is for The CR Directional
Time Dvercurrent Relay of Figure 1·3.J

Cose Tests.. ,,ch CurrentSho,r,ngType

PlloseR?!ot1ono,b,c
0-0---------....:....:--{----.----,,------~o

Re,oy Terl"'I no i',lumber

/ V.T ~ority Morks

@)
r
ano Polority

' 9t
o
b
Nego11ve

Figure 1-6: Typical De Schematic for a Switchboard Mounted

e Relay. (The Connections are for Three Phase Type CR
7 and One CRC Ground Directional Time Overcurrent
o Relays of Figure 1-3 Applied to Trip a Circuit Breaker.)
6+ 67 CR 7 b
6+ 67-CR 7
e In small stations where a battery cannot be justrfied , trip-
Phose
ping energy is obtained from a capacitor lrip device. Tlus
dcvicc is sirnply a capacitor charged , through a rcctifrer, by

F'= ~""
Power Transformar
Bank Neutral the ac line voltage. When the relay contacts close, the en-
o b e crgy 111 thc capacitor is sufticient to trip the breakcr. Line
Phasors for 100~
P F Curren! in "v CRC ,
+:)( °----=.] voltage cannot be used directly smce, of course , rt may not
Tr,ppong Direction
be available during fault conduions.
Vob
'\ :ºAf'Ho
PHc ...,~vbc Altcrnalively, the senes trip method ~an be used in stutions
not equipped with a stanon battcry (Figure 1-7). Whcn lhc
lc}(S¡b
¡ PHb
rnagnitude of the fault currenl ex ceeds the relay
current , the fault current is diverted through thc
pickup
tnp coil
Veo
Figure 1 6· Typical Ac Schematic for a Swítchboard Mounted by thc open contact CS. The interna! schematic of lhis
Relay. (The Connections are for The CR Phase and CRC Co-type relay is shown m Figure 1-8. Note that three sep-
Ground Directional Time Overcurrent Relay of
Figure 1-3.J arate ac-type trip coils are required
1-8

V.B. Rack·MQ\lnted Relªys

b~+-...---------------------b Rack mountíng is normally used for solid-state relays, in

~·
which many small cornponents are mounted on printed
circuit boards (Figure 1·9). Srnce these relays lnvolve more
e complex and sophisticated circuitry, different levels of in·
~2 f Pt-ose o
íormation are required to understand their operation.
logic diagram will provide the understanding ot lhe basic
A

circuitry necessary Ior applying solid-state relays. Figure

}-,
1-10 is a logre diagrarn for the SBFU solid-state relay shown
in Figure 1·9 Figure 1·10 also íncludes the externa! de
schernatic, makíng this figure the rough equivalenl ol Fi&·
ure 1-6. Toe ac circutts are shown in Figure J .J 1, which is

}-, the equivalent of Figure l·S. Each printed circuit board

module lia~ a logic Jia~1a1ü (Fi~úte1·12a), a complete
schematic (Figure l-l 2b), anda localion diagrarn (Figure
Opero1,011 1-13).
1nd,co1or

a b e VI. CIRCUIT BREAKER CONTROL

Figure 1-7: A Typical Series Trip Circui1 Externa! Oiagram. (The

Complete tripping and closing circuits for circuit breakers
ConnQ(;tion~ are Sh9wn f9r ThreQ TYPQCQ Circalit are cornplex. A typical circuit diag.ram is shown in Figure
Opening Time Overcurrent Relays.)
1-14. In this diagrarn, the protective relay circuits such as
that shown in Figure l ·6 are abbreviated to a single contact
maiked "Protective Relays." While the trip círcuits must
be energized trom a source available during a fault (usually
the station battery), the closing circuits may be operated
---------------Opero•,on lnc:t,colO< on ac. Such breakers have control circuits similar to those
shown in Figure 1-14, except that the 52X, 52Y, and 52CC
circuits are arranged for ac operation.

,---

II
l
0
o
o J o o o o
o o o o

0 0
o
ChOssis()pero,ed
Shor1,nqs... ,1ch
2
8 © Term,nol

Front V1ew

Note·
t enmoals 1 and 8 are lO be Jumped at Rclay Case

Figure 1·8: lnternal Schematic of The CO Circuit Opening T,me Figure 1-9. A Typical Rack Type Relay. (The SBFU Statíc Circuit
Overcurrent Relay. Breaker Fa,lure Relay (621.
 1-9

A><,•,~---+---dcSLClQly
dcT,,p
Su,c¡e Copoct10f S..,pp1y

JI

1 8

6 1
.......--~-+<
Con be Thyr,ctor
osonOphon 1
11
Chon,, Power Supply Module

~r:
1
GrOúnO ~ - --+ ;i;\l)IIS To letm<nol 4
Ali C,rcu,1 Boords 1
A"·c¡o, ,e, '":o "Ttfm.nCJ 1
AII Crcu1r Boaros
1
L_ --- -- - m
~¡cl3
3
~----+<•~------< lc:2 B
L__ - __J

Te,'m1nol
BIOc• ,-----------TP
Ground Overcurrent Module

1{ iq!i.::---1
: ~ ,______, ?p ,....j
L_ _L_~
Bloc--¡-Cl
! 1 1
~
!.'
~
L Qj
~
g
!
u
o
i{
i{ 1
1

1
'-------

Note:
*A Relay Output Module can be Substrtuted
to Prov,de a Control Output lor Tr,pp,ng

Figure 1-10· A Typical Log1c Diagram and Externa! de Schematic for a Solid State Relay. (The Connections are for The
SBFU Static Breaker Failure Relay of Figure 1-9.)
1-10

r ----¡.¡,
1
1
1
1

1
R4 R!>
1
C2
1,
Z2
Movn1edonF,on1 Bloc•
Secondoty I "'"1(!1of Modu>e I TP
OI Bockup la i-~~-+~-+--+-----+-~+-~+-~
Retoys
SI

R2

J R3
10
52·1 ~Re1oy Tem11no1 Btock
9
______________ ...J
L-----
b) Module Board Schematac

Capac.,101 •s1v1, R~qu,,ed •Aeference I

Bu-; CI C2 2
Reloys 1
C3
- 1

O•ode
01 10 07 7
~0801_!>_ 2
._
o b e ~ Po1en110~

1ionsm,ssool1ne (01Trons!ormerl
.._ 51
Rl3 - 1
1

Figure 1-11. Typicel Ac Schemetic for e Reck Type Reley. (The Rl2 1
Connections ere for The SBFU Stetic Circuit Breaker
Fellure Relay of Figure 1-9.)
.._
....
Resistor
R1 -- 1
,._ R2 R3
- 2
R11 1
,_ R4
- 1

¡_
Rf> RS R7
RB
- 2
1

- R9
R10 - 1
1
.__
- - --
1 r1n11s.1or
01 1
i--
02 ·- 1

Zenet 01ode
Z1 1
22 1

- ,_ -
'- -
• Style •nd Aeterence Column,
Omitted in Thi1 Typteal Eaample

Figure 1·12: Typ1cel Logic Diagram and Internet Schemetic of a

Log1c Module (Th1s 1s The Ground Overcurrent
Module for The SBFU Relay of Figure 1 ·9.J
 1-11

Prolechve Reloys

IOIT

ToReclos,ng
Circu,ts
When Used 52C ~520

l52T

520 52b

Figure 1-13: Typical Module Component Location Diagram. (Thís

is for The Ground Overcurrent
1-12.)
Module of Figure Device Number Chart
101 · Manual Control Switch (T) Trip, (C) Close.
52 · Circuit Breaker (C) Close. (T) Trtp, (X) Aux,hary,
(Y) Anti-Pump Auxiliary. (LC) Latch Check
R · Red lnd,cating Lamp
G · Green lndicat,ng Lamp

Figure 1-14: A Typical Control Circuit Schematic for a Circuit

Breaker Showing The Tripping and Closing Circuits.
 2-1

Chapter 2 l. INTRODUCTION

In addition to a general knowledge of electrical power sys-

Technical Tools of the Relay
tems, the relay engineer must have a good working under-
Engineer: Phasors, Polarity,
and Syrnmetrical Cornponents standing of phasors, polarity, and symrnetrical cornponents,
including voltage and current phasors during fault condi-
Author: J. L. Blackburn tions. These technical tools are uscd for application, anal-
ysís, check ing, and testing of protective relays and relay
l. lntroduction systerns.

11. Phasors

A. Circuit Diagram Notation for Current and Flux 11. PHASORS

B. Circuit Diagrarn Notation for Voltage
C. Phasor Notation A phasor is a cornplex number used lo represen! e\ectrical
l. Multiplication Law
2. División Law quantities. Originally called vectors, the quantities were
3. Powers of Complex Numbers renamed to avoid confusión with space vectors. Neverthe-
D. Phasor Diagram Notation less, the tcrrn vectors is still used synonymously with
E. Three-Phase Systerns
F. Phase Rotation versus Phasor Rotation phasors in relaying and power systern engineering.

111. Polarity in Relay Circuits
A. Polarity of Transformers
B. Polarity of Protective Relays
C. Characteristics of Directional Relays
1. Cylinder-Type Directional Unit
2. Ground Directional Unit
3. Watt-Type Directional Unit
D. Connections of Directional Units to Three-Phase
Power Systems
IV. Faults on Power Systerns
A. Fault Types and Causes
B. Characteristics of Faults
1. Fault Angles
2. Systern Grounding
3. Fault Resistance
4. Distortion of Phases during Faults
V. Symmetrical Cornponents
A. Basic Concepts
8. Sequences in a Three-Phase Power System
C. Sequence lmpedances
1. Synchronous Machinery
2. Transforrners
3. Transmission Lines
D. Sequence Networks
E. Sequence Network Connections and Voltages
F. Network Connections for Fault and General Unbal-
anees
G. Sequence Network Reduction
H. Exarnple of Fault Calculation on a Loop-Type
Power System
I. Phase Shifts through Transformer Banks
J. Fault Evaluations
VI. Symrnetrical Components and Relaying
In relaying, phasors and phasor diagrarns are used both to
aid in applying and connecting relays and for analysis of re-
lay operations after faults.
Phasor diagrarns rnust be accompanied by a circuit diagram.
lf not, then such a circuir diagram must be obvious or as-
sumed in order to interpret the phasor diagram. The phasor
diagram shows only the magnitude and relative phase angle
of the currents and voltages, while the circuit diagram shows
only the location, direction, and polarity of the currents
and voltages. These distinctions are important. Confusion
generally results when the circuit diagrarn is omitted, or
when the two diagrams are combined.
There are several systcms and many variations of phasor
notation in use. The systern outlined below is used in ali
Westinghouse rclay diagrams.
11.A. Circuit Diagram Notation for Current and Flux
The reference direction for the current or flux can be lndi-
cated by: ( 1) an identified directional arrow in the circuit
diagrarn, as shown in Figure 2-1; or (2) the double subscript
method, such as lab' defined as the current flowing from
terminal "a" to terminal "b," as in Figure 2-2.
In ali cases, the clirectional arrow or the clouble subscript
indicares the actual or assumed direction of curren! (or
flux) flow through the circuit during the positive half-cycle
of the ac wave.
2-2
+I"'4'----V1---~
.. 1
Figure 2·1: Reference Circuit Oiagram lllustrating Single
Subscript Notation.
l :
icd d As with ali vector quantities, phasors must be referred to
e
o
lob
e
j
f
b
!+--vcd=Ye1-----l
Figure 2-2: Reference Circuit Diagram lllustrating Doubte
Subscript Notation. (Current Arrows Not Required but
are Usually Shown in Practica.)
11.B. Circuit Diagram Notation for Voltage
The relative polarity of an ac voltage may be shown in the
circuit diagram by: ( 1) a + mark at onc end of the locating
arrow (Figure 2-1) or (2) the double subscript notation
(Figure 2-2). In either case, the meaning of the notation
must be clearly understood. Failure to properly define
notation is the basis for much confusion among students
and engineers,
The notation used in this text is defined as follows:
a. Tbe letter "V" or "E" is used to designate voltages,
without assigning separate significance to either. "V"
is preferred. For sirnplicity , only voltage drops are used.
In this sense, a generator rise is considered a negative
drop.
b. lf Jocating arrows are used in the circuit diagram with a
a single subscript notation, the + mark at one end indi-
ca tes the terminal of actual or assumed positive potential
relative to the other in the half-cycle.
c. lf double subscript notation is used, the order of the
subscripts indicates the actual or assumed direction of
the voltage drop when the voltage is in the positive half-
cycle.
Thus, the voltage between terminals a and b may be writ-
ten as either Vab or Eab· Voltage Vab or Eab is positive if
terminal a is at a higher potential than terminal b when the
ac wave is in the positive half-cycle. During the negative
half-cycle of the ac wave, Vab or Eab is negative, and the
actual drop for that half-cycle is from terminal b to termi-
nal a.
11.C. Phasor Notation
sorne reference frame. The most usual reference frame con·
sists of the axis of real quantities (x) and the axis of imagi-
nary quantities (y), as shown in Figure 2-3. The axes are
fixed in the plane, and the phasors rotate, since they are
sinusoidal quantities. (The convention for positive rotation
is counterclockwise.) The phasor diagram therefore repre-
sents the various phasors at any given common instant of
time.
Aosc1sso
Y1+-----o------.i p" a = cCos e
b - cSon0
Phoso,
RO!Ol1on
o
Cartcsra n Coordonates
· 9 Measured Counter-ctockwrse is Posiuve
Figure 2-3· Reference Axis and Nomenctature for Phasors.
Theorctically , the length of a phasor is proportional to its
maximum value, with its projections on the real and imagi-
nary axes representing its real and imaginary components
at that instant. By arbitrary convention, however, the
phasor diagram is constructed on che b_asis of rms valúes,
which are used much more frequently than maximum val-
ues. The phasor diagram indicares angular relationships
under the chosen conditions, normal or abnormal.
For reference and revíew, the various forms, for represen ta-
l ion of point P in Figure 2-3 are as follows:
 2-3

Rectan- Expo- E
gular
Forrn
Complex
Form
nential
Form
Polar
Form
Phasor
Form
I ¡o¡ -02 (2-8)

a+ jb = c(Cos O+ j Sin 8) = e ejO =e~= e (2-1) II.C.3. Powers of Complex Numbers

a-jb =c(CosO-jSinO)=cEjO =ct-8º= e (2-2)
(2-9)
Where
a = real valué Thus, for i2 equals í2ei20,
b = imaginary value
e = modulus or absolute value (rnagnítude) (2-10)
O = argument or amplitude (relative position)

lt é is a phasor, then e is its conjugare. Thus, if The product of a phasor times its conjugate is.

é =a+ jb
e= a - jb

The absolute value of the phasor is lcl or c.

(2-11)
e= Ja2 + b2 (2-3)

Other reference axes used frequenUy are shown in Figure

By adding Equations (2-1) and (2-2),
2-4. Their application will be covered in la ter chapters.

a= l /2 (é + e) (2-4)

By subtracting Equations (2-1) and (2-2), +X

jb = 112 cé - e) (2-5)

11.C.1. MuJtiplication Law

The absolute value of a phasor product is the product of -X -O

the absolute values of its components, and the argurnent is lmpedance Phasors Power Phasors
the sum of the component arguments: Note: Note:
R = Resistance P = RealPower (Watts)
X : Reactance O = React,vePower (Vars)

Figure 2-4· Other Reference Axes for Phasors Used in Relaying

or and Power Systems.

II.D. Phasor Diagram Notation

(2-7)
In Figure 2-5, the phasors ali origina te from a common
origin. This method is preferred. In an alternate method,
U.C.2. División Law
shown in Figure 2-6, the voltage phasors are moved away
from a common origin to illustrate the phasor addition of
The división law is the inverse of multiplication:
voltages in series (closed system). While this diagrarn nota-
tion can be useful, it is not generally recommended sínce it
often prometes confusion by combining lhe circuil and
phasor diagrams.
2-4

cornmon in the United States, n and g coincide during nor-

mal symmetrical or balanccd operation. During conditions
o
of unbalanced loads and unbalanced faults, the neutral and

Circuit Oiagram
ground are different, usually quite significan ti y.

Vtx:

l'l,05()1
/ Genero 10,
o
Ro101,on
e
o

n Neul•OI

PhHOr Oiegrem
G<ound
Figure 2·6 Open Type Phasor Oiagram for The Basic Elements
(Resi~tor. Reactor 11nd Capacitor) Connected in Series.
a) C1rcu11 D,agram

In e Symmetrical or
Balanced Syatem
Vab Van Vbn
Vbc Vbn Ven
Vea Ven Van

Figure 2,6 Alternate Closed Type Phasor D,agrem for The Boslc
Corcuit of Figure 2 6

11.1:.. Three-Phase Systerns

b) Phasor D,ngram (Open svstem)

Notation for three-phase systcrns varíes considcrably. In

Figure 2·7 Designation of The Voltages and Currents ,n o Three
thc United Sta tes, the phases are labeled a, b, e, or A, B, C, Phase Power System
or 1, 2, 3. In other countries, the corresponding phasc
designauon of r , s. t is frcquently used.

The lctter designations are preferre d and uscd hcrc lo avoid

possible confusión with syrnmetncal components notation.
A ty pical thrcc-phase system, with its separa te circuir and
phasor diagrams, is shown 111 Figure 2-7. The alterna le
closed systcm phasor dragrarn is shown in Figure 2-8. With
this type of diagram, one iends to label the three corncrs
of the triangle a, b, and c-thereby combining thc circuit
and phasor diagrams. The resulting confusion is apparcnt
Figure 2-8. Alternate Closed System Phasor Oiagram for The
when one notes that, with a al the top comer and b at thc Three Phase Power System of Figure 2·7.
lower r ight córner, the voltage drop from a to b would indi-
ca te the opposite arrow from that shown on Vab
Ground impedance (Rg or RL) resulung in a rise in station
Neutral (n) and ground (g), whilc often used interchange- ground potential can be imporrant factors in relaying. This
ably , are not the same. In the solidly grounded systems will be considered in la ter chapters
 2·5

According to ANSI Standard C42.IOO, "the neutral point

of a system is that point which has the same potential as
--lp -1p

•
.o
the point of junction of a group (3 for three-phase) of
equal non-reactive resístances if connected at their free
ends to the appropriate main terrninals or lines of the sys-
tem." This neutral point should not be grounded when de·
terming the neutral.
Current Transformer L,near Coupler

ll.F. Pilase Rotation versus Phasor Rotation

Phase rotation or, preferably, phase sequence is the order in
which successive phase phasors reach their positive rnaxi-
murn valúes. Phasor rotation is, by internalíonal convén-
non, counterclockwise in direction. Practically , then, phase
rotation or sequence is the order in which the phusors pass
a fixed point
Ali standard relay diagrams are for phase rotation a, b, c.
lt is not uncommon for power systems to have one or more
voltagc levcls with a, e, b rotation; then specific diagrams
must be made accordingly. The connection can be changed
from one rotation to the other by completcly m terchang-
ing b ande for the equrprnent and connections.
111. POLARITY IN RELA Y CIRCUITS
111.A. Polarity of Transformcrs
Figure 2·10: Polarity end Circuit Oiegrem for Conventionel
Representation of Current end Linear Coupler
Trensformer
Thc polarity marks X or • indicare.
a. The current flowing out at thc polarity-rnarkcd terminal
on the secondary side is substantially in phase wilh the
currcnt flowing in at the polanty marked terminal on
ihe primary side.
b. The voltage drop from the polarity-marked to the non-
polarity-markcd terrninals on the pnmary side is sub·
stantially in phasc with the voltage drop from the
polarity-marked to the non-polanty-markcd tcrminals
on the secondary side.
The cxpression "substantially in phase" allows for the small
phase angle error.

The polarity mdications shown in Figures 2-9 and 2-1 O ap- 111.B. Polarity of Protective Rclays
ply for both current and potential transformers, or for any
type of transformer with either subtractive or additive po- Polarity is always associated with dlrectional-type relay
larity, units, such as those indicating the direction of powcr flow.
Othcr protective relays, such as distance typcs, may also
have polarity markings associated with their opcration. Re-
lay polarity is indicated on the schernatic or wiring día-
+ +
grams by a smalJ + mark above ornear the terminal sym-
--+lp bol or relay winding, together with a note indicating its
meaning. Two such marks are necessary: one mark alone
Pnmory Secondary
has no meaning.
a) Subtract,ve Polanty
Typical polarity markings for a directional unit are shown
in Figure 2-11. In this example, the markings indicate thal
-+lp the relay will close its contacts when the voltage drop frorn
Secondory polarity to non-polarity in the voltage coil has a specified
Pnmory
-+Is relatíon with the current Oow from polarity to non-polarity
in the current coil. Of course, regardless of polarity, the
b) Add111ve Polanty
levels rnust be above the relay pickup quantlties for the re·
Figure 2,9: Polarity and Circuit Oiagram for Trensformers. lay to operate.
2-6

111.C.2. Ground Directional Unit

As shown in Figure 2-13, the ground directional unit usu-

W1th Relatove lnstantaneousPolantv as Shown,
The Contacts Close
Figure 2·11 Polarity Markings for Protective Relays.
111.C. Characteristics of Directional Relays
ally has a characteristic of maximum torque when J flow-
mg from polarity to non-polarity lags V drop from polarity
to non-polarity by 60°. While this characteristic rnay be
inherent in the unit's design, an auxiliary phase shiftcr is
generally requíred. The phase shifter rs self-contained in
thc relay case and rs not shown in the simplified círcuit día-
gram.

Directional uníts" can conveniently serve to illustrate the

practica! application of phasors and polarity. In addition
lo polarity , these units have a pitase angle characteristlc
which must be understood if they are to be properly con·
nected lo the power systern, The characteristics discussed
below are among the most common.

111.C. l. Cylinder-Typc Directional Unit Zero To,que L•ne

As shown in Figure 2-12, the cylinder-type unit has maxi-

mum torque when I flowing from polarity to non-polarity Figure 2,13 Phase Angle Characteristics of a Ground Dlrectional
Relay Unit
leads V drop from polaríty to non-polanty by 30°. The re·
lay minimum pickup values are normally specified at this
maximum torque angle, As current lpq lags or leads this 111.C.3. Watt-Type Directional Unit
maximum torque position, more current is requircd (at a
constan! voltage) to produce the sarne torque. 1 heoreti- Toe characterístic of the watt-type unit is as shown in Fig-
cally, at 120° lead or 60°lag, no torque results for any cur- ure 2-14.
rent magnitude. In practice, however, this zero torque
line is a zone of no operation and nota thin line through
the origin, as commonly drawn Mox,mom -
TorquoLone
V,s
lpq

Contoc1
Closmg Zone Cc,t,toc·
1
Ze,o Torque une
Open,ng Zone

Figure 2-14 Phase Anglo Characteristics of a Watt Type

Directional Relay Unit.

Figure 2-12: Phase Angla Characteristics of The Cyhnder Type

Directional Relay Unit.
*Except Ior reverse power protectlon, direcuonal relays are always
uscd with Iault-scnsing units. such as overcurrent types. TI1e pri-
mary function of lhe directional unit is to limit relay operation to a
specif'ied dircction. lhese highly scnsitivc umts opérate on load m
the tripping direction.
111.D. Connections of Directional Units to Three-Phase
Power Systems
The relay unír's individual characteristic, as discussed so
far, is the characteristíc that would be measured on a single-
phase test. Faults on three-phase power systems can, how-
ever, produce various relations between the voltages and cur-
rents. To ensure correct relay operation, it is necessary to
select the proper quantities to apply to the directional
units. For all faults in the operating zone of the relay, the
fault current and voltage should produce closing torque as
close to maximum as possible. Fault current generally lags
its unity power factor position by between 20° to 85°, de-
pending on the system voltage and characteristics.
The five typcs of directional element connections (Figure
2-15) have been u sed for man y years. To make these three-
phase systern connections, the proper system quantities are
selected to give the desired máximum torque position, con-
sidering the phase angle characteristic of the directional
unit. A study of these connections reveals that none is per-
fect. Ali will provlde incorrect operation under sorne fault
conditions. These conditions are, moreover, not exactly
the sarne for each connection. Fortunately, the probability
of such fault conditions occurring in most power systems is
usually very low.
The standard 90° connection is the one best suited to
power systems. Here, the system quantities applied to the
relay are 90º apart at unity power factor, balanced current.
With this connection, maxímurn torque can occur at various
angles, depending on relay design, as in connections 4 and
5. The 90°-60º connection is the Westinghouse standard
for phase relays. The 90° angle is that between the unity
power factor current and the voltage, as applied to the re-
lay. The 60° angle indica tes the current lag from unity
power factor to provide máximum torque.
Figure 2-16 is a composite circuit diagram illustrating the
phase-a connections for these five connections which have
been used over the years together with the connections for
a ground directional relay. The phasor diagram is shown in
Figure 2-1 Sa for the phase relays and in Figure 2-1 7 for the
ground relay.
The 90º-60° and Lhe ground relay connections are thc
standard Westinghouse connections.

Phose Rotor,on c.b,c

o
b
e

Vol roge
Tronsformers

o
b
e
#1 ,n #3
30º Delta Stor
a) Available Ouantities Conn. 60° 60°
e Conn. Conn.
2
Conneetion Unit Phase A Phase B Phase e Maximum
Type 1 V 1 V 1 V Torque When i
c5
1 30º Watt la Vae lb Vba le Veb l lags 30° O'

.s'
a.
2 60º· l::. Watt la·lb Vae lb·le Vba le·la Veb l lags 60° a.

3 60º·).. Watt la ·Ve lb ·Va le ·Vb I lags 60º ¡!!... + 1 + 1 +I + I

4 90º·45º Watt* la Vbe lb Vea le Vab I lags 45° r; 1-; 3Io

5 90º·60º Cylinder la Vbe lb Vea le Vab I lags 60º
Maximum Torgue When ··1" Lags its 1 .O p.f. Position by
The Angle lndicated.

Note: O+) Connections and Phasor Diagrams for Phase "a" are·

Io 310

~ abe
-10 L,ne

b) Available Connections Figure 2-16: Directional Unit Connections (Phase "a" Only) for
Five Types of Connections plus The Ground
Figure 2-15: Direetional Element Connections. Directional Relay Connections.
2-8

Relays must operare for severa} types of faults:

• Three-phase (a-b-c, a-b-c-g)

• Phase-to-phase (a-b, b-c, e-a)

• Two-phasc-to-ground (a-b-g, b-c-g, c-a-g)

Figure 2-17 Pheaor D,agram for The Ground Directional Relay
Connectoon Shown in Figure 216 ( Phue "a"·to· • Phase-to-ground (a-g, b-g, c-g).
Ground Fault is Assumed on • Solidly Grounded
Syateml
Unless preceded by or caused by a fault, open circuits on
power systems occur infrequently Consequently , very fcw
relay systcrns are designcd specifically to provrde open-
IV. FAULTS ON POWCR SYSTEMS circuir protcction. One exception is in the lower voltage
arcas, whcre a fuse can be open.
A lault-proof power systcm is neithcr practica! nor econom-
ical, Modero power systems, constructed with as h1gh an Simultaneous faults in two parts of the system are gcnerally
insulation lcvel as practícal. have suíficient ílexibility so unpossible to relay propcrly under ali conditíons lf both
that one or more components may be out of servicc with simultaneous Iaults are in the relays' operahng tone, at
minimum interruption of service. In addition to insulation least one set of relays is likely to operate, with subsequent
Iuilure , faults can result from electrical, mechanical, and sequential operation of other relays seeing the faults.
thcrmal Iailure or from any cornbination of failures. Where Iaults appear both intemal and externa! sirnultane-
ously , the relays have difficulty determming whether to
IV.A. Fault Types and Causes trip or not Fortunately , sirnultaneous faults do not hap-
pcn very often and are not a rnajor cause of mcorrect op-
I o ensure adequate protection, the conditions existing on a crations
systcm dunng faults must be clearly understood. These ab-
normal conditions provide the discriminating rneans for re-
IV .B. Characteristics of Faults
lay operation The major types and causes of Iailures are
listcd in Table 2-1.
IV.8.1. Fault Angles
Table 2-1
The power tuctor, or ungle of the fault current , rs deter-
MaJor Types and Causes of FaiJures mined for phase faults by the nature of the source and con-
nected circuits up to thc fault locauon and, for ground
Type Cause Iaults. by thc type of systcm grounding as well. The cur-
ren! will have an angle ol 80° to 85° lag Cor a phase fault
lnsulation Design dcfects or errors
ut or ncar gcncrator units. The angle will be less out in the
lmproper manutucturing
lmpropcr lnstullatlon system, whcre línes are involved,
Aging lnsulauon
Typical open-wire transmission line angles are as tollows:
l·lc. trical Lightrung Surges
Switching Surges
Dynamic Ovcrvoltagcs • 7 .2 lo 23 kV: 20° to 45° lag

Mechanical Wrnd
• 23 to 69 kV: 45° to 75° lag
Snow or ice
('ontammation
• 69 to 230 kV 60° to 80° lag
Therrnal Overcurrent
Overvoltage
• 230 k V and up 75º to 85° lag
 2-9

At these voltage levels, the currents for pilase faults will Sirnilarly ,
have the angles shown where the line impedance predorni-
nates. lf the transformer anti generation impcdance pre- V cg = V en + V ng
dominates, the fault angles will be higher. Systerns with
cables can have lower anglcs if the cable impedance is a or
large part of the total impedance to the fault.
V ng =V cg -V en (2-13)
IV.B.2. System Grounding
and
Systern grounding significantly affects both the magnitude
and angle of ground faulls. There are three classes of
grounding: ungrouridcd (isolated neutral), irnpedancc
groundcd (resistance or reactance), and ef'Iectively or
grounded (neutral solidly grounded). An ungrounded sys-
tem is still connected to ground through the natural shunt V = V ag -V an (2-14)
ng
capacitancc, as illustrated in Figure 2-18, and Figures 11-1
and 11-2 (Chapter 11 ). In addition to load, small (usually By fundamental def'initions,
negligible) charging currents flow normally.
(2-15)
o
V ag + V bg + V cg = 3V O (2-34)

Subtracting lquat ion (2- l 5) Irorn (2-34) and su bst itu I ing
(2-12), (2-13), and (2-14):

V ag - V an + vb g - vb n + V cg - V en = 3 Vº (2-1 6)

e&;;...--"-'-'-'-;:;.....-=
V
ng
+ V ng + V
ng
= 3V O
Normal Balanced Conditions Phase "a" Grounded

Figure 2·18: Voltage Plot far a Salid Phase "'a""·to·Ground Fault on (2- l 7)
an Ungroundod System.

Thus, tite displacement of thc neutral is the zcro sequcnce

In a symmctrical systcrn , where the thrcc capacitances to voltagc.
ground are equal, g cquals n. lf phasc a is grounded , the
triangle shiíts as shown in Figure 2-18. Conseq uently, V bg Grounding and its influence on relaying is discussed in
and V cg becorne approximately ./3times their normal Chapters 1 O and 1 1.
value. In contrast , a ground on one phase of a solidly
groundcd radial systern will result in a large phase and
ground fault current but no increase in voltage on the un-
faulted phasc (Figure 2-19).
o

From Figures 2-18 and 2-19, the volt a ge drops between

points b, n, and g can be written as follows: Grouno Ptone Vag O

Vbg
V bg = V bn + V ng c-...:::.._ ..;;;..,...,.D

Normal Balanced Salid Phase '"a"·to·

or Conditions Ground Fault

Figure 2-19· Voltage Plot far a Salid Phase "a'vro-Ground Fault on

(2-12) a Solidly Grounded System.
2-10

IV.B.3. Fault Resistance

Vab

Unless the fault is solid, an are whose resistance varies with

lhe are lengt h and the magnilude of the fault current is usu-
ally dra wn through air. Severa! studies indicate that, for
curren Is in excess of 100 Arnp, the voltage across the are
is nearly constant atan average of approximately 440 V /ft.
Normal Balanced
Conditions

Are resistance is seldom an important factor in phase Note:

faults except at low system voltages. The are does not At The Fault
Vab -- Vbc - Vea = O
elongate sufficiently for the phase spacings involved to de-
Three Phase Fault
crease the current flow materially. In addition, the are re-
sistance is at right angles to the reaetance and, hence, may
not greatly increase the total impedance.

For ground faults, are resistance may be an important fac-

tor. Longer ares can occur, as can relatively high tower
footing resistances, which may appreciably lirnit the faull
curren t.
Note: At The Fault
Are resistancc is discussed in more detail in Chapter 1 O. At The Fault Vbc O Vbc Vbg Vcg o
Phase .. b..·to-Phaa•··c .. Phase "b" to·Phase·
Fault "e ..·to-Ground Fault
IV.B.4. Distortion of Phases during Faults

The phasor diagrarns in Figure 2-20 illustrate the effect of

faults on thc system voltagcs and currents. The diagrams
Note:
shown are for effectively grounded systerns. In all cases, Veo At The Fault V8g = O
the dotted or uncollapscd voltage triangle exists in the
Phase "'a'"·tO·Ground Fault Assumes Z1 • z2 • z0
source (the generator) and lite maximum collapse is al the
fault location. The voltages in betwecn will vary between
Figure 2-20: Phasor Diagrams for The Variou, Types of Solid
these extremes, depending on the point of measurement. Faults Occurrlng on a Typical Power System as
Shown in Figure 2-7.

V. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS The method of symmctrical components is the foundation

Relay application requires a knowledge of system condí-
tions during f'aults, including the rnagnitude, direetion, and
distribution of fault currcnts, and often the voltages at the
relay locations for various operating conditions. Among
the operating conditions to be considered are maximum
and mínimum generation, selected lines out, line-end faults
with the adjacent breaker open, and so forth. With this in-
formation, the relay engineer can select the proper relays
and settings to protect ali parts of the power systern in a
mínimum amount of time. Three-phase fault data are used
for application and setting of phase relays and single phase-
to-ground fault data for ground relays.
for obtaining and understanding fault data on three-phase
power systems. Formulated by Dr. C. L. Fortescue in a
classic AIEE paper in 1918, the symmelrical components
mcthod was given its first practica! application to system
fault analysis by C. F. Wagner and R. D. Eva ns in the late
1920s and early l 930s. W. A. Lewis added val u a ble sirnpli-
fication in 1933.
Today , fault studies are commonly made with the digital
computer and can be updated rapidly in response to sys-
tems changes. The de board, one of the relay tools for ob-
taining fault data, is still used for small studies. Manual cal-
culations are practica! only for simple cases.
 2-11

A knowledge of symmelrical componenls is important
both in making a study and in understanding the data ob-
tained from lhe computar or de board. ll is also exlrcmely
valuable in analy zing faults and relay operations. A nurn-
ber of protective relays are based on symmetrical cornpo-
nents, so thc method must be underslood in order to ap-
ply these relays successfully.
In short, lhe method of syrnmetrical components is onc of
lhe rclay erigineer's most powerful technical tools. While
the method and malhematics are quite simple, the practica!
value líes in the ability to think and visualize in syrnrnetri-
cal components. This skill requires practice and experi-
ence.
In the following discussion, the subscript I will identify
the positive sequence compcnent , the subscript 2 the riega-
tíve sequence component, and the subscript O the zero se-
quence componen t. For example, V 31 is the positive se-
quence component of phase-a voltage, Vb2 is thc negativo
sequence componenl of phase-b voltage, and VcO is tite
zero sequen ce componenl of phase-c voltage. A 11 cornpo-
nents are phasor quantilies, rotaling counterclockwise.
Since the three phasors in any set are always equal in rnag-
nitude, the three sets can be cxpressed in terms of onc
phasor. For convenience, the phase-a phasor will be used.
Thus,

Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

V .A. Basic Concepts

The method of symmctrical components consists of reduc-

ing any unbalanced three-phase system of phasors into
three balanced or syrnmetrical systerns: the positíve, nega-
tive, and zero phase sequence cornponents. This reduction
can be performed in terms of current, voltage, impedance,
and so on.
(2-18)

The positive sequence components consist of three phasors

equal in magnitude, 120° out of phase, with the same The coefficients a and a2 are unit phasors which , when muí-
phase sequence or rotation as that of the source generators. tiplied with a phasor, result in a counterclockwise angular
Sequence will be assumed to be a, b, e (Figure 2-2la), but shift of 120° and 240°, respectively.
positive sequence will, of course, be a, e, b in an a, e, b
power system. The negative sequence components are Thus,
three phasors equal in rnagnitude, displaced 1 20° with a
phase sequence opposite to the positive sequencc (Figure a= 1/120°
2-21 b). The zero phase sequence cornponents consist of
three phasors equal in magnitude and in phase, as shown in = -.5 + j .866 (2-19)
Figure 2-2Ic.
a2 = 1/240º

= -.5 -j .866 (2-20)

a3 = 1/360°

= l~ (2-21)

From these equations, useful combinations can be derived:

1 +a+ a2 = O
a) Positive b) Negative e) Zero
(2-22)
Figure 2-21: Sequence Components of Voltages.
 2-12

or v
Quantities V 1, V 2, 0, i 1, i2, i0, etc. can always be as-
sumed to be the phase-a components. Note that the b and
a2- I =y'3~ e components always exist, as indicated by Equation
(2-23) (2-18).
a- 1 =y'3/1soº
Equations (2-29), (2-30), and (2-31) can be sol ved to yield
or the sequence components for a general set of three-phase
phasors.
1-a=v'3/-3o0
(2-24) . . . 2.
VI = 1 /3 (V 3 + a V b + a V e)
and (2-32)
ÍI = l/3(i a +ar b +:i2i)e
or

(2-25)
v2 = 1/3 (Va+ a2~\ + «v c)
and (2-33)
i2 = 1/3 (Ía + u2ib + aÍc)
Any three-phase systcrn of phasors will always be the surn
of the three componen ts:
ancl (2-34)
(2-26)
. . . .
Vb = Vb 1 + V b2 + V bO
A sequence component cannot exist in only one phase. lf
2. . . any sequcncc cornponent exists by measurernent or calcula-
=a Va¡+aYa2+VaO (2-27)
tion in one phase, it cxists in a/l three phascs, as shown in
Equation (2-18) and Figure 2-21.

-- '·1v· a 1 + "'02v' a2 + aO v (2-28) V.B. Sequences in a Three-Phase Power System

Since pilase a has been chosen as a reference , the sub- Assurning that the sequence component sets can exist in a
scripts may be dropped for convenience. Thus, three-phase power system, severa! important rclations exist.
Evcrywhere in the balanced or syrnmetrical part of the sys-
. . . . tem, ( l) positive seq uence currents produce only positive
V3 =V1 +V2 +V0
and (2-29) scquence voltage drcps, (2) negative sequence currents pro-
duce only negative sequence voltage drops, and (3) zero se-
quence currents produce only zero sequence voltage drops.
. 2. . .
Vb=a v1 +aV2+v0 A balanced or syrnmetrical power systern is one in which
and (2-30) the voltages generated by the rotating rnachinery are equal
. 2· . . in phase and 120° displaced, and the impedances in the
lb= a I¡ + aT2 + 'o
three phases are equal in magnitude.

and In any unbalanced or non-symrnetrical part of the systern,

(2-3 1)
( 1) positive sequence currents produce positive, negative, ·
and possibly zero sequence voltage drops; (2) negative se-
quence currents produce positive, negative, and possibly

zero sequence voltage drops; and (3) zero sequence currents
produce positive, negative, and zero sequence voltage drops.
Since three-phase power systems are presumed to be bal-
anced up to the point of a fault or un balance, no interac-
tion among the three sequence sets is considered up to that
point. Each set can be treated separately. Sorne un balance
does exist in practice, usually as a result of the non-
transposition of the busses and line conductors. Conse-
quently , the impedances of the three phases are not the
sarne, and sorne interaction will occur among the three
phases, This effect is usually negJected since the error in-
troduced is generally less than the error inzolved in deter-
mining the system constants.
V.C. Sequence lmpedances
Quantities z1, z2, and z0 are the system impedances to
the flow of positive , negative, and zero sequence currents,
respectively. Except in the area of a fault or general un-
balance, each sequence impedance is considered to be the
same in aJJ three phases of the symmetrical system. A brief
review of these quantities is given below for synchronous
machinery, transformers, and transmission Unes.
V.C.I. Synchronous Machinery
Toree different reactance values are specified. In positive
sequence, Xd" indicates the subtransient reactance, Xd'
the transient reactance, and Xd the synchronous reactance.
These direct-axis values are necessary for calculating the
short-circuit current value at different times after the short
circuit occurs. Since the subtransient reactance valúes give
the highest initial current value, they are generally used in
systern short-circuit calculations for relay application. The
transient reactance value is used for stability consideration.
The unsaturated synchronous reactance is used for sus-
tained fault-current calculations since the voltage is re-
duced below saturation during fauJts near the unit. Since
generators are operated slightly saturated, the sustained
fault current will be less than the maximum load current
unless the voltage regulators boost the field during a sus-
tained fault.
2-13
For system-fault calculations, tbe negative sequence reac-
tance is generally assumed to equal the subtransient Xd"
reactance. The flow of negative sequence current of oppo-
site phase rotation through the machine appears as a dou-
ble frequency component. As a result, the average of the
direct-axis subtransient reactance under the poles and be-
tween the poles gives a good approximation of negative se-
quence reactance. Hence, in a salient pole machine, x2 is
sJightly different from Xd"; but in a round rotor machine,
x2 equals Xd ':
The zero sequence reactance is less than the others, so that
a machine is never grounded solidly.
The armature winding resístance is small enough to be neg-
lected in calculating short-circuit currents. This resistance
is, however, important in determining the de time constants
of an asymrnetrical short-circuit current.
Typical reactance values for synchronous machinery are
available from the manufacturer or from handbooks.
V .C.2. Transformers
The positive and negative sequence reactances of ali trans-
formers are identicaJ. Values are available from the manu-
facturer or from tables. The zero sequence reactance is
either equal to the other two sequence reactances or infi-
nite except for three-phase, core-type transformers. In ef-
fect, the magnetic circuit design of the latter units gives
them the effect of additional closed delta winding. The re-
sistance of the windings is very small and is neglected in
short-circuit calcula tions.
Toe sequence circuits for a nurnber of transformer banks
are shown in Figure 2-22. The impedances indicated are
the equivalen! leakage impedances between the windings
involved. For two-winding transformers, the total leakage
impedance ZLH is measured from the L winding, with the
H winding short circuited. ZHL is measured from the H
winding, with the L winding shorted. Except for a 1: 1
transformer ratio, the impedances have different values in
ohms. On a per-unit basis, however , Zu¡ equals ZHL' The
equivalent primary Zl-1 and secondary Z L leakage irnped-
anees are one-half ZHL or ZLH'
2-14

Two Wlndlng Transformers Three Windlng Transformara

Three Phese Zero Sequence Posltlve or Three Phase Zero Sequence Positiva or
Connectlon Clrcult Negativa Connectlon Clrcuit Neg•tlve
Sequence Sequence

L H L H

• ~L& ~~ ~i. 8

L H L H

b ~~ 3ZnH
~i.
3JL~

~12=
L H L H

e ~
~-= o+ ~
-e-

L H L H
e
d ~ ~
~~

i?l;,4;}
L H L H
3Zn1..

• 21,. \ 3Zn~ ZH
~

L H L H

t
~& ~
+o -
~

-~
e
L H L H

g ~i.
~~
L H
L~H
h
~\~ +o o+ ~

Figure 2-22: Equiv•lent Po,ltiva. Neg•tive and Zero Sequence Circult1 for Soma Common and Theoretical Connections tor Two and Three
Wlndlng Trensformera.

For three-winding and autotransformer banks, there are On a common k V A base, the cquivalent star leakage imped-
thrce leakage impedances: anees are obtained from the following equations:

Winding Shorted Open

lmpedance measured from winding winding
or

211M (ZHL) 1( M(L) L(T)

ZHL (Z¡IT) H L(T) M(L)

or
2ML (ZLT) M(L) L(T) 1(

Both winding conventions shown above are in common use.

In the first convention, the windings are labelled H (High),
or
L (Low), M (Mediurn); in the second, H (High), L (Low),
(2-35)
and T (Tertiary). Unfortunately, the L (Low) winding in
the second convention is equivalent to M (Medium) in the
As a check, ZH plus ZM equals ZHM• and so on.
first. The Tertiary winding voltage is the lowest.
 2-15

The star is a mathematical equivalent , valid for current and System

voltage calculations externa! to the transformer bank. The i $$ G H ti> ~
star point has no physical significance. One equivalent
branch, usually ZM (ZL), rnay be negative. On some recent
~.
~tt>--+-t_____,,..,.....L;
X1GH'X2GH
;.,:;_ ine ---+-----<t--33~~
Generara, Xrn XoGH x TS Generara,
autotransformers, however, ZH has been negative. X~ X~
X2GR XzGs
XoGR Xoas
V.C.3. Transmission Lines
Positiva Sequence Network
Neurrol o, Zero Porenr,01 Bus, N1
In transmission lines, the positive and negativa sequence re-
VonR VonS
actances are the same. As a rule of thurnb, the 60-llz reac-
tance is 0.8 ohm/mi for single conductor overhead lines,
G H
and 0.6 ohm/mi for bundled overhead lines. Xrs

The zero seq uence irnpedance is always different from the Figure 2·23: The Positiva Sequence Network for The Typlcal
positive and negative sequence impedances. lt is a loop irn- System Shown.

pedance (conductor plus earth and/or ground wire return),

in contrast to the one-way impcdance for positive and nega- System
tive sequence. Zero sequence impcclance can vary from 2 ~ ~~ G H ~[> ~
to 6 limes X 1; a rough average for overhcud lines is 3 to
3.5 X¡. ~;~R-~,>------Xl-G=~~~i:~~-G-H--~,...._--<l~
X1GR X1GS
The resistance terms for thc three sequences are usually X20R XzGs
neglected for overhead lines, except for lowcr voltage lines
XoGR XoGs
and cables. In the latter cases, line angles of 30° lo 60° Negativa Sequence Network
may exist, and resistance can be significan t. A good com- Neultol or Zero Potentoot Bus, N2

promísc is to use the impedance value rather than reactance

and neglect the angular difference in fault calculations.
G H
Thls gives a lowcr current to assure that the relay will be set Xrs
sensitively enough.

Zero sequence mutual impedancc rcsulting from paralleled Figure 2-24: The Negativa Sequence Network for The Typical
System Shown.
lines can be in the order of SO to 70 percent of the zero se-
quence self-irnpedance. This mutual impedancc is bccom-
ing an increaslngíy important factor as more lines are
crowded into common rights-of-way.

V.O. Sequence Networks

With the systern assumed to be balanced or symrnetrical to

the point of unbalance or fault, the three sequence cornpo-
nents are independent and do not react with each other. The Zero Sequence Network
Thus, three network diagrams are required to sepárate the Zero Potenliol Bus, No
three sequence components for individual consideration:
one for posítive, one for negative, and one for zero se- Xrs Xoos
G H
quence. These sequence network diagrarns consist of one-
L---'IAf'v---<.._--'Vll'v--+--+--Open
phase-to-neutral of the power systern , showing all the corn-
ponent parts relevant to the problem under consideration.
Typical diagrams are illustrated in Figures 2-23, 2-24, and Figure 2-25: The Zero Sequence Network for The Typical System
Shown. (Generators Shown Solidly Ground for
2-25. Simplification.)
2-16

Thc positive sequence network (Figure 2-23) must show

In the posmve sequence nerwork, lhe vohage drop at any pomt
both the generator voltages and the impcdances of the gen-
1n the network is
erators, transformcrs, and lines. Balanced loads may be
shown from any bus to the neutral bus. Gcnerally , how-
evcr, balanced loads are neglected. Compared to the systcrn
Where ¿ i1 z 1 is lhe phasor sum of the l 1 Z 1 drops from 1he
neutrat or zero potential bus (N ¡ l to the corm where the vollage
low-irnpedance, high-angle quantities, they have a much is to be deterrmned

higher impedance ata very low angle. In short, balanced N¡

loads complicare the calculations and gencrally do not af-
fect the fault currents significantly.

With two exceptions, the negative sequence network ( Fig-

r \.
tl V0,,R
l1R
t
V1F
+ ~,'
F1
- r
115
t I VanS

ure 2-24) will be a duplicate of the positive sequence net-

In the neqauve sequence network. the vonaqe drop al anv comt
work: ( J) there will be no generaror voltages, since syn- ,n the nerwork is
chronous machines are operating to generare positive se-
qucncc only , and (2) the negalive sequence reactance of Where ¿ i2z2 is the phasor sum or me l2Z2 drops from lhe
synchronous machinery may be differenl from the positive, neutral or zcro potential bus {N2) to the po1111 where lhe vollage
rs 10 be deterrmned
as previously described. For ali practica! calculations, how-
ever, X¡ is assurned equal to x2.

The zcro sequencc network (Figure 2-25) is quite different

from the other two. First of ali, it has no voltage: rotating
machinery docs not produce zero sequence voltage. Also,
.t
tite transforrner connections require special consideration In 1he zerc scquence network, the voltage drop al any po1111
111 the norwork Is
and grounding impedances must be included. Figure 2-22
vo - O-¿ iozo
shows the zero sequence circuits for many transformers.
Where ¿Íozo is the phasor sum of the loZo
drops from rne
z ero potenuat bus (No I to the oomt where thc voltage is to be
A three-line system diagrarn is usually not rcquired to deter- determ,ned
mine the zero sequence network (Figure 2-25) but if a ques-
tion arises as to the ílow of zero sequence currents, the
threc line diagrarn can be useful. From this three-phase sys-
tem diagram, the zero sequcnce network requirernents can
be resolved by dcterrnining whether or not equal and in-
phase currents can exist in each of the thrce phases. lf the
Figure 2·26: Sequence Network Connections and Voltages.
zero sequence curren( component can flow, the zcro se-
qucnce network must reflect its path.
Each sequence network is, of course, a one-per-unit día-
For simplicity, Figure 2-25 shows the generators solidly gram rcpresenting one of the three phases of the symmetri-
grounded. In practice, howcver, solid grounding is not cal power systern. Therefore, a resistor (reactor, imped-
used. anee) connccted between the system neutral and ground ,
as shown in Figure 2-26, must be multiplied by 3 as indi-
V.E. Sequence Network Connections and Voltages cated. In the systern, 310 ílows through R; in the zero se-
quence network , however, 10 flows through 3 R, producing
The current flow direction and voltage connections illu- an cquivalent voltage drop.
strated in Figure 2-26 must be followed for Equations
(2-29), (2-30), and (2-31) to apply. Curren! ílow in one or V.F. Network Connections Cor Fault and General Unbal-
more of the networks may reverse for sorne ty pes of un- anees
balances particularly if the networks are cornplex. Re-
verse ílow should be treated as a negativo curren! to ensure Thc sequence networks can be interconnected in an area of
that it will be properly subtracted when determining the unbalance, such as a fault. In such arcas, the sequence qual-
phase currents. ities interact, as previously described. Sequence network
 2-17

connections for various types of cornmon faults are shown For a phase-a-to-ground fault, the three networks are con-
in Figures 2-27 through 2-30. Frorn the three-phase dia- nectcd in series (Figure 2-28). Figure 2-29 illustrates a
grarns of the fault area, the sequence network connections phase-b-c-to-ground fault and its sequence network ínter-
representing the faults can be derived. These diagrarns do connection; the phase-b-to-phase-c fault and its seq uence
not show fault impedance and fault studies do not include connections are shown in Figure 2-30.
this effect except in very rare cases. The single-sequence
lmpedance Z 1, z2, z0 (practically equivalent to X¡, x2,
X0) shown in the figures is the net irnpedancc between the Foull
neutral bus and the selected fault location based on zero No o
load. Ali generated voltages (Van) are equal and in pilase. b
e
Z2 Zo ! ! !
laF IbF lcF
F2 + Fo
Foull
N1 l In The Foull:

1l
o
!von b Vbg•Vcg•O
e
+ ÍoF'Q
VF + + +
IoF IbF lcF
1_11 Z¡
• • 22
F1 In The Foull: Io=-T¡ -,-,
Z2+Zo
• • Von VonfVbn+Vcn;O
lo•!,; •
Z1 loF+ ibF+ ÍcF'º Figure 2-29: The Double Phase-to-Ground Fault and its Sequence
Network Connections.

Figure 2-27: The Three Phase Fault and its Sequence Network
Connections.

Foult

T
N2 o
b

r-i 1t
Foulf e
N¡
.l Von o Z2 ¡ ! !
+ b F2 laF lbF
lcF
e +
LI¡ Z1
+ + + tnThe Foulf:
.,--- - K F\
>-N2
IaF lbF lcF •
I1:-I2•
. v,J,,
.--.-- Vbn•Vcn
l_¡ Z2
••
In The Foult:
Z1+Z2
ioF•O

.,--- -.
+ 12 ibF•-icF
F2
V0g•O
>-No
IbFªlcF•O
VoF + Zo
Figure 2-30: The Pheae-to-Phase Fault and its Sequence
Connections.
LIº
' Fo

Fault studies normally only include three-phase faults and

Figure 2·28: The Single Phase·to-Ground
Network Connectlons.
single-phase-to-ground faults. Three-phase faults are the
most severe phase faults, while the single-phase-to-ground
Fault and its Sequence
faults are the most common faults. Studies of the latter
faults provide useful information for ground relaying.

Since the íhree-phase fault is syrnmetrical, sy mmetrical
components are not required for this calculation. However,
since the positive sequence network represents the systern,
the network can be connected as shown in Figure 2-27 to
represent the fault.
A fundamental study of both series and shunt unbalances
was made by E. L. Harder in 1937. The shunt un balances
summarized in Figure 2-31 are taken from Harder's study.
Note that ali the faults shown in Figures 2-27 through 2-30
are also represented in Figure 2-31.
2-J 8

p n

N n

l~~n l~o on n
l~o
on n n

Za/3

·m
al el el g) i) k)

·lié ·lg 1 ·l~D ·l~P ·lis 1

Zn

1:~n 1:0 on
g
p n

1:~n 1 l~o on l
n N

l~~n 1 l~o On On o n

b) d) fl h) j)

Note:

a) Balanced load or three-line-10-ground fault w,th ,mpedances g) A hne to hne fault through ,mpedance
b) A three-lone-10-ground fault h) A nne-to-nne fault
el A three·phase fault ,) A two-kne-tc-qround fault w,th ,mpedance
di A shunt crrcuit open 1) A two llne to ground fault
el A line-10-ground fault through an ,mpedance k) A tnree-nne-to-qround fault w1th ,mpedance ,n phase a
II A line·to·ground fault 1) Unbalanced load or lhree·hne-10-ground fault w,th ,mpedance

Figure 2-31: Sequence Network lnterconnectiona for Shunt Belenced and Unbalanced Conditiona.

In Figure 2-3 1, the en tire symmetrical power system up to
a point, x, of the shunt connection is represented by a rec-
tangular box. lnside the topmost box for each shunt con-
dition is a four-Jine representation of the shunt to be con-
nected to the systern at point x. The three lower boxes for
each shunt condition are the positive, negative, and zero se-
quence representation of the shunt.
The sequence connections for the series unbalances, such
as open phases and un balance series impedances, are shown
in Figure 2-32. As before, these diagrams are taken from
E. L. Harder's study. Here again, the diagrams inside the
topmost box for each series condition represent the area
under study, from point x on the diágrams left to point y
on the right. The power system represented by the box is
open between x and y to insert the círcuits shown ínside
the box. Points x and y can be any distance apart, as long
as there is no tap or other systern connection between
them. The positive, negative , and zero sequence representa-
tions of the top box are shown in the three boxes below it.
The diagrams shown in Figures 2-31 and 2-32, particularly
those of Figure 2-32, are useful both for visualizing and cal-
culating the conditions for open phases and unbalances.
 2-19

·~·
Zo Zo
00 00
ºº zb ººb ºº
r ~g::==:gb
00
s » ~i Zn
bO-"Mr----00
ce oc X
no no zb on
Zn

e:
N
~~---+-,
o
N
"' '--!!--+-,--~

al el el gl il kl

00----00 oo--/---oo o o 00
X g g y X ~~~g y X ~~~g y X bo----o
co----o
n n n n n no

I~ on on on

l~o--º-"-oyI on on

Zo-Zb
~---~ 3
on on

bl dl f) hl jl n)

Note:
a) Equal ,mpedances in three phases
b) Normal conditions ,¡ Phase o open. 1mpedances "' b, c. and neutral
el Neutral open JI PhAse a open
d) Any three or four pnases open. kl lmpedance ,n phase a
el Phases b and e open. 1mpodancos ,n pnases a and neutral 11 Equal ,mpedances ,n b and e pnases. and neutral
11 Pnases b and e open m) Equal rmpedances ,n b and e pnases
gl Phases a and neutral open. ,mpcdance ,n b and e n) Equal ,mpedances ,n b and e pnases. neutral open
hl Phases a and neutral open o) lmcadances in pnase a and neutral

Figure 2·32: Sequence Network lnterconnection, lor SerlH B•l•nced •nd Unb•l•nced Conditlon,.

Simultaneous faults require two sets of interconnections
fram either Figures 2-31 or 2-32-or both. As shown in
Figure 2-33, ideal or perfect trsnsformers can be used to
isolate the two restrictions. Perfect transformers are 100
percent efficicnt and have ratios of 1: 1, 1 .a, 1 :a2, and so
on.
lt is sometirnes necessary to use two transformers as shown
in Figure 2-33 (f). In this case the first transformer, ratios
1 :rj30°, l :ej30° and 1: 1 represent the star-delta trans-
former and the second transformer with ratios 1 :a2, 1 .a,
1: 1 represents the b-to-neutral fault. These can be re-
placed by an equívalent transformer with ratios 1 :e-j 150°,
1 :ejl SOº and 1: l.
Figure 2-33a, for exarnple, represents an open phase-a con-
ductor with a sirnultaneous f'ault to ground on the x side.
The scquence networks are connected for the open con-
ductor according to Figure 2-32j, with three 1: 1 perf'ect
transforrners to provide the restrictions required by Figure
2-31 f. The manual calculations required, which involve the
solution of simultaneous equations, are quite tedious.
V.G. Sequence Network Reduction
When manual calculations are performed, the complete
systern networks (Figures 2-23, 2-24, and 2-25) are reduced
to the single impedance values of Figures 2-27 through 2-30.
2-20

oo--/-o
X gºa§º g y b b y X
ºº
g:J
00--00
b o-/ -<>b y
n n ~::::::l ~~ no
co--oc
no--on

p n
n,
y z y

N n
n
z y

Iº º' r
on
n n

e) el l. 1

• gD
co
n
X g~
o~
0
o ºº y
~c:11~g
n e b o~n

n
y

b) d) f)

Note:
a) One phase open and a tault to ground
b} Phase a open and a b phase to ground tault
el Pha~e a open and c-phase-to neutral tault
di Phase a·to·ground lault at •anda b pnase to·ground laull at v
el A b to e tault at • and b phase open t to v
11 Phase a to neutral fault a1 • phase b·to neutral fault on other sice ol
srar-deua transformer bank at v • rs 1aken as the reference oo.m

Figure 2·33: Representations for Simultaneous Unbalances

To simplify this reduction, with negligible effect on the
valúes, the following basic assurnptions are made:
• Ali generated voltages are equal and in phase
• Ali resistance is neglected, or the reactance of machines
and transformers is added directly with line impedances
• Ali shunt reactances are neglected, including loads, charg-
ing, and magnetizing reactances
Using these assurnptions, the positive sequencc network can
be drawn with a single-source voltage, Van, connected to
the generator impedances by a bus.
lf voltages are different, the Thevenin theorem and super-
position must be used to reduce the network and calculate
faults. Note that, for the series unbalances of Figure 2-32,
a difference in voltage-veither magnitude, phase angle, or
both-is required for current to flow. No current can exist
if the voltages across an open phase are equal and in phase.

• All mutual reactances are neglected, except on parallel The single-sequence impedances, Z 1, z2, and z0, of Fig-
lines. ures 2-27 through 2-30, will be different for each fault lo-
 2-21

cation. Each fault location therefore requires a different rent and the voltages at each bus or node. The phase cur-
,. network reduction. During the network reduction, the rents are read directly for three-phase faults, which involve
distribution of currents in the various branches should be only the positive sequence network (Figure 2-27). For
í calculated, both as a check and to determine the current single-phase-to-ground faults, 310 is required for relays,
flow through the relays involved in a fault. These distribu- Since X equals x2 and from the single-phase-to-ground
1
tion factors are calculated with the assumption that I per- fault in Figure 2-28,
unit curren! flows in these single-sequence impedances.
l.5Van
(2-36)
Network reduction calcuJations are illustrated in Figures
z1 + z0
2-34, 2-35, and 2-36. In these figures, X 1, x2, and x0 are
the impedances between the neutral bus and fault f9r a 2

fault at bus G; I ¡ R• I ¡ L' I2R, 12L' 'oa- IOL are the per-
unit distribution factors. 11, 12, & 10 are ali assumed equal In other words, the zero sequence network is set at l /2
to 1.0 percent value and the driving voltage is rnultiplied by 1.5.

When using the computer for sequence network reduction,

the impedance data are input for the positive and zero se-
quence networks, along with bus and fault node points.
The network is then sol ved for three-phase and single-phase-
i to-ground faults. Tabulated printed data are provided for
phase-a Iault current and three-phase fault voltages, along
with corresponding 310, 3V0 values for the phase-to-ground
fault. Fo1 modern ground relaying, 12 and V valúes should
2
also be obtained.
Figure 2-34: Network Reduction of The Positlve Sequence
Network for a Fault at Bus "G" in Figure 2·23.
Thcsc voltage and current values are needed not only for
faults near the relay , but for faults severa! busses or lines
Whe,e:
N2 removed. Among the operating conditions normally con-
N2

'1
X2L: X2GR+XrR sidered are maximum and mínimum generation, selected
l2L¡ l2R¡ X2R : X2Gs + Xrs + X1GH lines out-of-service, and line-end faults where the adjacent
X2L X2R X2R x2 = X2R X2L
I2L • X2L + X2R = X2R +X2L breaker is open. This information allows the correct relay
F2
X2L types and settings to be selected in a mínimum amount of
ho l2R• X2L + X2R
F2 time for the entire power system.

Figure 2-35: Network Reduction of The Negative Sequence

Network for a Fault at Bus "G" in Figure 2-24. The following steps must be performed for calculating
fault currents and voltages:

No Where: No

t
a. Obtain a complete single-line diagram for the en tire sys-
loL¡ loR¡ XoL: XoGR+ Xrn tem, including generators, transformers, and transmis-
XoL XoR XoR • Xrs+XooH
XoR X - XoL XoR sion lines, along with the positive negative and zero se-
IoL: XOL +XoR
Fo
11.0
XoL
IOR= ~+XOR
)= o - XoL +XoR quence impedances for each componen!.

Fo
b. Prepare from the system diagram a single-line impedance
Figure 2-36: Network Reduction for The Zero Sequence Network diagram for the positive, negative, and zero sequence
for a Fault at Bus "G" in Figure 2·25.
networks.

When using the de or ac network analyzer, or calculating c. Reduce the impedance values of aU network branches
board, the positive and zero sequence networks are set up to a common base. Values may be expressed as a per-
with physical circuits scaled to the real systern values. Each centage on a common kVA base, oras ohms impedance
branch current can be measured, as well as the total cur- on a common voltage base.
2-22

d. Obtain the equivalent single impedance of each sequence N1

network , the current distribution factors, and the equiv-
on •lpu•lOOº/o= J llO,OOO 'J63,500Volts
alent voltage for the positive phase sequence network , J3
Ali quantities must be referred to the proper base. .2838 J15
+ zl
l
, ..
X¡ .2541
v, +
J20 .4621
¡
J30

9
.> ,
J8 }O
e. Interconnect the networks to represent the fault in- J// JlO ""-, .... J40 Bus O
volved, and calcula te the total fault current at the fau1t. BusS Foult
-.0301 Bus E -.2842
F¡ {ocor,on
J28 J18 1.0
f. Determine the current distribution and voltages as re-
- .2537 Bus R -.2537
quired in the system. Total fault current is seldom of
Figure 2-38: The Positive Sequence Network for The System of
use as relays generally see a fraction of that -current ex- Figure 2-37.
cept for radial circuits.

Note that only steps a and b are required for a caJculation .

Xp
board analysis or cornputer study. .0544
+ J9 ,. ,
,.... '
.1350
¡ J6
.8106
¡ JlO
Zo Yo
.> - J35 ', Bus E }20 Buso
V.H. Example of Fault CaJculation on a Loop-Type Power BusS l
1

-.0491 Foult
- .0491 '
System '\ \ Fo
"-:ocot,on
J60 \ J52 1.0

For the typical loop systern shown in Figure 2-37, the gen-
erator units at stations D, S, or E could each be combina-
tions of severa! machines. Alternately, they could repre-
sent the equivalent of a complex system up to the bus. Ali
of the irnpedances have been reduced to a common base, as
indicated in the diagram. The positive sequence net work
for this systern is shown in Figure 2-38, the zero sequence
network in Figure 2-39. The negative sequence network is
equal to Figure 2-38, except that Van is not present.
-.0053 BusR -.1403
Figure 2-39: The Zero Sequence Network for The System of
Figure 2-37.
To perform this sample calculation of a phase-to-ground
fault on the bus at station D, the networks must be reduced
to a single reactance value between the neutral bus and the
fault point. Of the severa! delta loops, at least one must be
converted to wye-equivalent in order to reduce the net-
works. After choosing one loop, arbitrarily, the equivalcnt
X, Y, Z branches for the equívalent wye are dotted in as
shown in Figures 2-38 and 2-39.

The X, Y, Z conversion from delta to wyc-equivalent is a

50Miles 30M,tes simple process: the X branch of the wye-equivalent is the
Stonon S X1=X2=J28 X1,X2·Jl8 product of the two delta rcactances on eithcr side, divided
y <I"'. Xo=J60 Xo=J52
by the sum of the three delta impedances. The same rela-
8--l J9
tion applies to the Y and Z branches. Thus, in Figures 2-38
and 2-39, the networks are reduced as follows:
X1=X2= J15 80M,les
X1•X2=J40
Xo=J120 Positive and Negative Zero Sequence
Sequence Networks Network
Not•:
Reac1ance Values are ,n
Percent on a 1 00,000 kVA,
X = 24 x 28 X =9 X 6
Sto11on E 1 62 O 75
110 kV Base

=j 10.84 = j 0.72

Figure 2-37: Single Lin• Oiagram for a Typical Loop Type Power y = 28 X 10 y =6 X 60
System. 1 62 O 75
 2-23

= j 4.52 = j 4.80 The reduction is shown in Figure 2-40b. The remaining

branches are in parallel and can also be reduced:
Z = 24 X 10 _9
Z o-~
X 60
1 62
Positive and Negative Zero Sequence
Sequence Networks Network
= j 3.87 =j 7 .20
.8106 .1894
The networks are now rcduced to the simpler forms shown Xo=42.79 x 10
in Figure 2-40a. Since the two lower branches of each net- .4621 .5379 52.79
work are in parallel, they can be reduced as follows: = 34.36 X 40
74.36 =j 8.11%

Positive and Negative Zero Sequence

Sequence Networks Network =j 18.48%

.4716 .5284 .2594 .7406 The fractions written above the equations are the distribu-
44.52 X 49.87 56.8 X 162.2 tion factors for the parallel circuits. These factors are ex-
94.39 219.0 pressed as the ratio of each term in the numerator and the
denominator. Determining these factors provides a conven-
= j 23.52 = j 42.07 ient check on the caJculations, since the sum of the two
(
fractions must be 1.0.

Distribution factors can be determined by working back

Positive/Negative Sequence Zero Sequence
through the reduction. The factors should be written on
J40 ¡ l J0.72 JIO l the diagrams as shown in Figure 2-40a.
.4621 .1894 .8106

o Thc distribution factors for the lower parallel branches of

-.2842 J155
F Figure 2-40a are determined as follows:
-, -.0491
Fo
1.0 -,
-.2537 J52 1.0
Positive Sequence Network
-.1403
a) First Reduct,on
44.52% branch: .5284 x .5379 = .2842
49.87% branch: .4716 x .5379 = .2537
No .5379 (check)
JI0.84 J40 l JIO l
.8106
.4621
Zero Sequence Network
J23.52 ...__...,.,.,
J42.07 __ Fo
~-~------io::F
-+.5379 '-.. -+.1894 '-..
1.0 1.0 162.2% branch: .2594 x .1894 = .0491
b) Second Reductoon
56.8%branch: .7406x.1895=.1403
.1894 (check)

In tum, these distribution factors are added to the diagram,

as shown in Figure 2-40a.

Toe delta current distribution factors for Figures 2-38 and

2-39 are obtained from the X, Y, Z equivalents. The con-
e) Single lmpedance from The Neutral Bus to The Faull Point
version technique is straightforward: the voltage drop
Figure 2,40: Network Reductions of Figure 2·38 and Figure 2-39 across two of the wye branches is equivalent to the drop
for a Phase-to-Ground Fault on Bus "O" of The
Power System of Figure 2-37. across the delta branch. Calculating from Figure 2-40a,
 2-25

Currents in the fault are calculated for each phase as follows: v2 = o - .6297 xj .24

= -j .1511 p.u. (9596.14 V)

VO =0- .1207 X j .09

= -j .O l 09 p.u. (692.24 V)

= 6.66 p.u.
or
=3493.66Ampal IIOkV (2-29) = j .6869 p.u, (43,624.01 V)

= .8489 /- 30° + . l 5 l 1 /+ 30° - j .o 109

=O (2-30) = .7352-j .4245 + .1309 + j .0756-j .0109

= .8661 -j .3598

= .9379 /- 22.56° p.u. (59,564.65 V)

=O (2-31)

Frorn equation 2-29, 2-30, and 2-31, 13, lb and le can calcu- = .8489 /210º + .1511 /150º-j .0109
lated for each branch. These are recordcd in Figure 2-42.
=-.7352-j .4245-.1309+j .0756-j .0109
Next, the sequence and phase voltagcs at each bus are de-
tcrmined as in Figure 2-26. ll is convenient to calcula te
= - .8661 - .3598
the voltages in per-unit valúes, sincc thc impedances listed
in Figure 2-37 are in percent, rather than ohrns.
= .9379 /202.56° p.u. (59,564.65 V)

In the following calculations, the valúes in parentheses are

Ncxt, thc scqucncc and phase voltages are calculated at bus
volts, converted from the per-unit values for thc 1 1 0-k V
systern of Figure 2-37: D, the fault location:

V l = j 1.0 - 1.0253 x j .40

Vline-to-neutral = l.O p.u.

110,000 V =j 1.0 - j .4 l O 1

~ = j .5899 p.u. (3 7 ,463.68 V)

= 63,508.53 V v2=0-l.0253xj.40
Frorn Figure 2-41; first, the sequence and phase voltages are
calculated al bus S:
= -j .4101 p.u. (26,044.85 V)

V¡ = j 1.0 - .6297 x j .24 v0=0-1.7986xj.l

= j 1.0 - j .1 5 11 = -j .1798 p.u. (11,418.83 V)

= j .8489 p.u. (53,912.39 V)

2-26

vb = .5899 /-30° + .4101 /3oº -j .1798 = - .8660 - j .3911

= .5109 -j .2950 + .3552 + j .2051 -j .1798 = .9502/204.30° p.u. (60,345.80 Y)

= .8661 - j .2697 Finally , the sequence and pilase voltages are calculatcd at
bus R:
= .9071 /- 17 .30º p.u. (57 ,608.59 V)

Y l = j 1.0 - .6297 X j .24 - .5629 Xj .28

ve= .5899 /210° + .4101/150º -j .1798
=j 1.0 -j .151 l -j .1576
= -.5 109 - j .2950 - .355 2 + j . 2051 - j .1798
= j 1.0 - j .3087
= -.8661 -j .2697
= j .6913 p.u. (43,903.45 V)
= .9071 /197.30° p.u. (57 ,608.59 Y)
V 2 = 0 - .6297 X j .24 - .5629 X j .28
To calculate the sequence and pilase voltages at bus E,
= -j .3087 p.u. (19,605.00 V)
v1 =j l.0-.5638xj.28
Vo=0-.2995xj.06
= j 1.0 - j .1579
=-j .0180 p.u. (1143.15 V)
=j .8421 p.u. (53,480.53 V)
V a = j .6913 - j .3087 - j .O 180
Y2 =O- .5638 xj .28
= j .3646 p.u. (23, 155 .21 V)
= -j .1579 p.u. (10,028.00 Y)
vb = .6913 /-30° + .3087 /30° -j .o 180
Yo= Ü - .1207 X j .09 - .1089 X j .35
= .5987 - j .3457 + .2673 + j .1544 - j .o 180
=-j.0109-j.0381
= .8660 - j .2093
= -j .0490 p.u. (3111.92 V)
= .8909 /13.59° p.u. (56,579.75 V)
va =j .8421-j .1579-j .0490
ve= .6913 /210º + .3087 /1 soº -j .0180
= j .6352 p.u. (40,340.62 V)
=-.5987 -j .3457 - .2673 + j .1544-j .0180
vb = .8421 /-30° + .1579 /+30º -j .0490
= -.8660 -j .2093
= .7293 -j .4211 + .1367 + j .0790-j .0490
= .8909 /193.59º p.u. (56,579.75 V)
= .8660 - j .3911

= .9502 /-24.30º p.u. (60,345.80 V)
ve= .8421 /210º + .1579 /1soº -j .0490
= -.7293 -j .4211 - .1367 + j .0790 -j .4090
The sequence voltages calculated above, as shown in Fig-
ure 2-41, complete the analysis of the single-phase-to-
ground fault at bus D in the systern of Figure 2-37. Ali the
distributed current and voltage values for the system are
displayed in Figure 2-42.
 2-27

-" _,,.,.--
E]
StahonR
47163
. Load

~-~.-~{'
Vo•23.155~º
Vb•56,580H3.59°
+ 157.21 + 157.21 + 157.21 V0•0
Vb•:17,6091-17.30°
Vc•57,6091197.3º $1011000

--
$10ll()O$
Gtnerotor Vo'43,624!29º b Gene,oto,
Vb•:19,5651-22.:16º b e
Vc•59,5651202.!>6º e 754.28 o

-- --
o b e -132.07
597.07

-289.28
-132.07

-¿
405.85

~
-
72435
--
-289.28

310,10.51
3Jo•490.14
ro20.2i'

-rull
~-267.15
f 2831.97
190.osf
.(
•
- -- ---
405.85
127.28 719.10
-267.15 ¡ 3493.65

. . ,-.-,. r
22.13 -273.78

-
2213 -273.78

310, 111.54
V0• 40,341Wº b
Vb•60.346~
Vc•60,346~ e
t f -295.91
Note: -295.91 f 591.82
Fault Values are ,n Amperes and Volts at l l O KV
s,nce x1 = x2 I\
'a = ,, + '2 + 'o - 21, + 'o
S101ionE

1b a211 + a12 + 'o =-1, + 'o

a2
'e = a11 + 12 + 1o + 1o=-t,
Figure 2-42: Current and Voltage Oistribution for a Single Phase·to·Ground Fault at Bus "O" of The Svstem of Figure 2-37.

V.I. Phase Shifts through Transformer Banks -lo n -IA

o A

In the fault calculations for the system shown in Figure -lb -le
b B
2-37, the phase shifts through the wye-delta transformer
banks were not considered. In this exarnple, only a l 10-kV -le -1c Tums RohO • T
e
systcm fault, with its currents and voltages, was involved. Vol1ogeRot,o• ~
H1ghS1de LowS,de
The effect of the phase shift through the transformer banks o A
n 'KVo
,Í3KVA
could not, howcver, have been neglected if currents and KV0
Neu1ro~ C~Neu1rot N,-
voltages were required for the opposite side of the power KVA
e b B N,J3n
transformers.

Theoretically, the positive and negative sequence irnped- Figure 2-43: Connections and Phasors for an ANSI Standard
Power Transformar Bank With The WYE Connection
ance and the equivalent circuits for power transformers are on The High Side (V8n Leads VAN by 30°).
the same for ali connections of the banks. Actually , how-
ever, these quantities are shifted when they pass through a
(2-37)
wye-delta- or delta-wye-connected bank. The na ture of
this phase shift is described below.
(2-38)
If the transformer bank is wye-connected on the high volt-
age side, as shown in Figure 2-43, the general eq uations for All quantities are line-to-neutral valúes, with the lower-
one phase are: case subscripts representing high-side quantities and the
2-28

capital letter subscripts low-side quantities. In the balanced

or symmetrical transformer bank, the sequences are inde-
pendent. Consequently , positive sequence only is first ap-
plied to Equations (2-37) and (2-38):
= n (1 - a) V A2

= n-/JV A2 /-30°

= NV A2 /-30° (2-45)

=n(l-a)Ial

If a power transformer bank is connected delta on the high

(2-39)
voltage side, as shown in Figure 2-44, thc general equations
for onc phase are:
1
1 =~/30º (2-40)
al N (2-4 7)

val= n(V Al -Va¡) 1

V =-(V -V ) (2-48)
A n a e
=n(V Al -a2v Al)

=n(l-a2)vAl
-la _IA
o A
= n../fv Al /30°
_lb -le
b 8
== NV Al /30º (2-41) Turns Ro1,o•~
_ le
e -le e vouoqe Ra1,o • ~
H1ghS1de LowS,de N• !)
(2-42) :./3
A
o KVo./3
n•-- KVA
Neu1,a1-Vb A_.-Neulrol KVa
N•-KVA
e e e
Ne xt , only negative sequence quantities are applied to
Figure 2-44: Connections and Phasors for an ANSI Standard
Equations (2-37) and (2-38): Power Transformer Bank With The DELTA
Connection on The High Side IVan Leads VAN by
30°).
1A2 = n Oa2 - 1c2)

Apply only positive sequence quantities to Equations

= n (Ia2 - a2la2)
(2-47) and (2-48):
=n(l -a2) Ia2

= ny3 Ia2 /30°

= Nia2 /30º (2-43)

(2-44)
 l.-1.':J

1 2
=-(1-a)V
n a2

(2-49)

V
(2-50)
=~/3oº (2-55)
N

V 32 = NV A2 /-30º (2-56)

lf the bank is connected according to the ANSI Standards,

the formulas are the same and are not dependent on
whether the wye or the delta is on the high side. In either
1 case, the positive sequence quantities are shifted 30° in one
=-(l-a)V31
n direction , while the negative sequence quantities are
shifted 30° in the opposite direction. These relations are
y?,V
= --ª-
n
/-
1 30° summarized in Table 2-IJ. Zero sequence quantities are not
affected by phase shift. These either pass directly through
the bank or, more cornmonly , are blocked by the connec-
tions. Thus, in a wye-delta bank, zero sequence current and
(2-5 1)
voltage on one side cannot pass through the bank to the
other side.
va,= NV Al /30º (2-52)
Table 2-11
Then, applying only negative sequence quantities to Equa-
Phase Shift Relations for Power Transformer Banks
tions (2-47) and (2-48):
High Side in Terms Low Side in Terrns
of Low Side* of High Side*

1
1
al
= Al
N
ÓOº IAJ = Nlal /-30º

V
1 val= NV Alboº V =~/-30°
=- () - a) 1 A2 Al N
n
1
J = A2 /-30º 1A2 = Nla2ÓOº
a2 N
V
V32 = NV A2/-30º V = A2~
A2 N
(2-53)
*The lower-case subscripts are high-sidc quantities. and thc capital
(2-54) lettcr subscripts low-side quantities.

1 V .J. Fault Evaluations

V 2 =-(V
A n a2 - Vc2 )
The sample calculation of a phase-to-ground fault on a loop
_ I 2 system (Section V .H) was made at no load; that is, befo re
--(V2-aV2)
n a a the fault all currents throughout the systern were zero.
2-30

With a ground Iault , current exists not onJy in the fauJted This is illustrated by a voltage plot for various faults on a
phase a but also in the unfaulted b and e phases. The rea- simple systcm (Figure 2-45 ). For sirnplicity , assurne Z I
son is apparcnt , since lb equals •c• which equaJs -11 plus 10, z z
equals 2 equals 0. During Iaults, the voltage inside the
when X equals x2. The positive and zero sequcnce dis- generators does not change unless the fault persists long
1
tribution factors on any loop systern wiIJ be different. Con- enough for the regulators to increasc the field. No voltage
sequently , the positive, negative, and zero sequence currents change should occur in high or medium speed rclaying.
will not add up tolero in the unfaulted phases. On a radial
systern (one with a source at one end only for both thc
<] Y+
8-1 t-r~---F~-ul
-!
positivo and zero sequence), the threc network distribution
factors will ali be equal to one. For a phase-a-to-ground
fault on thcsc circuits, lb equals le, which cquals O.
1 1
1

In practice, only 310 and relared 3V0, v2, 12 valúes would

be recorded for a phase-to-ground fault. The phasc cur-
rcnts and voltages shown in Figures 2-42 were recordcd
for academic purposes,

The reason for recording 310, rather than the faulted phasc
current, can be secn from Figure 2-42. In most circuits,
there is a significant differencc between the 13 and 310 cur-
rents in any loop network. In a radial system, however, •a
is equal to 310 and ground relays operare on 310.

On phasc-to-ground faults, the phase rclays will receive cur-

rcnt and start to operare. Coordination between ground
and phase rclays is usually nol ncccssary. The principal
reason there are so few coordination problems is that phase
rclays must be set above load (5 Amp sccondary), while
ground relays are convcntionally set at 0.5 to 1.0 Amp sec-
ondary. Since the ground relays are more sensit ive, thcy
will generally not rniscoordinate with the phase relays. lf
higher ground settings are used, the potential for miscoor-
dination rnay be increascd ,
Under any fault condition, thc total current ílowing into
the ground must cquaJ the total currcnt ílowing up the
neutrals, With an autotransformer, however , current can
flow down the neutral. In this case, the fault current plus
the autotransformer neutral current equals t he curren! up
thc other transformer neutrals.
The ccnvent ion t hat current flows up the neutral and down
into t he earth at the fault has given rise to the idea that the
groundcd-wye-de lta transf'ormcr bank is a ground source-a
source of zero sequence current. This long-established idea,
is not, in fact, corrcct. The fault is the true source. lt is a
converter of positive scquence into negative sequencc and,
for ground f'aults, into zero sequencc curren t.
Figure 2-45 Voltage Gradient for Various Types of Faults.
For a solid three-phasc fault , the voltage al thc fault is zcro.
Thercfore, high positive sequence phase currcnts flow to
produce the gradient shown in the upper plot of Figure
2-45. For a phase-to-phase fault, positivo sequcnce current
from the generators is converted at the fault into negativo
sequencc, which in turn ílows through the systern. Double-
phase-to-ground faults bchave similarly. The same general
conditions aJso apply to phase-to-ground faults except lhat,
since Va is lero, v2 and v0 are negative.
In summary, the positive scquence voltagc is always highcst
at the generators or sources and lowest at the fauJt. In con·
trast, negative and zero sequence voltagc is always highest
at the fault and lowest the "sources."
Toe phasor diagrams of Figure 2-20 iJlustrate the same
phcnomona, from a different viewpoint. In a three-phase
fault, thc voltages collapse symmetrically, except inside the
generator. The three currents have a large symmetrical in-
crease and lagging shift of angle.
 2-31

Olher phase faults shown in Figure 2-20 are characterized
by the relative collapse of two of thc phase-to-neutral volt-
ages, compared to the relatively normal third phase-to-
neutral voltage, Two of the phase currents havo a large lag-
ging mercase.
l·or a singlc-phase-to-ground fault, on the other hand, 011e
pilase-to-neutral voltage is collapsed relative to lhe olher
two phases, Slmilarly, one phase current has a large lagging
mercase relatlve to the other t wo.
W1th wyc-deltu transforrners between thc f'ault and Lhe
measurement poínt, the positive sequcncc quantities shift
30° in one direction, and the negative sequence quantities
shift 30° in lhe opposite dlrection. As a result, a phase-to-
ground fault on one side of a bank has the appearance of a
nhase-to-phuse fault en thc other side and vice versa.
Figures 2-46 and 2-47 offer a final look al sequence currents
and voltages for faults. Note that thc positive sequence cur-
rents and voltages, shown in the left-hand colurnns of the
two figures, havc approximatcly thc sarne phase relations
for all types of faults. This column represents Lite condi-
tions in the generator. At the fault are various non-
symmctrical currents and voltages, as shown in the far right-
hand colurnn. The ncgative and , sornetimes, the zero se-
q uence q uantities pro vide thc transi tion bel ween the sym-
metrical lefl-hand colurnn and the non-symrnetrical right-
hund column. These quantities rotate and chango lo pro-
duce the non-symmetrical, or unbalanced, quantity when
added to the positivc scquence.
Thcsc phasors can be constructed casily by rernernbcring
which rault quantity should be mínimum or maximum. ln
a phase e-a fault, f'or examplc, phasc-b currcnt will be small.

Fault Pos,tive Negative Zero Voltages

Fault Positive Negot,ve Zero Feult Sequence Sequence Sequence at Foult
Sequence Soquence Voltages

:ro
Sequence Currenta Vol ta ges Voltages
- Curren ta Curren ta Currents
--
a.b.c ;:1 Zero 01
a.b.c

- __
C1r
._ b¡
O¡
c1 b¡
--
Foult
---
--
__ ,_ ): --- J:: e/~
.>:
a,b
C1r c1 b1 c2 02
l,b
º' b2 +-{º? -
X [.,
b1
--- C2 I>
b,c
):
e.e
--
C1r 01 º2 +-{C2
] --
c1
---
b1 b2 c2
,_

-c
-
,_ b¡ b2 o•O

C1r
e.a.
c1
): b1 02
): ~ ~b
e.e, 01 c2
- - --
.,,
c~o f-
b1 02
e/.
º1 b2
- ---- a,b,G
c,Xb1
.. .r:
e-o C2 ....t...02
1.b,G C¡r
ºo,bo,co ºº' bo,co
--b=O
º' b2 ··<°2
ª2
oo,bo,ca
b1 C2
b.c.G
º1
c,Ab, b2...l...c2
t
cj o=O
rb•c•O
b,c.G C1r O¡ º2 •.(2 +
- f-

b¡ bz C2
oo,bo,co
---.:
o0,b0,c0
- - - c,a,G
e, J..:º'b1 02)...~
~
ºo,bo,co o•c•~b
Clr

-a
c,a,G o, c2+-{~
"
c'--.o

X
o•O

~rº 2 +
b¡ C2Y.b2
- º2
oo,bo,co
-
b=O a.G
c1 b1 02 ºo,ba,Co
c~b

c,r
b=c=O
c,r
_.
,)',.o
a,G O¡
b¡ C2
Y. 02 ªo,bo,co
-
º2>- ¡
1-
e-e=O
b,G ): b2
c2 "
o/
b,G o, C1 b1
c2
b¡ --

;:
b2 oo,bo,co
0o,ba,co
02 Y.C2
e.o C1r
b¡
o, C2>-
o2
bz '\
Oo,bo,Co
e\ o=b= o c.G
c1 b1 b2
~
c=O (b

Figure2-46: Soquence Currents for Various Faults. Figure 2-47: Sequence Voltagos for Various Faults.
Assumes z1 = z2 = z0 Assumes z, = Z2 Z3 =
2-32

Thus, Ib2 will tend to be opposite lb!. Since phase-b volt- Table 2-111
age will be relatively uncollapsed, Vbl and vb2 will tend Lo Protecuve Relays Using Symmet.11c1l CompOnent Quant1t1u íor thelr Operacion
be in phase. After one sequence phasor is established, lhe
Device Bu,c R•l1y Sequence "
othcrs can be dcrived from Equation (2-18) and Figure No. Apphc1tion Types Qu1nl1l1es U•ed
2-21.
SO, SI Ground ovcrcuncnt CO. SI, SI 1. S(.'. KC
'o
S9 Grountl voltaac rv sv

i
VO

VI. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS ANO RELAYING t,7 Ground duectional CRC CRP, CRD, CRQ 10 w,11110
overcurrent IR(' IRP IRD, IRQ ••
or v010
Sincc ground relays operare from zero sequence quanlilies, 1..R(, 1..RP KRD, 1..RQf
SRGU,SRQU
ali ground relay types use syrnrnetrical cornponents. A or v 21 !
number of oí her protective rclays use cornbinalions of Lhc cwc·. rwr. ('WP-1
J2 Ground product lol or 'o· VO
sequence quantities, as surnmarized in Table 2-11 l. overcurrent

21 Ground d,stancc I..OXG 10 VO

A zero sequcnce (310) current filler is obtaincd by conncct-
ing t hree curren! transformers in parallel. A z er o sequencc srx: 1o· Vo· V 1 + V 2

(3V0) volt age filler is provided by the wye-groundcd- 78 l'h••• Jnd ground 11(8 K111+K010
brokcn-dcttu connccuon Ior a potcnual lrnnsformer oran p,lot

auxiliary. Positive and negative sequence currcnl and volt-

11( 8 1, sxa SKUl, i.., 11 • "212 • Ko1o
agc filters are describcd m Chaptcr 3. 46 rh1>c unbalance CVQ V2

46 Pha\t bal1n,t' COQ '2

l'OQ
'2

Ulown íuse Basu.: unu v0 and no110

-
detcvuon
.......__

••1.u1 h~Ucr l l\~unc,nl polu11ed

f• b po1en1ul pobntcd
U l, dual (currcnl and ,ohJge) po1ir11N
Q h: nc1at1.,.c '(:qucn,c due... uonal
 3-1

Chaptcr 3 l. INTROOUCTION

Protective relays for power systems are made up of one or

Basic Relay Units move fault-detecting or decision units, along with any nec-
Authors: J. V. Kresserand J. L. Blackburn essary logic networks and auxiliary units. Because a nurn-
ber of these fault-detecting or decision units are used in a
l. In troduction variety of relays, they are called basic units, Basic units fati
into three categories: electromechanical units. sequence
11. Electromechanical Units networks, and solid-state units.

A. Magnetic Atlraction Units

1. Plunger Units 11. ELECTROMECHANICAL UNITS
2. Clapper Units
3. Polar Units
B. Magnctic lnduction Units Four types of electromechanical units are widely use d:
1. lnduction-Oisc Units magnetic attraction, magnetic induction, O' Arsonval, and
2. Cylinder Units ther mal units.
C. D'Arsonval Units
D. Thermal Units
11.A. Magnetic Altraction Units
111. Sequence etworks

A. Zero Sequence Networks
B. Composite Sequence Current Nctworks
C. Sequence Voltage Networks
IV. Solid-State Units
A. Semiconductor Components
l. Diode
2. Zener Diode
3. Four-Layer Oiode
4. Tunnel Diode
S. Varistors, Thermistors, Sensitors
6. Transistor
7. Thyristor
8. Uni-junction Transistor
B. Solid-State Logic Units
1. Basic Principies
2. Logic Unit Representation
C. Principal Logic Units
l. ANO Unit
2. OR Unit
3. NOT Unit
4. N Unit
S. NOR Unit
6. NANO Unit
7. Tlme-Delay Units
V. Basic Logic Circuits
A. Fault-Sensing and Data Processing Units
1. Magnitude Comparison
a. Fixed Reference
b. Variable Reference
2. Phase Angle Comparison
a. Block-Block
b. Coincident Time (Ring Modulator)
B. Amplification Units
l. Breaker Trip CoiJ lnitiator
Three t ypes of magnetic auractíon units are in common use:
plunger (solcnoid); clapper; and polar. The plunger unil,
shown in Figure 3-1, is typically used in SC, SV, and ITH
rclays; the clapper-type unit (Figure 3-2) in SG, AR, ICS,
IIT, and MG relays ; and Lhe polar-type unit (Figure 3-3) in
HCB, HU, and PM rclays.
11.A.I. Plunger Units
Plunger units have cylindrical coils with an externa! rnag-
nctic structure anda center plunger, When lhe current or
C. Auxiliary Units
1. Annunciator Circuits
2. Coordinating and Loop Logic Tirners
3. Toggle or Latching Circuits
4. lsolator and Buffer Circuits
a. Input lsolalor
b. Output lsolator
c. Input Buffer
d. Output Buffer
5. Power Supply and Regulator Circuits
VI. In tegrated Circuits
A. Operational Amplifier
B. Basic Operational Amplifier Units
1. lnverting Amplifiers
2. Non-inverting Amplifiers
3. Adders
4. Subtractors
5. lntegrator and Simple Low Pass Filters
6. Differentiator and Simple High Pass Filters
7. Phase Shifl Units
8. Leve! Oetectors
9. Active Filters
3-2

voltage a pplied to the coil exceeds t he pickup value, the The more cornplex plunger unit shown in Figure 3- lb is
plunger moves upward to operate a set of contacts. The used asan instantaneous over- or undercurrent or voltage
force, F, req uired to rnove the plunger is proportional to unit. An adjustable flux shunt permits more precise set tings
the squarc of the current in the coi l. over t he nominal f'our-to-one pickup range. This unit is
relatively independent of frequency, operating on de, 25·
The plunger unit's operating characterist ics are largely de· or 60-Hz nominal frequency. lt is availahle in high and low
termined by the plunger shape, the interna! core, lhe rnag- drop-out versions.
netic stru cture, the coil design , and thc magnelic shunts.
11.A.2. Clapper Units
Plunger units are instantaneous in that no delay is purposcly
introduced. Ty pical operating times are Sto SO ms, with Clapper unils have a U-shaped magnetic frarne with a rnov-
t he longer times occur ring near the threshold values of able armature across the open cnd. The ar muturc is hinged
pickup. al one side and spring-restrained al t he other. When the as·
sociat ed ctcctrical coil is energizccl, thc arma tu re movcs
The unit shown in Figure 3-1 a is used as a high drop-out in· towards the magnetic core. opening or closing a set of con·
stantancous ovcrcurrent unit. The stecl plunger floats in an tacts with a torque pro portional to the squarc of the coil
nir gap provided by a non-magnct ic ring in the ccnter of the currcnt. The pickup an d drop-out values of clupper units
magnctic corc. When thc coi! is cnergized, the plunger as- are less accurate than t hosc of plunger units, Clupper units
scrnbly moves upward, carrying a silver disc which bridges are primarily applicd as auxiliary or go/no-go units.
thrcc stationary contacts (only two are shown). /1. helical
spring ahsorhs t he ac plunger vihrat ions, producing good Four clappcr units are shown in Figure 3-2. Thosc sho wn
con tact action. Thc air gap provides a ratio of drop-out to in Figures 3-2a and 3·2h havc thc samc general design, but
pickup of 90 pcrcen t or greater overa two-to-one pickup thc first is for de service and the second for ac operalion.
range. The pickup rango can be varied from a two-t o-one In hoth units, upward movcrncnt of lhc ar maturc rclcascs a
lo a four-l'o-onc rango by lhc adjusting coro scrcw. When targct , which drops to provide a visual inclication of opera-
t he pickup range is increuscd lo Iour-to-one, lhc drop-out tion. (The target rnust be reset manually.) The de l('S unit
ratio will de crease to a pprox i rnately 4 S pcrccn t. (Figure 3·2a) is commonly uscd to provide a seal-in around
the main proteclive rclay contacts. The ac I IT unit (Pigurc
Oltlcr rclays are cquippcd with similar units: an instanta- 3-2b) operatcs asan instant:ineous ovcrcurrenl or instunta·
ncous trip attachmcnt for de operation anti a contactor neous trip unil. lts adjustablc corc providcs pickup adjust-
switch for de operation. No longcr manufacturcd, these ment overa nominal four-to-one range.
units do not have an intcrnal air gap and, consequently,
havc a low drop-out ratio. Thc SG-MG clapper unils (Figure 3·2c) provide a wide rangc
of contact mulliplicr auxiliaries: the SG has provisions for

Plunger(Con1oc1s No, Showr1)

c::::::!o----Ad¡ust,nq
CoreScrew

t--r'-1i:N~:-==I----P1unger
11'<-,,..::::,,,,---Contocts

r.'----Ad1us1ob1e
Flux Shunl
W ¡~;__-- Interno! Core

•• (al (bl

Figure 3-1, Plunger Type Units.

 3.3

Mogne,,c
-~rome
Mo,nSr,ng
Co,I
Cote--..¡..¡¡.;;;...µ.,

(a) lnd,caung Con1ac1 Sw,1c11 (ICS)

Mognetic
Frome

Logloop_@
~Mov,nq
Comoct

(bl lnd,cat,ng Instantaneous Trtp lllT}

Dpst
Reversible

(e) SG Relay (Open Type)

Mov,ng Contoct

Armoture
Ad¡ushn<;¡
sc,ew

Mognet,c
Frome

(d) H1gh Speed (AR)

Figure 3-2

four contacts (lwo make and two break), and the MG will
accept six. The AR clapper unit (Figure 3·2d) operares in
2 lo 4 ms, with four contacts suitable for breaker tripping.
11.A.3. Polar Units
Polar units (Figure 3-3) operate from direcl current applied
to a coi! wound around the hinged arrnature in the center of
lhe magnetic structure, A permanent rnagnet a cross the
structure polarizes Lhe armature-gap potes, as shown. Two
non-rnagnetic spacers, located at the rear of the magnetic
frame, are bridged by two adjustable magnetíc shunts. This
arrangernent cnables the magnetic flux paths to be adjusted
for pickup and contact action. Wilh balanced air gaps (Fig-
ure 3-3a), the flux paths are as shown and the armature will
float in the center with t he coil deenergized. With the gaps
unbalanced (Figure 3-3b), sorne of the flux is shunted
through the ar mature , The resulting polarization holds the
3-4

armature against one pole with the coil deenergized. The The operating equation of the polar unit is
coil is arranged so that its rnagnetic axis is in line with the
arrnature, and at righl angle to the permanent magnet axis. K
Current in the coil magnetizas thc armature either north or K
11 op
- K21
r
=-2
1/)
(3-1)
south, increasing or decreasing any prior polarization of the
armature. lf, as shown in Figure 3-3b, the magnetic shunt
where K I and K2 are adjusted by the magnetic shunts; K3
adjustment normally rnakes the armature a north pole, it
is a design constant; 1/) is the perrnanent magnetic flux· 1
will rnove to thc right. Direct current in the operating coil, . . ' op
is the operatíng current; and Ir is the restraint current in
which tends to make thc contact end a south pole, will over-
millia rnperes.
come this tendency and the contact will move to the left.
Dcpending on design and adjustments, this polarizmg action
11.B. Magnetic lnduction Units
can be gradual or quick. The left gap adjustment (Figure
3-3b) controls the pickup value ; the righl gap adjustmcnt
There are t wo general types of magnelic induction units:
controls the reset current value.
induction disc and cylinder units. The induction disc unit
(Figure 3-4) is typically used in CO, CV, CR, IRV, IRD,
CW, CA, and CM relays. The cylinder unit (Figure 3-6) is
used in KD-line, KC, KDXG, KF, KRD, KRC, and KRP
relays.

11.8.1. lnduction-Disc Units

Originally, ínductíon-disc units were based on the watthour

meter design, Modern units, however, while using the same
operating principies are quite different. Ali operate by
torque derivcd from the ínteraction of fluxes produced by
an electromagnel with lhose from induced currents in the
plane of a rotatablc aluminum dísc. The E unit, in Figure
3-4a, has t hree poles on one side of the disc arid a common
magnctic member or keeper on the opposite side. Thc main
Mognet,c Spoces coil is on the center leg. Curren t , 1, in the rnain coil pro-
Shunt
duces flux, 1/), which passes through the air gap ancl clise to
the keeper. (A small portíon of Lhe flux is shunted off
through the side air gap.) The flux, 1/), returns as <f>L through
the left-hand leg andas 1/)R through lhe right-hand leg,
where 1/) = c/>L + <{>R. A short-circuited lagging coil on thc
left leg causes 1/)L to lag both 1/)R and <{>, producing a split-
phase motor a et ion. (The phasors are shown in Figure 3-5 .)
(a) Balanced A,r Gaps (b) Unbalanced A,r Gaps
Fígure 3-3: Polar Type Unit. Flux 1/)L induces voltage V an d current Is flows, essentially
5,
in phase, in the shorted lag coil. Flux <f>T is the total flux
Sorne units use both an operating and a restraint coi!. The produced by main coil current, l. The three fluxes cross
polarity of the restraint coil tends to maintain the contacts the disc air gap and induce eddy currents in the disc. These
in their initial position. A combination of normally open or eddy currents set up counter fluxes, and the interaction of
normally closed contacts is available. These polar units op- the two sets of fluxes produces the torque which rotales the
erate on alternating current through a full-wave rectifier and dísc, With the same reference direction for the t hree fluxes
provide very sensitive, high speed operation on very low en- as shown in Figure 3-Sb, the flux shifts from left to right
ergy levels. and rotates the disc clockwise.
 3-5

~Disc

Keeper
(al lbl
0
+--r-Drsc
Figure 3·5: Phasora and Oporotions of Tho "E" Unit lnduction Oisc.

cpL divides bctwecn t he two upper peles as shown, Currcnt

í
Is
Mo,nColl

-Elrcrromogr,er
18, obtuíncd by trunsf'ormcr action, passcs t hrough tltc two
uppei peles and produces flux <l>u· This flux, <l>u, Ilows
down thc right uppcr polc through the disc and up the left
upper pele. There is lime und spacc qundruturc bct wccn
thcse two fluxcs. Thc interaction of<l>u anti c/JL with the
MogncrPlugs flux es from t he cddy currcnts induccd in t he disc produces
(al The E" Un,t
clock wisc mot ion.

Thcre are many ulternatc versions of t he induction-disc unil.

The units shown in Figure 3·4, for cxarnplc, have a single
curren! or voltage input. Tite disc always rnoves in rhc sarne
direction , rcgardlcss of thc dircction of Ihe input. lf the lag
----o,sc coil is open, no torque will exist. Other unlts can thus con-
trol torque in thc induct ion-disc unit. Most commonly, a
dircctional unit is conne cted in the lag coil circuit. When
the dircctional unit's contact is close d, thc lnduct ion-disc
Lag Co,I
unit has torque ; whcn the contact is open, thc unit has no
torque.

--- Mo,n Coll

lnduct ion-disc units are uscd in powcr or dircctionul n ppli-
cations hy suhst ií uí ing an additional input coil for the lag
coil in thc E unit , or for t hc upper polos in the OA unit .
lb) Tho "OA" Un,t Thc phase relation between thc two inputs determines the
dircct ion of thc operating torque.
Figure 3.4 lnduction Oisc Unit.

A spiral spring on thc clise shaft conducts current to t he

The OA induction-disc unit shown in Figure 3-4b was uscd moving con la et. This spr ing, t ogether wit h l he shape of t he
for many years. The operat ion of this unit is similar lo lhal disc (an Archimedes spiral) and the dcsign of the electro-
of the e unit described above. Current in lhe main coil, 1, rnagnet , provides a constant mínimum operai ing curren!
produces flux,</>, which passes through the disc as <1>1. Flux over thc contacts' travel rangc. A permancnt magnet with
3-6

a djustu b le keeper (shunt j uarnps t he J1:,1. .. nd ll1dt1,11el1c Opei aung t or que ~ d tuncuon ot the product ot t he twu
plugs in the electromagnet control the degree of saturauon operating quantities and the cosine of the angle between
The spring tension, the damping magnet, and the magnetic them. The torque equation is
plugs allow separate ancJ relatively independent adjustrnent
of the unit's ínverse lime overcurrent characteristics, (3·2J

11.B.2. Cylinder Units
The operatíon of a cylinder unu 1:. similar to thal of an in·
duction motor with salient poles for the srator windings.
Shown in Figure 3-6, the basic unil used for retays has an
inner sreet core at the center of the square electromagnet,
with a thin-walled aluminum cylmder rotating in the air gap
Cyhnder travel is limited lo a few degrees by the contact
and stops; a spiral spring provides reset torque.
where K ami i¡, are desrgn constarus. l I a nd 12 t he cur rerns
through the t wo coils; O 12 the angle between 11 and 12; and
Ks tite restraining spring torque. Different combinations of
input quantiues can be used for different applications, sys-
tem voltages or currents, or network voltages.
11.C. D'Arsonval Units
In uie D'Arsonval unu, shown in Figure 3-7, a 111agm:t11 ..
structure andan inncr perrnancnt magnet forma two-pole

!'
cylincJrical core. A rnoving coil loop in thc air gap is encr-
gized by direct current , which reucts with the air gap flux
to crea te rotauonal torque. Tite D' Arsonval unit operutes
on very low energy input, such as tltal availablc from de
shunts, brrdge net works, or recrified ac. The unit can also
be used as a de contaet-rnak ing rnilliarn meter.

II O Thermal Units

Therrnal uruts consist ot biruetullic strips vr coils ihar huve

one end Iixed and the other end free. As the temperat ure
changes, the different coefficienls of thermal expansión of
the two metals cause thc free end of thc coi! or strip to
move, operaung a contact structure for relay applications.

I
111. SEQUENCE NETWORKS

Statrc networks with t hree-phase current or vultage mputs

-
can provide a single-pitase out pul proport iona t co positivo,

-
negative, or zero sequen ce quantities. These net works, also
_..___
q
known as sequence ñlters, are widely used as fault sensors.

111.A. Zero Sequence Networks

In zero sequcnce networks, three current transformer sec-

ondaries, connectecJ in parallel, provide 310 from 13, lb, and
le inputs. Strnilarly, the secondaries of three-phase poten-
tial transformers, connected in series wit h the pr imary in
grounded wyc, provide 3V O from Van Vbn- and Ven inputs
'
F19uf& 3-6 Cylinder Unot
 3.7

work. Z5 is t he self-irnpedance of t he t hree-winding reac-

tor's secondary with mutual impedance Xm.

s
(-)

R1 Ro
Vr,
Zs
(+)

Xm

(a) Sequence Network

To Ope,OllllQ Unn

(b) Equ,valont C11cu11

Figure 3-8: Composite Sequence Curren! Network.

The open circuir voltage, Figure 3-8a, with switch r open

.
and switch s closed, is: (The drops from V F (+) to V F (-).]
~~~-----~~~·-··-··
1 1
Moun11ng Surfoce
··-
1
(3-3)

From the basic Symmetrical Component equations, (equa-

tion 2-30 and 2-31 in Chapter 2).
--...-->:------+-BrossSpocers
..,....,__'--__._ ond Moun1,ng 10- lb=j../JI1-h/312 (3-4)
Blocks
_.~,...___...,.. ,.,_...,.___ -+Pe1monen1 Mognel Substituting this and the sequence equation (2-29) for la,
.'-!----+-- !ron Pole Shoes
in cquation (3-3):
..J......¡~.....::.1,2,;~----¡-- Movmg eo,1

Figure 3-7: O'Araonval Type Unít

111.8. Composite Sequenc Current Networks (3-5)

The nctwork shown in Figure 3-8 can be adapted for a vari- Varying Xm, R 1, R0, and the connectíons produces difter-
ety of single-phase outputs. V F is obtained from in pul cur- cnt output churacteristics. In sorne applications, the cur-
rents 13, lb, and le, with neutral (310) return. Using rents lb and le are interchanged , changing Equation (3-5) to
Thevenin's Theorem, these t hree-phase networks can be
reduced to a simple equivalent circuit , as shown in Figure
3·8b. VF is the open circuit voltagc at the out put , and Z
is the impedance looking back into the three-phase net-
3·1)

I'abte 3.1 •

·1 ypícal Sequence Networ k Co mbuiarlons

--
Switch Switch Figure 3-8 VF reduces from:
Net work Type r s xm = Notes Equation to Equal

Positive Sequcnce e lo sed open R 1¡..fi in terchange (3-6) 2R111

lb ancl le

Ncguuve Sequence closed o pen R ¡1'/3 as shown (3-5) 2R¡ 12

IICU Cornposne open do:.t:J R¡/V3 I nterchange (3-6) 2R111 +(R1 + 3R0)10
lb and le

HCB-1 and SKB UP,:11 du:.1:!J l .4óR l 01 JS shown \ 3-5) -0.211 + .46212 +
Composites " .191 ohrns (R¡ +3R0)10

*Data for Tap C of three taps available.

With switch, closcd and switch sopen, (he zero sequeuce thJtl xbli-lVbyll lhefilteroulput,Vxy=Yp,1Sllie
response of Equat ions (3-5) and (3-6) is climinatcd. The phasor sum of t hcse t wo voltages.
zero sequence drop across R1 is 2/3R1 tao - l/3R1 (lbo +
lc0) =
O. The swit ches r and s are used in Figure 3-8 as a
convenicnce. ~ ....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o
~-+-~~~~~~~~~ ........ .._~~ .... ~~~~~b

Severa! typical sequence network .:urnl>111Jt1011:. J11;: g1v.:11 in

Table 3-1.

111.C. Sequence Voltuge e rworks

Au101,ansfo,me,
l
Se quencc voltage net wor ks provide J :.mgh:·phd:,i; out pul
propon ion al to cithcr thc positive or thc negativo sequen, .. c
y
r---1/F---
• 1
voltagc of phase a. A net work in common use is shown in
Figure 3-9. Since this net work is delta-connected to tht AnQle ol Z + R bO•
Sw11c1>es Sw11cnes
three-phase potenlial source (a, b, e), thcrc is no response tu Tyµ,, ""'"
r s Anc¡leol Z•a2•
zero sequence. ~mve SeQuence Ope,, Closed VF=l.135 Voi!-60°
Negot,ve~ Closed Opén VF•l.135 Voz !-60°

The nctwork is best cx plauted tlu ough t he phasor J1<1g1.i111,

Figure 3-1 O. By design , t he pitase angle of Z +R lags by Figure 3.9 Sequence Voltage Network.

60°. For convcnience. consider swit ches s 10 be closed ano

swit ches r open. lrnpedance l + R is thus connected across W11h only negauve sequence volt ages applicd (Figure 3-IOh),
voltagc V ah' and the auto transforma across volt age V be' V xhi is equal ancl opposiic lo V by2: t hat is, V xy = V F = O.
With only positive sequence voltages (Figure 3-IOa). the cur- Thus, this is a positive sequen ce nct work.
rent labl t hrough Z+ R lags Vabl by 60°. Thc drop Vxbl
a cross R is in phase wit h l his currcnt, while t he drop V by I A negauve sequence net work can be made by reversing I he
across the autotransformer lo t he t ap is in phasc with volt- b and e leads or. in Figure 3-9, by opening s and closing r.
age Vbc across the entire transformer. The tapis chosen su Then Figure 3-1 Oa condit ions apply to negativc sequence ,
 3-9

giving an output V F; Figure 3-1 Ob conditions apply to posi- Oevce Symbol Bossc Chorocteristic
tive sequence with V F = O.
(+)

-
IF
This interchange of b and e leads in either the current or
llil Reverse
voltage networks offers a very convenient techniq ue for (al D1ode [F (·V) (V)
Forword
checking the networks. For exarnple, the negatíve sequence
~
nelwork should have no output on balanced power system t -IF ,n p.A
Junct,on
load but, by inter changing lhe b and e leads, it should pro-
(+)
duce fuU output on test. ¡.--y-.¡
.,.
-
(b) Zener Diode

Vabl Vob2 IF Reverse

(-V)

¡.--v-..¡
.,..
Surge Suppressor

-
(Vol!Trop,
(e)
Zener Chpper,
Thyrectorl I

V
(+)
¡.--v-..¡
(d) 4 Laye, Diode

81
(a) Positive Sequence (b) Negative Sequence
Voltages Apphed
Is ih
Vottaqes Apphed

Figure 3-10: Phasor Díagrams for The Sequence Voltage Network v,b
of Figure 3.9 With "s" Closed and "r" Open.

IV. SOLID-STATE UNITS (+)

14-v-..¡
(el Tunnel D,ode
IV.A. Semiconductor Components 1)3
--+l

Solid-state relays use various low po wer cornponents: di-

odes, transistors, and thyristors, and associated resistors anti
(1) Voristor
capacitors. These components have been designed into logic
units used in many relays. Before these logic units are de-
scribed in detail, the semiconductor components anti (heir
(g) Therm,stor
characterístics will be reviewed (Figure 3-11 ). Relays use
T
silicon-type components almost exclusively because of t heir
stability overa wide temperature range.
(h) Sens,stor

T
IV.A.I. Diode
Figure J. 11 Semi Conductor Components and Their
Characteristics.

The diode (Figure 3-1 la) is a two-terrninal P-N junction. lf

a de voltage is applied with positive on the P elemenl and
negative on the N element, the free electrons in the N rna-
terial will flow across the junction, provided t hat the ap-
plied voltage is greater than the mínimum valué or poten tia!
hill. For the common diodes, t he potential hill is about
0.7 V. As ele ctrons pass thejunctions, t he holes, or absence
of electrons, move by displacernent to establish a current,
IF. Electro ns removed from the N material are replenished
by lhe de source,
Whcn lhe polarity of the de source is reversed, the free elec-
trons in the N material ancl the holes in the P material drift
away from thejunction. This depletion of carriers results in
a very low curre nt, and is the source of the characteristic di-
ode blocking action.
As the reverse voltage is increased, it reaches a critica!
point-the peak inverse voltage (PIV)-where lhe reverse cur-
ren t hegins to in crease significantly. Beyond lhis PIV, t he
3-10

current rises very rapid ly , and the junction breaks down. trical characteristics. The difference, of course, is thal the
For either sustained forward voltages or voltages greater polarity of the de voltage and direction of current flow are
than the PIV, externa( impedances must be used lo lirnit lhe opposite in the two types.
current to within the diode's rated valúes.
NPN Type PNP Type
IV.A.2. Zener Diode Etectron Flow HoleFlow
e(Em1tter} ~ c(CoHectorl e(Em,1ter) ~ e( Col lector l

N p N p p
The Zener diode (Figure 3-11 b) differs frorn the diode de- -¡;-+
~ ~ ~
scribed above in having a sharp and reproducible reverse tib

breakdown voltage, called lhe Zener voltage. lf the curren! b(Bose} b(Bose)

is Limited to within rated values, the junct ion recovers its Vce Vce
(+} (+)
non-conducting characteristics when the reverse voltage falls
below lhe Zener value. For these reasons, Zener diodes are Ele<:lromechon1col Electromechan,col
Equ,volent Equ,volent

':rC'
used for surge protection and in circuits su bject to reverse le le le le
~ ~ e ~ ~ e
polarity.
1 ·~, 1
Where surges or transients are oscillating, or for positive and
negative peaks, thc back-to-back Zener (Figure 3-11 e) corn-
01

b
t,b'º
Ie
01

b
i,b'º
I
e
monly known as VoltTrap, Zener clipper , or Thyrector-

·~, t
provides effective surge suppression. The characteristics of le le
these diodes are essentially the sa me in both the forward
and reverse direction.

IV.A.3. Four-Layer Diode b e

Note:
The four-layer diode (Figure 3-11 el) is used to obtain pulses @D. Rec1angle Aroond Transistor Des,gno1,on Oenoies
Trons1st0r N0rmolly Conduc11n9
frorn a de curren t. As the characteristic shows, thc forward
Figure 3· 12. The Transistor and Equivalent Electrícal Symbols.
currenl, 1, is srnall until thc voltagc rcaches a threshold, Vs,
at which point the diode conducts. Subsequently, thc di-
In relaying, the transistor is used primarily as a switch. For
ocle continues to pass current with V considerably reduced ,
this function, it is shifted from a non-conducting Lo a con-
ducting state or vice versa by the base current, 10. The tran-
\V .i\A. iunne\ Diode
sistor is non-conducting when lb is zero or essentially zero.
\Vhen lb is increased to a positive value , the transistor con-
The tunnel diode, Figure 3-1 le, passcs current at low volt-
ducts, and collector currents le and le flow. (Figures 3- 1 2
ages, reaching a peak IP at V p: Al higher voltages, the cur-
and 3-13.) The emitter current le is the sum of lb and le.
ren! decreases lo a mínimum of lv at Vv• then increases to
Very small values of lb can control much larger values of le
IP again al V pp:
and le (Figure 3-13).

IV.A.S. Varistors, Thermistors, Sensitors

The characteristics of thc varistor are shown in Figure 3-11 f,
and those of two temperature-sensitive resistors in Figures
3-1 lg and 3-11 h, respectivcly.
IV .A.6. Transistor
The transistor consísts of three semiconductor materials,
assembled with two junctions (Figure 3-1 2). The two types
of transistors-NPN and PNP-have essentially the same elec-
IV.A.7. Thyristor
The thyristor (Figure 3-14) is a diode with a Lhird electrode-
the gatc. (Thc thyristor is also known as a silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR) or trinistor.) With forwarcl voltage applie d,
t he thyristor will not conduct until gate current IG is ap-
plied to trigger conduclion. The higher the gate current, the
lower the anode-to-cathode voltage (V F), required to start
anode conduction. After conduction is establishe d and the
gate current removed, the anode current, IF, continues to
 3-11

flow. The minimum anoue ~uu.:111 1.:yu11cJ lv ,uü,Cdllt ..:,111

duction is called the holding current , 11-1. "IJ 'J "bt;
. ~.
í
r
t:;us., '~,
Current

lb:¡
Ve

lo.. l -------!~

Frgu11, 3 16 1 ne Unr 1vn..:toun Transistor and lts Ch11racteros11cs

IV .8. Sohd-Srate Logic Units

---------------Cb¿
I Y .B. 1. Basic Principies
----------------lo,
Solrd-srate logre uruts are -.v111011,dl1u11:, ul :>Vhu·:>ldlt'. ;;0111
ponents designed ro use de voltage signals 10 perform logic
functions. A logic unit has only t wo states: no out pu 1, re p-
resente d by O (zer o): and out put, re presented by 1 (one).
Two logic conventions are used to indicare the voltages as·
sociated with the zero and one st ates. In normal logic, O is
equivalen! to zero voltage , and 1 is equivalen! to normal
8ose Curren! lb•S VeryMuch Smo1ler Ttoon The Couecro. Currem le
voltage. In reverse logic, rhe corresponding voltage equiva-
Figqre 3-13: Typical Characteristic Curves of Transistor
Jents are reversed: O is equivalent to normal voltage and l 1,
equivalen! to zero voltage.

·1
[H• Hold,r,9 Currer.,
1 ~!, ,,.,vVt ln re la ying, normal logic is use d , and normal volt age rs 20 V
¡G2>lG1'•uv unless otherwise indicated. In addition,
rhree dit-
t here are
Bteolo. 1. , .. ,i;:, ferent logic conventions for the input/outpur
polarities, ln
-
-- - - ---
- ) positive logic, inputs and outputs are positive : in negative
logic, bot h inputs and out puts are negative , In mixed logíc,
inputs are either positive or negative ; outputs are usually
positive but could be negative. Relay systems normally use
posit ive logic, a lt houg h sorne elernents may use negative sig-
Fo, ,vU1d 61()<..,,,oll nal inputs or out put s, Transist ors, for exarnple, require neg-
at ive voltages on sorne ele ctrodes,
Figure 3·14: The lhyrostor a,,d hs Characterostics

Logre unus are shown diagrummaucally in their quresce nt

st ate ; that is, the normal or "at-rest " state. This quiescent
IV.A.8. Uni-juncuon Transistor st ate corresponds to the normally deenergized representa-
rion in clectro mechanical relay circuitry.
The final semiconductor componeut .... u1ll1llunly eucoum er eu
inrelayingistheuni-junctiontransistor(Figure 3-15). This IY.B.2. Logic-Unit Represeurarion
semiconductor has two bases. b1 and b2, and one erniuer, e
When Ve reaches the peak value, Y P' the device conducts Logre unus are re present ed by characrensu; 1u11..:t1u11 sy m-
and passes current , le. Current will continue to flow as long bols. Two sets of syrnbols are in common use: one is used
as V e does not fall below the mínimum value, V v : The uni- primarily by t he electronics industry and by the military
Iunction transistor is used for oscillator and timing circuits. electronics logic cir cuitr y: t he other is used primarily by the
3 i2

po wer mdustr y and 111 !>UlHh,lalc 1day 1>y!>tc1w, 111 tite d uiverse logre, wrucn 1cp1c~cut~ ene 111v.:rs10n uf t he uul·
commercial/military system, t he type of functiun is inui- puts; that is, the zeros andones of the outputs are inter-
cated by the geometrical shape of t he symbol. In solid-srate changed. Since the effe ct of the interchange is similar tu
relaying, the narne of the logic function is simply wr itten in a compte mentary function in the binary systern, it is
a rectangle or block (Figure 3-16). Convention dictates that sornetimes called the cornplernent. The effect of the
inputs are shown on the left-han d side and outputs on the interchange is t he sarne as adding a NOT (negation) ele·
right-hand side. The symbols and terminology used comply ment to each output (Figure 3-l 9a). As will be seen la ter,
withlEEEStandard 91-1973(ANSI Standard Y32 14-1973) an inverse logic function may also be represented by an-
"Graphic Syrnbols for Logic Diagrarns." other function with a different designation.

b. negation logic, which represents thc inversion of ali in-

puts. The ef'Iect of the interchange is the same as adding
a NOT unit to each input (Figure 3·19b). Again, this
type of function may be representad by another func-
lnpul~XondYond Ou1pu1 Zccn oe Oo 1 tion with a different designation.

Figure 3-16: Examplo of Log,c Symbol. c. combination logic, which cornprises normal, ínverse, and
negation logic functions. The example shown in Figure
W\Nr.: 11.:11,.iti.~ or m1x~ú \N:.i\we ,má ne~ative \011,ic are used, 3-l 9c is a Iunciion with one input negatcd.
tite souc- or open-, Iull- or half-arrow convention (Figure
3-17) is used to distinguish bet ween the positive and nega- When a logic function has only lwo inputs, üs output is
trve meaning of one ( l) relative to zero (O). usually simple to determine. For t hree or more inputs, par·
ticularly with cornbination logic functions, a logic or truth
table offers a convenient method of cletermining the output ,
A logic table rora funct ion with three in puts and one out-
--1> pul is shown in Figure 3-20. The table lists ali possíble corn-
binat ions of zeros andones for the inputs. Each output , X,
1 .s More Posrnve Thon O , ,s M0te Nego11ve Thon O could be zero or one, depending on the function.

Figure 3-17: Polarity Symbol Convention.

The negation or "NOT" urut (Figure 3-18) is J trequenrly

used logic element. This unit changes the state of the input
from O to 1 or vice versa. For conve nience, the symbol
{a} tnverse Logoc 1b} Negatoon Logoc le} Mixed Log,c
shown in Figure 3-l 8a is replaced by that shown in Figure
3- l 8b for negated outputs, by that shown in Figure 3-l 8c. Figure 3-19· Variations for Normal Logic.

lnpulS

A B
·- e Out pul

Ou1put is 1 forOlnput
o o o X

Outpur rs O for 1 lnpu1

o o l X
o l o X
(a} Symbol tb} Negatéd Input (el Negated Outpot o 1 1 X
1 o o X
l o 1 X
Figure 3-18: Negation Symbol Convention.
1 1 o X X ,sOorl Depend111g Upu"
l l 1 X Typeof Log,c Functoon
Three variations of normal logic are Irequeruly used in logre
Figure 3-20: Examples of Logic Table.
diagrams:
 3·l 3

IV.C. Principal Logic Units t he u nit a r e ~huwn 111 F1gwc J-2..lb, ct11d the lv¡¡1c t aule tn
Figure 3-23..:. Since the diodes are not biased , an input vo lt-
In this section, the major urut s Ll~t;ú in I e la y ing will be de- age applied to any input wi ll produce an oulput voltage at
scribed. Detailed circuit descriptio ns will be ke pt lo a míni- X.
mum. For sirnplicity, the diagrarns will show only two in·
puts per function antl will i.nclude electr omechanical con-
tact equivalents,
lnputs
lnputs O.,tput ~ Output

,o
A B
IV.C.l. ANO Unit A X~
o o

~~b-
o ..
1
TheANDlogicelementisshuwn m h~u1t;J·ll ll1c:;1111· 1 o l
1 1 1
plest type consists of Iorward-biased diodes and resistors
(Figure 3·2la). The sy mbolic representation and t he etectr o-
(al Crrcmt tb) Symbol (el Log,c Tabh:
rnechanical equivalents for this unit are given in Figure 3-21 b,
lhe logic table in Figure 3-21 c. The forwar d-biascd dio des
Figure 3-23: OA Logic.
shunt the output terminal, and no output voltage can appeat
unless ali input diodes have a reverse bias t hat equals or ex-
lhrce varrauo ns of the UR u111t, co ruparab le Lo those of the
ceeds the forward bias. Since in puts are eit her zero or one,
ANO elernen t, are shown together with their electromecham-
there is no in between state that would allow partial out pul
cal equiva lents in figure 3-24a, b, and c. By comparing Fig-
voltage. Thus, the output is either zero or one , as sho wn on
ure 3·24a with Figure 3-22b, it is clear thal the inverse OR
lhe íoglc table. Three variations of the AND elernent are
unit is cquivalent to the negation AND. Sirnilarly, the nega-
shown in Figure 3-22.
tion OR of Figure 3-24b is equivalen! Lo lhe inverse ANO of
Figure 3-22a.

(+)
loputs

J
Output
lnpu!I A B
0utfM ~
A ~ o o o
A B
o 1 o
o o
B ---l f--l 1- 1
(a) Circuít (b) Symbol (e) Log,c Table A 8
--#-·-#-
Figure 3·2t: ANO Logic.
lb) rnver se OA 101 Negíltion OR (C) M,xcd OA

t& ti3-
Figuro 3-24. Variations of OA Logic.

~ Anot he r vanat ion o! the OR element is the exclusive 01{ or

A

-dJ-
OE (Figure 3-25). OE differs from the normal OR unit in
A B A B
that it does not provide an output I when both inputs are l
~ -1f----tf-
(a) lnverse ANO {b) Negat,on ANO \C) Moxo;d ANO
lnpurs
Figure 3-22: Variations of ANO Logic. Ovrpot
A B
o o o
IV.C.2. OR Unit o l l
l o 1
l 1 o
The OR unit is sho wn in Figure 3-23. Again , t he sirnplest (el Logic Table
laJ Symbol \b) Equivalent
type of unit consists of resistors and diodes. The syrnbo lie
representation and the electr ornechanical equivalents for Figure 3-25: Exclusive OR Logic.
3-l4

IV.C-3. NOI' Unit

The NOT unit, together wuh rts etcctro rnecharucal equiva-

lent and logic table, is shown in Figure 3-26. While the NOT
unit can be included in logic díagrarns as a separa te unit, it is
A B
usually combined with other units using the syrnbols shown -lHf-
in Figure 3-18.
(a) lnverse NOR (bl Negation NOR

Figure 3-29: Variations of NOR Logic.

lnpu1 Oulpu1
o 1
1 o IV.C.6. NANO Unit
(a) Symbol (b) Eqwvalent (e) Log,c Table
Shown in Figure 3-30, the NANO unit (for NOTA and 8)
Figure 3-26: NOT Logic. is equivalent to the negation OR (Figure 3-24b) and ínverse
ANO (Figure 3-22a). Two variatio ns of the NANO unit are
IV.C.4. N UnH shown in Figure 3-3 L. The inverse NANO is equivalent to
the ANO (Figure 3-21) and the negation NANO to t he OR
The inversión unir (N), shown in Figure 3-27, is a polaríty (Figure 3-23).
reversa! unit. There is no negation.

o-
A lnputs
Input Ourpur Ou1pu1
A B
o o
+1 -1 o o 1
o 1 l
{n) Symbol (b) Logic Table 1 o 1
1 1 o
Figure 3-27: Polarity lnversion Logic. ic1) Sy.-nbol (b) Equivalent \e) Logic Table

Figure 3-30: NANO Logíc.

IV.C.S. NOR Unit

The NOR unit (Figure 3-28) is equivalent to uormally closed

contacts in series, since it has no output if there is a I on any
input. This logic is identical to that of the negatíon AND
(Figure 3-22b) or inverse OR (Figure 3-24a). lnverse and
negation NOR units, sho wn in Figure 3-29, are equivalent
to lhc OR unit of Figure 3-23 and AND unit of Figure 3-2 l , A B
respectively. (The na me is derived from NOT A or B.)
---lHr-
(~) lnverse NANO (b) Negation NANO

Figure 3-31: Variations of NANO Logic.

lnpuls
Output
A B
o o 1 Fro m the above discussion, it can be deduced that, e xce pt
o 1 o for the OE, NOT, and N logic units, a ny of the logic func-
1 o o
1 1 o tions can be represented in three different ways: ( 1) as nor-
(a) svmbot (b) Equivalent (e) Logic Table mal logic of one type of unit, (2) as inverse logic of a second
type of unit , or (3) as negation logic of a third type of unit.
Figure 3-28: NOR Logic. That is, there are four types of logic functions-AN D, OR,
 3-15

NANO, NOR -which can be represenled by a tola! of 12 d if- V. BASIC LOGIC CIRCUITS
ferenl symbols (Figure 3-32). The Iirst column in Figure
3-32 represents the normal logic ; the second represen Is in- In describing basic logic circuits, two types oí diagrarns are
verse logic; und t he t hird, negation logic. Thrce different used: Lhe logic block diagram and lhe logic circuit schernatic
symbolic rcpresentations can thus be used for each of the diagrarn. In the logic block diagram (also called logic sche-
four funclions, depending on the logic diagrarn requirerncnts matic diagram), the units are represented by Lheir logic syrn-
and on engineer or designer prcfcrcnce. bols, and lhc logic syrnbol blocks are interconnected to pro-
vide a complete funclional representation of Lhe systern. In
lhc Jogic circuit schernatic diagrarn, Lhe elements are shown
schcrnatically. Unil interconnections are shown in the sa me
way as in normal schcrnatic diagrarns. The logic block dia-
gram is uscful in showing the complete systern in funclional
form; the logic schematic circuit diagram in showing how
the logic units operate. In lhe following discussion, logic
schematic diagrams will be used.

Serniconductors and solid-state logic units can be cornbined

in a number of ways lo provide basic logic units for relays
and relay systems. There are three major classifications:
fault-sensing and dala processin g logic units: amplification
logic units; and auxiliary logic units.

Normal Logic lnverse Logic Negation Logic

V.A. Fault-Sensing and Data Processing Units
Figure 3·32: Relationship Between Logic Elements.
In solid-state relays, fault-sensing and data processing lcgic
circuits use po wer systern inputs (voltage, current, phase
IV.C.7. Time-Delay Units anglc, freque ncy, and so on) to determine if any intolerable
system conditions exist within the relay's zone of prolcction.
Tirne-delay units are uscd in t he normal manner to pro vide The conventional functions obtained by logic circuits are
ON and/or OFF delays. The syrnbolic representation is listcd in Table 3-11.
shown in Figure 3-33. The X value in Figure 3-33a is t he
Table 3-11
pickup time; that is, the time that clapses betwcen an input
Conventional Funct ions Obtained by
signal being received andan output signal appearing. The Y Fault-Sensing and Data Processing Logic Circuits
valúe is the drop-out time; lhat is, the time aftcr the input
signal is removed until t he output signal goes to zcro. 1n Typical
Con ven tional Re lay
Figure 3·33b, W-X is t he range of the pickup Lime and Y-Z Funct ion Logic Circuits Types
is the range of the drop-out time. Any of t he valucs can be
lnstantaneous Magnilude comparison SI
zero; lime values are always in milliseconds unlcss otherwisc o ver curren L wilh fixed reference
indicated.
Ti me ovcrcurre nt Magnilude comparison seo
with fixed referencc
and lime
lntegrated Circuit (Sec-
tion V I.C. 2)
Note: Upper Left Volue, ON Oeloy
Lower R,ght Volue , OFF Deloy
Gruund distance Magnilude cornparison SDG
with variable refercncc

Pilase distance Block-block comparison SKD

(a) Fixed (b) Ad1ustable Directional Coincidental-tirne SRGU

comparison (Ring
Figure 3·33: Time Oelay Elements. Modulator)
.s lo

V.A I Ma¡¡nuuJe Corupurrsuu uve lee~ll>d..:k provuíes me equtvalent oí !)flcip acuon, and uie
3 pcrcent band widt h prevenís the equivalen! of chattcring
I'hcre are two baste types of magnuude cornpanson lug1 ... for current values close to mínimum pickup.
units: fixed reference and variable rcference.
l'h~ type uf circuit could also be used for overvoltage.
V.A.La. Fixed Reference
V .A. l.b. Variable Reference
íhc logic circuit uscd for an mstanraueous ovei cuu eut un n
(Figure 3-34) is hasically a de lcvel detector. Input currcnt 1 he, log1~ unit discriminates betwecn ihe value of un operare
from thc current transformcr sccondary is transformcd to a volt age and the smallest of three restrainl voltagcs. Shown
currcnt-dcrived voltage on t he secondary of the input trans- in Figure 3-35, this type of circuit forms lhe decision logic
former. This voltage is limited by Zener clipper Z I and re· elcment for the SDG ground distance relay describcd in
sistor R2. For low input currcnts, the voltage is propor- Chapter I O. The restraint voltages ( V x: V Y' and V 2) and
tional to the current , as determincd by R I and R3. The rhc opérate voltage are connected in opposition through
mimrnum pickup is adjusted via the setting of R 1: a low tunnel diode TDI and diodes 025, 026, and 027. When
R 1 sett ing diverts more currenl through R 1 and R3 and less the operare vollage is larger than any of the three restraint
to the phase splitt er. voltages, current will flow through TDI. A srnall current
through TDI drives it to a high voltage (Figure 3-1 le), turn-
Fhe phase spluter consists of a resrstor-capacrtor net work, a ing on Q I and producing a voltage across the output termi-
transf'ormer , anda bridge rectifier. Output voltage of the nal. The tunnel diode characteristtc provides a sharp turn-on
phase splittcr is shown on the upper part of Figure 3-34. point, which serves asan effective lriggering action.
When this voltage equals the Zener voltage of 22, 22 will
conduct, providing a base current that turns on Q 1. Q I then Since clouble phase-to-ground faults may cause overreach of
turns on Q2, providing an output current through 02 and the ground distance relay, a desensitizer circuit is included.
R9. Q2 provides positive feedback lhrough R7 and DI, ThL~ circuit consists of three minimum voltage networks. A
cornpoundmg the effect on the leve! detector. portion, k, of each of the restraint voltages is input lo the
desensitizer circuit. When any combination of l wo restraint
l he drop-out current can be udjusted by resistor R7, nor- voltages is smaller than the third restraint voltage, an outpul
rnally set for a drop-out/pickup ratio of about 0.97. Posi- procl u ces a blocking a et ion through 086, preventing Q I from

Phose Sl)l•l!er vous

v.,...,..,....,.-..,~

Volls Seconóory

Currenl FromCTSec:.onoory
02 R9
-- I60Ht

Zl R5

Phose Output
Spl,11e, R8

R2

(-)
Input Transforme,

Figure 3-34: Magnítude Comperiaon de Level Detector •• an lnstanteneoua Overcurrent Unit.

 3-17

()u!l)U'
(-,.¡

T
R9
01:,
,1 0.:'b

0;>7

I
20\/011$ De RIO
LoQ,c Supp•y Ou1put
Ul)e,OI~
w,, l>e'Si4.1'r)tl,lit;.f KVi,.

í
VOIIOQe
(lf usee)
KVy

KVz
Rll

0--

Figure 3 36 Megn1tude Comperator Circuit

turning on. When lhe operare voltage beco mes la1gc1 than squar e waves is rhe sarne as that of t he generat ing quantity
the largest restraint voltage, reverse bias is applied to 086 dur ing corresponding half-cycles.
through 038, turning QJ on.

V.A.2. Phase Angle Cornparísun

Phase angle cornparator logic cu cuur y produces dll outpur

when the phase angle between l wo quantities is within cer-

tain critical limits. Either of these two quanlities-the po-
larizing (or reference quantity) and the operaling quantity
may be current or voltage.
()pdr Old l:llocks

Post1ive Holi Í..)SI•

Two types of phasc angle comparator logi. . crrcuru )' ar e 111
Nego11ve Holf Cycle
oommon use: block-block and coincident-time cornpurison

V.A.2.a. Block-Block Comparison

The block-block t ype of phase anglo: ... u111p.i1Jtu1 u:,c:, uie

Pos111ve Holf e,....,
N0901,ve Holf Cycle
zero-crossing detector principie lo generate square waves,
Figuro 3·36. Phase Relationship of Block-Block Corcu11 for
Additional logic circuilry provides an out put if the operare Opereta Condition
quantily leads the polarizing quantity. Phasc relations for
lhe opera le condit ion are shown in Figure 3-36. An output One hall ot t he circuit ofa block-block t ype comparctor
is obtaincd if t he operating input lcads the polarizing input (Figure 3-38) mukes the co mparison durmg t he positive hall·
by O to 180°. Conversely, no out put (restraint) occurs íf cyclcs, A similar circuit makes the comparison during nega-
the operare input lags the polarrzing input by O to 180°. tive half-cycles, The input drodes, arrays DA and DB, hrmt
The phase retation for lhis restraint condilion is given in the input voltage to 1.5 V and the output of transforrners
Figure 3.3 7. TI andT2toaboul 12V.

Half-cycle square waves are generated at each zero crossmg For the operare condition shown m Figure 3-36, the íead-
of the respective input quantities. The polarity of the ing opérate input rnakes t he hase of QI posuive bef'ore the
 3-J lS

polanzuig input can mak e t he base: vi (..!J posiuve. 1 hu~.~ l lt, however , tne polarizmg in put íeaus rne uper atc UIJJUl
turns on first which turns on Q2. Since QS has not been (Figure 3-37), the base of Q3 beco mes posilive before the
gated, it is in the block state, perrnitting an output through base of QI. Q3 turns on first and then turns on Q4. The
Q2, R8, and the output diodes. When Q2 turns on, 03 is current flowing t hrough Z 1, Q4, R6, and R7 produces a
reverse-biased through 04 from the 20-V supply. This pre- voltage drop a cross R 7. This voltage drop gales thyristor
vents thc flow of base current to turn Q4 as otherwise would QS, causing it to conduct and short the output to negative
occur as the lagging polarizing input becornes positive and As the lagging opera te input beco mes positive, it turns Q I
tur ns on Q3. Since Q4 cannot turn on, a half-cycle of out- and Q2 on, and (since QS is conducting) the current through
put occurs. Similarly , d uring thc negative half-cycle, the Q2 and R8 is shunted to negative. The operate input that
leading opera te input provides an out pul in the olher half remains when the polarizing half-cycle is completad cannot
of the circuit, which connects through its negative half cycle produce an output, because QS continues to conduct. Re-
cliode to the output. covery is determined by the anode-to-cathode current, and
R8 is set to allow sufficient holding current from thc 20-V
supply to maintain QS in a conducting state until the oper-
ate quantity is practically zero.
Polonz,ng Input

V.A 2.b. Comciden t-Time Cornparíson (Ring Modulator)

.. Funcnomng hke d biased bridge rectifier, the r ing modu-

lator type of phase angle cornparator produces an output
when the operatc quantity leads or lags the polartzing quan-
Polorwng Blocks t it y by 90° or less, This charucteristic makes the ring mod-
Pos111ve Holf Cy<,I~ -+---+ ulat or applicahlc as a dircctional scnsing unit.
Negotive Hall Cycle
Figure J-39 shows t he operatíng principies of thc bridge
under severa! input conditions. Current inputs are shown,
Operote Blocks bu t cornbinations of currcnt and voltage can also he uscd.
Pos,111,e Hall <.,y~I~ _¡.._.,.___ ,_ Solid arrows indicare the input opérate quantities; open ar-
NegohVe Holf Cycle rows, the input polar izing quantities. Actual current is the
Figure 3 37. Phase Relationship of Block-Block Circuit for
phasor surn of the currents sho wn. The in-phasc conditions
Restraint Condition. are shown in Figure 3-39a.

In t he bridge rcctif'ier, two diodos are forward-biase d by the

largor currcnt, and thc magnitude of the output is deter-
mined by the smalter currcnt. When lhc opérate current is
02 the larger , top half of Figure 3-39a O I and 1)3 are forward-
R3
biascd, with the return through R I and R2 blockcd by 04.

04 Thc polar izing currcnt is shown in two parts each o n e half

of IPOL· The half going clown through the transformcr
from point A flows backward through 03 and R 1 to the
polarizing terminal. llowever, since the oper.ite currenl is
thc larger, nct current in D3 is forward. The output voltagc::,
IPOL R 1, is proportional to thc:: smaller curren t.

::'"Rf >-N_eg:....o_t,_ve----~--------
lf thc vpc::ratt! current reverses and is still larger than the po-
lariúng currcnl, 04 and 02 are forward-biased,
turn through R2 and R I blockecl by D 1.
going up from point A flows backward through 02 ami up
with the re-
Polarizing current

through R2 (nel currenl in 02 is forward). The output volt·

Figure 3-38: Block-To-Btock Type Phase Ar19leComparator Crrcurt age, -IPoLR2, is reversed.
 3-19

-- • n
lop
H
T~.
l_ .
Operore A
B Outpul
~
Iop
H
it
.__,___, (+)
H
...............

T~.
In Phose Relotoonsh,p lop> !POI. lpoL ¡POI.

--
Iop

•
n u
-- l_.
Operole A Output
B
~
Iop
it H
In Phose Reloroonshíp I POe lop
n
.__,___,
lpoL
(+l
--
~
H
....._........,
IPOL

T~·~
{a) Operation for In-Phase Conditíon of Operate and Polariza Ouantities

-- • H
iQP
lop tt
Operore A Oulpul
B
~
n
H
.__,___,
IPOL
(+) tt
--..........,
¡POI.
!i
••
90° Reloroonshíp Iop> !POI. No1e: Curren1s Showno1(+)from010PT1me

(b) Operation for 90º Cond111on Between Operate and Polarize Ouantities

Figure 3-39: Principie of Operetion of Ring Moduletor Type Phese Angla Comparetor.

With reversed but still smaller-polarizing current , part of lf t he polarizing current is the larger, as in the bottom half
lhe polarizing current would flow up through R 1, around of Figure 3-39a, DI is Iorward-biased lhrough R 1, and 04
lhrough DI (which is forwar d-biased by lhe opérate current) is forward-biased through R2. lf RI equals R2, net output
and back. The other part would flow up through R 1, down from lhe polarlzing curren! is zero. The smaller operate cur-
through D3, and back. Again, t he out pul voltage , - IPOL Rl , rent flows through DI, RI, R2, and back through 04. Net
is reversed,
.> ..!O
u111.:111in1)41i, Iur war d because ol the laigo::1 value v1 pv
lurizing currcnt. 'l'he net output, then, 1s 'or (RI + R2), v1
21opRI.
Rever Mng e IIher l he pu lariling or operat uig curren l wrll re-
verse the output volrage.
'I he out pul wilJ not be ¿c1v us long J~ the smaller cuu ent i:,
a hove a threshold or pick-up value. Wl11.:n the sum of the
eurrents through a diode is zcro, as through 03 in hgure
3-39a, the output is still 101,R 1. Any tendency of cither
current to flow in another pal h, because 03 is not conduct-
ing, will result in one of thc I wo cornponents becorning
larger ; t hat is, thc zero condiuon no longer exists.
Figure 3-39b shows the r ing rnodulator operarion when t he
opérate current is larger lhan the polarizmg current and
lcads it by 90º. At time zero, half of IPOL flows up
lhrough R 1, clown through 03, and returns up the lower
half of the transformer lo A. The other half Ilows down
lhrough R2, up lhrough 02, and down the upper half of
the transforrner to A. The net output is zero as lop is zero,
As 'or increases from zero lo equal IPOL (Point P), I0p
flows through 02, R2, R 1, and 03, producing an output oí
-21opR 1, where R 1, and R2 are equal. When lop equals
lpo L• the current in 02 goes to zero. As lop becomes
largor than lpo L• DI conducts. The negative lpo L ali
Ilows through R 1; half passes through D 1, and the other
half continues through 03. t0p Ilows through O I and 03,
producing an output of -21POL R 1.
01 Pos,11.e
RI
TI
Ope,01e e ~>
R2
Polom,ng
Figure 3-40: Ring Modulator Type Phase Angle Comparator Circuit
l l1111c: (J wltete lop Jl;\JIII equuls IPOL• t he polarrztng cui -
rent is about to become lhc larger curren! and Iorward-bias
1) 1 and 04. The output changes lo +21opRI and decreasing
When 101' crosses the zcro axis, the output is zero. 11.s the
operating current becomes negative, so does lhe out pul,
which reaches a maximum of -210pR.
l·urthcr Jnaly~1s shows thut t here is a rnaxirnurn positivo or
negative output each time lop = IPOL and altérnate one-
half -cycle penods ( 4.1 7 m ) of posit ive and negative outputs
rhese out puts are crosshatched in Figure 3-39b. Similar
results are obtained if the polarizing quuntity is greater than
the operat mg quantity, but with 'or lcading IPOL by 90°.
l·or direcuonal logic applications, thc output of the ring
modulator is fed into the logic cir cuit shown in Figure 3-40.
Wilh a positive output across R I-R2, transistor Q I turns on,
turning Q2 off and charging C2 through R7, R8, and R9.
The tirning circuit is adiusted so that if the positivo output
exists for 4.17 ms, the uni-junction Q3 conducts, turning
on Q4 first and then QS, to produce an output.
I'he discharge lime of C3 through R J 2 and R 13 is adjusted
to keep Q4 conduct ing for at least 8.S ms. This provides a
continuous logic output whenever the ring modulator bridge
provides a positive output for 4.1 7 ms or longer. 1 f, in Fig-
ure 3-39b, lhc operate current Oop) wave is shifted lo thc
righl, representing lead angles of less than 90°, the positive
outpul periods will be grealer than 4.17 ms. (The negative
output periods will be lcss.)
RIO
kj k4
O:> Ou1pu1
RI Rl6
e~
_.~~.-.~+--~_..~--4>--~..-~+--~-e---~~~
@] 'Bo11nd,COIH No,molly ON T,ons,s1or

Convet sely, if t he o pc i a t c cur rcn t sh1tl~ lv t hc kit, r c pr e-
senting lead angles of more than 90°, the positive out puts
will be less than 4.17 ms. (The negative outputs will be
greater.) That is, the ring modulator output will becorne
negative before Q3 reaches its firing point. This negative
output will turn off Ql and turn on Q2, blocking Q3.
Further analysis for cases where t he v peratuig curreru lags
the polarízing curren t prod uces si rnilar fin dings, Thus, t he
coincidenl-time phase angle cornparator pro vides a continu-
ous output when the operute and polarizing currents are
±90° or ícss, the watt characteristic for a clirectional unit
V.B. Amplification Units
V.8.1. Breaker Trip Coil lnitiator
The breake, trip ccü initrator crrcurt bot.h pt o vnles po wei
(amplification) tor a trip coil a nd isolutes t he control cir-
cuitry from lhe tripping cnergy source (t hc station battcry J
A typical circuir is shown in Figure 3-41.
,,,~ í:jo1111, y
Pos,1,ve
R~
R4 R6
T
lnpv1 R5
C2
1 oth.::r is for general use.
Ne9011ve
To Dupncore Cvcuus fo,
Second Trip Circvn
Figure 3·41: 8r&ak.,r Tnp Co,i trunauon C1rcú1t
QI turns on when the input voltage from the Iault-sc nsmg
and data processin g circuit exceeds 2 V. Q I t hen turns on
Q2, allo wing C2 to charge through R6. When the voltage
across C2 reaches thc "Iir ing voltage" of the uni-junction
transistor Q3, the capacitor energy discharges through T l.
This discharge reduces t he voltage across the ca pacitor , turu-
ing Q3 off until the charge on C2 builds up again.
3-21
111 uus way , a repéllllVé u ain uf pulses 1s genci atc d as long
as the input signa) exists. These pulses are transformed
through TI to fire t he thyristor Q4, perrnitt ing cu rrent to
pass through LA, Q4, T2 pr irnary, LB, and Z4 and to trip
the circuit breaker. The time delay of this circuit is approxi-
mately I ms. TI has two secondaries, t he second of which
is connccted lo a similar Q4 cir cuitry for double trip.
Lxcept Ioi t he t r ansforrner T2, the devices assocíated with
Q4 pr ovide security. Zener ZI clips high voltage transients
on the battery leads to one-third of Q4 rat ing. This voltage
clipping prevents false operation of Q4 fro m surges and over-
voltage. The two-winding reactor LA-LB suppresses any
transients that could be transrnittcd t hrough the interwind-
ing capacitance ofTI or between the trip circuir and ot her
lcgic circuit wiring (Sec Chapter 4 and Figure 4-l 2). Zcner
Z4 prevents shock ex citation from setting up high freque ncy
oscillation. which might reverse the current through Q4 and
return it to a hlocking statc.
l'a¡rn.;1lo1 l'J ,s 111,tially chargecl through R9 and Z3 whcn
tlte breaker or switch is closed, bypassing T2 to avoid a false
111dication. When Q4 fires, ('3 dischargcs through Q4, Z2,
and R8. This discharge provides a holding currcnl for Q4 fo1
ahout I ms long cnough for thc currcnl I hrough lhe induc-
tivc lrip coil lt> reach thc re4uired holding currcnl for Q4.
V.C. Aux1líary U11i1s
R':I
V.C. l A11111111cia1or Ctrcuits
23
I w0 ly¡.,c~ 0l -.:1rcu1tsare uscd Lv p1ov1dt: light iltHI alar111111-
tlications: onc is for circuil breakcr trip opcrations and Lhe
"fi1pCu11c11l
lnd,co101
A typ1cal breaker trip indicator and alurm kigtL 1s sl1uwn in
Figure 3-42. Transformer T2 is in thc lrip circu1l, as in Fig-
ure 3-41. The transformer core uses a square hysten:sis loop
material to produce a very small excit111g cuirent and negh-
gible inductive rcactance when saturated. When lrip current
f'lows (,1ftcr Q4 fircs), thc circuil of R 1. l' 1, R2, and R3
strelches a 2-rns pulse at the secondary of T2 into 6 ms at
20 V at the output of Q2. Thc input signal turns on buth
QI anct Q2 to charge capacilor C2. When lite voilage builds
up to the "intrinsic stancloff ratio" of the uni-junction tran-
sistor (Yp of Figure 3-15), Q3 fircs and gates Q4, energizing
the indicating light. The conduction of Q4 also gales Q5
through R l O from the drop a cross R l l. QS energizes t he
alarm relay. Even if the indicating light circuit is open, QS
will still be gated.
3·22

Trip

20\/o •s De Su¡,ply

Alo,m
R8 fie1oy
04

03
T2 RI R2 C4

C2
R9
C3 R10
01 Cl R3
su
lnd,ro,o, ¡,.,.,

B•eoke,
Tr1pC01I

Oe101s,n F19ure 3·41

Figure 3,42. Breekor Trlp lnd,cetor end Alarm Circuit

lhc general mdicator circuu rs shown III Figure 3·43 1 he V .C.2. Coordinating and Loop Logic Timers
nor mal condition is a ( 1) input, which makes QI conduct ing.

For in dicat ion, thc (1) is removed, tui ning Ql off. I'hcn Cl lrxcd-ume dclay t imcrs are used cxtensivcly in logic cir-
chargcs t hrough R3 and R7. Whcn thc voltage across CI l ut ry A typical circuir of t his typc rs shown in Figure 3-44.
rcaches thc trrmg point of Q~. Q2 is turned on, gallng Q4 Wit h an in put , Ql is normally conducting and shorts CI
and Q:i to energizo the indicating light and alarm reluy. t lu ough R4. Rcrnoving thc input turns Ql off, and perrnits
C'I to charge t hrough IU and R4. When t he voltugc across
('I reaches t he Zener voltage of ZI plus thc potcntial hill of
20Vohs Oc Supply
DI and Q2, hase currcnt wilt flow, turning on Q2. Turning
Q2 on rcrnoves voltage from lhe output. Thc f'ixcd time in·
R3 R8
tcrval is bctwecn rcrnoval of input to removal of out pul. Al·
01
t hough normally u sed for short dela ys, judicious sclcction
02 of values for R3, R4. C'I, anti 21 providcs a wulc rango of
R7
Rl C4 available time dclays. Similar circuit ry can prevido a dclay
@]
Cl R9
bet wecn an O input andan O out put , or othcr variat ions.
lnpul
C3 RlO
Also, urncrs can be malle adjustable hy rnaking clerncnts
R2
Rll
such as R3 adjustable.
lnd,co10, Bus
Ne,;¡ot,ve @], Box lnd.::o•cs Normal !y 0111 r,ons,s10<
20vo,1s Oc Log,c Supply
Figure 3.43 lndicator and Alerm Circu,t
RG
R3

'l he indicat ing lights are t hc solid-stat e equivalen! of me-

chanical indicaring targets. Red tenses are used to mdicate RI Ou1pu1
tripping orto indicare wluch scnsing unit signallcd a trip; Cl R5
a mhcr lcnscs indicare general alarrns: blue lenses indicare lnpul R2

test ing. Sixt y-V la mps operatcd at 48 V or 120-V larnps

~, Bo, lnd.::o•es No,mo11y ON ~,ons s10,
opcrated at 96 V provide filament life of more titan 30,000
hours. Figure 3.44 Typical Logic T,mer Circuit.
 3 . .23

V.C.3 Toggíe or Latchrug C1C1.a111:. l· 1gu11: J-4 ()a ,~" )}' 111 boüc 1 eprcsentat ion o t d 11u1111at 111¡.,
t'lo p. A rnodif'icat ion to thc normal flip flop is to descnsi-
Toggle or lat chrng circuits, kno wn ,1~ .. thµ 1l0p~,· .í r c ur- tize it by holding Q2 in a saturated condition. When satu-
stable units similar to a latched-in or toggle-t y pe I e lay. A11 rated , Q2 keeps conduct ing e ven when Q I turns on. This
opérate signa! will make the unit chunge state ; re movul uf prcvcnts a spurious set signa! from producing a set outpur.
the signa) will lcave thc unit in thc ncw statc, A rno mcn- I'he rnodificd f'lip Ilop must [irst be "armed" by introduc-
tary reset signa! will restore the unit to us origrnal stute, rng an input "arrn" signal (Figure 3-46b). Thrs signal re·
Norrnally, a momentary opérate signal will change thc out- uioves the desensit iz ing bias Irorn Q2 and allows it to turn
put from (O) to ( 1) anda momentary rcset signa! will chunge off whcn t he normal set input signa! is apphcd.
the out pul from ( 1) back to (0). The typical circuir sho wn
in Figure 3-45 is simplificd to aid in the cxplanation uf its
operatíon.
A,mB-
Set F·F --..¡¡.
Reset

R3 kb ~1!1 U !,el ·Ú
C1eor =1
~d1 Uul~ul

~> Ser- r.o Ourw• ,Jnles~

4---~~~~~--'l> Clear-v Arm•lond Se1,1
20Volls Oc Clear Outp,n
R4
: VI
Mom~rnor y kt-~er- Momemor;. ke~e~:-:
R5 Outpurs Re1u,n os rv, ~,.,1 ,u Oulput Re1urns 10 Zerv

ta) No, mal fype Cbl Mod,f,ed Type

(+¡
Rese,
R2 Ho Input Figure 3-46 Flip-Flop logic Symbols.

Figure 3-45: Flip-Flap Crrcutt,

l'he t hp t lup 1..<111 also be ... ombined w uh A 1) íogic. so l hat

The circuir shown is in the reset stare wuh a Clear out.put
and No Set output, Thc voltage divider IU, RS, an d R8
provide base voltage to Q2. Since Q2 is conducting, t he set
output is shunted lo negative. Q I is not conduct ing: its
base, supplicd through R6, R4 and R2, is at negative. The: c
is, however, a clear output from thc R3-R5-R8 voltage di·
vi der.
t wo or more separare set input signals must be received si-
multaneously to produce an out pul. This modificalion may
alsu be provided with desensitizing, again requiring an arm-
ing signal. These modified flip ílops are commonly used fo1
the fímil t, 1p logic unit in solid-stale rclaying systcms.
V.C.4. l:wlatur and Buffer Circuits

Closing lhe set input switch SI mo meutar ity i evet ses tl11::.
contlition. Voltage divider R l ·R2, provides base drive lo
turn Ql on. The base drive for Q2 is then shunted t hrough
QI to negatíve and Q2 is turned off. When SI is opened, Q I
will remain on, through voltage divider R2-R4-R6. Q2 will
remain off, since R5·R8 ties Q2's base to negativo. I'hus,
with QJ on and Q2 off, t here is a sel output but no olear
output.
When a momentary signal is apphed to t he reset 111pu1, volt
age divider R7-R8, provides base drive lo turn Q2 on again.
Thís tics the base of QI to negative, turning it off. Q2 then
remains on, even af'ter the reset signal is removed. The unit
is now back to its reset or normal state.
Output anJ tn pul l)Oldtu,:. separate and ele1-u 1cally 1:.olal~
J,.; eircuits between logic units. Used on the input and Olll·
put of each separately packagcd relay, buffers protcct the
logic circuit from transicnts and surges on intcrconnc,.;ting
lcuds ttnd circuitry. Both isolator and buffer circuits prolcct
solid-state relays agamst undesirable operation on spurious
signa Is.
V.C.4.a. lnpuc lsola1.ur
A typ1..:al lllput 1s0lat0r cu..:u1t IS shown m Figur,:: 3-47 A
20-V input to the pulsing circuit of R l-R3-C 1-02 chargcs
the capacitor CJ. When the capacitor voltage rcaches the
hreakdown voltage of the four-layer diode, 02, a pulse is
 .l-i4

zovcns Oc Supply

R7 C3
C,l
02

R6

Ol
R8 Oulpul
R5

Nego1111e

Figure 3-47: Input lsolator Circuit

20VOlts Oc Supply

02

1-<I
01

R5 Zl Ou1pu1
01
1npu1 R2
C2 R8

Nego11ve 06

Figure 3-48. Output lsolator Circuot

transmilled through r 1. I'he d ischarge of Cl turns L>2 ott
until the voltage across CI builds u p again. Thus a series ol
pulses continues as long as the input signa! cxists. Zener ZI
provides surge-protection clipping al 20 V.
The pulses are rectified and accurnulated on C2. C2-R4-R5
provide a steady de input to Q 1 until the input is removed.
Q 1 conducts, turning Q2 on and provides a 20-V output.
hgun: 3 . .:¡ 1 I'he oui put rsulator circuir differs in that a
[our-layer diode (DI), rather than a uni-junction transistor,
provides a pulse chain through TI. An input voltage turns
on Q l and Q2, charging C2. The voltage across C2 triggers
D 1, as described above. The pulses-rectified and filtered
are applied to the base of Q3, tuming it on and pr oducing
an output , Zener Z I provides surge-protecticn clipping ar
20 V.

V.C.4.b. Output Isolator V.C.4.c. Input Buffer

The input buffer circuir is shown in Figure 3-49. A normal
The input section of t he output isolator cu cuir U·igure 3-4lSJ 20- V signal will result in approximately 90 percent of the
is similar to the breaker t rip coil initialion circuir shown in voltage appearing across R3 and capacitor Cl. When the
 3·25

voltage on CL builds up ro around 5 tu 7 V, cur reru t lows V.C.5. Po wer Supply and Regularor Cir cuits
through Z2, Dl,and R4. QJ then turnson, which produces
an output. RS is required when the output drives a PNP Since normal station battery voltages and solid-state devrces
stage but omitted for a NPN stage. For interna! logic cír- are not compatible, it is necessary to drop the common
cuitry, Ql can be tumed on by the unbuffered input. 125-V or 250-V supply to 20 Y for use in the logic circuits.
Two circuits for regulating this voltage reduction are shown
~ l + l 20Volts Oc LogoeS..ppty
in Figure 3-5 1 .

R6
l.>nti.ke,ed Input

Posmve

T~ Output
$1011<>11
Rl
1-i ) .:<) vous oc ~pr, y
Bottery

j
Input Zl R3 CI R4

J_~~~--~~--~_.__...~- Volloge

1
LI et v, OOÚ
( - ) Nego11ve
:'llt!(JOIIV't:
Figure 3.49 Input Buffer C1rcu11

(,1) $111\plij Voltage Aegulator Us,ng a Zene, O,odt1

There are three t ypes uf buffering: \ 1) A lugh trequency,
high voltage surge on the input, such as t ne l .O-to-1.5-Mll",
2500-V standard test surge. is dropped across Rl and
cl~pped to 20 V by Z 1; (2) Ali signa Is of 150 to 200 µs are R2 RI
delayed by means of R l-R2-C 1; ( 3) A mínimum threshold
voltage of 6 V is required to turn on QI. In t he latter case,
$10110,1
maximum (O) voltage level is 6.0 V and t he mínimum ( 1) 8011ery
level is 1 5 V. A bonafide signa 1 must exist foral least 1 50 µ:,
This buffer is further described in Chaprer 4, Figure 4-15.
...ood
V.C.4.d. Output Buffer
:[~~ . . Z-r~-.~Z-2~~~..-:_:~~~~
The output buffer cucuu rs shown in Figure 3-50. An input Nego11ve

greater than 2 V turns on Q 1 and Q2 to provide a ppro xi- ib)

mately 18-V output. Cl provides a 75-µs dela y through t he
unit. High voltage , high frequency transients on the out put Figure 3·51. Power Supply and Regulator Circuit.

are limited and clipped by R6 and the 24-V Zener Z}.

Should the output be shorted, Q2 is protected by t he In Figure 3-5 ta, R 1 steps down the station battery voltage,
current-limiting action of R6. and Zl regulates the voltage on the lead bus to 20 V. Cl
provides filtering and noíse suppression.
( +) 20Volls Oc Log,c Supp1y

A tr ansist or-t ype circuir is shown in Figure 3-51 b , where t he

R4 Cl
battery voltagc is dropped a cross R 1 and Q 1. The base of
Ql is held at the breakdown value of Z2 t hr ough R2, which
R3 Unouftereo Outpur
also determines the reference. The load voltage is held onc
Rt potential hill (approximately 0.5 Y) lower than the volt age
T
01 R6
Ol ~-t- of Z2. lf the load voltage is reduced, base current flows
lnpul R2 R5 Zl Outour through Q 1. As current flows into the load, through Rl
l_ __ ..__..__ _....___... ~. and Q}, the supply voltage increases until it reaches a value
(-) Negot,ve one porential hill below the 22 voltage. At that time, t he
Figure 3-50: Output Buffer Circuit. current through the base emitter junction is reduced until
3-26

the collcctor current equals the load curren l. C I provides Where d-c isolation is required between circuits, t he d-c to
noise suppression and filtering. DI protects Q I against re- d-c power supply or converter is used. Closing the input
verse voltage, and ZI provides overvoltage transient protec- switch (Figure 3-53) turns on Q2 through positive supply,
tion. R2, Q2 to negative. This pulses the lower winding N 1 of T 1.
The N2 winding provides feedback to keep Q2 o perated and
The switching power supply (Figure 3-52) provides high ef- Ql off. The transformer TI has a square wave hysteresis
Iiciency and relative insensitivity to input voltage. Transistor characteristic. When it saturates N2 feedback is removed
Ql is uscd as a switch, either off or full on. When the volt- and Q2 turns off. CJ then discharges to turn Ql on and
age cornparator swit ches Q I on, dio de D 1 is reversed biased pulse the upper NI winding. Saturation in the opposite di-
and Yin is applied to inductor Ll. The curren( through Ll rection rcverses this process. The alternate positive and neg-
di (Yin-Ve¡) . ative pulses at N3 are rectified and filtered through C6 for
increases at the rate - = . to charge capacitor CI.
dt Ll the d-c output. The input-output can be l 25V - l 25Y,
When the output voltage V CI reaches a predetermined value, l 25Y - 48V, 48V - 48V with different circuit values.
the voltage cornparator turns transistor Q l off. At this
point the current continues to ílow through inductor LI,
VI. INTEGRATED CIRCUJTS
forwarding biasing diode O 1. When the current in L1 faJJs
below load current, capacitor C 1 starts discharging, decreas-
The trend in solid state relaying is toward the use of linear
ing the output voltage VCl until it falls below the predeter-
and digital integrated circuits to re place discrete transistor
mined leve! set by the voltage comparator, and Q 1 is again
circuits described above. A preview of the linear integrated
turned on and the cycle is repeated. The circuit is designed
circuil operatíonal a mplifier and its applícation to basic re-
so that Q I switches at the rate of about 22kHz to 25kHz to
lay units follows:
keep the ripple relatively small and the capacitor C I rela-
tively fully charged.
VI.A. Operational Amplifier
u
Figure 3-54 shows the equivalent circuit of a basic opera-
V+
Outpul
tional amplificr. The triangle symbol is used for this device.
Input
Vollage Vo1toge Volloge The supply voltages ± Ycc (generally ± 15 V de) wit h a com-
Compcrotoe 01 CI Rl mon of zero volts are not shown. The input terminals are a
ond Dnver
and b: bis the non-inverting input since a positive voltage
produces a positive output. A positive voltage on a, the in-
Negallve Negahve
verting terminal will yield a negative output.
Figure 3-52: Switching Power Supply.
The output e0 is amplified by the open loop gain A so that

FS T1
(3-7)

The plot in Figure 3-54 shows that a small differential

change drives the amplifier into saturation since the open
loop gain A is very large,

Most applications use negative feedback Figure 3-55, where

de
Output Zr is connected from the output to the inverting input a.
lin can be determined from the drops around the input loop:

6
4
C4

ein + en - eref
1. (3-8)
1Il
Figure 3-53: De to de Power Supply or Converter zin
 3-27

t:11-= t:n:f - ( Z
l¡
+ Z,
)
"in -
(
Z
z...+ z. ) eu l3-l l J
f 111 f m
o +
Substitutiug cquation (3-7) and solving for e0.
o

J (
+
e + c.Ul = e , - Z1· ) e. t3-I l.J
A z.m + zf ret zf + Z,m
u~ l m

1
Common As~u111U1g A is very large, - approaches O,and much less t hau
A
zin Thus
'1>Solove Sotu,011on
Z¡n + Zr
A
(3-13)

Nego11veSoturotion
I íus equauon (3-J 3) is the general operational amplifier
Typocol f\iromeiers tr ype 741 l equat ion with negative feedback.
lnpu1 Res,s1once=R¡ , 20 Meg Onms

Output Resostonce ,R0, 750nms

Open LoopGoon=A= 200,000\/011/\A:,II
Figure 3-54: The Equivalent Circuit of an Operational Amplifier.
lf equation (3-1 JJ rs subst ituted uno equat ion (3-11 ), the
solution for e11 will equal zero. Thus practically a and b ter-
minals are of the sa me relative potential. The invert ing in-
put terminal (a) is referred to as "virtual ground."

Vl.B. Basic Operational Amplifier Units

z,
-'t A nurnber uf basic units are derived from a single operat ional

-
Z,n o amplifier for use in relay circuits, These are described with-
+ en out the additional components required for accuracy, stabil-
'on R,~
e;n + + ity or compensation.
b

l
+
e,ef
t
Common V l. B. l. Ln ver tiug Amphfiers

Figure 3-55: An Operational Amplifier With Negativa Feedback. The inver Li.ng amphfier of Figure 3-56 is tite circuit of Fig-
urc 3-5 5 with terminal b connected directly to common (O
volts). Frorn equalion 3-13
lf Zr is much smaller than R1, the input resistance, the us-
sumption is that no current flows in the a or b terminals, su
that t3-l 4)

(3-Y)

The drops around the z1 íeeuback loop are Rt

t3-l0J

Equating equation (3·8J and (3-1 O) wuh the assumption uf

equation (3-9) provides Figure 3-56: An lnverting Amplifier Unit.

1
 3 28

ll resistors are used as sho wu 111 Frgur e J-56, rhe out put e Vl.8. 3. Adders

i:. upposite of the input modified by the scale factor ( R.f )~

Rm An adder unit (hgu1e 3·5lSJ nas two sepárate mputs t hrough
R31 and R32 to the negative terminal a with terminal b at
VI.B.2. Non-Jnverting Amplifiers
tero. Equation 3-13 reduces to

lf the a input is rcduced to zero t hrough 1\0 (Figure 3-57aJ

and the input applied to terminal b instead of eref• equation (3-16)
3·13 reduces to
Rr then
e =~+~)e·
lf Ra 1 .:: R32 = the out put equals the negative of
tJ·l 5) eal + ea2·
o R. 10
111

'(fhein:u)tand output are 10 phase wuh a scale raeror of

+ _f .
- -
1 Ro1 Rt
ea1
l\n
'al

-
'f

Jf Rr is made very large cornpared to l<-¡11, rhen ior a sme "o2

Ra2

wave input, the output cssentially will be an in-phase square 1 02 ea

wave to provide a squaring circuit.

R¡ Common

Figure 3-58: An Adder Unit.

Vl.8.4. Subtractors

R;n
The baste cir cuit is shown in Figure 3-59. The voltage at
Common the plus terminal of the operational amplifier will be
(a) Non-lnverting Amplifier Rf

o Substituting this is equauo n 3·13:

e¡,, o-...:b'---1

(3-1 7)
Common
(bl VoltageFollower

Figure 3·67: A Non-lnverting Amplifier and Voltage Follower

Units.

Another versión is the voltage Iollower shown m Figure

3-57b. Rr approaches zero, a short circuit, and R¡11 ap-
R R,n b
proa ches infinity, an open circuit. The(gain ;ac)torR.f "b O---C:::J----4~

approaches zero so that t he sea le factor 1 + ~ appr~ache:,

Rm
unity. Thus the output voltage e0 equals or follows e¡n· In Common
this cir cuit the input impedance seen by e¡0 essentially is in-
finite and no current flows into the b terminal. Figure 3-59: A Subtractor Unit.
 3-29

VI.B.S. lntegrator and Simple Low Pass fllte,

With a capacitar as the fc:cdback component, me mvert ing

amplifier of Figure 3-56 becornes an integrator (Figure 3-60).

eº= -ifrdt t3-I 8)

e.
and since i-, = _10= ·1in
Rin

e 0 =- -1 -fe·
R-m C 10dt l3-J 9)
Figure 3-61: A Differenlia1or and High Pass Filler Unil.

This circuit is a simple 10\, pass fiiter. Considering mag- Vl.8.7. Phase Shift UnHs

nitudes only Zr=-1- so that equation 3-14 becornes A variet y of phase shift unit s are obtaiue d usiug capacitor
2rrfC
and variable resistor cornbinations. These are illustrated in
Figure 3-62. A phase angle range of 90° to 180º is obtained
1
le 1 = - le. i with Zr adjustable frorn oº to -90° ( Figure 3-62a), 180° to
o 21rfCRit1 in
270° with Zin adjustable from oº to -90° (Figure 3-62b).
Thus as frequency increases, t ne magnitude of e0 decreases, lnverting operational amplifiers are used in both these cir-
cuit s.

e
-+11
"•• 0---C:::>-----i
e0' Ke,n ¡ 90 Te 180º
>----0.,.,
ª'

Figure 3-60: An lntegrator and Low Pass Filler Unit.

VI.B.6. Differentiator and Simple High Pass Filler Unit 01

R¡

This circuit is shown in Figure 3-61 and is the invert ed aru-

plifier circuit with a capacitar in the input circuir.
NON
!NV
e,, O---C2'.'.l---,1--.....---1
+
tJ-21 J
R,n e
so that t;J Comrroo
de. R¡
e =- R C~ l3·22j
o f dt

w1ith magnitudes
· from equat ion 3-14 where Z
, in
= -- 1
2rrfC
and Zr = Rr. Thus,

le01 = - 21TfCRr lein i t3·23J

R,n R

º'
ConYTlOn

This is a simple high pass Iilrer, as ÍI.: decreases, ie) decreases Figure 3-62. Phase Shift Uni1s.
3·30

Non-inverung a mplrfrers wuh t he RC networ k connected as Hysteresis 1:, obtained with posiuve (eedback through re-
a voltage divider (Figures 3-62c & d) provide a phase angle sistor R3 Figure 3-63b. With e0 large, eref is determined by
range of oº to +90º or Oº to -90° depending on the posi- the voltage divider R2 and Rl in parallel with R3. This
tion of R and C. voltage is higher than with just R 1 and R2. e0 approaches
zero when ein exceeds the eref· This causes eref to be low-
ered to a potential determined by the divider relationship
Vl.8.8. Leve! Detectors
of R I and R2 in parallel with R3. Thus the voltage at which
e0 switches from high to low is greater than the voltage
Figure 3-63a shows a level detector using t he operatronal
when it switches from low to high. This is illustrated in the
arnplifier in the díff'erential mode. Frorn equation 3-7
example in the lower half of Figure 3-63b.

(3-24)
VI.8.9. Active Filters

und
A ty pical active filler unit is shown in Figure 3-64. l ligh
''Q" circuits, diffcrent gains and resonant frequcncies are
t3-25)
easy to obtain. lnductance is not used in these circuits. The
filtcrs can be cascaded and are unaffected by loading.
As illustrated in Figure 3·54, .i change m level of ein (e3)
slightly above or below eref (eb) will cause tite amplífier lo
go into cilher negat ive or positive saturations respectively.
With eref formed by lhe R 1 - R2 voltage divider , e0 be·
comes low with ein above eref• and high when ein is lcss
lhan ernf·

+ Vcc + Vcc

RI Rl

Figure 3·64: A Multiple Feedback Band·Pass Filler Unit.

R2 R3
R2 Vl.C. Relay Applications of Operation Amplifier

Com\Ol Com(Ol
Three protective relay applications illustrate the use of the
Exomple: Exompte: basic operational amplifier units describe d. Thc relaying in-
Rl = 5K, R2, lOK,Vcc= 15V Rl=R2=R3=10K,Vcc' 15V
puts from current and voltage transformers are converted to
e,ef' IOV e ,ef' lOV, When e0, l5V
ere!' 5V When e0 =O low leve! signals by shunts or auxiliary transformers.

Vl.C. l. lnstantaneous Overcurrent Unit

15 1----~

An operational a mplif'ier instantaneous overcurrent unit is

shown in Figure 3-65. Input current, i, is converted to a
o.___..,_5_.-10'---1.L.5
_ _., e,o <-----'~-'-~-_,._1__..~n proportional voltage thr ough shunt R and filtered by an ac-
O 5 10 15
tive band pass filter (OA 1 ). The pickup at other than the
a) b)
systern frequency is significantly higher to minimize har-
monic effects. 0A2 is an adjustable gain inverting arnplifier

Figure 3-63: Level Detector Units. with a gain of -K =!.!... The amplified signa! -Ki is rectified
R4
 3-31

Variable Brrdge vultagc lulluw..:r w n h 1b out put negatrve ami Iollo wuig me
Gaon Ful! Wove 1n1eg,aro, Level
Amphfier OA.-3
üeiecror (+) terminal input. When OA2 output goes positive , the
OA·5
OA-2 and0A·4 OA-6
output of OA3 goes negative and applies a negative input
(a) Block D1agram to the (+) terminal of OA4 through DI. With RS equal to
H.<, 0A3 is a unity gain in verter wilh the input to OA4 neg-
utive when the OA3 input is positivo.
o
Rl VI.C.2. The SCO lnverse Time Overcurrent Reluy

'the logre diagr a rn of the SCQ sohd suue inverse tune over-
current relay is shown in Figure 3-66. RC approximation
and digital time mulliplication is used to provide inverse
time characteristícs equivalenl to t he electrornechanical CO
Coomon (Ol
(b) S1mphf,ed Schema11c reluys.

,..._...._ 1 - The d1., po wer supply requrrements are obtained from the
0-----
u.)J in pul current through the current-to-voltage transformer T
S,ne Wove F11!ered llmp1,t,e<1 Rect,fieó
Sine Wo"1! S111e Y.bve
, meqrcteo U,1y1<.: This ref'erence voltage output switches on the information
s,newcve Rectif,ed Oulpur
S,ne Wove \Oorll winding of T for overcurrent detection. The current infor-
le) Wave Traces \Filtered)
mation is first processed by an acto de conversion circuir
Figure 3-65: An Instanraneous Overcorrent U,111 whose output is then introduced lo a multi-branch RC net-
work. Each RC branch contains a first order RC circuit
by0A3 and 0A4. When the signa! Irom OA2 is uegauve , 0A3 with a time constant different from the other branches. The
forces its output positive while the input to the ( +) terminal outputs of these RC branches are properly weighted to ap-
of 0A4 will be negative through R7. This back biases diode prox imate a desired current-tirne curve. By changing t hese
DI to disconnect the OA3 output to OA4. OA4 acts as a RC networks by rneans of a plug-in module, any of the 7

i...evt, Ü.:lt:\.lu, tu.

M1n1mumP,ckvo
Recr.tica1100ooo
lnformar.on
Sw1lCh1ng

8,nory
Cornco,aro, Counie, r, "º"'""'

Figure3-86: The SCO lnverse Time Overcurrent Relay.

 3-32

char acter ist ic ..;urvc l,1111ú1c:. \Le. urve rse , ver y 111,c1:,", et..,,)
can be generated. The weighted RC output is then corn-
pared with the reference leve), which, if it exceeds, causes a
pulse signa] to be generated from the one-shot. This signa!
is used to advance the binary counter and to reset the RC
network. This operation repeats until the counter reaches
a certain predelermined count. An output signa] is then ap-
plied lo the decimal decoders where a time-dial coun t takes
place. This Ieeds the ANO circuit through an O R to the
30K
trip output. The instantaneous lrip unit is a non-hysterises
R t•oR
operational arnplifier (Figure 3-63a) level detector. lt op- Common
era tes through the O R unit lo provide a lrip out pul.
Figure 3-67: A Operational Amplifier Negativo Sequence Network

VI.C.3. Sequence Networks

Sequence nctworks can be designcd by U:.lllg vpe1dt1u11¡,)

amplif'iers. A negative sequence circuir is shown in Figure
3-67. From chapter 2:

12=l(Ia+a21b~dl J tl-3.l)
3 c

With phase shift units (Figure 3-t>2), lt, 1:. shiueu 240° aud
le, 120°. With adder units, t he final output is

and with R = 1 ohm,

Ou1pur

Positive sequence and composite 11lce1 can be ues1gned ful-

.¡
lowing t he sa me technique.

VJ.C.4. Threshold Squares and Square Wave Detectors tO A--A--.--·

' vv
ó ]. .c:::::J e:

¡
These basic units are used in phase comparison prlot syst eru»
A typical circuit is shown in Figure 3-68. The outputs pro-
-º ---A=A--
vide square waves at a low leve) tor keying l u a remete ter-
minal, and ata high leve) for local cornparison. r 6~C:
The top circuit (X) has an adjustuble
anda leve) detector.
non-inverung
lf the sine wave at A is of sufficient
a mplu rer
z I' .n C+J4d--
magnitude to cx cecd the level detector setung (R4 anti RSJ,
b 1. CJ o
the leve) detector output switches lo "O" during the posit ive
half cycle as shown in the wave traces. PI determines t he
Ovtix,, ó -----
magnitude at which the output switches. At low currents bi vv.,ve T, sces
the output remains "I" whilc al high currerus, the out put
is a square wave. Figure 3-68: A Threshold Squarer and Square Wave Detector.

The middle cucuit Y is similar to X e x ce pt t hat <111 invert ing
arnplifier is used, to provide a positive output from a nega-
tive input current. At high currents the level detector
switches from "I " ro "O" during the negative half cycle in-
put.
The lower circuir (Z) generares a syuunerncal square wa ve
al low currents. Al no current it has a "l '' output. The cir-
cuit is similar to the X circuit. P3 is much larger than R3
and R8 much larger than R9 to provide a hígh gain and a
low leve! detector switching voltage. Square wave detection
is accomplished with the operational amplifier timing cir-
3.33
curr whose out put IS IJ. Resistor Rl l shoulJ be greate r t huu
Rl O so that the capacitor (C) díscharge rate is less than the
charge rate. With no square wave (i.e. no current), than ca-
pacitor C will remain fully charged causing the leve! detec-
tor following it to remain switched in the low state. How-
ever, if a square wave exists, then the zero transitions slow
capacitor C to discharge below the leve! detector threshold,
causing output D to become '' 1 ". When the square wave be·
comes" l " during the opposite half cycle the charge rate of
( R 1 1) (C) is high enough to prevent further switching of the
leve! detector providing a square wave exists.

Chaptei 4
Protection Against Truusients
and Surges
Author: W. A. Elrnore
l. Introductíon
A. Electros ta tic Ind ucnon
B. Electromagnetic Inductron
C. Differential and Common-Moue Classrtrcauons
11. Transients Originating in the High Voltage Systeru
A. Capacítor Switching
l. Single-Bank Capacitor Switctung
2. Back-to-Back Capacitor Switching
B. Bus De-energization
C. Transmission Line Switching
D. Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transfoi mer l CCY-1)
Switching
E. Other Transient Sources
Ill. Transients Originating in the L0w Voltage System
A. Direct-Current Coil Interruption
B. Direct-Current Circuil Energization
C. Current Transformer Saturation
D. Grounding of Battery Circuit
IV. Protective Measures
A. Separation
1. Physical Separation
2. Electrical Separation
B. Suppression al the Source
1. Resistor Switching
2. Parallel Clamp
C. Suppression by Terrnination
D. Suppression by Shielding
E. Suppression by Twisting
F. Radial Routing of Control Cables
G. Buffers
H. Increased Energy Requiremenl
4-1
L lNTRUUUCTlON
The sporadrc da mped pnenomena that occur ui e lect rrcal
systerns are generally described as transients and surges.*
Por any disturbance in an electrical circuit , sucb as the open-
mg or closing of a switch ora breaker, the associated
damped transients may be either oscillatory or uni-
dírectíonal. Surges also appear as traveling waves with a dis-
tinct propagation velocity. In such cases, wave reílections
rnay produce voltages substantially greater than the forcing
voltage that initiated the phenomenon. Lightning surges
must be considered as well. With rare exception, however,
experience indicates that only high voltage systerns need be
protected against lightning.
Fr orn a relaying standpoint, the etfect of transients and
surges on secondary control circuits is of principal irnpor-
tance. Primary transients a ffect secondary circuits through
cornrnon electrícal connections, such as "ground" circuits,
through electrostatic or electrornagnetic induction, as well
as through current transformers and voltage lransformers.
LA. Electrostaric Lnduction
A suuphñed version of electrostaric pickup is shown in
Figure 4-1. An error signa! is introduced into che "signa)
lead" vía the mutual coupling capacitance CM. The
magnitude of the coupled voltage, V L• is CM/(CM + Ce;)
per unit of Vn' as long as RL and Rs are very high. V n is
che effective noíse voltage, and RR is the effectíve load re-
sistance of the noisy lead. The lower RL and Rs are, the
lower the transient voltage. lf RL and Rs are so low that
their effect predominates, the voltage on the signaí lead be-
comes RTCM (dV n/dt),** where Rr is the parallel equiv-
alent of RL and Rs, and dV 11/dt is the rate of change of t he
noise voltage. The voltage on the signa! lead cannot, how-
ever, exceed CM/(CM + Ce) per unit, regardless of the rate
of change of che noise voltage.
In such systerns as those used in solid-state relaying, where
negative -rather than ground-is the "cornmon," the equiva-
lent circuit is that shown in Figure 4-2a. The basic circuit is
rearranged in Figure 4-2b.
"In this book, the two terrns are considered syno nyruous and will be
used interchangeably. In sorne references, however, transients refer
to those phenomena related to lumped systern pararneters: surges
refer to those phenomena related to distríbuted parameters .
.... This equatíon is highly simplified.
 4-2

tv-.sy Leod

Gtound

Figure 4- 1: Equivalent Circuit for Electrostatic lnduction With

Common Ground Return.

No,sy t.eod

Ct.-1
Figure 4-3: Electromagnet lnduction.

a) Baste Schemanc

--1
R¡_
Forse
S,gnOl
:::,O

--
G,ound
bl A.,d, rangemeniot The Baste Circuu of al

Figure 4-2: Equ,valent Circuit for Electrostatic lnduction Without Figuro 4-4: Transposing The Signal Circuit to Minimizo
Common Ground Return. Electromagnet lnduction.

1.8. Electromagnetic lnduction Uifl,.,1cntrnl-111ode surges produce voltage on a pair of con-

Figure 4-3 illustrates elcctrornagnet rc prck up. Flux-lmkmg
of t he signa! pair, resulting frorn current flow 111 an adiacent
circuir, induces a false signa! voltage. Thc total induce d
loop voltage is Mdl/dt, where M is t he effeclive mutual im-
pedance bet.ween thc lwo circuits, and dl/dt is the rate of
change of currenr l. Transposing !he signal circuit will re-
duce the induced voltage, as shown in Figure 4-4.
I.C. Oifferential and Common-Mode Classifications
duct ors in tite sarne way as docs a legitimare signa l. Differ-
ential-mode signals are illustrated in Figures 4-1, 4-2, 4-3,
4-8, and 4-9.
Comrnon-moue su1gc~ produce equal voltages on a pair of
conductors, with respect to sorne common references.
Cornrnon-mode surges are generated as shown in Figure 4-7
Co rnrnon-mode voltage is also produced by lhe circu it
sho wn in Figure 4-2, if CM 1 equals CM2 and CG equals
I
Cc2·

Surges can be classrfied into two rnodes: differential (also Differenrial-rnode surges are more líkely to produce rnisop-
known as normal or transverse) and common (also known erat ion of equiprnent , while comrnon-rnode surges are more
as longitudinal). likely to produce dielectric failure. ( ote also t hat purely

common-mode surges, when upphe-J cv un balance d cu cuus,
will produce a differential-rnode component and vice versa.)
11. TRANSlENTS ORIGlNATlNG IN THE HJGH
VOLTAGE SYSTEM
11.A. Capacitor Switchiug
Primary circuir transients are Irequeurly generat.eu by .;ap,11.,·
itor switching and are substantially more severe when ínter-
ruption is accornpanied by restriking.
JI.A.1. Single-Bank Capacitor Switchiug
Figure 4-5 demonstrates what happens when a capacitor
bank is energízed by closing a switch. A high Irequency ,
high magnitude current , 1, flows. The capacitance of t he
bus and the connected apparatus cause the same phenome-
non to occur when a bus section is energized. Unless pre·
cautions are taken to avoid transients, such switching can
cause 5-to-6-k V peaks in secondary circuits.
Figure 4-6 illustrates what happens if restriking occurs when
a capacitive current is interrupted.
At the instant of interruption (current zero), tu!J volt age,
Ve• is trapped on the capacitor bank. This voltage cannot
change unless Iurther current flows. The source voltage,
VB, however, continues to vary sinusoidally. lf the in ter-
Source
S·.v1tcn
vj
·-
Figure 4-5: Transients Generated by Energizing a Capacitive
Circuit.
4.3
rupt ron canuor suppor t t he t e cover y voltage , a rest rtke v.:-
curs and current flows again. (The recovery voltage is
V C - V 8.) The rnost un favorable instant of restriking is
shown in Figure 4-6. With continuity reestablished, V C
equals V 8. In the process of equalization, considerable
overshoot occurs, and both V8 and Ve approach three
times normal line-ro-neutral peak voltage. The current flo w,
irnrnediately following the restrike, is also very high. The
curren t oscillates at the natural frequency of the circuit ami
decays with time, as governed by the circuit time constan t.
11.A.2. Back-to-Back Capacitor Swnchíng
Back-to-back capacitor switching consists ot che energiza-
tion of one bank of capacitors with an adjacent and preví-
ously energized bank. Back-to-back capacitar switching is
much like energization of a single bank , except that the ef-
fective inductance is generally very much lower. The capac-
itance, on the other hand, is only somewhat lower , sin ce it
is the series cornbination of the bank capacitance and the
capacitance of the unit or uníts energized before the switch
was closed, For these reasons, the magnitude and frequency
of the curren! are generally much higher for back-to-back
energization than for single-bank energization.
ll.B. Bus De-energizarion
Bus J1opp111g 1~ similar to capacitor bank de-energizuuun, e>.·
cept the capacitance, C, is very much srnaller. Current mag-
Soorce
Sw,rch
1~~ 1].,.
T Ve
,_
Figure 4-6: Transients Generated by Opening a Capacitive Circuit.
4-4

rut ude 1~ abo generatty ~111Jll<::1, an d th.: trequency 1~ lugher.

H,qt \lo 1oge
Where a simple disconnect u, used lo drop the bus, the non-
0.sconnec• nq
hnearity and prolonged existence of thc restrikmg are cause s.. •en
--1---
t1 qr ,u.!O<¡t C,rcull
sigrnficunr elcctncal noise. These characteristics together
~
Coooc,tonce 6etween
with the large voltages and currcnts that accompany re-
nr t=•y
H,qh ond Low
stnkes, produces one of the most severe surge influences 111 V<,,109f! Wnd
.i substation. Surges of up to 8 kV have been measurcd in
sccondary circurts during disconnect arcing. p

11.C. Transrnission Line Switching t.a,qe n qr ~,eq.,.,, 1 .....

Current follow1nq r--
1 ,--
Re$111•e 1 1
Trn11s1111ss1on hne switching is also s11111lu1 lo cupacucr bank M• 1 $hl('ld
swit ching, except for the distributed nature of the induct-
~·oqeleods
anee and capacitance of the line. The inrush current tends
lo be substantially less than that for capacítor bank switch- k1 v.L fi-}
-U::..=V:
Tow1111ul
House
111g. Frequency is inversely proportional lo the length of
the lransmission line.
q
Surge '~illage
11.D. Coupling Capacitor Voltage Trunsf ormer (CCVT) Measured Hore
Switching
Figure 4.7 Surge ,n Secondery Leads During Oisconnect Switch
Restrrk,ng on • Capacitance Voltege Trensformer.
Thcse transforrncrs cont.nn capavuance v0lt,1ge-d 1v1d111g
nct works. Aftcr energizuuon, de-energizution, and rcstnk-
ing, thcy are subjected to thc sarne high frequency , high tault dcaru1g, load-tap-chang111g, l111c reactor de-cnerg1tat1011,
current phenomenon experienced in the othcr cases of senes capacitor gap ílash111g and reinsertion, and so forth. In
lumped capacuance switchmg. l:.ven in a well-designed general, the peak magnnude of such lrans1cnts 1s substan-
capacitance/voltage transformer, there is perceptible capac- tially Jcss than for the phcnomenon described abovc.
itancc bctween the high voltage and low voltage windings
(Figure 4-7). Al the high frequencies associated with ca- 111. TRANSll:.NTS ORIGINATING IN THE LOW
pacrtor device switching, the impedance of thís capacitance VOLTAGE SYSTEM
will be srnall. A surge voltagc rs dcvclopcd during disconncct
1
restriking around the path g-g-p-q-x or y, and is roughly 111.A. Oircc1-Curre111 Coil lnterrupllon
equivalent to L d1/dt - M d1/dt + Ri· (L and R are the induct-
anee ami resistancc of the ground lead of uie voltagc ücvíce, l)uring rnlu1upllon ot an mJuctive c1rcu1t, su..:h as J relay
and M is the mutual impedance between thc ground lcad and ..:oíl, the L di/dl effect may produce a large voltage across
the voltage leads.) 1 f M equals L, the total surge voltage re- the coi! (Figure 4-8). In general, the voltage will be greatest
duces to R¡. In practice, M can never equal L, but it will ap- al the inslant of interruptton. Voltage magnitude will gener-
proach it if the potencial leads are placed as close as possible ally be independcnt of thc supply circuit charactcristics and
to the ground lead. This arrangement will lessen the tran- will equal the difference betwcen the extinction voltage of
sient vollage betwccn thc voltage leads and ground. the interruptmg contact and the battery voltage. The surge
voltage increases as a function of the speed with which the
Since voltage trunsformers are mducnvc devices, thcy are not
intcrruption forces curren! zero. While voltages in excess of
subjcct to this phenomenon. I O k V have becn generated across 125-volt coi Is in labora-
tory tests, 2.5 k V is a more lypical value.

11.E. Other Transient Sources 111.B. Direct-Current Circuit Energization

Many other swuching-type operauons g.:n.::rate transients: l::.nerg1zmg a c1rcutt that ts capacitively coupled to adJat:ent
unequal-pole-closing of a circuit breaker, fault occurrence , or ncarby circuits can produce a transient in the latter cir-
 4-5

cuits (Figure 4-9). When switch l is closed, V R appears as a 111.C. Current Transformer Saturation
false signa! across the effective resistance of the adjacent cir-
cuit. Initially, full battery voltage appears across the coupled Current transformer saturation, which may produce very
circuit. This voltage then decays e xponentially, in accord- high secondary voltage, is caused by high prirna ry current,
anee with the RC time constan t. poor current transformer quality, or excessive burden. The
surge repcats during each transition from saturation in one
direction to saturation in the other. The voltage appearing

l
at the secondary consists of high magnitude (possibly sev-
1.....-ConfOCI eral kV) spikes with altemating polarity that persist for a
;1 Open o• r0 few milliseconds every half-cycle.
+
RelOy Co I
V L (lnduc11ve
Ctrcu,1) 111.D. Grounding of Direct Current

When a ground occurs on the de thc distributecl ancl lumpecl

Ccntocts
f\Jrl tn1em.1p1,on capacitance of a systcrn may cause sensitive deviccs to oper-
¡ ¡
l 1------ . . .
E ·--ConlOCI Arc,nq
ate. Figures 4-1 O and 4-1 1 illustrate trip circuit behavior in
V
the event of an accidental ground. Comparable phenornena
can cause sensitiva close circuits and tripping relays to mal-
function.

l\cc1den101
Ground

ILI-------
t Bo••ery -=- V 1

·-
o~-----_._ ...... _ 1
1
1
To ;};CN
1
1
1
1
Figure 4-8: Transients Produced by lnterruption of an lnduction
Circuit.

lw
Negotive Ground above Clases
al aasic Circurt Thls Sw,tch 10 O,scharge
Cr / Capac,tor lhruTrtpCait

r ~
V Pos,r,ve
L(----/-i52a
Open r.; 1
Copocmve Couphng
8etween C,rcu,ts
b) Eqwvalent Circuu
¡C
Figure 4- 1 O: Accidental Ground on Battery Positive.

V Negotove
IV. PROTECTIVE MEASURES

IV.A. Separation

,_ IV.A.!. Physical Separation

Noise in critica! circuits can be controlled effectively by

Figure 4-9: Transients Produced in Adjacent Circuits by de Circuit
Energization. physicaUy separating quiet and noisy circuits. Since mutual
 4-6

Jep
1
i., r,ans,enl

lk
1
1 Cr
H-i'I 1
--!t-11,
Tn)r,~tur Oc:; "'
LA

,\
1
1
1
520 1
:4:c,, 1
1 r, ,.....' lv.vW,nding

~-----·l
1
1 1 Reoc10r
I
I
i.>,ound o~Ckl~n I
This Switch10 Orschol(Jt

r-r:':=r4~
a¡ Basic Circuu Copocroes lhru Tnp CQ.1

r
Nore
More Üt:IUI :,rtv'f,fº
,n Fr(JU,e 3·41 lo h1p Cucuil

Figuro 4-12. Choko Coíl Applied for Differential Mode Reíection

e, ~ for Trip Thyrislor.

bJ Equivalen! C,rcu11

;f::i5úp:=
Common MO<le VOlroge
Figuro 4-11: Accidental Ground on Trip Lead.

capacitance and mutual inductance are inverse logaruhnuc

functions of distan ce, srnall incrcases in distance produce
substanlial decreases in circuit interaction.
Commo,1 MO<le Vol roge
Here Very Smoll
Similarly , ccnu ol circuits should be routed perpendicular to
noisy circuits. For cxample, a cable duct should be run per- Figure 4-13. Transformar lsolation for Common Modo Voltego.

pendicular to a high voltage bus. Another way of effectively

conlrolling surge is to group circuits wilh comparable sensi- !V.B. Suppression at the Source
t ivit ies. Low-energy-level circuits, espccially, should be
grouped togethcr and placed as far as possible from power IY.8.1. Resistor Switching
circuits.
'Iranssent volrages can be k ept comparativcly low by cquip-
IY.A.2. Electrical Separatron ping disconnects and circuir brcakers with rcsist ors rhat are
inscrted during operution of the clcvice. For rcasons of
Ci1 cuits can, of course, also be separated elcctrically, For cconorny, this arrangerncnt is occasionally used lo rcstrict
cxarnplc, surges can be controlled by discriminare applica- surge level in substations.
tion of inductance to block conduction of high frequency
transients into prot ccted rcgions. This principie is illus- IY.B.2. Parallel Clamp
tratecl by the choke sho wn in Figure 4-12. Any transient
that raiscs the anode potential of rhe thynstor also raiscs The surge associatcd wit h corl interrupt ion can be virtua lly
the cathode potential through the acuon of the t wo-winding eliminated by paralleling the coil wilh a zener dio de. Whcre
reactor. This action prcvcnts the thyristor from turning on an extended dr op-out lime is undcsirable, a varistor may be
subsututed for the zener diodc arrangerncnt . Alt hough the
varistor allows a higher surge than docs the zener diode, its
Transforma isolation (Figu,, 4-1 3) pu 1, dn ef tecuve corn- limiting action is satisfact ory.
mon-rnode barrier between scgrnents of a system High ca-
pacit ance from each winding to ground and Jow capacitance lhe zener diode, z1. in Figure 4-14 perforrus a dual surge
frorn winding to winding further reduce cornmon-mode ínter· function. First , it rninimizes the inductive "kick " pro duced
action between windings. by rhe de-energization of the auxiliary coil. Also , when the
 4-7

IOIT cont act manually tnps b11::dk..:1 A, che vvltagc 111uu ... .:L1 ljappcJ capacrtors wilí both isolate the capacitan ..e t1v11,
in TC-2 by the interruption of current 11ow in TC-1 ( caused the de and still function for surge suppression. When a
by 52a-l opening) cannol cause the auxiliary relay lo pick surge voltage in excess of the gap breakdown leve! is ap-
up undesirably. either the late opening of 52a-2 nor the plied, the capacitor is able to perform its limiting functiou.
presence of current path I will have any effect. Zener Z 1
will allow forward voltage of only approxima te! y O. 7 V,
lV.D. Suppression by Shielding
which is ínsufficient lo opera te the auxiliary relay. This
scherne prevents undesirable tripping of breaker B.
A signal lead shielded with one or more grounds will have
lncreased capacitance to ground, Ce, (Figure 4-1). For
Portlal Schemat,c high Rs and RL valúes, this increase m capacitance to

I 1 ground reduces the "false" signal voltage, V L' which resulis

I
IIOIT Au11tary RelayTrrp from the presence of an adjacent noisy lead. lf a shield
were used in Figure 4-2, it would surround the signa) lcad
and the comrnon negative and would be grounded in one or
520
more locations, This arrangernent tends to force CM¡ /Ce I
52 to equal CM2/Cc2, and any capacitively induccd signal volt-
TCI age across RL to be tero.

Grouuding a shield at both ends allows slueld current to

Breaker A Breoker B
tlow. Shield current resulting from rnagnetic induction will
Figure 4-14: Zener Z1 Applied for Surge Suppresslon. tend to cancel the flux that created it. The net effect of the
shield on the signa! lead is to reduce the noise level.
The surge associated with extreme ac saturation ul a curreru
transformer can also be squelched by introducing a voltage- IV.E. Suppression by Twisting
limiting device across the secondary. Silícon carbide devices
can be used in lhis protective funclion. Measures that cause the signa! and return leads to occupy es·
sentially the sarne space minimizo the cf'Iect of ditf'erential-
IV.C. Suppression by Termination rnode coupling (Figure 4-4). As shown by the polarity
marks, twisting a pair of leads canccls the effect of adja-
Figures 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, and 4-9 illustrate lite value o l r e ducc d cent circuir flux. Also, twisting thc signa! lead and negative
input irnpedance, RL, in restricting the magnitude and/or causes CM! to equal cM2, and Ce¡ to cqual Cc2 (Figure
duration oftransients. llowever, if RL is reduceu, the en- 4-2). This technique substantially reduces thc influence of
ergy requirement for operation is incrcased, and more heat the adjacent noisy lead.
is generated when legitimate inputs are applied.
A cornbmauon 01 shielding and twisnng eftecuvely mini-
A small capacitor offers another method of re ducing input mizes the influence of surges in adjacent circuits. For cir-
impedance at high frequency, with little effcct at 50 or 60 cuits properly treated with SPP capacitors at the terminal
llz or onde. This device neither requires a higher input en· blocks, shielding is not required for Westinghouse statíc re-
ergy for operation nor generales heat. One such widely laying circuits inside a panel or switchboard. Shielded
used capacitor is the Surge Protective Package (SPP), a twisted pair conductors are required for low-energy-level
0.5-µF, 1500-Vdc, oil-filled type. This capacitor limits a circuits routed outside a panel.
2500-V, 1-MHz surge, with ISO-ohm source, to less than
35 V. Short leads to the capacitor are imperative, and One lead oi the sh1elded twisted pair is 1101 maUy the s1gnal
terminal-block mounting at the panel entry points is rec- lead. The other lead (excepl where it is sensing contact
ommended. status) connects the negatives of the two devices. Within a
panel, electrostatic coupling is the only significant inter-
Where sensitive relays, trip circuits, and close circuits e xist circuit transient influence. A single ground on the shield,
in a substation, the capacitance on the de must be restricteu therefore, is sufficient. For consistency, ground should be
if false operations are to be avoided when a ground occurs. at thc input end.
4-8

IV. F. Radial Routing of Control Cables lV.li. Increased Energy Requirernent

Circuits routed into the switchyard from the control house Surges can also be endured by raising the threshold voltage
should not be looped from one piece of switchyard appara- or energy leve! at which operation occurs, The equivalent
tus to another with the return conductor in another cable. circuits of Figures 4-10 and 4-11 show that half-maxirnurn
Rather, ali supply and return conductors should be in a battery voltage, applied through the appropriate capaci·
common cable. This arrangement avoids the large EMI tance, must not be allowed to trip the breaker or opérate
(electrornagnetic induction) associated with the Jarge flux any other devices. An auxiliary relay designed to pick up
loop that would otherwise be produced. at 71 V, or more will not respond to a single ground on a de
circuit with a máximum operating voltage of 140 V, regard-
JV.G. Buffers less of the magnitude of the capacitances on the systern.
(Note that the higher voltage design will not solve the prob-
Another effective method of delaying and desensít izing a lem shown in Figure 4-9: the higher euergy lcvcl rcstriction
circuit is to use a buffer (Figure 4-15 and Figure 3-49). will.)
Without energízing the transistor or damaging any element,
this buffer can accommodate a test source operating at I to
1.5 Mllz with a 150-ohm source impedance directly across ,20
the input (differential mode) anda 2500-V (open circuit)
first peak, which decays to 1250 V in 6 or more micro-
seconds. The buffer can also withstand a sustained 7-Vdc - - - --·------,
input, ora high de input voltage of sufficient duration to 22
R1 47K 68V O,
produce a minimum 4000 microsecond-volt product (for -< Normolly
Off
exarnple, 20 V for 200 µs). I~ R1
1 20V 47K 047 82K 101<.
¡ 48V 47K 20V C1 µ.f Rl R4
Buffering low-energy-level circuits greatly decreases the sus- I 125V 47K
-<+-+~~~~~--~~~--~_..---~~~--1-- ......-
ceptibility of static relays to surge damage or malfunction L. Buffer ..J

and, in general, eliminares thc need for shielding circuits in- Figure 4-16: A Standard Input Buffer Círcuit for Solid State
side a relaying panel. Retays.
 5-1

Chapter c 1 ll'd RUUUCTI01'1

l11:.tru111et11 trunsformers ar e used both to prot ect per so nncl

Instrurnent T ransfunuers Ior
and apparat us from high voltage and lo allow rcasonable in-
Relaying
sulation lcvcls and current-carrying ca pacit y in rclays, me·
Author; W .,¡ Elmorc ters, and instruments. transforrner performance
lnstrumenl
is critica! in protcctive relay ing, since the relays are only as
l. 1 n ti oducuon accurate as the instrument transformers. In the United
St ates, standard instrurnerit trartsfortncrs ami rcluys are
11. Curren l Transforme¡ ~ rated al S Arnp and/or 120 Volts, 60 H,
A. Equivalent Círcuü
B. Estimation of Cune111
11<tJJ:.Tv1111.:1 l'..:11v1111.i11u Where the relays operatc only on current or voltugc magni-
l. Formula Met hod tud e, lhc relative directiori of curren! rtow in the trans-
2. Excitation Curve Mct hod
forrner windings is not importan t. Relative dircction (and ,
3. ANSI Standard: Curren! Trausl or urc¡ A.,;cu1"'->
Classes thereforc, polarit y) rnust be known, howe ver, where t he
C. Dircct Curren! Sat urauon relays compare the sum or diffcrcncc of two currents or thc
D. Residual Flux uu cractrons of several currents or voltages. The polarity is
111. Vultage Transformen, und Cuupll11g C.ipJ1.,JlJt1"" usually rnark ed on the instrument transformcr but can be
Vollagc Transf'ormcrs dcter mmed if neccssary.

A. Equivalcnt Circuir ol
,t Voltagc l i anstor mer
B. Couphng Capacitan ce Voltage Transforrners 11. CURRl:.NT rRANSfORMERS
C. Neutral "Inversion"
J he mejor entena tor select ing a current tra nsfoi mer 111uu
,m.: the continuous curren! ratings of ihe conncctcd equip-
mcnt (relays, auxiliary curren! t ransformcrs, instrurncnts,
et c.] and of the secondary winding of the current trans-
rorrncr itsclf. In practicc, with load current norrnally flow-
ing t hrough thc phase relays or dcvices, thc ratio is selected
so that the sccondary out put is around 5 Amp at maximum
primary load current , Where delta-connectcd current trans-
formcrs are used , the -./3 factor must be included.

Although the pertor ruance required of current translor ruers

varíes wilh thc relay applicatio n, high quality rransrormcrs
should always he used. Tite bet ter-quality transf'orrners re·
duce applicat íon problerns, present fewer hazards, and gen-
erally providc berter relaying. The quality of tite current
transformers is most critica! for differential schcrnes, where
the performance of all the transforrners rnust match. In
these schernes, relay performance is a function of the accu-
racy of reproduction-not only at load currents, but ar ali
Iault currerus as well.

Sorne diff crences rn performance can be acco uuuod al ed in

the relays. In general, the performance of current trans-
Iormers is not so critica! for transrnission fine protect ion.
The current transformers should reproduce reasonably
faithfully for faults near thc remote terminal, or at the bal-
ance point for coordination or measurement.
 52
f-01 large-rnagnuude., ..:lo:.1.·111 laull:., Lh.: curr ent t1a11:.lur111c:1
may so/unte; however, the nJJgnitude of Iault current is
not usualty critica! to the relay. For exarnple, an induc-
tion ovércurrent relay may be operating on the flat part ot
the curve for a large-magnitude, close-in fault. Here it is
relatrvely unimportant whether the current transformer
current is accurate, since the tumng is essentially identical,
The sarne is true for instantaneous or dlstance-type relaying
Ior a neavy interna\ fau\t we\\ inside the cut-<:>ff or balance
poinl. In ali cases, however, the current transformer should
pro vide sufficient current to opera te the rclay positively.
11.A. Equivalent Círcuit
An appro xirnat e equrvalent cireurr 101 a current tra nstormer
is shown in Figure 5-1. Current is stepped down in mag-
nitude through the perfect (no-loss) transformation pro-
vided by windings ab and cd. The primary leakage irnped-
anee (ZH) is modified by n2 to refer it to the secondary.
The secondary impedance is ZL; Rm and Xm represent the
core loss and exciting cornponents.
a\
b)
e)
Figure 6-1: The Equivalent Circuit and Phaaor Oiagr1m of e
Current Tran,former.
This generalized circuit can be Iurther reduced, as shown in
Figure 5-1 b. ZH can be neglected, since it influences nei-
ther the perfectly transformed current 111/n nor the voltage
across Xm. The current through Xm, the rnagnctizing
branch, is le, the exciting current.
The phasor diagram, with exaggerat ed voltage drops, 1:.
shown in Figure s-re. In general, ZL is resistive. le lags
V ... ,1 by ~uu dllJ 1:. tne pruue :.uur ..e vi error. NuL.: rnat che
111:t effect of le is to cause IL to leed snd to be smsllet thsn
rhe perfectly Lransformed current 111/ n.
Any síurple equivalent diagrarn for a current transforrner is,
at best, crude, Exciting curren! is accompanied by har-
rnonics which, in turn, produce harrnoruc relay currents.
An analysis for application purposes is usually made on the
basis of sinusoidal fundamental quantities. While this ap-
proach is highly simplified, the equivalen! diagram is an ex-
cellent too! for picturing the phenomenon and estirnating
thc approximate performance to be cxpected.
11.8. Estimatlon of Current Transformer Performance
A cun ent transforrner's performance is measurcd by its
ability to reproduce rhe primary current in terms of the
secondary; in particular, by the highest secondary voltage
the transformer can produce without saturation and, con-
sequently , large errors. Current transformer performance
can be estimated by:
a. formula
b. the current transtormer excitation curves
c. the ANSI transformer relaying accuracy classes.
l'he first two methods provide accurate data for analysis,
rhe latter gives only a qualitative appraisal. AIJ three
methods require determining the secondary voltage , V cd-
that must be generated ,
(5-1)
where V:.= the rms symmetncal secondary induced
voltage (Figure 5-1)
I L = the maximum sccondary current, Amp
(symmetrical)"
l 8 = the connected externa! impedance
ZL = the secondary winding impedance
Zléad = the connecting lead burdcn.
•1L can be cstimated by dividing the know n maximum fault current
by rhe selecred current transforrner ratio.
 5-3

ll.8.1. Formula Mcthod ·11ic1<.:1v1..:. t h c ... u11c11l transfoi mer sho uld ha ve u o n t nat

will not saturare below 70,000 lines/in2. Sin ce t he curren:

The formula merhod uses t he i undauu.nt at rr ausf or ruer transforrner in this example uses high-per meability silicon
equation: steel, it will not saturare.

15-.!J 11.8 .L Excuauou Curve Method

where f: freq LICJH;y 111 1 Jl :, L)pt<.:,11 e x cu auon curve Ior a ..:u11e11l n ausf or ruer 1:,
shown 111 ligure 5-2. Thcse data rcprese nt rrns currcrus oh·
A= the cross-sect iona! .11..:.i ul ure 11011 .;u1.: lamed by upplying rms voltuge tu t he cun ent u a nsforrner
')
in- scco ndar y , wrt h the primar y open circuitcd , 'I'he eurve
gives the approxiruate excit ing current requirernents for a
N =numbe: ut t urns given secondary voltage.

~max = flux d cnsit y , 11111,~¡1111

Bolh the cross-sectional area ul t he irou J11,1 1b ~Jtu1JLh>11

density are sornet irnes di ff'icu lt to oht a in. Cu, rcnt t r,111s-
formers generally use siliccn stt!cls, which saturare frum
77 ,500 to 125 ,000 lines/in2. The lower ngurc is typical rv,
currení transf'ormcrs built bcíore 1947: a vulue uf 100.000
is lypical of modern transformcrs. Modci n Wcsr inghousc
transformers use l lipersil, a high-permeabilit y silicon sl ee l

The fo, mula meihod cousrsts uf dctei nnrung V, u~111g

Equaticn (S-1), lhcn calculatingµmax usiug Equat ion t5-lJ
lf ~max excecds the saturation dcnsit y , there will he appre-
ciable error in t he sccondary currcnt , .001 .01 .1
1 ••
10(1
1

""" be 1onq Amo, ! e

Assurne, for cxamplc , 1 hdl a 2000:S, íugh-pcuueabtlu y

silicon steel transforrner has 3.1 in2 of iron anti a secouc,u y
wlnding resistance of 0.31 ohm. Thc maximum curren! fo1
Lutlr I , .. ' :,f'\

Ra110 Ra1oo Res 1

which the curren! transforrner rnust opcratc is 40,000 Amp 50 !:> 10 1 061
100 5 20 1 082
at 60 llz. The rclay burden , including tht: second ary leads, 150 S 30 1 104 Nult:~

is 2.0 ohms. Will this current transforme: saturare? 200 !:> 40 1 12!:> 1 • Above 1 ne Ltn~ l lh.' VOltr1Ut: tu, d G,vuu
250 5 ~o 1 146 Excrunq Current W,11 No1 bt• lll,~ Tnan
300 5 60 1 168 95'}0 oí The Curve V11lut'
400 5 80 1 211
lf lhe curren! transtornrer Jocs 1101 sat urat e , t he ~et:<1mlar:r 450 5 90 1 230 2) Below The Lmc Th;, Exc11u,\J <.:ui ""'' ,.,,
current , 15, would be 40,000 divided hy 400, or 100 Arnp, :,00!:> 100 1 242 u Givcn Vo11a~1e w,H Not Exceed Th,•
6005 120 l 296 Curve Value by More Tnan 2!:>%
since N equals 400. Thus, t he current t ransforuier should
Figure 5 2. E1otdt10n Curv"~ for a Multiratio Bllshing Currem
be able to produce a secondar y volt age , V~· of 1 OOl 2 .O + Transformer With an ANSI Accuracy Classification
0.31), or 231 Volts. Equat ion (5-2), solved for Pmax• wrll of C100.

determine whet her rhe currcnt transformer can reproduce

this current:
L:.111g 1h1:-. 111e1hvd, a ~urve relatrng pri111ary ..:urn::111 w 1.cc·
ondary curren! can bt: developell for the tap, kad kngth,
_ 231 x 108
rnd hurden hcing used lrigure 5-3). Any valuc ot prirnary
Pmax - 4.44 x 60 x 3.1 x 400
..:urrent can then be entered on the -:urvc: to determine the
= 70,000 ltncs/in2 expe..:1ed value of secondary curren!.
.5-4

- Nis t- Nlt: = t>U + ou = 1.W Arup .

Th11> value is considerably higher than the 60 Amp uesued .

In theory, when rnak ing the phasor addition, the angle of
the burden and the exciting branches should be taken into
account. This refinement is not necessary, however, since
it is obvious from the curve of Figure 5-2 whether or not
the current transforrner would be operating in the satu-

Notes: rated región.

a) Assume IL e) Find le from Curve
b) Vs = IL Z1 Where Zr "- d) IIL + le)n = IH
ZL + Z Leads + Z Burden e) Repeat and Plot Curve An alternative approach wuulJ be lo use a ratio uf 60:3, or
20 (the 100:5-tap), with tlie higher burde n of the 3 Arnp
Figure 6·3: Excitotion Curve Method. relay tap. Using this ratio, N equals 20, and 15 equals 3 Amp
to opera te this relay.
rne Io llowmg exarnples will illustrate sorne of the prob-
lerns encountered in esti mating current tra nsforrncr per-
formance using the excitation curve method ,

bxample #1: Phase Relays

=3X3

1'Jte breaker has a multi-ratio 600:S bushlng current tr a ns-

= 9 Volts tS-1)

Iorrner and the feeder is protected with overcurrent relays,

The relays should opérate for approxlmately 60 Arnp rms
syrnrnetrical prirnary current. The total burden on the cur- Fro ru tne excuation curve (Figure 5-2), le equals 0.5 Amp,
rent transformer, including the currcnt transformer second- and Nle equals 10. The primary pickup current, IH, would
ary resistance, is 1.6 ohms per phase when the relays are on be:
the 6-Amp tap and 3 ohrns per phase on the 3-Amp tap,
The excitation curve for the transforrner is shown in Figure = óO + 1O
5-2.
= 70.0 Arnp
One approach would be lo use a curren! transformer ratio
of 6Ó:6, or I O (the 50:5-tap), to take advantage of the l'Ius valué is closer, but still too high,
lower burden on relay tap 6.
Now suppose that the breaker has two sets of current trans-
N = 1 O turns formers, with the secondaries connected in series. Then
each current transformer carries one-half the burden, or
1 L = 6 Amp to opera te che relay 1.54 ohms on the 3-Amp tap.* Using the 100:5-tap,

N = 20 turns

= 6 >-. 1.6
IL = 3 Amp

= 9.6 V

= 4.62 Volts per transforruer

Frorn the excitation curve f'or V 5 uf 9 .6 V, Jt: wo ulu be 6
Arnp , and Nle equals 60. Theref'ore, the primary pickup "This valúe is slightly more than one-half of 3.0 ohms becausc of
current, IH, lhe secondary rcsistancc of the addcd currcnt transformer.
 5·5

Then, from Figure 5-2. ~eglccting t he e xciting current (Je). 1 his value woukl ht·
come .?O times 5. 01 100 Arnp primary. when using t he
le= 0.33 100:5 currcnr transtor mcr ratio.
<;rou nd Rclays

Assurniug t he ground curreut tlows only in pilase :1, 1 he

111=3x20+6.6 cqurvalcnt circuit is shown in Figure 5-5.

= 66.6 Arnp
100 5

While (his alt ernative offers sorne improvcme nt . 111 is nol as

close to thc desired 60 Arnp as might ha ve bccn e xpccted .
In both cases. the current t ranstormcr is operating on the
straight-line part of the charact crist ic , mak ing signif'icant
improvernent diff'icult . On the othcr hand , rwo 50:5 cur-
22n o~ Ground Pilase 0.68 l1. o~
renr transf'ormers in series wou ld show a mark cd improve- 0.5 AmpTop Reloy Re OyS ~ 1\11'\p Top
meni over the 50:5 ratio. Here 111. calculat ed hy lhc ahove
methods, is 71 Amp, Wh ilc much beu er than 120 Amp ,
this value is st ill 1101 as gootl as lhe 66.6·,\mp pickup ob-
tained using thc two curren: t ra nslormcrs wit h 1 00:5 rat iu. Figure 5.4 Connections for The Example Number 2 lllustrating
Calculation of Current Transformar Performance.

Example #'2: l'husc und Cround Rclays

'0() :>
1 ---------
The Iollowing e xurnplc , sh0\\'11 in Hgurc S··L wrll dcieruunc
the minunum prunary curre ní t ha wrll operare th<' phaxe
í
osn .68!!

rclavs and lile ground rclays.

"b..

For 1 he plrn\c rclays, 1 he lota 1 phasc bu rden, Z, equa b O .6& 1

plus 0.08, or 0.7ú ohm, whcrc 0.08 rs t hc currcnt rrans-
formcr sccondarv resistan ce on t he 100:5 t ap ( '.\'=201. ~ N

~
IL =5 Arnp (to operare t he rclay on t he 5-J\rnp tap) -------------~
~I N • 20
1
-.">Amperes
lo, E,omple
FQu 110len1 Circu,1 far
i
Í\eg11g,01e
V=0.7c,x5
~ c...,,en1 Tro~sfo,rne,s l eco Res,s •once

= J.8 vo h s (5-1 J
Figure 5-5· EQuivalent Circuits and Oistribution of Currents
for a Ground Fault With The Connections of Figure
5-4 in Example Number 2.

Fro m Figure S-2.

Jo obt am 05 Amp t hrough thc ground rclay. wit h ir s 11n·

pcdance ot' .?2 ohms, 1 1 volts 111us1 he produced across I he

ground rclay . '-!eglc..:ting thc smallunknown voltagc across
t he pha~e reluys. this ground reluy voltage \\ ill appcar across
t he phusc h a nd e currcnt transf'or mers to e xcit e 1he111 from
= 20 (5 + 0 . .?8) t he scconuary sitie. Fro111 Figure 5·2. a n I<' of 0.6 Arnp de·
velops 11 Vohs across t hese curren! t ru nsfor mers. Th e ;1.;-
= 1 05 6 1\ mp primar y curacy rcquircd gcnerully does not warrant corrccti<>n tor
5-6

the smal\ phase relay drop. Such a correction could. how- The C classification covers bushing current transformers
ever, be made on a trial-and-error basis. with uniformly distributed windings, arid any other trans-
formers whose core leakage flux has a negligible effect on
Thus, the phase a relay circuit must supply 0.6 plus 0.6 the ratio within the defined lirnits.
plus 0.5, or 1.7 Amp. Given the phase relay of 0.68 ohm
and the current transformer impedance of 0.08 ohm, or The T classification covers most wound-t y pe transformers
0.76 ohm total, the phase a current transformer must sup- and any ot hers whose core leakage flux affects t he ratio ap-
ply: preciably.

Vs= 11 + 1.7 x0.76 The secondary terminal voltage rat ing (Figure 5-6) is the
voltage that the transformer will deliver to a standard bur-
= 12.3 Volts den at 20 times normal secondary current, without e xceed-
ing IO percent ratio error.
le= 0.8 Arnp (from Figure 5-2)
Figure 5-6 shows the seccndary voltage capability for var i-
ous C-class current transforrners, plotted against secondary
current. With a transformer in the C-100 accuracy class, for
= 2.5 Amp example, the transformer ratio can be calculated, and the
ratio error will not exceed I O percent between 1 to 20
times normal secondary current if the burden does not ex-
ceed 1 .O ohm ( 1.0 ohm x 5 Amp x 20 = 100 Volts).
= 50 Amp primary

Thus, 50 Amp is required to operate the ground relay.

700 Error W,11 Not faceed 10% ~---1--1--+--"+-----,
for Secondory Voltoge Equol
to or Less Thon Volue
Excluding the exciting components of the three current 600 Deseo bed by Curve
transformers, the current required to operate the ground re-
lay would have been 0.5 times 20, or 10 Amp prirnary. Us- 5001--+--+---+---+--+---1--¡..,.,c-+---+---+-----1
ing the 200:5 tap on the current transformer would irn-
pro ve sensitivity here. Drarnatic improvernent would also
be possible if a modern, Iow-irnpedance grourid relay were
"' 300
substituted. ~
g
E 200
~,_
11.8.3. ANSI Standard: Current Transformer Accuracy 100
Classes ~
8
J: oo 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
The ANSI relaying accuracy class, as revised in 1968 (ANSI Secondory Amperes

C57 .1 3), is described by two svmbols=letter designation Figure 5-6: ANSI Accuracy Standard Chart for Class C Current
and voltage rating-that define the capability of the trans- Transformers.

former.
ANSI accuracy class ratings apply only to the full winding.
The letter designation code is as follows: Where there is a tapped secondary, a proportionately lower
voltage rating e xists on the taps.
C-indicates that the transformer ratio can be calculated (as
for the earlier I OL type transformers) The foUowing current transformer data, required for relay-
ing service application, should be supplied by the manufac-
T-indicates that the transformer ratio must be determined turer:
by test (similar to the earlier I OH type transformers) a. Relaying accuracy classification.
 5.7

b. Me cha ruca anu ther rnal short-tune

í l l second ) ranngs. 22 ~ ------- ~ --,- 8·10
Both ratings define rms values that the transformer is 1 •
~
20
capable of withstanding. For mechanical short-tirne 8·207'
ratings, the rrns value is that of the ac cornponent of a
V
18

completely displaced prirnary current wave. The rher-

mal I sec rating is the rms value of the primary curren:
16
--· / 8·40
that the transforrner will withstand with t he secondary 14
1
~
winding short circuited, without exceeding the limiting ~ /"
12 ....--
temperature of 2SOºC for ssºC-rise transformers, or V
3S0°c for 80ºC-rise transformers. The short-timc ther- 10
~
mal current rating for any period of 1 lo 5 sec is deter- V B·BO
~
mincd by dividing the 1 sec current rating by the square
root of the required nurnber of seconds.
8

6
.:
v~ ~
L.-- -
4
c. Resistance of the secondary winding between the wind-
ing terminals. Data should be presented in a form that 2
/
allows the value for each published ratio to be deter-
mined.
0 o/ 2 4 6 e 10 12 14 16 19 20 22
Times Normal PrimoryCurrent

Figure 5-7: Typical Overcurrent Ratio Curves for a T Class

d. For class-C transformers, the rnanuf act urer should also Current Transformar.
supply typical excitation curves on log-log ccord inate
paper. The plot should show e xcitat ion current and sec-
Np = t urns in use divided by total turns
ondary terminal voltage for each puhlishe d ratio from I
percent of the accuracy class secondary terminal voltage
Vcl s: current transforrner voltage class
to a voltage (not to exceed 1600 Volts) that will cause
an excitation curren! of 5 times normal secondary cur- Standard burdens are listed in Table 5-1.
ren! (Figure 5-2).

For class-T t ransfor rners, t he rnanulacturer should sup-

Table S-1
ply typical overcurrent ratio curves o n rectangular co-
ordina te paper. The plot should be between primary
Standard Surden Designations
and secondary current, over the range from I to 22
times normal current , for ali standard burdens up to t he
one that causes a ratio error of 50 percent (Figure 5-7).
Characteristics
for 60-Hz ancl 5-Amp
The ANSI standard effectively def'mes a per missible 50% Secondary Current
power factor burden for a Class-C current transforrner ,
These standard ohmic burdeos are identified in Figure 5-6 Standard
When fewer than the total number of turns are in use on llurden lmpedance Volt- Power
Designa tion (ohms) amperes Factor
the current transforrner , only a portien of that burden can
be supplied without cxceeding the I O perccnt error. Per-
missible burden is defined mathematically by:
B-1 1 .o 25 0.5
B-2 2.0 so 0.5
4.0 JOO 0.5
z _ Np Ycl
8-4
B-8 200 0.5
s-10() lS-3) 8.0

where
B-0.1, B-0 . .2, and B-0.5-in the standard bur not shown
z8 = per mlssible burden on the curre nt transf'or mer here-are the Standard Metering Burdens,
 5-8
The following exarnple shows current transformer calcula-
tions using ANSI classifications. The maximum calculated
fault current for a particular line is 12 ,000 Amp. The cur-
rent transformer is rated at 1200:5 and is to be used on the
800:5 lap. lts relaying accuracy class is C200 (full-rated
winding); secondary resistance is 0.2 ohm. The total sec-
ondary circuit burden is 2.4 ohms at 60-perccnt powcr
factor. Excluding thc effccts of residual magneí ism and
de offset, will the error excced 1 O pcrccnt? 1 f so, what
corrcct ivc action can • takcn to reduce thc error to 1 O
percent or less? ~
The current transfornf r secondary winding resistance may
be ignored because the C200 relaying accuracy class desig-
nation indicates that the current transformer can support
200 volts plus the voltage drop caused by secondary resist-
ance at 20 times rated current, for 50 percent power-factor
burden. The et secondary voltage drop may be ignored
thcn if the secondary current does not excecd LOO Amp.
N = 800
5
= 160
12000
1L = 160
= 75 Amp
The permissible burden is given by:
z _ Np Vcl
B - ----i6o (S-3)
800
Np = 1200
= 0.667 (proportion of total turns in use)
Thus,
z _ 0.667(200)
B- 100
= 1.334 ohms
Since the circuit burden, 2.4 ohrns, is greater than the
calculated permissible burden, 1.334 ohms, the error will
exceed I O percent at the máximum fault current leve)
(75 Amp). Consequently, it is necessary to reduce the
burden, use a higher current transformer ratio, or use a cur-
rent transformer with a higher voltage class,
Jl.C. Direct Current Saturation
To this point, current transformer performance has been
discussed in tcrms of steady-state behavior only, without
considering the de component of the fault curren t. Actu-
ally, the de component has far more influence in producing
severe saturalion than the ac fault current. The de cornpo-
nent arises beca use ( 1) the current in an inductance cannot
change instantaneously and (2) the steady-state current, be-
fore and after a change, must lag (or lead) the voltage by
the proper power-factor angle.
Figure 5-8 shows the current immediately following fault
inception for two cases: fully offset and no offset. In the
full~ offset case, the fault is assumed to occur at the in-
stant"'hat produces the maximum de component. In the
secondcase, the fault occurs ata time that produces no de
offset.
Figure 5-9 shows an example of the distortion and reduc-
tion in the secondary current that occurs as a result of de
saturation.
If V K 2:_ 6.28 !RT, the de component of a fault current
will not produce current transformer saturation. In this ex-
pression:
VK = voltage at the knee of the saturation curve, deter-
rnined by extending the straight line portions of
the curve
1 = syrnrnetrical secondary current (Amp rms)
R = total secondary resistance
T = de time constant of thc primary circuit in cyclcs.
T = (Lp/Rp)
whcre,
Lp = primary circuit inductance
Rp = primary circuit resistance
f = frequency.
 5-9

qurres substanualty great er t lux than thar nc::c::1foJ tv satrst y

the ac component.

Oc Comoooent =
2 11=!Cf
J

-t
o 2
a) Curren! Wave Woth Maximum Assymmetry
ó) Fully ÜJIStll

-..

,:~r
O) Voltage Wave Requoredto Force Ac Componen!
IL ~ Load Curréru Through Secondary Resrstance
I F = Fault Current
V - Voltage

o) No Ottser
-0.5
o 2
Figure 5-8: Current lmmediately After Fault lnception.
el Voltage Wave Re9u11ed to Force De Component
Through Secondary Resistance

~-~~4
I Secondory
Withoul Sotoroton I Secondory
With SoturOIIQfi

,'.l!t:J
O 1 2
d) Flux Variation to Induce Voltage Wave ( b).

Figure 5-9: De Saturation of Current Transformer.

0o
1 2
eJ Flux vanation to Induce Voltage Wave (e)
Direct current saturation is particularly signíficant in bus
differential relaying systerns, where highly differing cur-
rents flow to an externa! fault through the current trans-
formers of the various circuits. Dissimilar saturation in any
differential scheme will produce operating current.

Figure 5-1 O shows how current transformer saturation re-

lates to time. Severe current transf'orrner saturation will
11 rotal Flux vananon
occur if the prirnary circuit de time eonstant is sufficiently
long and the de eomponent is suffieiently high. Curves d , Figure 5-1 O: Current Transformer Flux During Assymmetrical Fault.
e, and f of Figure 5-10 show that the de component re- (One Cycle Time Constant)
5-10

The time required for d .;u11e111 u anstor mer to reach SdlU· :,---

rat íon flux density can be estimated from Figure 5-11, as

Expended
follows: Seo le

a From the current translormer excitation curve for the

tap in use, determine V K from the intersection formed
by extending the two straight line segments of the curve. 31-----1-----+----1--+---+-----
Note that both axes must have the same scales as shown.
t
T

b. Calculare YK/IRT.

c. Obtain t/T from Figure 5-11.

d. Calcula te t, the time to satura te.

V K m ust be modlfied if residual flux rnust be consrdered ,

For exa mple , with a residual flux of 90 percent, the satu- o.~ 1.0 1.~ 2.0 2.5
vt<
ration voltage valué must be multiplied by I minus 0.9, 01 ÍRT
0.1, to determine the earliest time to saturation. This will F,gu,e 5-1 lb. Cu11ent Transforme,, Time to Satura ta. (Expanded Sea le)

give a conservative value for time to saturation.

11.0. Residual flux

6.28
Any uon-core device will retarn a flux level even after the
exciting curren! falls lo zero. Superimposed on this resid-
1
Sotu,ot,on Curve ual flux are variations in core flux, dictated by thc curren,
transforrner secondary curren! and secondary burden. The
4~-- residual flux may either aid or detract from transient flux
performance, depending on the relative directions of the
residual flux and the required flux variation.
le

T = Primary Circu,t Time Cons1an1, Cycles Figure 5-12 shows the importance of previous loading his-
t= Time to Saturate. Cycles
tory on current transformer residual flux level, Suppose a
VI( = Threshold Voltage for Saturation. Volts
1 = Symmetrical Secondary Current, Amperes curren! transformer has a residual flux defined by point
R = Secondary Circuit Resistance, Ohms
le = Exciting Curren! "a." lf a syrnrnetrical sinusoidal primary current starts to
flow, requiring a flux variation as shown , the pattern be-
tween a and A will be traced out. The average value of the
de exciting current with this pattern is la. This currenr
flows in the secondary and has no counterpart in the pri-
f 1 Log,o [
i'"o.434 1
1 + 271'
l-~ I J mary. It decays with the time constant assocíated with the
6.28IRT secondary circuit, At the completion of this transient , the
Curve Assumes T> 3Cycles
pattern has moved to cC with an equal flux variaticn that
is syrnmetrical around the vertical axis. The pattern con-
tinues to be traced out. lf the circuit were now ínter-
rupted, the residual ílux would have the value existing at
the moment of interruption, which is quite different from
2 3 4 6 7 the initial valué assumed. In fact, any value of flux be-
VK
IRT tween zero and saturation Jevel may be retained in the core ,
Figure 5·11a: Current Transformer Time to Saturate. depending on previous events.
 te111 on w hrch they ar e to be used , 1 wo no uunal secouu-
ary voltages I l 5 and 120 Volts are allowed for voltage
transformers; the corresponding line-to-neutral values are
115/y3 and l20/y3. The applicable voltage depends on
the primar y voltage rating, as given in A SI CS 7 .13. The
nominal secondary voltages for coupling capacitance volt-
age transforrners are 115 and 66.4 Volts

Most prorecuve relays have standard voltage raungs ot 120

Volts or 69 Volts, depending on whether they are to be
connected line-to-line or line-to-neutral.

111.A. Equrvaleru Circuir of a Voltage Transformer

y

I'he equivalent circun ot a voltage uanstormer (VT) 1:,

Figure 5· 12: Residual Flux in Current Transformar. shown in Figure 5-13. Sincc rcgulation rs critica) lo ac .. u·
racy, the circuit rnay be reduced to that shown in Figure
Reducing the residual flux lo zero requires lile apphcauon S-l 3b. l he phasor diagram oí Figure 5-l 3c has greatly ex·
of a sccondary voltage high enough to produce saturation , aggeratcd voltage drops to ernphasi/e that, for typical trans-
íollowed by a gradual reduction oí the voltage to zero , Iorrners and burdcns, the secondary voltage usually lags the
"pcrfectly transforrncd" prunary voltagc and rs dcfrcicnt in
A current transforrner wuh an air gap in rne core has c1 rnagnitudc. Typical rated maximum errors for thc e dcvices
Iairly low residual flux, approximately 10 percent ot saiu are 0.3, 0.6, and 1.2 pcrccnt. Voltage transformcrs havc ex-
ration density. Residual flux for current transformers wirh ccllent transicnt performance, faithfully reproducmg abrubt
no intennonal air gap is appro xirnately 90 percent of satu- changes m the prirnary voltage.
rauon density.

Air-gup curreni trunstormers do noi :.c11urJh: J:. 1o1p1dly J:.

n 1
dcvíccs without air gaps subjected to cqual current and e e
- -,
burdcn. llowever, the burden capabihty oí air-gap trans- ~Burden
formers decreases as the square of the proportion of the o
total winding in use. As a result , the residual flux decays al
very slowly (taking severa! seconds), and the secondary cur-
of primary curren t.

J
rent collapses slowly after interruption
Also , air-gap units are more coslly to manufacture, since
the small air gap rnust be both accurate and maintainable.
I>)

While in t heory residual flux can cause relayrng proble ms Vob

Ved' O
there have been very few documented cases in which the
residual flux has caused a relay misoperation. JIL(XH/n2 +XLI

lll. VOLl AGE TRANSFORMERS ANO COUPLlNG Figure 5, 13: The Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Dlagram ot a
CAPACITANCE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS Voltage Transformar.

Vohage transformers (formerly called potencial transtorm- 111.B. Couphng Capacitance Volrage Transformen,
ers) and coupling capacitance voltage transformers are se-
lected according to two criteria: the system voltage level Coupling capacuance voltage transformers tCCVT) and
and the basic impulse insulation leve! required by the sys- bushing capacitance voltage transformers are less expensive
5-12

than voltage transformers but may be inferior in transient voltage depends on the values of R, L, and C. Other tran-
performance. With these potential devices, a subsidence sients are introduced by the presence of ferroresonant sup-
transient accompanies a sud den reduction of voltage on the pression circuits and by the relays thernselves.
primary. This voltage may be oscillatory al 60 Hz or sorne
other Irequency , or it may be uni-directional. A representa- A voltage transforrner is not significantly affected by com-
tive severe secondary transient is shown in Figure 5-14. parable transients and will reproduce prirnary transients
with excellent fidelity. Modero CCVTs, such as the PCA-7,
have capabililies approaching those of the voltage trans-
former.

The subsidence transient of the CCVT rnay influence the

behavior of sorne relays. Solid-state phase and ground dis-
tan ce relays, used in a zone 1 clirect trip function, may be
seriously affected by the ternporary reduction of voltage
during the <lecay period. These relays either must be time
delayed to override lhe transient period or must havc their
reach shortcned sufficiently to avoid false tripping.
Fígure 6-14: A Typícal Subsidence Transient of Older Type
Couplíng Capacitance Voltage Transformers.
Areas of application for the various CCVTs are listcd in
Table 5-11.
Figures 5-15 and 5-16 illustrate lhe source of the subsidence
lransicnt in the CCVT. In Figure 5-16, elements L and C
Table 5-11
generally contain stored energy when a disturbance , such as
a fault, occurs on the prirnary. Becausc of the "ringing"
Arcas of Application for Various CCVTs
tendency inherent in lhe RLC circuit , a sudden short cir-
cuit on lhe primary does not produce an instantaneous col-
lapse of lhe voltage applie<l lo t he relays. The extent and
De vice Distance Relays Corrective Measure
duralion of the deviation from the perfectly transformed

PCA-5 Solid State Zone I Oelay trip to 12 ms to-

pilase tal (from normal 4 ms)
-1--------------------H,ghVolloqelme PCA-5 Solid Statc Zonc 1 Decrease reach to 75
ground percent of line length
Ferroresononoe (from normal 85 per-
Tun,ng Suppressor
Reoc1or Tronsformer cent)
PCA-5 Electromechanical None required
PCM, PCA-7 Solid Statc Zone I Delay trip 4 ms
or VT pilase
PCM, PCA-7 Solid State Zonc 1 None required
or VT ground
PCM, PCA-7 Electromcchanical None required
Figure 5-15: Simplified Schematic of a Coupling Capacitor orVT
Voltage Transformer.

The impedance of capacitance voltage transf'or rners should

not be high enough to produce erroneous behavior in the
static compensator distance relays. Excessive impedance
ToPr,mory { may cause false tripping for a reverse fault. For this reason,
Circuus
bushing voltage devices rated below 230 kV should not be
used with solid state distance relays. Bushing voltage de-
vices are, in general, seldom uscd. Thcir burde n capability
Figure 5-16: Equivalent Diagram of a Coupling Capacitor
Voltage Transforme,. is limited and transient performance is poor.
 S·I J

íll.C Neutral "Inversiou ''

+
.,
(j
'Jeutul "mversiou", m whrch ground becornes externa! to
Uit svsrem voltJi,?c tn.1ngh: crn occur on ungrounded sys- /
Lam~ w,t~ 11 ~nslt: potential transrormer connecred Iine-io-
g1uua.d l igure 5-1 í shows ihe possrble voltage a erross an
unl1)11ded vol,agr. transíormer l\;ote that an x~·t,m ratio
ot .3 would theoreucally cause an mñnue vo ltage across thc
e
vohage uansíormer. Such :J suuauon never occurs, 01
COur~ because \'.111 reduces as saturarion occurs.
Whero
\ Pl\nR ,1 \lah,19.: I<> Grpund
By lnadrng rhe rranstcrmer C.11"<!1 ully
, t h1i; large , sustaíned VLL = Lme 10 L •"" \lolJ:lQ"
ovwvu1t.1g..: phenomena can he avoided, Caution should al- X, O,smbuu,d C:ni:m~•t,1nct: p1•r Pon~•l
Xm Maon.,twn,, 1m11<'íta111::1e ar Thu
w:iys be exercised where the secondarj vcltage of the truns- Vc,1Íacte T1nru1armer
b
fonner is used l or s~ nchrorusm check since t he loadrng wil!
Q!Uk 3 plta.~l' s'Jtl It , Figurci &-17 Neu1ral (nverslan on 011 Ungrounded Powe, Syst.im
 6·1

Chapter 6 l. lNfROOUCIION

1 he fr equcncy of Iarlure 111 1v!dll11g 111o11 .. h1Jh::. t:, 'º" w it h

Generator Prorection modern design pract ices and improved ruaterials, yct f'a il-
A ut hor: W. A. El more ures can occur and may rcsult in severo damage and long
outagcs, For hcse reasons, abnormal condit ions must be
í

rccogruzcd prornpt ly and the trouble arca quick ly isolated.

l. 1 ni roduction

JI. i: ault Dctection Abnorrnal condn ions that may occur wnh rotuung equip-
rnent include the following:
111. Ground-l-ault Protecuon

IV. Backup Protccnon a. 1 aults in the wmdings

A. Unbalanced htult~
b overload
B. Balanced Faulls

V Overload Protecuou c. overhcaung ut w111Jtng:.. 01 bca1111g;,

VI. Ovcrspccd P1otcd1011

Vil Loss-of-Fxcitat ion P1 utccuon

1: lv:,:, ut ex cu aucn
Vlll. KLF a nd Kl F-1 Curves

IX Iwo-Zonc KLI Scherne 111vtv1111g ut gcnc1a1v1:.

X. Protecuon Agamst <.,cncrato, \lo1v1111g g smgle-phasc u, unbalanceu cur r ent opcrat ron

XI Field Cround Protecuon

II out vi stcp
XI l. Alternaung-Cun ent Overvoltuge Prot ect 1v11 101
l lydroelectric Gcncrutors
Several oí t hesc ... oudruons Jo not requuc t hut t ne uuu b1.
XIII. Generator Prorecuon al Reduced f requencres t rrppcd uutornaucally, smce , m a propcrly at teruled stuuon
thcy can be corrcct cd while t he maclune rcmams in servrcc.
XIV. Recomrnended P, otect ion
l'hcse condit ions are signalled by alarrns. Othcr conduions,
XV. Out·of·Step Protecuon howcvcr , such as faults, requrre prompt removal of thc mu-
chin e from service.
'XVI. 13u~ fransfcr Sy:.1c111:. 101 St auun \u,\1ha11c:.
í-or uny particular huzard , t hc iruual, operuuug. and 111a111·
tcnancc costs of protcct ive schcrncs and the dcgrcc ol pro·
rccuon they afford must be car efully weighed agamst l he
r isk encountcrcd if no protection wcre apphcd l'he arnount
of protcction that should be applied ,, 111, of course , vary uc-
cording to t hc sizc and t he unport ance of t he machme.

11. FAUL T DETECTION

lnrernal íaults in equipment gc::nerdlly develup .i~ a gr ouud

in onc of thc phase windings and may occasionally mvolve
more than one phase. Diffcrcntial prorecnon rs t he most
cffecnve scherne against multrple-phase Iaults In differen
tia! pro tection, the currents in each phase, un each side ot
s-z
t hc 111.11.h.tnc, are 1..u111p.ucú 1r1 d ,llttc1cnlldl ... u .. uH Any
"difference" current is u sed lo opera te a relay.
Figure 6-1 shows t he relay circuns for 0111:! phase ouly l-v1
normal operation or for a fauh outside t he two sets ol cur-
rent transformers. lp entering the machlne equals lp leaving
the machine in ali phases, neglect ing t he small interna! lea k-
age current. On a per-unit basis, t he secondary current is
equal lo tite primary current minus t he magnet izing current ,
le.
I'he relay current, tt:2 · ld 1:, the dir ter ence ui rhe excituig
or magnetizing currents. Wrth the same type of currcnt
transformers. this current will be sma!l at normal load.
Hence, to prevcnt relay operation, the relay must be set
above this máximum value during normal mach ine opera-
tion. lf a fault occurs between tite two sets of current truus-
formers, one or more of tite left-hand currents will suddcnly
increase, while currents on rhe right side may eithcr de-
crease or increase and flow in the reverse direction. Either
way , the total fault current will now flow through t he relay,
causing it to opérate.
Protecteu
-
Equ,pmenl
Retoy
Figure 6-1: The Basic Differential Connection.
Lt pertect current transformers were available, an overcur-
rent relay in the "dífference" círcuit could be set to respo nd
very sensitively and quickly. ln practice, however, no two
current transfonncrs will give exactly the sarne secondary
current for the same primary curren t. Discrepan cíes can be
traced to manufacturing variations and to differences in sec-
ondary loading causcd by unequal lcngth of rclay lcads and
unequal burdeos of meters or instruments connected in one
or both secondaries. The differential current produced
flows Lhrough the relay. While normally small, the differen-
tial current can become appreciable when short-circuit cur-
rent flows toan externa! fault. An overcurrent relay would
ha ve lv [Je sc t above thc lll<1.\t111u111 c:11v1 .... ur reut lhdl could
be expected during an externa! fault.
The percentage differennal relay (Figure o-2) solves me
above problem without sacrifícing sensítivity. The restraiu-
ing windings receive the transformer secondary current and
dcscnsitize the relay to high externa! fault currents. There
are t wo cornmon restraining schemcs. ( 1) windings on the
same electrornagnet , which produce contact-opening torque
against the contact-closing torque oí the operating winding:
or (2) generating a restraint voltage for comparison with the
voltage produccd by thc difference curren t.
Protecteó
Eqo,pment
-
Operot,ng
w,nd,ng
-1p1.¿
Figure 6-2 Schernatrc Connecnons of The Percentage Orfferentíal
Type Relay (Only One Phase Connecnons are ShownJ
ln euher case, the current required for relay operation in·
creases with the magnitude of the externa! fault curren t.
The percentage of increase rnay be constant, as in the CA
(87) generator percentagc differential relay. Alternatively,
the percentage of increase may vary with the external fault
curren t , as in the high speed SA-1 (87) gcnerator relay. The
effect of the restraint windings on interna! faults is negligi-
ble, because the operating winding has more ampere-turns
and receives the total secondary fault curren t.
I'he CA gerierator drf Ierential relay is available in l U-percent
and 25-percent types. The percentage indicates the unbal-
ance current required to operate tite relay as a percentage
of the smallest restrainl curren t. The 10-percenl relay has
a minimum pickup of 0.18 Amp, and the 25-percent relay,
0.45 Amp. fhe pickup value 1s the current into one re-
straint and out the operating winding required to just close
the rclay contacts. With 3 Amp or more in the 10-percent
relay, and 7 Amp or more in the 25-percenl relay, lhe op-
erating tin1e is 165 ms or less, with a mínimum operating
time of 80 to 100 ms.
 6-3

The SA-1 relay is a three-phase, variable perceutuge r cla y
avatlablc wuh a sensitivity of 0.14 Amp or 0.5 Amp. 'I'he
S/\-1 operares in approximately 25 ms cornpared to 80 lo
165 ms for thc CA generator differential relays but costs
approximately 25 perccnt more. A saturating reactor in
each of tite three "operating" circuits minirnizes the tend-
ency to opérate on the low magnitude error current associ-
atcd with unequal current Lransformer saturation. Thc re-
actor has an impedancc of approximately 85 ohms at 0.14
Arnp and 1.5 ohrns at 30 Amp,
t,c11,:;1<:1Cv1:. wun splu-phase w111d111gs can be p1uc..:1.C<::U by
two sets of differen tial relays, one connected as in Figure
6-2, and lhe ot her connected as in Figure 6-4. This arrange-
rnent protects against ali types of interna! faults, including
short-circuited turns or open-circuited windings. Unless the
ratios of the current transformers are l wo to one, the
scherne of Figure 6-4 rnust be equipped with auxiliary trans-
forrners to provide a balance during normal operalion.

The l1igh-impedance reactor in the SA-1 relay opcratmg cir-

cuit also prevenís the relay from operating during trans- Sphl Pnose
::J o

formcr cnergization at full-voltage (black start) or follow- Generolor

b
111g out-of-phase synchronizing. These conditions will pro·
duce de currenl flow in the rnachine. Since the L/R ratio 2n:5
n.b e
(inductancc/resistance) of rotat ing machinery is large, it
may produce current transf'ormer saturation, probably oc·
curring al a different time for the two current transforrners OP
in a givcn phase, that will persist for many cycles aftcr the R R
initlal disturbance unless the current is intcrrupted.
'-----v---J
D,fferenhol Retoy
In ali diífercntial schernes, u lS guod pract ice to use curreru
transf'ormers with the sarne charactcristics whercver possible Figure 6-4. Schematic Connections for One Phase Only for The
and lo avoid connecting any other equipment in these cir- Protection of a Machina With Split Phase Windings.
cuits

111. GROUND-F AULT PROTECTION

Mosl gcncrators have wye-connected windings. As shown
in Figure 6-2, three relays connected to wyc-connected cur-
l he rnet ho d 01' grounding aff'ects the degree of protecuon
rent transformers provide phase- and , in sorne cases, ground-
afforded by differential relays. The higher thc grounding
Iault protcction. Figure 6-3 illustrates a similar protect ive
impedancc, the less the fault current magnitude and the
scheme for delta generators, In this schcme, t he delta wind-
more difficult it is lo detect light faults. Wilh high imped-
ings must be brought out so current transformers can be in-
anee grouriding t he diffcrential relays will not respond to
stallcd Inside lhe delta.
single phase to ground faults. A separare relay in the
grounded neutral will provide sensitive protectlon, since ir
can be set without regard to load current.

-
1,-12

-
o .'\:, the grounding 1mpedance is incrcased, cu1renr·ly¡.><!
12·!3 +-
relays becorne less applicable. The lower the relay pickup,

-
l>
[3·!1 thc higher its burden on lhe current transforrner and thc
e more difficult it is to distinguish bctween ground-fault c.:ur-
rent and third-harmonic unbalance current flowing in lhe

t'""º""
neutral. This third-harmonic current may be as high as I O
Reloy
O ello to 15 perccnl of the maximum generator output with low·

- -
Generolor
impedance grounding.
ii-12 1¡12

!'he ground rclay may also opera1e for ground taulcs be·
Figura 6-3: Percentage Differential Relay Schematic for a Delta
Connected Machina. (Only One Phase Connections yond the generalor. For lhis rcason, a lime delay may be
are Shown) necessary to coordinate with any other overlappmg relays
6-4

A ryprcal .._¡¡::,e is a generat or ~u1111e~leu uu e ... Liy Lv .i bu, vi lhc Cdl111g ul 5 4 V tu, Che o /-V lela) JHct l o V 101 t he
with ot her circurts. A faull on one of t hese circuits shouJJ 199-V relay. Provided that a Iull-rated primary winding b
nol lrip l he machine , the relays in lhe faulled circu it will used , lhe maxrrnum voltage for a solid ground fault is
clear such fault s. A wye-delta transformer bank will block 120/../3 (69.3 V wit h 120-V distribution transformer sec-
the flo w of ground current preventing taults on lhe op- ond ary), or 240/-/3 ( 138.6 V with 240-V secondary).
posite side of the banks lrorn operating ground rclays. In
t he unit-connected scherne, the t ranstor mer bank lirnits I he scherne combines good sensurvity for internal ground
thc ground relay operauon to taults in t he generator , t hc f'aults while being very insensit ive lo third-harrnonlc volt-
leads up to the transfor mer bank , anti lhe della winding, agcs. A tuncd filtcr circurt , consísnng of the relay coil a nd
capacuor, manifests a lugh impedance lo t hird-harmonic
[he unit syst ern is lhc rnost common urrangcment for ali voltages and prevents í hc rclay from operaung. Thc 3rd
but small gencrators. For unu systcrns high resistance harmon1c pickup of lht! relay 1s approximately 8 tunes !he
grounding is used, and t he maclune is generally grounded pickup at rated frequency.
lhrough a dist ribution transtorrner and resistor combina-
tion, as shown in Figure 6-5. Since thc secondary is rat ed J'he ~V 1t!lay, wluch 1s used to protect thc CV-8 aga111st
al 1 20 V or 240 V, thc physical s111: ol l he resistor can be ovc1voltage, can bt: onuttcd where the conlinuous raling of
considerably srnallcr lhan if it were connecred to lhe pri- lhc CV-8 is greatu than the max1mum fault voltage. 1 he
rnary. SV rcl¡iy 1s set to open lls contacts above 70 V, inse1l1ng thc
resistor R lo lim1t 1he voltage on lhe CV-8 to 60 V whcn
Transforme, Bus
139 V b apphed. 1 he SV, with a conlinuous rating of
GenerolOr
160 V, 1s re4uired for an alarm scheme. but seldom for lrip·
ping

The adJu,t.ibk time Jwl scllmgs of the CV-8 prov1dc a time

dela y lo cnsure lrippmg only on faulb and not on transicnl
disturbances lhe 1111111mum delay wtlh thc 0.5 t1111c Jtal
D,stri but,on setling is around 25 ms. Oelays of 4 sec. or more as possi·
Tronsformer
ble with lhc 11 time dial settmg. ·¡ hese longcr dclays allow
Fbsr@t1V!Jl1ve for coor<l1nation with voltage transformer fuses.

J
G<ound lripo,
Res,stor Alorm
Opt,onQ4 CV8 C I he t111n! ~.:tt111g should be madc so that faults m the volt-
_____ ..J

,tg..: l ra nst orme1 ur on t ht.'. sccon<lary will blow t he ft1ses be-

f ore the ground relay operaccs.
Figure 6·5: Schematoc Connectoons for Ground Fautt Protection
ot a Unit Typa Machina Ras,stance Grounded Through
a Dostribution Transformar Opcral1on uf the CV-8 can be avo1dcd for faults on lhi! volL·
agc transformcr secondary by grounding onc pilase of thc
I he unit syste m respouds to tite "olt.tgt.'. sluf t oí t he gen· secondary rather than grounding the neutral. Then a groun<.l
erator neutral wuh respect to ground t hat occurs for a faull on lhc vollagc transformcr secondary w11l not produce
ground fault 11\ the maclune, bus, or low voliagc wmdrng amachine neutral voltage shift and thc CV-8 will not oper·
of tite transf'ormer. The rclay used rnust be insensiuve to ate. This 1s lhe recommcndcd grounding practice for gener·
the substanual normal t hrrd-harrnoruc voltage thal may be alor vollagc lransformers.
present between neutral and ground , and yet sensit ive to
the normal frequency voltage t hat uccornpames a fault.
IV. BACKUI' l'ROTECTION
I'he CV-8 (59) low-prckup cvervolrage n::lay can be used lo1
unit gencrator applicauons as shown U1 Figure 6-5. Two IV.A. Unbalanced Fauhs
varietics are used: one has a conunuous raung of 67 V
( 140 V for two minutes), and t he other a conunuous rat ing Unsymrn.:tncal faults may produce more severe heating 111
of 199 V (300 V for two mmutesj Tite pickup is 8 percent machines than symmetrical faults. The negative sequence
 6-5

currents that flow during these u11bc1lcS11 ...c:J l a u lt s 111Ju1.,e
twice-rated frequency rotor currents. These cun enrs tenJ
to flow in the surface of the solid rotor íorgmg and in rne
non-magneuc rotor wedges and retaining rings l'he r esult ·
. I,
mg 2 ~R loss quickly raises the temperature. 1J the tault
persists, the metal will melt, damaging the rotor structure
Such faults result from failure of a prorecuve :,1.,ht:mc: or
equipment externa! to the machine. The relanve m .. grn-
I'he l.UV t 4o) t cla y <1 ueganve sequen ce cy pe, has a J111111·
rnuru pickup uf 0.6 per unit negative sequence currenr o2,
wrth taps bel ween 3 and 5 Amp. The solid state SOQ relay
has a trip pick-up adjustable between O. 1 and 1.0 per unit
of t he base amperes of 3 to 5 Amp and an alarrn pick-up or
0.03 to 0.2 per unir. As shown in Figures 6·7 and 6·8, the
COQ relay will match the (12)2t = K curves for values of K
trorn 5 to YO and from 1 to 5 per unit 12. For Figure 6·7, a
t elay tap setting corresponding to the secondary full-load

tudes of negative sequen ce currents for hne-t o-hne fa u Its current of the machine is used. Figure 6·8 requíres a relay
on a typical turbine generator under differenr operaung cap settrng equal to three-Iourths of the secondary full load
conduions are shown in Figure 6-6. The effect uf tite shu nt cun ent, The 3/4 fuU load tapis used to obtain better sensí-
load impedance during the fault is mcluded Ior shot t cir- nvity and wider contact spacing. Figure 6-9 relates time
cuits with load on the system. dial settings to machlne (12)2t capability. Similar curves
apply to the SOQ relay with (12)2t valúes from 2 to 40.
XcJ•l.40
x;,,o.1s ,w 1
X'd•Xz=0.10 90 1 \
TdO= 6 5ec<lnds ªº'º - 1,
\
i
ou r -

F
:,u

!>r--.--.---,----,.--.-- r I r ,
b.1 r 111tt:-
• 10Seconos
T ~,
Nolood WithVoltage Regulator {lnf1n11e Sus) !> \ ,2¡21 • lt>b
r r \'\ 1
Fu1 Load W1thVottage Regulator(lnf1011e Bus) 4 ( lz)2r • 15.?
\. \\ 1
'1 t \r,.
. -
1

\\ ,\ 1

\ 1\y \ I\~
!:) Genero•orsChoroc1e,1st,c-1-
u 2¡2r =90
0o ~z~~3--4~.....,,!>--6..____,.1
_ _._a_-;.9 1\ ~ I U2l2 t •30
,,
10

'
T,me n Secoods ~tT
IU
T \
9 ,- , \
' \' \ \\
1 \
Figure 6·6. Relativa Magnitudes o, Negattvt;: Sequ.,nce Curr.,nu 6 1-

for L1ne·tO·Line Faults on a Typical Machine Under r

\ \. \. \
D,fferent Operating Conditions. {From AIEE RelayCharacter,st1cs
Iransacucns Volume 72 1953 Part 111 Page 283 t- -.-T,me0,01 Se111r,g
\\' \~
t
Figure 1 J

r ,11 1 \ \ 1\\

1'\\ \
1 1
According to AXSJ standards, the penrussibte 111tcgr<11cJ 1 \
r - 1
product, U2)2t,* which "indirectly cooled" turbine gen t
erators, synchronous condensers, and frequency-ch .. nger - . -~ 1 1

~ \\

l-
1
sets can tolerate, is 30. The standard for hydr auhc tur-
bines or engme-driven generators is 40. Standard '"dtre.,;tly
,:,
rt 1 \ 1\
TÍ
~I
cooled" machines up to 800 ~1VA are capable uf with-
standing a perrnissible integrated product of I O, w lule
sorne very large machines (1600 MVA) can only toler at e S '.s .6
-
1
---
a .9 1.0 i.s 2 as 3 "' s 6 1 a 9 10
Negor,ve SeQuence Current 1nperUn1t
barly inspection is recommended for machines subject tu (1.0 per Umt =TopVolueCurrem=Machtne Full LoadCurrent)
Iaults between the above limits and 200 percent of the lurnt
figure 6-7. Companson ot Relay and Generator Characteristics
to detect damage. Serious damage can be expected for
(Time vs Negat1ve Sequence Current for an (12) 2 t Factor
Iaults above 200 percent from 30 to 90).

*12 i~ negative sequence eurrent in per unit of machrne-ruted current, I he ~c:ttwg vi ihe Cü(J .:a11 be 11lustrated by an examph:: A
and 1 is in seconds. 760 MVA, 20 KV generator with 25,000/5 current tran:,·
 t,t,

tu, 111.;1.., t1u~ .in 12 2t ~ 1 U -

7
I ne tull loau cun ent vi t lus unu
is:

760,0üü so ,_ -
V
rx: = 21,939 amperes pr unary
-n 20
V
/
= 21--'939
- = 4.39 amperes secondary. 70
J

5000
Iop Volue = Mochme Ful I Lood,
/
Cnoose a COQ tap of .75 x 4.39 or tap 3.25, anda time bO IY
dial of 2.5 (Figure 6-9). The operat ing times (Figure 6-8) V 1
will be 16 secon ds Ior 3.25 amperes neganve sequence, or
1.5 seconds Cor 9.75 12. 50
/
,._.,.._ J
V _.,_

100 ~ ,- 40 / -
-
90
80
70 J

./
e
60

--
50
40 30

30 ,--... ,-...

20 ..__
\1\'
20
.,/' ·-
15
1\ i'
,,~
11.
Generotor ,,_ _ -- !/~ \ 1
- TopVa lue = ~ of Mochine Ful I Lood
l'" "
(I2)2t '5 ;-;.> ,-
10
9
cnorccte ..sncs
(r2)2 t = lO 10 ,;
V
8 " ,1 V,
"' J\ 7 ,__
1
~7
L
7 :\12)21,7
6
1 I\~ \
,.., 1
5

J
1 \ 11 1 1
5
,_ 1
'I' 1\\ ~ 1 1 1
4 ._
r
,_ - 1- _,_ 1- 1-t- 11 1 1
l\1\' .\ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2
Reloy Chorocteristics
Time Dial Setting ~ ti 1\ ·---
Time 0101 Se111ng

1.5
1 2.5" ,,,.V'
1.7 ~
!\ ~I\ Figure 6-9. Required
Constant.
coa Time Dial Setting vs Gener ator
vv
1 - - --
1.1/ Í\~~
9 '\ \ \
.8
- "
.7
-
'\
'\'\
.6 -
.5
'\ \ ' ! lle Iilt er out put uf t he COQ relay rs:
,4

.3 ~
'"
.,. Moch,ne Full Load \ó· 1)
'O
e
.2
Curren!= 1.33 X Top ~lue .,___
~
whe n t he connecuon shown in Figure 6-10 is used . 11, ho w-
.. .,:;
(/)
s
E ever, t he auxiliary current transformcr is not uscd .
¡;: 00.1
,15 A .5 .6 .7
2 .25.3 1.0 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 1 a 910
Negotive SequenceCurrent in Tnnes Top votue
(Top Volue = ~ of Mochme Full Lood)
( <> 2)

Figure 6-8: Comparison or Relay and Generator Charactarrst ics K i~ t he filter consiant
(Time vs Negativa Sequence Current for an {12)2t
2
Factor from 5 to 10).
lf 10 is small, íts elfect can be ignored. Othcrwíse , n wil] be
necessary to use either thc auxiliary curren! transf'orruer or
lhe COQ or SOQ relays are reco mme nded fer ali machines the rcla y w it h neutral made up inside. The auxiliar y curretu
rated 5000 kYA or larger. Schcrnatic conncctions for un· transformer is not normally required in u nit-co nnectcd ap-
bala nced faull protection are shown in Figure 6-1 O. plicat ions .

•
 6-7

tdd)' vi lhi:. l)' pe vouiplemeuts llic: \...Ül..,1 Vl O::,Ul..,1111 lC\..l.)g

ruzmg balanced !aults internal and externa! to t he generatoi
lt also supplernents the COQ or SOQ relays by sensitively
recogruzmg unbalanced [aults. lhe connection described
above rnak es thc relay dircctional from the neutral, but
grves it reach in both drrcct ions trom thc voltagc truns-
tor mer locat ron A.,, a result, it will sense generator as wcll
as cransformcr Iaults

lhe k.D-11 is usually set to reuch thrcugh the unu trans-

Iorrner Unlike single-phase distance relays, the reach of
che KO-type relays is not aff'ected by the phase shift
through the bank. When set for an impedance greatei Lhan
..__4~6~\\ ~~:
}~;;·.{
thc transformer impedance , the KD-11 relay will operare
o b e
fo, both generator and line-side phase faults that manifest
Mutual Reacio,
un nnpedance w it h m this reach, A urner rnust be used to
o)Connectlons When Neu1rol rs Mode Externolly (Omit 15:5 C1Jrrent T,onsfo,me,
When Io<0.3of MochlneRoted Current. ensure only che mmimum equipment outage necessary to
Oc Tr,pBus clear a fault 1 he timer must be set Lo coordinate with the
hrgh voltage transnussron line relays and ali other relays it
overreaches. The KD-11 can also be used in conjunction
loCT Neulrol---------~ with the KSl relay to províde out-of-step tripp ing.

11 J <.. UQ 01 SOQ relay is used, one 2-to-6-Amp COY (27)

IC~
r elay may also be used to provide the baJanced fault backup
function A simple overcurrent unit is unsuitable for pre-
venting a sustained machine contribution to a fault because,
wit h a regulator out of service , the bolted sustained or syn-
chronous three-phase fault contribution is less than machine
full-Ioad curren t. The COY, on the other hand, can be sel
Nt:QOhvl:_._ __
well below full-load current and not operalc. Its overcur-
b)ConnecllonsWhen Neu1,ol1s Mode lnternolly e) Tnp Circu,t Schemouc rent unit b torque-1.:onlrolJed by a cylinder-lype undervolt·
Figure 6,10: Schemat,c Connections of Thu coa Retay for Jge umt and Lherefore voltage must be bclow the voltage
Unbalanced Fault Protection. ~ettmg to permit lhe overcurrenl unit to function. Both
unils are independently adJustable, making coordinal1on
IVhcre a continuous load unbalance 111 e x ..e:,:, 01 Lll1;.) 01 1U w1th other overcurrenl dev1ces simplcr Lhan if thc currenl
percent of lhe capabihty of the particular rnachine may oc- unit n:sponse wt:re a funcl1on of voltuge level.
cur, thc SOQ relay, set for the dcsired alarm level, muy be
used lo alertan operator. lnstrurncnt auon can uíenuty t he
Y OYl:.RLOAO PROTl:.CTION
lcvcl ot ncgative sequence current to perrnu a decisron be·
tween Iripping or dccrcasmg l he machine loadmg M0:,l IJrgc gent!rators are cquippcd wuh tc::~1:.l.in"i.: telllper·
,llurc dctectors ( RTDs), wh1ch may be uscd rn ,1 bridge cir-
t.:utt to providc sensing intclligcnce toan 1nd1cator ora rclay
!V.B. Balanced F aults such as che DT-3 (49).

A generator should be pr orected against da mage t hat wtll I hti. rcla} ha!> contacl-openmg tCJryuo:: whc:11 e he re:,t~lant.:e
result from prolongcd contribution to a balanced fault. A ll, low, indicating low machinc Lemperature. When the tcn1-
KD-11 (21) relay fed from current lransformers in the neu perature of Lhc machme exceeds J 20°c for dass·B insu-
tral of the gencrat or and from a voltage supply connected lated machines, thc bridge becomes unbalanced and the
at generator voltage leve) provides such protectíon. A single contacts close. While the power supply for the DT-3 may
6·8

he ,11. ur ,k, a1. is prclcu ec. 1111~ IJ 1-J r e la y iucluue« dll 1sv ot dll)' un..: pllc1~i.: v ultage Lu t h e KLl··l 1dc1; wrll 11u1 ....,u:,c

lat ing t runstorrncr t hal allows l he RTI) to be grounded
withoul ground ing thc stauon battcry.
VI. OVl!.RSl'J:::t.::O PROTtCTlON
/\ gcncrator acccter.ues whcn 11 bccomes scparated l Iom
ils load. 'I'he accelcruuon dcpeuds on t hc inert ia (WK 2).
the loud loss, and t hc gover nor response.
spccd, .1 pe, 11)dn.:11l magnct gcncr ator ,s of'tc n conncctcd
the ma chinc shuft lo supply u voltuge lo lhc govcrnor that
rs propurt ronal to specd 'l'hc governor muy also be
cqulppc d wit h ~1 spced-respo nsive Ilyball mcchanism. E1
thcr the pcr rnancnt muguet gcnerut or or thc flyball mech
anisrn c,111 irutiare pt ime-mover cont rol Lo removc po wcr
inpul and ulleviute overspecd. An ovcrf'rcqucncy
as a CF-l. can be used lo su pplement t his
mcnt ,
Vil. LOSS-OF-EXCITATlON PROTECTlON
Lhe gencrator must be kepl on hne , supplymg power as long
as possible , part icularly where thc rnachine represents a siz-
ablc port io n of thc systern capacit y. To this cnd, an early
warning of low excitat io n would give thc opcrator un op-
po1t11111ly lo resí ore t hc fie ld if possiblc and avoid tripping
Unnccessary ír ipping. and the result a nt loss of kW output ,
can pr eclpit ate syst ern breuk up anda rnajor out agc. Whei c
lhe maclunc and system are hcadcd for inslability caused by
loss of ex cit at io n, ho wcver, thc machinc should be tripped
uutomaí ically.
1ncorrcct lripping. With lhi..: KLF, somu combinations of
load and phas;: vollugc loss c,111 opcralc thc rclay. The
KLF·l musl havc a wyc-wyc vollagc supr,ly, with lhc neu-
tral b1oughl lo lile r\!lay. Thc KLF can be uscd wilh a wyi..:·
wyc, tlclla·tlclla, or open <.!cita-open tlclta supply.
Wlu.:11 pa1 t1t1I or complcLc loss of excilation occurs on u syn-
To rccogrnzc ove: ch ro110us machrnc, 1 c,1cl iv;;: power flows frnm l hc ~ystcm
lo 111to lhc 111achinc (Figur.: 6-J l). Nl>le thal kW oulpul is
conlrollcd by thc prime-mover input, while kV /\ R output is
c.:onlrolled by lhc fiel<.! cxcilation. lf the syslcm is large
.:nnugh lo supply lhc dcficicncy in cxcílalion through thc
armalurc, thc synchronous machinc will opcrate asan in·
duc.:tion gcnerator, supplying csscnlially lhc saml! kW lo thl!
rcluy, such systern as befare lh.: loss of .:xcilalion.
overspeed cquip-
S111ce synch1onou~ genernlors are nol designeLI for asyn-
chronous opcration, thc machi ne output will oscillatc
slightly as the rotor oscillaks, in an attempl to lock inlo
synchronism. Loss of synchronism does nol rcquirc immc·
diale lripping unlcss therc is an accompanying dccrease in
the terminal vollage lhat threalens system stahility. ll gen·
erally takes al least 2 to 6 scc to lose synchronism. Many
instanc.:es have becn reporletl where mac.:hincs have n111 out
of synchronism for varying periotls bccause of loss of cx-
citat1011 withoul damage to thc machines. Thc maximum
lime reported is 17 min 011 a 100-MW, 25-II,. machín.:.

1'11;.: K Lr and K LF· 1 rela y1, (40) wcrc designcd with t he 11 Reoc1ove Power
1n10 Moch;ne
above objcct ivcs in m111J und are apphcable to ali t ypcs ol
machines, These relays will prot ect against varying dcgrccs ( I) lnduc11on Ge11ero1ur
of abnormally low cxcitut io n by porforrning the f'ollo wing Opero1,onof1er Lossof F,eld

tuncuons. Sy•1chronous Co11cJijnb~•

UncJcr Cxc11ed Operollng Arco
Syr1chronous Moro,
¡1 Aler t ing t he o pcratot to un y low cxcuut to n that could Under Exc;ted ~ ( I )Leod,ng Reol Power
Reol Powo,
durnugc thc muclunc 01 rcsult ín mstabilit y. Kwlnro ~..:.::~~~~~--')....,.,..- Kwmro
Moch;ne 1 Vr Sysrem
Syncti,onous Mo10, 1 '..( 1 )Logg,ng
Ovor Excned I
h. Alei lng t he operat or lo u loss-ot-Iicld
í con<.11t1011us carly 1

as possiblc, giving hi111 l1111..: lo cor rcct t he condit ion. ~ynchronous /

Conclenser Ove, E xcned
Operollng Areo
Reoclive Power
c. l'ri pping t he ruach mc autornat ically in t hc case of pe- lnlo Sys1em
111 IV
te nt ial systern inst abrlu y

l'he K LF-1 d1ffers Irorn t hc 1'.Lr relay 111 thut 1l ha:, .1 sepu-
Figure 6-11: Diagram Showing Current Locus of Ac Machines
rate phase voltage supply f'or each clcrnent. A:, a rcsult , loss Operating Under Various Conditions.
 6-9

-R

Pos11,ve---------._
lCS

\
( 11 LU\j\llf19 ( Loghl LOOO/

lmpedoroce onlossol F1e10

MIOrn

Distcoce Unll ( Z l

Nottr Vic.A.r111,c \...Ut,,UO•l•t)"

V Co,11,u .. 1!> "'d' o-. ts•v(l:,:,1:u Cur.l!~ L ~od,ng PI lo,.,
lo Tr,p ,f Ocsirt!d

Figure 6 12 Trlp Clrcults end R·X Diagram Show,ng Opera11on of The KLF (40) Loss of Fteld Relay

Maclune loss of [icld can result f1u111 .,u> vi t11 .. lvlluw111ic: K\.dU\,\.Ú \.,h,llJllVII u::.ulb LII .. diu¡, ILL llL\. ILLddllnc\ tc11111
IIJI voltugc ... ausing 11 tu dr.rw reactive power from t he sys-
• loss ot l1clu to the main excuer tem • An excessive voltage dccay mdicates l hat l he systcui
IIIJ)' beco me unsiuble Conscqucnt ly, thc undcrvolt agc u1111
• <1cddcntal t ripping of the f'icld lll"J ll.c.1 must be set to drop out at a voltage from wluch thc syst e m
cannot re cove r dunng loss of excit auon. Alt hough lus 1s í

• shou circuus in the ficld current s .i drf'hcult vulue to detcrrmne without ,1 transrent sluhiht y

st ud y opcraung cx perrence will often mdrcate a cr iucal

• roer hrush contuct in t he cxciter volt agc ,tt which t rouble could occur, Thc undcrvolt agc
u1111 cun be :,.:t tu operare al uus value.
• Iield circuit-brca ker la tch Iailu re
\, ,hv" hgure o-(.! operauon ut t hc uu cvuonul, offset
11 111
• loss of ac supply to t he cxcitauou :.} ~l<.111 1mpeJJ11.:'- and volt age uruts will np t he machinc. A í

t e lephoue-t ype relay {X), conncctcd in parallcl with tlll'

• rcduccd Ircquency opcruuon whcn t he 1q¡.uldlu1 1:. ou t vi rhrce senes coruacts, provides un approximately 15-cydc
scrvrce, 11111c dela y on dropout before energiling thc trip circuit.

I he KU. arul K LF-1 relays contain t hr ee c. yh11Jc1 u1111:> vP

cratin~ as l la directionnl umt , 2) an cf'Iset mho u1111 J1h.l
3) an instantaneous undervoltage urnt . Thcir operauon 1:.
íollows wrth rcference to the R-X dragram of Figure 6-1 :-!.
l'he directional unit closes lis contacts when reacuve po wct
flows into the machine. The offset impedance urut closes
ih contacts whcn thc maclunc's unpedance, as viewed from
us terminal, is less than a prcdeterrnined value. As excita·
nen lb lost, the impedunce moves into the operating circle
(Figure 6-12). Operation of both tite offset impcdance ano
drrectional units can cither sound an alarrn or trip lhe ma-
chine.
l LI· JIII.I !'l. l J-~ t rdd)'> 1..dn dbO be used to prolecl
lle !'l.
dg_a1m1 lu:.:. ut hdd 111 .i synchronous condcnscr. In th1s
.i~
.:a:.e the voltc1g.: al thc un11's terrnínals is the principal d1:,
cmn111a1mg factor íhe alarm fcature cannot be used, how-
l!H'r s111..:e normal uperatíon can íncluck under-excitation
"her<' D and Z cuntacts would be closed.
*The ab1li1y of the sy~1em 10 maintam stability depends on relauv~
generator size, the accelerating powcr apphed, duration of I he dis-
turbance, gcnerator and system impedances, inertia (\\'!( 2). and
voJtage regulator actíon. Voltage regulators generally tend lo im-
provc sy~tem volt.age conditions.
6-1 O

vut. KLF AND KLF-1 CURVES The steady-state stabilit y curve is anot her sign ificant limit
that can be rclated to a loss-of-t'icld relay with KLF and
figure 6· 13 shows how a gencrator capabrhty curve can be KLf-1 vharacteristies, The MW-MVAR curve can be dcvcl-
t ransf'ormed into un R·'< d iagrarn. For each point on lhe oped us shown m Figure 6·14a. In t his Figure, V is the pcr-
curve, an anglc, ~. can be measure d from tite horizontal, and unit terminal voltagc, X5 is the equivulcnt pcr-unit system
t he vulue of t hree-phase \1VA rcad. Knowing thc hne-to- i rnpcdance as viewed from the generat or tcrminals, and Xd
line voltage al which thc capabilit y curve applies. a vulue of 1s t he per-urut unsaturated synchronous rcactance. Bot h Xs
ZP or Z can be calculatcd usmg. and Xd are mcusurcd on the muchine MVA base.
,
kV-
2
P
= --
MVA
prirnary ohms (6-3)
Figure 6·14b converts the rnachinc's steady-stat e st ability
curve toan R-X diagrarn. Note that thc curve of Figure
6· 14b can he plott ed direct ly from a knowledge of X5 and
Z = MYA -¡f
kV2 ( R )
sccondary ohrns (6-4) Xd wu hout thc mtcr mediate stcp of Figure 6- l 4a.
V

MVAR from
Mochine to System

F,eld l1m1ted
/

PerUnit
MVAR
a)
Stotor End lron L,m,ted
MVAR
,nto Generotor X

a) Mach,ne Capabilnv Curve

b)

Figure 6 14. Conversion of Staady State Stabilíty Curve to R-X

D,agram.

-X
b) R·X Plot
Figura 6-13: Transformation from KW-KVAR Plot to R X Plot
wherc Re and Rv are the curren! and voltage transformer
ratios, respectively.
Point ZP or Z can then be plotted, al angle ~. on the R-X
diagrarn, Other points on the circle ares can be obtained in
the sarne way until the desired curve is complete.
Figure 6-1 S relates K LF or K LF-1 settrng to capability and
rmrurnum cxcilation limiter (Mf.L) curves. Assurnc a givcn
kW load on thc machinc and ussumc that the vars in t o tite
machmc are gradually being increased by decreasing rna-
chine Iield currcnt , as 111 curve A of Figure 6-1 S. lf tite reg-
ulator is in service, t he mínimum exciter limiter (MEL) pre-
vents opcration ata leve! that would jeopardiz e the machine
thermally. lf the regulator is out of service, Z continúes to
decrease until the K LF impedance unit opera tes. An alarm
rndicates a hazardous operating condition íf the voltage is
 6·11

h1gh. A Iow voltagc, whrch more ,c.nuusl) JCOl)drt11, .es ,)"

tcm stublln y. trips !he machine aft er O 25 sec (Figure o-I 2J
lhe Ioss-of-Iield reluy musí reach 111to t he plus-X arca 11 us
locus is to lollo w closely lhe machine churacterist ic. A di-
iectional unu is mcludcd m t he r elay to avoid trippmg tor 0 Xd'
closc-in Iaults bcyond thc urnt uunsforrner Xd

X Foult
A
''°"' 01r~c.:.11ono1
R UM

f\LF O urnl

J\Lt" ~t:lf•mJ
(Zone2) ::ítOOI~
Sw,ng

"\\.,.r" :>t:llll•~
(Zone 1l

St~ody Siete Stob,1,,y Figure 6-16 KLF Relay Stable Sw,ng Follow,ng Clear,ng of
Nearby 3 Phase Fault

F1gur(• 6 16 KLF Setting Relatad to Capab1l1ty and MEL Curves

IX. 1 WO-ZONE KU SCHl:MI:

lºr-
u, .....,,. 1 -e

l ikr ,111 orher elemcms 111 gcnc1.;to1 p101c .. uou, th.: lv:., 01-
Iield reluy necds backup lo preven! catastrophic Iailurc 11'
ve
a devicc or associatcd co mponcnt should I ail Se .o, o
oo
l,
F
I wu KLF or KLF-1 rcluys provrde beuci prot ecuon t ha n

one. 1 he first , or Zonc 1 r e lay is set restrictive (Figure

6-16) and typically trips ihrough a 0.25-scc t imer. lt pro· l
vides tust clearing on toss ol Field, yet is secure ugamst
.l
Alcrm

sw1ngs such as that shown passmg through pom ts CDhl· 111 1T

r
L) ..
l-igure 6-16 fhc Zone 2 rclay is set widcr and typically 11, ..

drives a l-sec timer to dciect partíal loss of field, provide e n "'r'11p ¡, ·~

ularrn function, and back up the Zone 1 relay. Other set- 4J
ling data are given in Tables 6-1 and 6-11 ~,.\.•<1...I o\!
•
ll, 15 ll ~ r,rre+O ~:,&,c;;,>0,
ligure 6-17 shows t.he de schemauc íor thc K LF or KLJ·-1
Zone 2 relay, Zone I may be used wit hout a TD-A timcr
unlcss extreme ernphasis on security is made. No TD-2 re-
lay i~ requircd sincc the undervolí age contact s of t he Zonc Figure 6-17 Type KLF or KLF-1 ac Schematic for Zone 2 Loss of
Exitation Protection (Tomer Setllngs are G,ven in Tables
1 rclay are shorted. 6·1 and 6·11)
t> 12

G<::11cr<1tv1 llh.>lvring prvi.: .... uvn vdll be pr ov rueo by J.:v1..:es

Sellmg
-- Recouunended

Zont I (alone]
Settinp for K.Lf Rehiy

Zone 2 (alone)
-
801h Zone I and Zone 2
such as linut swit ches or exhaust hood ternperature
tors. lf a large nurnber of thesc devices are riecessary, how-
detec-

fmpt..:d.anee See Figure b·l6 See hgure 6· 16 See hgure 6-16 ever, a single reverse po wer protective relay is recornrnendeo
Seu ing for added safety and backup protection. The reverse powcr
Voltuge (a) undervoltugc con- sov Zone I volrage contact relay is commonly used with diesel engine generaling units,
Sernng tat:I shorted or shorted Zone 2 drop-
out voltage sel ,t 80'.t wh.:re there is danger uf explosion and fire from unburncd
11>1 set JI H0',1, lur
securuy 1 fue l.
,__
I D-1 (See J ¡'4 to I sec 1 {4 to I se, Zone I umer = 1 /4 se~
Fig. 6·17) ~lotoung , c:.ults trom a low pri me·mover input to the ac
I l /4 >e<.. udeq uare I ll sec preferred) Zonc 2 t irner = 1 sec
generator. When this input cannot meet ali the losses, lhe
ID-2 (See Not requrred Ior (al l nun None lor Zone 1 deficiency is supplied by absorbing real power from lhc sy:,-
F,g. 6-17) above
Zonc 1 umer = 1 u1io tem. Since ficld cxcitation should rema in the same, the
1'01 ll>J abcve use I
mm. :.ame reactive power would flow as before motoring. Thus,
Advantagcs Less sensiuve to 1 ) More sensiuve 1) Same JS l ). 2). and on motoring, the real power will be into the machine, whilt:
stable sysrem sw1ng~ 10 LOI' con- 31 Jl lefl
du son the reactive power may be cither ílowing out or into the
21 Pro,.,..,d~ ba"'k -up pro· machine. Usually the reactive powcr will be supplied lo the
lJ t'Jn cperare recuon
on part ut LOF system as machines are not generally operatcd underexcitcd.
3) Provide alarm
Icatures Ior
manual opera· Dunng generator motoring, the current phasor will fall in
(ion
the second or third quadrant, as shown in Figure 6· I 1. Usu·
ally, the phasor will fall in lhe third quadrant, with the ma-
chine supplymg reactive to the system.

Specsat Stumxs fui Multi Machmes Bussed u Machmc I crnau14b, An;- rday des1gncd to detect motoring would have to be
S•t1ina Zone 1 ( slone) Zone 2 (alone) 801h 2011• 1 and Zonc 2 cxtremely sensitive to respond to the first incrcment of re·

Irnpcdance Sce l-igure 6·16 See F ,gurc 6-16

verse power. For example, suppose a turbine had its val ves
S« hgure 6·16
Sett ing dosed to slightly less than the no-load slcam rcquirements.
-
Vo lt age (a) unde rvolrage con- gn I Zone 1 vohJg( t:onlJd In other words. the turbine would supply 99 percent of the
Sertrng ract sbort ed or shortcd w,1 h Zone 2 set
ar 87 ¡, losses, and the gencrator (as a motor) would supply onc
\O) >Cf O( 87',1, for
secunt y percent. lf the total losses were 3.0 percent of the kW rat·

fD·I (See 1/4 to 1 sec

-f--

1/4 lo 1 -ec Zone 1 tuner = 114 ><•

rng. the kW drawn by the gencrator (as a motor) from the
fig 6·17) power syst.:m would be only 1.0 pcrccnl of 3.0 percent, or
11 /4 sec adequate l ( 1 sec prcf erre.O Zone ! l 11n~, .: 1 ~ca.
0.03 perccnt of the nameplate rating. This small increment
fD·2 (See No1 required Ior (J) I O sec for J1· None íor Zone I
Fig. 6-17) above rect ly cooled is <lifficull for a rclay to detect and still carry continuous
lonc 2 t uners 10 '),C"
For ( b) above use I O 25 sec lor 1nd1· for Jucctly coolcd, load current undcr normal conditions.
sec íor J ircct ly rect ly cooled 25 eec íor andutdl)'
cooled, 25 scc tor cooled
mdirect ly coolcd
- -- When che pnrnc mover•~ spun at synchronous
no power input, the approximate reverse power required to
speed with

motor a gencracor, as a percentage of nameplate rating in

kW, is
X. PROTECTION AGAINST GENERATOR MOTORlNG
Condens1ng steam turbine . . . 3%
Generator rnot oring protecrion is desrgned for l he prune Non-condensing steam turbine 3+%
mover or thc systern, rather than for the generator. With Diesel engine . 25%
stearn turbines, for example, turbincs will overheat on low Gas turbine . 50%
stearn flow, but will be protected by steam te rnperaturc de· Hydra ulic turbine .. 0.2 to 2+%
vices. Wilh hydroturbines, hydraulic flow indicators pro·
tect against blade cavitation on low water tlow. Similar de- Ste,1111 l urbines. When operaring undcr full vacuum and
vices are used tu protect gas turbines. Lero steam rnput, condensing turbines require aboul 3.0
 6·13

percent of kW raung to motor l\01i-. .. u11Jc:11s111g t urbures

require 3.0 percent or more of rated kW to motor when
operating against atrnosphenc or higher exhaust pressures
at zero steam flow.

Diesel Engines. lf no cylmders are tu mg, d rescl engrnes

require about 25 percent of the rated kW figure. lf one
or more cylinders fail to hre at no load. there w1U be t
sorne mcrease in reverse power, depending on the gover-
nor action and the effect on the system frequency. o b e 11,egot,,e

vac
Gas Turbines. The Iarge cornpressor load uf ga~ turbines
represents a substantial power requiremenc from t he sys- u,1 1 . :r.}(
1
~ la
'YQ11

'
tem. Consequenlly, the sensirivity of the anri-rnot oring u Legena
co
device is not critical. Vb<, O - Oir<:<etronalUr111
Ven CV TrmingUnrt

Hydraulic Turbines. W hen the blaues are: und er t he tau- f'tgure 6 18 Typrcal Schemauc to, An11-Motorrn9 Prorecuon Us,ng
CRN-i (321 Relay
race water level, the percent of kW rating required lor
motoring is high probably well over 2.0 perceru. Frorn wcr e used in t he: past, these schemes are no longer re ...orn-
0.2 Lo 2.0 percent kW is rcquired for the turbine to motor mended. Any continuous bearing current may be harmful
when the blades are above the tail-race levet. For t ur- to the bear mg. The flow of this beanng current is shown
bines using a Kaplan adjustable-blade propeller, the flat in Figure 6-19. A srnall leakage curren! flows through the
blade condítion probably requires less than 0.2 percent field-to-gr ound ca pacitance, which, on a large turbo-
kW to motor. generator, can be between 0.3 and 0.5 µF.

Two different types of relays are used tor anu-ruotormg

protectíon, depending un the sensitivíty required . The
CRN-1 (32) relay has a sensitivity of 0.02 Arnp at rated
volts, type CW (32) relays cover the total range of 20 lo
t"'amul IM
600 \\ (relay watts). Both have adjustable operatrng Leakage
times. Currenls
Thru Frelo
Copocrty

The CRN-1 relay consists uf a cylinder du ecuonal u111t

andan induction-disc voltage-timing unit (Figure 6-18).
The duectional unit controls t he CV timing. The direc-
tional contacts close when power flows into tite generator
permitting the systern voltage to operare the CV trmcr.
The CW relay (Jü-degree characterislic) is connected sim-
ilarly, but has only a single unit that operares when t he
watt flow into the generator exceeds the setting.

Figure 6-19. Path of The Currents rn a Mach,ne When Usong an

XI. FIELD GROUND PROTECTION Ac Field Ground Relay

A single ground on the held ol a synchronous macrune I he re co mrnended field ground protecnon i. ... heme lur a
produces no immediate damaging effect. lt must be de· generator with brushes (that is, stationary field leads acces-
tected and removed because of the potenual of a se cond sible) is shown in Figure 6-20. This scherne, which does
ground whích coulcl short part of t he field winding and not require any external source, uses the very sensirive
cause damaging vibration. While ac detection methods d'arsonval de relay, type DGF.
 6-14

I he .J1v11.Jer pro port ro ued )U tildt thi: l ic ld wuuí mg uull

1~
Generolor
F,eld w,nd,ng posiuon is locat ed al t he midpoint when the exciter's ratcu
voltagc is at 100 pcrccnt. Thc null position shifts to 25 per-
cent l'roru t he negative cnd , when voltage is 30 pcrcent of
rut ing.

l'he oper atuig unu ol t hc l)CF l64) rclay, a de instrumc nt

rnovcrncnt wilh a rango of O. 7 5-0-0. 7 5 m A, has un adjust-
uble coruact located un dt her side of I he zero point. With
1

I~ a contact sctting al ±0. l 5 m A, a grouud can be dctcctcd

l._; with the following máximum fault resistances for an exciter
Ophonol
voltage rated at 125 VDC ( 100 V actual):
----v 1 ----
I
..•M,~>-----v¿---

F,eld
TBreoke,
F el<l
Breoke, T Fault un
Plus Side
Fault un
Minus Side
Faull 55%
Irorn
Minus Side
FauH 44%
from
Minus Side

333,000 oh rus t300,000 ohrns 33,000 ohms Null point

Eitciter R1 R2
Rating in Ohms in Ohms
in Volts r I'his value l~ approximure.
125 o 45 000
250 5,000 23.000
375 10,000 23,000
A pushbutton , co nnectcd dc1us~ d portien of lhe R2 resistor,
pcrmits a manual check for possible ground faults at the
Figure 6,20: Field Ground Protection Scheme for a Generator.
center of thc winding. This provisión is desirable where the
generator is to be "base loadcd " and will not cxpericnce pe-
The DGF relay uses u voltage dividcr circurt, consistrng ot riodic cx citation variat.ions.
two linear rcsistors (R I and R2) anda non-linear resistor
whose resistance varíes with lhc applied voltage. lf lhe Iield For .:1 "brushlcss" t ype ruachine , no normal access is avail-
beco mes grounded, a voltuge will dcvclo p bctween po int able to a stationury parí of thc gencrator field circuit, and
"M" and ground. The mugnit udc of t his voltage will var y no continuous monitor ing to dctect field grounds is possi·
accord ing to the exciter voltage und ihe poinl al which the ble. Howcver, pilol brushes are often provided that may be
field is grounded. Thc volt age will be ut max imum if the periodically droppcd. lf a vollage cun be read bel wcen
field is groundcd al cither cnd of the wind ing. ground and lh<: brush, whh;h is connected to one sidc of thc
gcnerator ficld, a ground is known lo ex isl. 1 fa voltagc is
/\ null point will cxist 10 thc Iield wmdi ng where u g1011nd nol mcasured, an ohmic rcading can be takcn lo assure that
will produce no voltagc bctwccn "M" a nd grourid. ·1 his a groLlnd b nol immincnt.
null point will be located al a poinl un t he ficld winding
trom which t hcrc is balance bctwccn t hc two field winding
rcsistances und t he two rclay resisianccs Lo posit lve :.111d neg- XII. ALTERNATING-CURIU.NT OVERVOLTJ\Gh
ativc. PROTECTION FOR HYOROELECTRIC
GENERATORS
Thc non-linear resistor is dcs igncd tu VM~ che locut ron ot
lhis null poinl, so lhal a ground can be dcte cl ed al uny ,\llcrrrnt 111g-currcn
ovcrvollage prot cct ion is rccom·
t

point in thc Iicld winding. The non-linear resistor values
at two points are:
45,000 ohms ut 60 V ucross the resistor
4,700 ohrns at l 50 V across the resistor.
mcndcd for hydroclec;lric g.:nerators subjcct to ovcrsp1:.:d
and conscquent ovcrvoltagc on loss of load. Sorne hydro-
elcctric generators cango up lo 140 percenl or more of
rated specd when full load is dropped. The voltagc may
reach 200 percent or more.
 6·15

fhc ac overvon age prote .. uve scnerne ts :.livwu III l·1gu1..: l.abic b IU

6·21. The relay, which cha nges the cxcitation system ro t'crtu,u.w.,1 ....e ul ~a.uu¡¡ho\.Qc Prcrecuve Kc.h•)~ "' Ktdu1.;e<l trcqucnc1e:5

reduce the ouiput voltage, can also provide backup protc-, Pickup in Perctnl of 60-hcrtt Pickup Classification

non for lhe voltage regulat or. IS Hcr11 30 llertL

IOS II S A
151) tO·S ISO B
(0·6 143 8
(0·7 140 ll
cos .?t>l 13g A
lO·<I !60 140 A
St 85 93 A
CO\ Pc11urmw.n"'c wml! o CO Unlt u:»~U tn rclu)
\fvhq<'" sv 26 so A
~ lfl~flt'~l\l (59) c·v "vn1 ... , 122 120 A
T SV Reduc,ng m~km1
L-... Res,s10, voumerer
l \'-8 e
U11h:1c.mw1 CA gcnerdtur 2SS 123 A
1871 C'A lrtn~íorinc, 149 8
~A·I 370 175 A
---oc HU·l 2SO llO A
1'cg•h·~
Sequencc l l>V u
l4bl SOQ
l.AJ'.\\ vl
f ,chJ I o1u, 11.l ~ • "' "1 ~ 1, t::.

• \ .:r:,, msensruve or non-operable at rhe trcqucnc y rndi-

F,gure6-21 Ac Over·Voltage Protection for a Generator ~.110:d

l'rotúl1v11 J\JIIJhk .1l uot h 15 Jlld JO~) ~les

XIII. GENERATOR PROTl:.CTION Af REDUCl:.D

FREQUENCIES
lurhlne gcnerators are :.u1111.:d on turmng g1.:.i1 wh11.h 1v
lates lhc shaft at about 3 rpm, For a cross-cornpound ma-
chine, the field musí be appíied bcforc thc machine rs re-
moved from the turning gear At this point, excitation
should be limitad to rated V /H1. lo avoid overcxciung me
unlt or station service ransf'or mer. A tandcm unit need
í
not have Iield applied until it is up to speed and ready to
synchronize.
Cross-compound generators may be operat cd tor severa!
l \JJ111un.,1 prulc~ll'< r..-1,,), 1cquuo:J lvr ,1.111 "I' u1 I""'
lr..-411..:nq 11pcra11011
U t he ,.ihlll\ll) ul th, lUV <k SüQ 1d,1)> lo 11.:11,Jl1•,· so:
quence vurrents "J J1r.:.:1 lun.:11011 ot trcque ncy. wlule
11\ wn,111v1t) to posu ivc scquencc currcrus 1~ un rnvc r se
runcuon ot trcqucru y l h1~ rclJ} will opcrut c lur hcav>
thrco:-phJw arul phase-to-phasc Iautts al rcduve d treuucn
,1<·,, but should not be rehed upun t or prhnary prorcc-
uon Jur 1ng w ar m-up
Ll ~111,, 111..- h. LI· or h. U· 1 1d.1>, up.:rati: un IJgg11,~ i.·.,,.
l1H· powe r rnt o t hc mac lunc. t he reluy w ill ne uhcr o p-

hours cturing warrn-up at Irequencies well below t heir rat-
mg, llowever, current transformer and relay performance
at these reduced frequencies rnust be considered, since
Iault magnitudes are approximately the same as at rated
Irequency, Current transformer performance can be ex·
pected lo deteriorare badly al low frequency. There is a
compensatlng effect, however, in the reducuon of burden
impedance,
The performances of relays assocrar ed wrt n t he generator
ora generator·transformer unit al 1 5 and 30 Hz are surn-
marized in Table 6-lll in terrns oí 60-Hz performance.
..-rJtc tal,d> nor pro\1dc lo,,·ol·lidJ protcct1on dunn[!
t he "a rm ·Up p.:riod
l·v, _...,,._, ,umpvunJ 1urb111c gcncrJtor, tite lu\\ JHc»u1c
Jnd th.- h1gh prcs:,ur.- unns should hav.: 1hc1r l1dds ,1pph..:J
,md ')n.:hro1111,:J wh1lc on turnmggcJr so that thcy Jrc
brought up 10 rJtéJ :,pc.-d in synchronism. S:,,n..:hrum1111l'
surges mJ} ou:ur, JI thcsc low spccd:,, wh1d1 wrll opcr.ilc
thc KLI or KLl·-1 rcla)s I hcsc S}ll1.hro11111ng ,u1gc:, c.J11
I
rl!a1.h 60 pl!n:cnl ot tho: full·luJd ,urrcnt ,in1..c thc 11npcd·
Jnu• 111 thc g<"nl!rator~ 1s Vl!ry luw h. LF ur K LF· 1 rday, Jf•
phed to a cross-.:ompound unn should thl!r..:lurt: b<' d1sablcd
I dunng start·up. ·--·-·----·-·
t,-1t,

I he St, 1t!lay \vi !:,V 1u1 t n e <.. V-8) is reconunenueu ,;1~ sup- XIV. Rl:.CUMMl:.NUl:.U PRU'l l:.CI ION
plernentary protcction in severa) áreas indicated by an as-
terisk 111 Table 6-111. Use of this relay is optional in t he A Frgu res 6-22 and 6-23 show t he reco rnmenued ¡.>1ot..:..:L1011
and B classifrcat rons and will dcpend on the necd for addi- tor large tanderu-cornpound and cross-cornpound, un it-
t ional scnsitivrty. The SC curre nt relay has a flat charac- connectcd turbine gencrators. Figures 6-24 and 6-25 show
terisuc, a nd mercases shghtly in sensitivit y as thc operat mg thc recommcnded protect ion for machines t hat are not urut
frequency drops, Whcn an SC relay is operated on de, 1t connected. Gencrally , such gcnerat ors are uscd in industrial
picks up at approxrrnately 1 S percent below its normal applícations.
60-11.t. pickup. The pickup ol t he SV voltagc relay is al-
mos! direct ly proport ional lo írequency: its sensitivity at
15 l z rs thus 4 tunes t he sensiuvn y at 60 111.. For t his
í XV. OUl-01'-S11:.P PROfl::CTION
reason, the SV relay provrdes cxcellent backup protect rou
for 60-111. voliage relays ihat lose their sensitivuy at lo w Al> generator unpe da nces becorne lurger in proporuon lo lit.:
írequencies. syste m, t hc electrrcul ccnrer w1II be closcr to lhc gencrator.
fhis condit io n intcnsif'ics lhe nced for out-of-step dele el ion
Wuh une cxci;:¡.,11011, thc rclays hst e d m I able ó-111 wrll
as part oí thc gencraror rclaying complcrncnt.
Such rclay-
neit hcr ovcr hcat nor opérate incor rcct ly if left in t he cu·
mg schemes are described in Chapter 19, Systern Stabilií y
cuits wheu the generator is operated al reduced freque ncres
and Out-ot-Step Rcluying.
I he K U· a nd K Ll·-1 rclays. whcn u sed in a cross-compound
conf igurauon. must huve t heir trip incupacrt ate d during
start-up,

. ffi.
Exc,ter ,,~
º' 51/27
o
Vo roge H1Qn
Tronsformer VoltoQe
Bus
)'

fTI111
ttU
87G

A.:1..111ve--1----- 87T

Protecnve
Retoys
Oevice Number Char1
2 TO 5 59NT CV8
21 1(0 11 63 SPR
40 KLF o- KLF I 64 DGF l "Brush" Machones Onty}
41 F,eld Breaker B6G WL Generator Lockout
86G 46 500 87G CA o, SA 1 Generator o,rrerent,at
51/27 cov 87T HU-1 Overau D1fferen1,al
SIN ca ( J Number of Retays Aequired
Negollv~------ 59N SV 7 16V

Figure 6-22 Overall Protecricn for a Tandem-Compound Unit Connected Genera1or

 6-17

e 83
41 ~
4
4
1..P~LP
~9 ~9N
NT
<D
';"

Po\11've !~)

Openo1 Ottie,
55Herll Trops
40
LP

Ne9011,e~1---._ _ Dev,ce Number Ch11r1

2 TO 5 ::,91111 cv 8
21 1(0,11 o3 SPR
40 KLF or oc;LF 1 64 DGF I Bru,h M~~t11roe, Onlyl
41 F oeld Breaker 81 CF 1 Over·Frequency
46 soo 83 SG
50 se o 5·2A 86G WL Ge11érator t ockout
51 27 cov 87G CA or SA 1 Generator Oofferi,111,~1
51N co 87T HU 1
59N SV 7-16V
NotH
© Low F reouencv Protecuon
@ Required Woth SA 1 Relay 1No1 R11qu,rt1Cl Woth CAJ
( 1 Number of Relays Requ,red

Figure 6 23 Overall Protection for a Cross-Compound Un,t Connected Generator

6-18

X\/\. BUS TRI\NSH.R SYSTEMS FOR STATION

AUX\L\i\RLES

Automatic transfer of highly essential station auxiliary

(3) loads such as boiler feed purnps and induced draft fans is
common practice. Paralleling the normal and emcrgency
sources is not generally recommended, nowever , because
the higher breaker interrupting dutics involved can cause
problems, as can circulating currents between systerns. The
Oevice Number Chart transfer scheme requires interlocks to prevent paralleling of
32 CRN-10 the supply sources. Transfers sbould not be rnade if voltage
40 KLF
46 coa or soa in the alternate supply is not satisfactory or t he load cir-
51G CO
51V COV
cuits are faultcd. Also, supply breakcr tr ipping should be
64 DGF l'"Brush" delayed long enough to permil fault sect ionalizing in t be
MachonesOnly)
86 Wl load circuits. An example of a transfer scheme usmg type
87 CA or SA 1 CP polyphasc voltage relays is shown in Figure 6-26.
87G CWC
Re$,stor 0 May not be Requued
of Turbrne Has S,m,lar
Protection
) Number of Relays
Required Single Line Schematic
Applicable to Generators:
1 J O 500 KVA(Above 5 Kv) Moin Allernote

----±-11,_[. . _T-
21 5001000KVA(Above24Kv) Supply Supply

6----iH eHt-e
3) Above lOOOKVAIAny Voltage) Non-Unit Connected

Figure 6-24: Recommended Protection for Large Generators

Used in Industrial Plants.
l,l)ltoge

Tronsfonner
M)

_1 A \bltoge

l3'
Tr=~r 2?
Loods Oevice Number Chart
47
27
-Type CP Relay
• Type SV Relay
86R ·Fault Relay
Lockout Auxiliary

Control Schematic
(2lVT's
Contact Close if.
Posilive-r-=-
1 ~:~ ----
Device Number Chart
32 -CRN-10 Main Supply Fails
46 -coa
51G -CO 47A ---- Alternate Supply is Sanstactorv
51 V ·COV
52 • Breaker
86 -WL 27 ---- Bus Voltage Low
87 ·CA
86R ---- Fault Relays Have Not Operated
0 May not be Required
528 Main Supply Breaker Open
,f Turbine Has Srmuar
Resistor Protecnon
528 ---- Alternate Supply Breaker Open
Í'Of Sys•ems 600 Voltsº"° ) Number of Relays
Required
Below Cther Types of
Grourtd eg Woy Be Appl cctse Oose 8reoker A
Applicable to Small Generators
1) 0500KVA18elow5Kvl
2) 500 IOOOKVA (Below 2 4 Kv)
Figure 6-25. Recommended Protection for Small Generators as Figure 6-26: Bus Transfer Scheme Utilizing Polyphase Voltage
Used on Industrial Plants. Relays.
Chapter 7 l. (NTRODUCTíON

Motor protection is far less standardízed than is generator

Motor Protection protection. Although the National Electric Code and NEMA
Author: W. A. Elmore Standards specify basic protection requirernents, they do not
fully cover the many different types and sizes of motors and
their varied applications. There are rnany other schemes, ali
l. lntroductlon
of whlch offer differeru dcgrees of protection, As with gen-
I l. Pliase-Faull Protectíon erator protectlon. the cost and the extent of the protective
systern rnust be weighed against the potential hazards. Toe
III. Ground-Fault Prorection
síze of uie motor and the type oí service wlll also lnfluence
fV. Locketl-Rotor Protection the rype of protection rcquired.

'V, Overload Protectiou

Motors must be protected against one or more oíthe follow-
Vl. Therrnal Rclays ing hazards:

A. CT and DT Relays a. Faults in the wlndings or associated circuits

B. Therrnal Replica Relays

vn. COM Relays Ior Overload Protection b. Excessive overloads

vm. Low Voltage Prot ection

c. Reduction or loss of supply voltage
IX. Phase-Rotatíon Protection
d. Phase reversa)
X. Negative Sequence Voltage Relay

XI. Phase-Unbalance Protection e. Phase unbalance

Xll. Negative Sequence Currerit Relays f. Out-of-stcp operation for synchronous motors
Xlll. Out-of-Step Prorection
g. Loss of excitation for synchrcnous motors
XIV. Loss of F xcltatíen

XV. Typical Appllcat ion Combinations Protective relays applled for one hazard rnay opera te for
others, For example. a relay designed to opérate on an ex-
cessive overload could also protecr ugainst .¡¡ Iault ln the
windings.

Protective devíces may be installed on the motor controllers

or directly 011 the mctors, The protection is usually in-
cluded as part of the conrroller, except for very small
motors, which nave varlous types of built-in tnermal pro-
tection,

Motors rated 600 V or below are generally switchcd by con-

tactors and protecte d by l'uscs or low volrage circuir break-
ers cquippcd with magneric rrips. Morors ratcd Irom 600 ro
4800 V are usually switched b~ .1 power circuir breaker or
by a contactor (of'ten supplemented by current-limiting
Iuses to acconunodate highcr inrerrupung requtrements).
Motors rated from ~400 to l 3,800 V are switched by power
circuit breakers,
7-2
While protectíve relays rnay be applled to a motor of any
size or voltage rating, in practico they are usually applicd
only to U1e larger or hígher voltage morors.
Il. PHASE-FAULT PROTECTION
The phase-Iault current at the termínals of a rnotor is usually
cónsiderably larger than any normal current, such as start-
ing current or the motor contribution to a fault. For this
reason, a high-ser ínstantaneous-rrip unít is recommended
for fast, reliable, inexpensive, simple protection. Wherc the
starting current value approacbes the fault current, however,
sorne forro of di.fferential relaying becomes necessary. Toe
sensitivity of the differential relay is independent of start-
Ing current , while lnstanraneous-tríp uní is, which respond
only to phase eurrent, must be set above the starting cur-
rent (includíng de offset). This difference is shown in Fig-
ure 7-1.
Phase_ Fauh
Note:
lo Thls Case Coveraqe
by IT Is Very Sllghl.
' -,
1-- IT
lu~ (l.!lc~ed Fl<>tor cu,rno•)
•~~--,CC,~~~~~~~~v~v~v''--~~~.....;:-:,o,..~~---<:
--- - - --
...,I
CA
1 .• •
•>
1 •
1 b1: appUed ,vhere there is no appreciable deviation írom the
'
L J'
>;
Use Diflerenllol ~eloy Where Motor J<VA Ratino
Supply Transformar KV A. rr e, WJiere 131,l)
Figure 7-1. Comparison of Sensi1ivities ofType CA Dilferentiel
Reley and IT tnstantaneous Trip Unit,
To allow for fault resístance and different types of faults
and to assure twice pickup on the unit for minirnurn faulí ,
the instantaneous phase relay pickup should be set at Jess
l.han one-íhird of 13cp, where 134> is U1e system con tribu ticn,
excluding the motor contribution, to a syrnmetrical, three-
phase fauli on 1:he motor feeder. Also, pickup should be
sel at 1.6 times ILR ar more, where ILR Is the actual sym-
metrical starting current, as Limited by source impedance,
The ratio r3,p/lLR should thus be greater than approxí-
rnalely 5 .o.
In general then, instantaneous trip units can be used for
phase protection if the motor k V A (or approxima tely the
horsepower) Is lcss than one-lialf the supply transformer
kVA. If not, differcntial relays are required for sensitive
faull detection.
The Iogic for this critecion comes from the Iollowing. As·
sume a motor is connected to a supply transformen with
8%, [mpedance, The máximum fault current at the trans-
former secondary wirh an infinite source is:
= 12.5 per unit on the transformer base.
The rnaxímum motor starting current in this case is
1LR
= (.08 t XM)
where Xr,,1 is the motor rrnpedance,
13(/)
In order that > 5, XM rnust be greater than 0.32 per
1 LR
100 Mln unit on the transforrner rated kV A base.
r- lf the motor has a full-voltage starting current of six times
íull load, íhen Xm == l /6 = .167 on the motor rated kVA
base. Wjth a motor kV A of l /2 lhc Lransfonner kVA.. X m
St¡pply
Tronstormer of 0.167 would be 0.333 on tite transfonner base, and
greJ1ter than 0.32. Clearly, this rule of thumb should only
parametcrs assurnecl above.
< sx I LA I
Jll. GROUND-FAllLT PROTECTlON
A solidly grounded system n1ay be protected by·an inverse,
very inverse, or short-ti.lne induction relay connected in the
current transfonner residual circuit. For a solid fault at Ule
machine tern,inals, a ty pi cal serting is one-fift11 of the 1nln-
im LUn fatlll curren t. Tin1e dial setli.ngs of around one glve
operations of 4 to 5 cycles at SOOo/" pickup when the C0-1
relay Is used.
 7-3

Duríng across-the-line starting of large motors, care must be
taken to prevent the high inrush current from operating the
ground relays. Unequal saturation of the current transform-
ers produces a false residual current ln the secondary or re-
lay círcuits, Using two- rather than three-phase relays or
using three-phase relays wiíh dífferent impedances will tend
to in crease the effects of false residual currents.
False relay operation is unlikely if the pilase burdens are
Un1 ited so that the voltage developed by the current trans-
Iormer during starting is less than 7 5 percent of the relay-
ing accnracy voltage rating of the current transf'ormer for
the particular et tap being used. (f false relay operation is
a problern, the ground relay burden should be increased by
using a lower relay tap. J\11 three transforrners will Lhen be
forced to saturate more uniforrnly, effectively reducing the
false residual current, This Increased saturation may reduce
the sensitivity to legírnare ground faults and this should be
checked. Alternatively , a resistor or reactor can be con-
nected in series with the ground relay.
The cornrnon practice in 2400-to-14,400-V station service,
taneous trip unít or 51 (CO) time overcurrent relay , Typical
sensitivitíes obtainable with these ground-fault protection
systerns are shown in Table 7-J, repeated below. A voltage
is generated in rhe secondary windlng only when zero se·
q uence current is Ilowing in the primary leads. Sin ce virtu-
ally aU rnotors have their neutrals ungrounded, no zero se-
quence curren! can Ilow in the motor Ieads unless there is a
ground fault on the load side of the BYZ. 1 r surge-protec-
tlve equlprnent is cormected at the rnotor terminals how-
ever, current may be conducted to earth by this equípmenr,
To date, there has been no reported case of an instantane-
ous relay connected to a BYZ current transformer trlpping
beca use of surge-protective equiprnent. The presence oí
such eq uipment rnay safely be ignored in choosing a relay.
Table 7-1
Relay Settings and Sensitivities Using the
50/5 BYZ Zero Sequence Curren! Transformers
M••Ímum Primnry Jt0
Relay Minimum Sen8ilivity in Amperes fur Acc,uat,
Relay Type S,tting l>rimary .110 Ampere~ fiming and Counlína1ío11

and in industrial power systems, is to use low resistance

j,(4-3/4 ill) ~(7-3/4 LDl .t ( 4-3/4 ID) 111-3/4 ro)
grounding. By using the "doughnut current transf'ormer"
scherne, such systems offer all the advantages of instanta- ITI I 0.~5 5 U ~.o - -
neous trip unlts=speed, reliahility , simplicity, low cost=
C'0-8 01 •J O5 ,¡ .() IO O 1, 1 1~
without any concem for starting current, Iault contribu-
tions by the motor, false residual current, or high sensitiv- l'0-1:1 or 9 ~.s 14.0 ..!4.0 541) 1 ~l ~
lty.
('0-11 O5 ,, ll 70 70 150

('()-1 1 2.S 14 O 24.0 700 •)00

BYZ 14-3/4 10 •nd 7-3{4 íD ~r~ rh~ insitlc uiamete1 of I he wmuow in Incites.

b--<1----4-1------------~ Mo1or The zero sequence type current transfonner 1s also used in
the flux balancing differentiaJ sche1ne, ln which each phase
is equipp~tl as shown in Figure 7·3. This sche1ne combines
ITH excellent phase- and ground-fault sensitivity witb freedoaJ
-01
50 co from load current and startú1g curre11t problenis .
.............. 51º'

For lligh resistance grounded systems, whcre very h.igh sensi·

Figure 7-2: BYZ Ground Relaying Scheme.
Figure 7-2 shows how the BYZ zero sequence type current
transformer can be used as a supply Ior the SO(lTH) instan·
tivity is requiied, the CWP-l directionaJ ground relay should
be oonsidered. The voltage across (he transfom1er ground-
ing resistor may be used as a voltage ¡)olarizing source (Pig-
ure 7-4 ). The relay has a sensitlvity of 7 rnA at 69 volts.
 7.4

IV. LOCKED-ROTOR PROTECTlON

BYZ

A rotating motor dissipales far more heat lhan a motor at

standstill, since the cooling rnedíum flows more efficienlly.
L...(scso:5" 1 TH
o, When full voltage is applied, a motor with a locked rotor is
co
O(
'-~f'"-\j51..,1
particularly vulnerable to damage because of the large
amount of heat generated.
JTH

- If the time required for the motor to accelcrate the load is

or
co
significantly less lhan the permisslble locked-motor time,
e
the motor can be effectively protected using conventional
ITH Mo10, tirne-over-current relays (Figure 7-9c). lf, however, there is
0(
co Iittle dífference in the two time periods, or i[ the startíng
time exceeds the locked-rotor time (Figure 7-5), other con-
Figure 7-3 flux Balancing Differential Scheme. siderations must be taken into account,

For the case shown in Figure 7-5, it is ternpting to try to fit

This is at the máximum torque angle where the current an overcurrent relay characteristic between the two curves.
leads the polarizing voltage by 4 S degrees. The CWP-1 di- lt should be remernbered, however, that the conventional
rectional ground relay is intended for use only on hígh re- overcurrent relay characteristíc is a plot of operating time
sistance grounded systems. against sustained current, whereas the starting characterístic

Stonon Sus Pos,1,,Je--------

o
b 32N
e
1 e
1 ! 1
J
,r,• res
e
-:!l
. -- - 1 ,_ . .
...
l ,_
..
.

•
.Q
·i_r ~
32N lCS
o" Hi -Vo
g- G1oundlng
(Refereocel
32N
- -
+ 3.?N
~
Resislot
32N

*"
'
----~

8
~ 1

32N ., 32N 32.N 520

+
Atorm (Allernole Connecuon]
. " ... CuneOI Should Not Exceed
.
!>2
<:l.c.~ t\m\Y.,
r----1- re
1
. Phose 1

__ ..
e
g ..' Re1Qys ¡,_
•
-
NCQ01,ve- .....------
u
~-
a"' • ~ t.+ Alle,nole Ac Curren! Altema19 Schemu to, H,gh Res,slance Ground111¡¡ ol Neu¡ral ol Transtormers
Q.
Ctrcu,t W,lh E11he, Ring
"" -- 32N.
- +32N
~
or Convent,onol Type
~ Curren! Tronstormers [>

'
Molor
'
8 .
32N

Figure 7-4· Typical Connections of The Product Tvpe CWP·l (32NJ tor Hígh Resistance Grounded Systems.
 7-5

pickup, and n and K are constants that depend on the re-

lay type and on the tune dial setting. lf a linear-linear plot
oí' (I - 1 )º and t is used, a varying current and time can be
Typ,cal Motor
Ccocbihty Curve
compared with the relay characterístíc on an area basis. In
,/ Figure 7-7, for exarnple, the CO re lay contact will not close
if the current drops below the CO pickup befare area A
Time equals area B.
Locked
Rotor Time

1
Srcrtlnq Curve
Llneor-Llneo1 Ploí

Curren!

CO Choroctensnc (51)
Figure 7·5: Motor Staning TIme Exceeding Permissible Locked
Rotor Time.
Time
/
Current Are.o "A''
is a trace of current against time (Figure 7-6). Ir ILR is ap- ~ ~

plied to the CO relay for time ta• tbe contacts are very
nearly cJosed. Current does noí drop below the CO pickup
value untíl time lb. Contact closure occurs al sorne point
te, e ven though the CO re lay characteristic is always a bove
CO Pick-up lLR Currenl
U1e current trace. (I·llnScolF

Figure 7-7, Area Comparison.

An alternatlve solution to lockcd-rotor problems for large

motors is to use a distan ce relay and timer, The Impedance
CO Cnoroc1eris11c 151)
of the motor will remain fixecl (low at low pewer factor) If
the motor does not accelerate, Tfthe motor aecelerates,
both the irnpedance and the power factor will increase (Fig-
ure 7-8). The impedance of a motor wilh a locked rotor is
CO Corüocrs Clase
essentially independent of terminal voltage, and, as the
CO Contncts Very motor accelerates, íts impedance changes as indicated. This
Nearl y crosed Here

/
Current TroeE
ca Pick-up
Figure 7·6, CO Characteristic Compared to Current Trace.
Overa narrow range, such as that between two and three
times pickup, a CO relay can be assurned to operare if the
integral of (J - l )" dt exceeds K, where I is the m ultlple of
change of Impedance with motor acceleratíon makes the
distance relay particularly well suited to this application. lt
also affords tirne-delayed backup protection for three-phase
faults and lnstantaneous backup prctection for two-phase
and the ground faults.
If neither of the above schemes is applicable to a motor
which has a starting time grearer than the allowable locked-
rotor time, a mechanical zero-speed switch may be used.
This devíce supervises an overcurrent unit and prevents its
operatíng a timer once rotation is detected. Thís scherne
will not detect a Iaílure to accelerate to full speed nor pulí-
out wíth continued rolation. as the other t wo schernes wUI.
 1
VoltsAc

1
__ 52o
21~30
2 CV-4 21 00

lhaóeQiJOte
Proteenon-
GQod
,
lllllEf
TIme Pro1ect1on /
2 CV.LJ Srorttng
Time
Note:
Pnase Pnnse Onll cannot Opera te
on loatT or on Starhng Cu«eo1

X I a) Cunenl
00Un,t
IJOIOOdeó
Motor
Loooao

: >-L-o:~~t----:;:::
Molar

W1th Locked
Motor Rotor
lmpedonce

Time
30Unlt Good Rrotcct1on
Chonge of lmpedonce W1t11 C0·5Rell'.ly (51~
-.. ..,.,L.ocked
Time os Motor Acéelérotes
Ovei Prorects --....e;_"-"'.: :¡ Rotor
Trme
Slor11nQ T ime Is

Figure 7-8¡ K0-1 O Oistence Relay (211 U~ed for locked Rotor (bl Currem
and Backup Protection for Larga Motor.

V. OVERLOAD PROTECTION

BL-1
Heating curves are difficult to obtain and vary considerably (49)
wíth motor síze and ücsign. Further, these curves are an ap- Mo11;ir Cotrob1111 y
Time
proximate average of an lmprecíse tbennaJ zone, where vary-
- " ~ked
ing degrees of darnage or shortened insulation life rnay oc- ROtQI

cur. lt is difficul L, then, for any .relay design to approximate ?

CO·S fletci~ (511
llmb

these variable curves adequately over the tange from light

sustained overloads to severe Iocked-rotor overload.
Currenr IlR

Thermal overload relays offer good protection Ior light and Figure 7-9. Typícal Motor and Relay Time Current Characteristics.
medíum (long-duration) overloads, but may nor Ior heavy
overloads (Figure 7-9a). The long-time induotion overcur-
approved means." This requirement is necessary because
rent rele.y offers good protectíon for the heavy overloads,
single phasing (opening one supply lead) in the primary of a
bu t overprotects for lígh; and medium overloads ( Figure
delta-wye transforrner that supplles a motor will produce
7-9b). A combination of the two devíces provides complete
three-phase motor currents in a 2 1.1 relationshlp. If the
thermal protectíon (Figure 7·9c).
[\VO uníts of current appeared in a phase with no overload

device, the motor would be unprorected. Thus, the NEC te-

Toe National Eleotric Code requires that an ovecload device qutres three overload devices, or two overíoad devlces and
be used in each phase of a motor "unless protected by other an approved substituto, such as a CM or CVQ relay.

VI. THERMAL RELA YS
There are two types of thermal relays, Those such as the
CT and DT-3 opérate from exploring coils embedded in the
machíne windlngs. They are applled only to large motors,
usuaííy 1500 H P and up, where exploríng coils are available
when specified. Replíca-type therrnal overcurre nt relays,
such as the BL-1, operate directly from the cutrent dra wn
by the machíne.
Vl.A. CT and DT-3 Relays (49)
The CT and DT-3 are bridge-rype relays, The exploring
coils form part of a Wheatstone Bridge circult, which is bal-
anced at a given temperature. As che motor ternperature in-
creases above the balance temperature, operating torque is
produced (Figures 7-1 O and 7-11). With the DT-3 relay,
only one resistance temperature detector (RTD) (10 ohm,
100 ohm, or 120 ohm) or exploring coil is requíred: lhe CT
relay requires two (10 ohm only),
Re5,stance Temceroture Oetecto, ,n Moch,ne W,nchnqs
Figure 7-1 O: Typical Schematic of The Type DT-3 Relay (49) for
Motor Overload Protection (lt s Aclln1n1ages are G(>Od
Protecuon lor Overroacl. Blocked Ventllatton and 11,gh Arnbiaru
lempermure Operanon J
The CT operating unit is an induction disc, with the two
torque-producing windings connected across the bridge. Cur-
rent Ilowing through a current transrormer from one phase
of the machine supplies energy to the bridge. The relay con-
tacts close when the ternperature of the stator windings
reaches a predeterrnlned valué and the currcnt Is sufficieutly
high. Tripping on thermal overload is also avoided if the
duration of the overload is short.
7-7
The DT-3 relay is a d' Arsonval-type de con tact-m aking mil-
liammeter which is connecred across the bridge. Thc bridge
is energized by either 125 or 250 Vdc or supplied with 120
Vac through a transforrner and full-wave bridge recrifier in
the relay , The relay scale is callbrated Erom either so? lo
l 90°C ( or 1 00° to l 60ºC). Toe right- or left-hand con-
tacts e lose when the ternperatu re rises or falls to the preset
value between so? and l 90°c (or looº and
160ºC). The
normal setting for class B machines is 120°c.
No eurrent-responsive relay can protcct a motor subjected
to block ed ventilation, The D1'-3 relay overcornes this
shortcorning by rcsponding to temperature alone.
Vl.B. Therrnal Replica Relays
The replica-type relays (BL-l) are designed to replicare,
within the relay operating unlt, the heating characteristics
of the machine. Thus, when current frorn the current trans-
former secondary passes through the relay , its time-
overcurrent characteristlc approximately parallels thal of
U1e machine capability curve a! modérate overload.
Extreme variarious in load, such as jogging, produce a dif-
ñcult relayíng problern, In general, thermal replica relays
cool ata different rate fron, the motor they protect. Varia-
tions in load 1nay produce a ratcheting effect on the relay
a.nd cause premature tripping. Neither the DT-3 nor the
CT relay is susceptible to lhis proble1n.
Since motor insuJation can support temperature ín e.xcess
of its rating for a short tin1e, ternpera(ure sensitivit-y is not
the ultin1ate criterion of relay capability. Where w!tle load
varja tions are expected, the CT relay is preferred to Ute rep-
lica type, beca use there 1nust be overteruperature and over-
curten t sln1ultane_ously for tripping to take place. As the
titne curves of Fíg,urt: 7-11 sllow, i:he CT relay wi11 tolerate
the allowabJe loading condition, 1vhereas a relay solely re-
sponsive to tcmperature woulJ trip off the motor.
The thermal repHca relay is recornmencled ,vhere embedded
ten1perature detectors are not available; the bridge-type re-
lays are reco1nn1en<led ,vhere they are. The DL-1 re-pl1ca-
type relay is tempera tu re co1npensated and opera tes in a
Cixed titne ata ¡,,iven curren l. regardless of relay ambient
variatlons. Wltile thls characteristic is desirable for the
stated conditions, it produces underprotection for lligh
1notor a1nbient and overprotection for low tnotor ambient.
7-R

r +1 I rr 1-)

lCS·L
Curten!
1ronslarme, ICS·L
co 520
52
ICS·T
tcs-r
Atorm
Re,;el
-----• Alorm

J0,000

Re,rstonce_ ffl!lll)ero11.1re Oe1ec1or

1
fn Machine Wmdings
Typlcol l'llofor
Heot10g Curve

HighT
Low l
H1gh
............
r I
' 1000 : co
lowT I 1 1 • • Nore:
1 I Aá¡us1ob1e
t Alar:..L.
1 Chorocier<Slie
11).lorm Tri¡,
'
100
1
ITH-1
l
• 1 ...
3-2.!) 1 t---Trlp
Slortrng
Curren! nme 1 Currenr
lb) le} 10 1
Figure 7·11. Typica1 Schematic and Operallng Characteristlcs tor The
¡ Symmetrlcal
Asyrnmetricot

:
Type CT Relay (49) for Motor Overload Pro1P..atio11.Uts t ( Locked ROlot)
Advantages 11,,. Good Pro1eciio11 for Overload Jcigglng ~ i---IIT
Operatlon) 1
1L+-~_.j.~---4~--1,.....L.~...¡.....~==:;:====
1 1;75 3 10 12 ~
Current tn perUnllof Ratt!d
VII. COM RELA YS (50/5 l) FOR OVERLOAD
PROTECTION Figure 7-12: Protectlve Schame for Largo Motor Using COM-5
Relay (50-51 I With Alerm.

C0~1 relays are often used where an alarm is desírable for

rnoderatc overloads, or where a high speed transfer of power
supply is applied.
Figure 7-12 shows che de schernatíc and time curves ror the
CO~f-5 relay Wlth aíarm íunctton. The alarm sounds at cur-
rents above the CO unít pickup and below the ITfl pickup
(ínstantaneous trip with high drop-oul). Time-delayed trip-
píng occurs above the ITH pickup and below the TIT pickup
(indicating ínstantaneous trip). lf the current drops befare
th.e CO unir times out, lhe high drop-out ratio of the ITH
permits the unít to reset. For fault currents above the [IT
unit pickup, hígh speed trípping occurs.
deJayed tripping occurs Toe six-cycle delay produces a
dog-Ieg in the tripping characterístíc, permitting a very large
transient current for a short time without ttipping. Immedi-
ate reenerglzatlon of a motor Irom a second source, follow-
ing loss of an original power supply, can produce such tran-
síents.
For heavy Iaults, the llT unit provídes instantaneous trip-
.
pmg.
VIIl. LOW-YOLTAGE PROTECTION

The COM-5 relay shown in Figure 7-13 conrains a six-cycle Low voltage prevents motors frorn reaclung rated speed ou
tímer. Moderare overloads up to the ITll pickup cause CO starting, or causes rhem to lose speed and draw heavy over-
unil trippíng with time delay· above ITA pickup, six-cycle loads. Motors should be disconnected when severe low
 ...

-, tlmui.i \of. Jprieftl 'Tb- ili:hn,i\"111~ mlllf· , 1..,,. il1,1t

l-e -,
hxlt C!CJOl.ltU witlt ahoonrid. ,lit.a• •.1u.ul11•'t9ll1110- Th•
ir "t~~~~.-{~. 'º"" •nl•IIFWOlnt.'.U, •hle+,..,,_ l")' ~pn11,KIIQ,. ~,r U1
l,4Jt• t!!!Ollt ti U Utc. 1ttt.. t•J1'.llb11 ~a u-.t. ¡Jl<J 11.11 U:'11toi
mj:11p •re Jn--1:d, 111111 lo• 'l'ffli.11:• coah11:• o¡,i::,~ 1•11 11'
<TI
OJI• U t:,•~- ,,1llilt,'!!11.,.. •11.fM:a.nth' .. l\l'·,111
'1%llfflJ
.no.d tn, recia), 11,IU upe111fl!-

'--l. -)-e:=--!
1 ilct CT'J 1:, 1'41 u!.ii\ ~1ttW.ii,.a. tu11111IIO t.,~W!.11...e ~,
!tMII i.lllll OP.tO!«: U tbOWJI !tt fttlllrt 1-1~ "11\lrt.lll'tl se
·1,,irrr»-.1111,l:Jl'TI"9illl\rt wr111...,.,1rc4 ,11 nmmr~ · n.:11,rm1
J...9 1md 3-10 •• ct1r-f.JP,~1"111n1h11::hon-1ti,11 v,1lu.1,- 1mh VJ

• 'ft • tlrtff11tule ,f)lup: ¡¡,:pílc.t lh tnt 1&11.)' ~a1111i1S pe,·

--1
-,,.... .
wfl.l 1 ..1hmWhl, h I a pi-.11111 I T1r1t•l1vr r.:t111r11q; 1"'llrn•
l.lf mot•. º" nrrallr61tqu~11ce.uml I Vl) opmt" A ~.
.. 4(1111101 fl'" fll• M!lllllW "'1111mrc Mflll o,1r-1" 11"'\' 7 ttntl,r•
,..,.,t cOif dn:uu.. ,uul• .11.fh·, 11. h1tu1 .Jb.l.-,. jiu! ~
- .. ,. .....
~ ..-....a.o.s-e
1111.'f:t uf t11, 111 ita,vu¡11gc 11n1f :111jt¡:Jtc: fnppma 111 N1a1d 111
,l....m, illJ rw!-,,7 <Yptll"'...-tu t,w
...
1w_..
,:...,

' -
! ""-•lf'Ml
..,.,,,,•...,.. ...,.._
• •
11•
1' ~ ~ t:,a, ,.. ,...-
• • o

''"'"'? , • ~~'~" S<JYl,,t•• !\'lo' h• 1111 !'f'11lQt lh,i,i!'I GOM •

,,•

-~-·
.. ....,,ltiMl11Wtlt '"" ...
•
·-<iU"' m,Ulllmi- flllftl:a:I ·~· lftllV '"•" 11 ,, .. • ClólUI• 4...
-- ~- H

T
,_,_ O-;lf-1--
'. ..
~l·11111:1ora-. w:t,icl, P'Jlllially 111bmn 11t ~o ro ~o pllfteul c>f
.tum:il ''°""'"ttil;? pmtb.ltl..m. Uh~
,u ..J ·olfla.fc, ~
"'"'! unr,..Jlln .J 1uW~n•h,..11c ~ml.O(ltim, •• ¡.).!Écrn,t
~·"'
,mee II li~!l>•«mUJCl(,11 R:~C!'-11 ptOfflCl'ltllf"JtQ}tlfl! ·rip-1
t · "' •wlllJ4l!,car. ~¡.triU...l.!l!lui. ltl, e '\ f :I •.-. 11 , IT I•\, 1 avo 1

íl·
CV0 1l1,t47) 1d;WJ wdl lCl'U.lllUlll lklc:tl UJJÍWllOllaú.an:if

-
,rn1.a.. • lnp ,,, 1111 IWllrt! ,., '"'llllntll

.... ...._11,-t ...-

.. ..,._,_. 11111•-
,. ... I' ---. ..

w•...-. JllfllllV m fl'lttMJ:.111 "~ 1kt'io)w.t 011urn,. ""~~

-=ilfU(• T'"l-1 f'lmpHtl<d .. snw11ow1w; o...-vr-, ,.rn•w~l:t(t,,,.-,¡
~11.11111 •"h)I, ,11,b .... t.tw 1v, u• r n J • , Y, C\!CJ, 1·¡J, 1 1,1 .. ,..;w. a-,,""'~• "'•llV
Mil

i1I t'V(J 1...111'( 1- Hll>lllilU~ lot .&U Íliltlot!lllt,l hu..-.1111 ,»Jh¡jJ¡ N <'\lbr 1! tl1• Ieeecr flbA-0"1>•u111111.uu ,.u.m <11
¡.l)·u11! motu1 l,i~ila i 1.DllntC!OI b.1Jun. fu >e l 1111 in~ 111 llllllllil t w.lL J h• 1 i r=
(.'"'\t ,.a{IJ flfl•Y, -hiel' ,oq1.1w1 ••" 1n,lw1hoi,o.d11c oum
\\ hil• 111 .. CVQ 1th1, n1111 1tt Ui.d tW.Jk r!l.uln, of th, 'Up1il> l[ll~I • 't·l 1 P -=a>IJlll!llllif,l t fl !h, • lll'l!IW'IITiunll fh111
IO f,vt'O l ltJ'.llk !11P11ly fo11~111j iat&II ll'IOftll, j1 d ... DQI lC •UIJI <,,J11111fl la 41,111.11 l1r,, urul •h• lfi,:t 1 ...1111<~ '"
•1•1mV w \11111.Lt. rlh1,011!: \1 l ·~ ;,t., 11111111 tt.l t'f'i'II~ 1'.lf'! ul • ...,.rn,f l._ Wt11,1n 11~• 11.11111110 $iiicom~ 11111Ib.:¡u111r, 1mn111-
th11 í'VQ 11tlJ !be tlloto,. Vny 1·,w 11rg11il"' -.WlUICII ,u11 · i11ntd. Wfil'Je JI 1111,.dJ.J.il.>J11 ,,te v, tmlJI • U¡¡1 1111,I~ J.t-
_. !t ('"ffllfr.i:._J "" fthtl lllllll· t u1h 11( 1ft• Oll<IJ 11!111,, l'llf llt 1ri•n t,ml4<" 1 wlm.11 ,u,r 11011t1crn 11 -u 11•11lld i111 lt1~
fll.i~tlc. ... 0\JJ'OOld 11~ 'h1ilq WlbllJ.&m.a lltX:.IIU aultr •!1.1 ,tr '11cat!I I
1)1t lp~Cfl!Un or 111 llpen ,.ll:W \
1 ú.1»t.1laoi:,r CUUJ!III
W.i; • r•,-J .. 1111U .&d..ttlt.llf'!11 l-#d,-, 1t,""1,1Hr"ll rft\1111:...

t ,... . l\ Ul»W~ o, ... ,, .." n1 1-VO ttila)· IUlil 1-elo"l)OUIII

hlll't IU lit!IW-il~,~Wllla ~.. tnwi.tltiil m.u.lüh1ll-il!t L '""
till-trdc 11mor-1i~1mb opu,hn!I ro, ,,,u..¡;1Jn11hu.11.00n1
,., •.,. ,1~~..i 11, •'f'rh •rwtJT1 "'!-t

....
L.i.l
.
'
•
•
.... .... '.. .••• , .......:.:...r-- '1
~.. ,. - :::;. ..i'!":.":"...._
1 '
.._,. '
-. ••
,,. " [.,
d~T~
' 1
~

;;:.;,
'0
.,...._·¿
"_..,. ..
-~ l
......
i; .... ••
~·
©)) •. ' ... ~
- ~~t ..,

vl ,.~··-"·
1 ~11\1111.
r. ' ..

t, ,'
I tn• r1:l11r , f'rllln.t 111..11111 ,,u,1uu. ,mb!t'Clll rn oollrcun
I!
r1- .lm,k .,h~llu1c. l,1 1111..Ulwtl. 111(1 C.:.M .tdll.V ~ ¡vutui p-p l.

- " n,_. ·1w101••ublt'U 101nd1rul111,111nrlc Qtln1,~ ,1e111md111u

II iluW t!w ,¡tllb.lo ,o·f .,.-nvi 1nlf,r1111ll1·11'1V-tll, ,-
1 01 c.ll.ln111ltt, lht• , ..1,., """111101 v,icn&le 1111 llhd ,11 w tn •
'•u• 116 r,11..,.....
~,..,,, .. l'lll•1t1111,1• 1111 ll'llo C\11) l'-Wt ,..,... ,_
<-' """'9!'t• ~-• V~ 0,,1, , 1rm11 M , m,,..nt ti , ,r rt·,.
1i,111 t I e,:,1h:111011111~ -.t,,e,a t,t.
""ttJ.. _ulj¡J,j¡jw tmJ .. ~u~ llll, ....uih,1111 '"'
n.,
~11 J.1Wa.ll,u
~ l1dly h••"n.f, Tilf
,in, ll<hi lo:111 T ll'tll.HtllUJllll'*III
"1Q1~!,1!lh 11111 f·r,r.i: ~ ... ¡,;,n t!n 1,1,h.1im,, ~~ u~ll 'I'
flrtn.1t11,1Jt·h IU .t,octcuil h.tweeu,,nd !11utp 'A,111
li1111i~i<1t.1i.nr ,r1nn'tl~ 1 ,111h11ti u II t11-"lfrrr11,•r111yu11 "" UJll't!I ,., ... o. Ullln• 1.111""1 11~,m ltlú •id l lP'IPIII
I l11u, mOlo:i ..- .t l\lllU"I t1r l;nlltl ,ewtoia, 1i11h1u 111,111 ; tJI~IIÚNII. ÜU: ,Jt, ~'.:w.l (,i~ U1t t 1'11'1 ......
 ,.11

:XII N(0.4-TIVf SEQUEN(:li CUKKLNT KCL.A't S ~,,.., h• um11, l,;ffl k ...111,n ,4 i·1·t--~.11.o.• u,I il' w.
1nd«., ,oul, .auut.,a 11w J. In tdi.t;• , , ~~ ••~..m fll,llllu, 1ill,
ra. l'OQ ! 46 1 1wph.,., ic:uum1! ..,... ,rmnm 11!'.J•)' prl)Yf\lC• H•IJ• 1,1r Utc IIOtc,.bin¡ .rnlU •f't t~,.,
,eiwtHW 11h11M 1rr11111i,- n.1,.. Hm• ti ,lfll h~ ~-t ,,,t ""~-
u,,. . 11.• JI • , •unen! ,.,l ti · 111 _. ~ ,11,rfl I n IJ2'4o· l .0.,hnr ~m.tl 11v11dnllll04111 1r.Otull wll h i!f,J'-1,· I v r11 1 -.tit,..tt l?e ul
t1111~ ••"'f
all11 ,.,.,.,111111,¡,, 1·11. ,m,11 11lway1 1,11 u..,, ,.,rn tun {11111cctod 11~1mlll l)t1t.n1·Ht'"I' 1nr 1- nt ... u11auq111 ''I'
, .. .-n(!nm, mh1 1 ,,. lhh ar11~11.u1w 111 N... J 'l""t,1il1"11 .... ..,llut! l,y .,; •11IU,wi Jt~._ll!,út ,i...u.a VJIUl(~IAJ IJ• UlJi
dW WJ.olut u ui11l1ul!01o1• IO 1)\11111<111 inl·.al..tM!d 111.1. 1 ~ h• n1111t "'" ae v.,1u111e 111 111mt11 wlH:11 rn" m11h11 !11 •oc,1111,11
¡;t!JIDUI' 111ftnQ Rill)' ti 11,(! tlJlllllW.. iu, 1111- 11•ilh1 m1111 -vu1..b1UP,,u.l)'
mil •lln-1hl ,iut "'" IMJ wllli,. ui ~<1:11"'1..l11.m111,11• ,1111 ui,,il
uuhlal~n1:t1 i11 riu1tU'IL•lt.Sw o.•:nn:nl•
!UV LOj\ 01' rxen ATION
~ \U11J,wh ""'" l,e,r11 ~.!;!J. l,,1 ,k, t ..11 lfl.Wl-t:1rnt
Ql'llb1111) "' j IISo:101, ,dlfcou_p 'i ':, -"' ~V ll ,,.,,rded:
IS• 'l)'nrnrowu" 11.101111::11 ~ r.i f'T1111J¡;rn1Z ~¡an,m1-- "' • .u21,
,u11 .. iffltrrt" •'lliua (f! 1, :l..-1 ·r-,111,, 111• ·k'"r ~"'· _. lat=,. l,, , l11,--.1Jt 1,1dva:11tTni 111111y co111J11cu14 111 t11...
•.tHI 11.111 mmrnl I iil ihA 111.ifl li1 IIOt."-ll.ih,I íidJ Thll hl.l)' 1bo1ll.:i have 8 Un" tku~ \)" 1ln1r,n'-'I ,,.
tn¡, in 11· til11m- 1h, <1¡,nl,tm n... ...Lt 1..,1 ~U·\ 1 ,..i,.._
fl¡. Lfll)Mfll d.i\'1111i!t!!J1wJ. i¡¡ j)«!Ctw.i IJ.'lfflJSI.Ltl\.u.ti.lW l.f.Oi (d111,.t1b,cd In C&11pi!.!1 ~, ~ -1:111 bo uaíl Ut pmt1t1f
l!h'.lll•!!ll.c..:ICO•lb-lbuUon :o u1t1n.1l w1bal.-111:1111 h\!U1 ¡110 bcJpf IQl)t0'1 IHUl•I f11• 11\ h11ll1., l11l 111Ji...-.,ll11 .. irqtl,
lllk-1 rnit s11t~ 11ml•1:t11,1J1 fil, 11,,,1m~ llu~ rmWn~d ¡,;.! tb1:.-.:i t :hl"-' ilWWú 1111''1'. tllittl • 1.111.UI t, dltmt,I, tu• l1I
••c1j1tioo (tí., •t".i;;;Jmm .. 111 m,,1nt !l•!h- mit 1uu•m ll!."
iüait ...tu P.:Ui llu~. ~ "-11 1111 QJ1fi-..11tia1.. uJ lmb•I
t:noolf •11PJ1h' vo111u,;t. 1e1,iescm1 • 111ur,; •nrJUI iutacl lo1 ,n- lli. Jultli;F rttl'r\lllfl t,, N!llll-1,i nfW<'! I IUI- •*. . . . .
m,rmr. lht iUCJ la nol l:nQr.rn,i:ntit1t l11f '"" l.u UuJI ~~ Ul\li

ilH1tMl;I c:1~111,J l(y 11111Xill1.'11.K4 ll'(rtfli 01,.... \_ tlU)4UI 1 1

ti:, tl:lC' 1,y • f'OQ
id.a)' !llllV ... .tamtopd 11 11": 1icp1we:,... llril11 •· ~¡,J.:t--•.o. .Urnlll ..d.tv• Ha l.l-11 /nt (. LJi·J) •J..:, ..o.
• i.'°n,,- ••1~1111 ... ,.. 1h,t1 O I• ,,1 11.- r.di., ~lit..· 1:itllll!PUm il,tu!t 1111111 C1J1•.t.1d •n1l i;0.11t1tlclc l:of.• uf ,111,-.1. :111.1111,nnc
tJJlll-l•tln• l11rtl ur 11111 «x» f7111 1·111!"1,.1i111 c10tun , .. mll 011i,c,l •l~11 .. uml.il11H!I MI 11
1111111111111.-11, 1uriu1 n,-.. l '1 rrnn' lo ~-- 1...-.ñffl'olo
cJ.ilit 1ÍI., l"ÍMJ IJI ("()()t~i1n fhllh IIIIM.11-ifCP llll" f...... •f"fS<:hlllh.1111. .. 1.llliOIII.UQ lit: d4,
'111 ,m 11 ( ~ v. •ll·'fVT"- 1rM 1 \,t, ~Tlll'!Wl"11,1 IU ~
lei...tul
!1}1411~ Nlie11 •11n1nt l.aui Y,1ht.1u• (\', t.t" u•111qp1wi• "r.,•·tr
x111. uVT-OF,snr 1•Kon:cnQ!'il tuuor1121A1r tU• 1111• 1r, (I~ t...ud 111 tU• w1¡, tllt • W
.ltl 'filio.U li, .ü • 1•,,.,1•·:n l,1.¡U., J.di,. J 1!111 ullttlll 1,-111 ..11,,uu.
UW·l'lf"llt~I IHl'll,.l llnn 9 11opliuJ (0 lii lldUtllliJ'.li JllúlUI *'tt• "')l 111,un1lH11111m1 r:ontsi:t ~ul41JO'f ,,.q;u,,, wtl.et1
111 1
,1rit iYltd'1t1"1"1111,c-1t1C1cn-.. tu !hOICCl rulh1111 ,n:1J11nll num 1.Mnr11T1•.- !I• "11'" ¡n,.,.,.-d.Ja,Tt t' ~11+ ·11 lrr,- llil ll,.-4ti:,oa.
..ir.11""'""l'llh 111:iJ "1<1·4•w w1·1~0t.· , .. trnn IIUuul.t.J.wu.
'Y"" 1ri11t ~s ..-hld1 c.:1unu ll11 po•·11Trniunll 1111, o,·
s-11 •• , ... d rot r.rv 111111..lum~ ~11,.m"""'" rn·111'Dl• OCl:llf
JrlUtMi II i"1"'tl.t U"tf~ Ut" 1.J.., ,,rnMI ·~ .c,cm1h11~ kli 1l•n11
fl llll'lllfll l!U u1a.,.ltt11t lbf 1($.N. a \lCu,,J1rttUQJl.iJ 11J""'
I mmr 1"1.lf •r•º"" MI rtih r,•11, t1wr11i.=.. fil· ;,-t, .. or ., if 111111 ,,l'H ·I••" l)1•!.1.·Al 11r•,~katiua..:01w+!11ul!m1t fo1
llfl"lllluti.u1,e1a.U a ().:JtHIIJII? cls:,.U'I Oh\ltiíllltt ll'h). t• lll•·ltll r1(•lh,Hn• t.1nlt · fV t!Nrtl'•M il,11 11l1\11l111\;il o-..ni•
Nh11,:,t1 111 11111 r-wy opm, .. .atan·¡¡ tuúil Hf H t s11t, flm'l~!II\ (11111• ,.._.. fll,.\!.UJt,Jklill lOnl.111 l'"l'lt.i.lh••
!ll

-r::

-
,._

"~
..!11º",.1' t• T f'ii!liP ..-poo-r,f,l'r MM-
,, ...
.t.ti"""' ,..._ r,r,1. ., .¡ ..., ¡ u,..
j ~"1-••....,

··t.~ - e-
,1g.... , HI '""" .. WIIMIIIOO , .... Motrn ..... 1"&00 U(lr ...
11-1IS.,.f-Tj¡
 ...

1.lbh ,.11

-, 11'"----'' r,v,~..:111 ... ru, ftt\11111• ••• ., ... 1 ~00 tffl

(l l11nm r 181

Mt1u1r11.,

·JI',;._ 1 JU. l.:I ,m, t.\.11,21r~ Stl •f fti]I f11u.f (m IJIUIO. r.cw1f Ol'.t1tlr.111l 1>1,;u1i.t.icrn
..~u.1 : l .. s:n-1• .: t11J.'1.....
•mi ·1H)~úl ti.JI iuaJ li..t
1-ao llo!fVIL"C".tauor 1:'11)101.
U ,,,.. + 11~ 11!!.W
wto1

(04 .. 111\ w11h r.111,11111 -11111& 1 /~ 1..1 kw.i j 11, , .•111 ,,,1111 ...... e.u ..,, i.lu--,1
rrr 10-'0 A fOtOf fun• ,iclay 1111 tu llutUIIII I l~•• JO 1.-. iO xee
¡¡ sü lf\'' m•llhÍLii: liO\J'. ~
1 11 ., -' ICtt.t.,o•, 1,Jtt, tll!JI ,"lk>o
C..0-li,q· A 11,llh 111111.111, 1L11t.. Wht.<JI

ITT IQ.ll.a ~ lltnllil-l•Wl:.cd r,c~I)) 11.uuu11,, '"'rrc<- .u 'i.<!,

soc- 1 OIJ.O.lS(l.50A u.:~ A. fJOT \lec Wllb ,o:~ .ltYZ.

n11(lr UTIII

crn 1 CVQ, J to ICtt \ J ú.,w "ultaz, '!t to 80 ·1111.J I rTfJU111,111 1 •tJUU $N1 u CQOII, lftel

,., ...
•naltf'olt), '\}-t~ l<lbo\
.
v.·'f:'i 1111ililta1Ko.ud •·~lt1..-11111,,tm.:.fü11,

..
·,~rrR~An rn ,m,VtnllHI ""' ·'.4'V~ll t\), ,11PlJl]I

,!S1-SON i Cl).1 r. O.>!.} A. r10 ..~ o,$ ,\, un,r u. 1 ~ f'f\Wl\1:,1 ,uiuod l)IOICOU-ll\, ,..
"""ª 11 l Ip.ab .,- 11Ll t ,dlJUL u .. "\ IJ.llll JIIUttJllnl!IW ~dY1i! Ui.m,¡p
l 11 UUil.l!II
 1')'pk1I Pm1•1.'1!011 (111 )IOf1,i,¡ "f 1500 llr •J•d UP
U i._11111 T.19f

••
"' \4,1 1 vu"'t: 'f't"-if\'- ttl -»•-
1 \,J hH mµ,p.,-m.,.., tal• l,Mitli.uJ Vfl>'U:U"W ~l.).j
otimt1,1f grn llQV•- o,cJtli:tr.U lt.lltllitUlh,m, hliho11 •11 11:!vJI 111nbHUI

•i 1 C'0,(1.1;, i w.,,, el • 11.hl. 1, L,,.1.. ....1 u,,,... v• ,,..,.1 ·• v.J,,"

li,•d,•11 ,.,r,11 ,111llhl 1,n1 ~;, , .. 1c; i..

C0.11.'-U A 11t11..1 del., •tun1-10 l~\.lcd,«(llOI IINl~11\1dJ lli!Ub

11n Qrurann1 ,1n111 - lllfllllll llfflf e' :u~
dUU1,¡ lh•.._

• 11• 1 ,. .:. IIUIT :(H_r, ,\ ;)et • ''"' • 1,,, &-ci\l hilvl \ 111!11 \!TTII • ~T!>!I"!

rrn
'
\1\ ... 1 u ' fl, ~ ,\ llrnJ~ 11 .. I C'IIT U!! <0jlll! 'U!f 107
m,U

•• 1 ,,..,1s, ,-.. •r1 >~\ ... 4 ~" 1 :,itul,111n ¡t ,-11m-m pm1r.twin1

- -
,nr ti'L < \'1
- "' I•
,- •
" ...,,.:, 1 e ~1/. • 111
w-+ v.
•
•• ,~ •l•h¡ft. ., '.,., ~g;¡. ~.lttnofl.¡• ft" ...,.,..,..,_¡:
•itl-
•nuh\'io, H-i.o,.140-V \., - i 1111bul•a,._ed votttrt- 1•1 l.l't:11• n.
,,. ,e, rl' vou u·u~ ,.., 1'• ••••<1 h•
"'" i.'lwo 1,1j e "'~ ti ,u ~
l!IIOltoU.•l>t !,QI m ¡Ui•lf:d11,l l•) (">,t
'1.UI 'lo
,,,. 1 TI11, IJ H'·UJ A,) \111jl 11.l.l ~ rn,.... 0$. Pflj• 1111., [JOlrn. fltot.d ...
~hli t·4 '11ITl'<u -e A\'J ,~
fm.ul:t\.. ,OüStill rc..¡oird lrr
;iir•• IHQHnlDtl 11 "'"' 11 ,i111a,,

•.\LT1.R~., r, m ,.o""º ,n,

IJ:3tf 14'111..10 MI ,,-11 '.\,! , .. 1 w LI ,11w 10:.S 1 \ V \I LUt.LI h 1.iltl , ILV11 , 1\ ji
J l\tU, ',IUfUfl 111 A 11 f 11111, i l.1 thll Je 1 \NI') 1!1-,.., (..1,, vo f Al U'd.U

1 •• l ....

... ,1 h~-... .... n m 'o··. w1,r11., ttvl, "'·\~n m ,rM 11.:0

,,.11,.. ,
'ti NJ!-ON 1 fO l!,1)5tu!.~
....w m u,..l•,
A
··c. ,,, rf
O< "· 1111,,, O I
11111!!'1, 11 ., r'"n-rLjaJ!Ulfn j ¡,r<Jledlno

4 Um , f..ill l.u..J
 T.ibt.1,1~

. ,.,.
.Pitlll•f,Mll~U~lfNttM,..
'
~ 1f11Ch~11t V,,,"'

.. .
·~~tUl.l~Qll• l;f.,-41
11u:'dU; I!:! •
!O «Cf
..
t"llilll~•tll"'tfll.rr
.
t~¡.,lfl~
-4ilij\ll&l~mlf
.. •.l. .TÍI-Í.
•...-.11 ............
•J.y•
.
u - .
~·~lllltW '*r H l1W
hc:ld-~lk.tiiiJ"_
1 .,.i.,
•• -
•írii,-·:~y ¡,¡,. OOF

,7t ,qi¡. '

O~~·"'fflJITr,iJ-')

,
 ti

'1Uljtt1U f 1 INTROO\iCT(ON

hdi,m1111illl 111.l•!/I AtC 1fü1 pllílul:V,,U 11,1fli ul l~au 111ul•11hm•

.r,1ut!\f'm111_., 11ml R.-.il!Nt
rwt~ctfon
(oi 1ta111{,Jm11m mlflf lt 10 l, l""'
mi.! ail ..w ~ el;i)"'\
l..1wll'tl'W, ••11•tl l.,,.,_ •11úlw11 to. W l1llf'lttlillnJ 11.!.r.,
A1;t11.. ,. IL J. u p,rll í•u ,eucuu11" 1ttoio<lit.111 rr:1.iulott.11ut :Ufí11t11iuial_...
4

w,_.. íulu1liwe1 Tn ii:"t...J h11,1"i1U¡ out 011Uwuu¡, fJn......,J hrr

,, lll~•actllrm P:.lllWIWfl.1llil.l. l.!!ULC!IWJIO .wJWCUIJWUJl

tL ),l!wwtuuw·1ttuwi ~ l'lj l!;"M!, .._,11 ... llrNl'4, l l~hi.Ullfl ~,,,. Wlhdl. ,.....i, 1 m
!lt((u11'1I ,,,,1111111 (WUlllJ In 11,. il0111>Ciilll1_t JlhlaU-..
,A. t11m1d l11111<tt
8. k«o't't•l' huu1h
C: $V11U11l.lli.rliLtitU.llll, l.. lt1M11!hkl ,unu.U.O ~ i.t1h-..1••11u,• iJtft4,WJ11 ..i.t#111ffl
11:1.D.thtt.tltUII fl\ll UUIII •JU!• Ol~lt:Wrlfl.l! IIIJM. 111 ...
m. !11ftn1nn11 Eci:!1yr 1ur 1't111u'1or1wi, fíi'm"uo"
!Tilf111'il mn, IU111t o!Qlf!í 1"'1 ffiit r11r-- rlTffl'lffl lnnt.f,W"l""!lS
,\, hi,1io1nu11111i 1ti1Jr4.wllll R.11d111;a¡l·$c•u.Ul•t1.1I,\ 1NTÍUrn111..11m 111 o.hrt)n,114U1Wl1ll1ll!/ 111 11.wlu:arrHI• ..
111,u)i!I
I (' fl t1~1i.-9ri,1ri hfl1ll{Yllllti' Kv'í11.:,
1m,r.u•mu D1fí1tt<1uUII ki:111)'
:1 r..\-.i&
¡.. ji)'> •••••.~•111-ll.Mlm 1u11111i11.Alii lo,f iU.ld,llnrnlllP 'il-tr
O- J)iílu-1111111!1il ft( ,11.wUIJ Hlt11t1.1vkl M.aÍ1t.111ut !I thll,CUtUU:.U:iDJ!II
l JlU11""i lllJ.1 tnmJU,1111t1 UJftNUll.iLIJd~
- -111¡:4 1Uftf11qr11·111, íJ1(tn11111úl Rid17 .a Y..wt11•W11• 1Jltlt11fl uim~\h. -wiuo.11 dit: dllli,11nllal tl!"I,,-,.
, ~u1r1l1r1HW R,11\)',
.en a, illlUAllf IIIUIS,i
•V r...C""'
IUi 1y111•
,;\.,,klilS'I'"" Tni,'1f'1t1111tf'r'J\íTM"1111Ui1!
r,>111Uhr'MIIJ'JlfOt.Ult, .. ,t 11 fudhur .amhh1::11-Lti bt·• nirieit
V iw.uwl• Clull!b fm ..Ajtl,lltl1!J11)•1t•lm11111t (.'Hlfn._n_tM ,ft l:(!lll!IITT•11t rtm,mri11 •i,r,1111, 11a11nui,
1 11n1111¡,1 ...... rn,nn1
11,.111 ..., \rnn,i1Jmt.et beld.. ,.111,-,,
111111~ i,,,,,._......, "~
I~)" rr
A,11 ), •nlt11g11 íllf.UblOIL.I PI1u:f'11r.n•11 • h1 101.il ,,tM.elfllt
}\, f;11oct:. fo1. Two-Wh•lipg: (b~~,
l V,i!titn1 C:ll1o:'L ,IUJ lb~.- mnrllimniiil' A.ndJ 1111.U~, ml.p#f!W't mil~
'- lb.hu r.lhl~k-
•· C..\ K"t'liin Alf 1b# .i,,,Vl! b,bJ...,,:wi JI" arcumm11il1W!Qhy 1\~nt·
" t'A•U, ttfliífl Mhfm •r ri!.111>1 ~,rJ 11..U.mlll h,1naf1mt1~ ~lt-114.&.a,,e, ~Ul!
mJ •"••,"·
J.. 4Cw.mrt-J'f11JL1hm111!rl'iitío;rmtt1w.!lt 0~ Pll'IJll.!J 1µa10auuo 111J :a,minJlurir +(uCttllfl-.r.1nf-lnr•11h.,
IL <lhecb lm- rtim1,W!iutr11a-ltun,c•
1 (:¡,:.:~ ltda"
1fü1 """'' llltllibtl.a.111 , N mllh m 1 ~· """"""' ru••r.t..}n, , l\1
l;otrJl41t1IIMMi1 tltil
i ll'H i:t-10)'1
VI T)~ AMJll1.Mi.1"'1 d Tnu,'4'6nrm' n,11~1111•• vm 1Rmirn11 Vm,"''".ir '1 tlnmtrm:t l't"m
1
l'fo,i::Uoi,
IX, 1-'w:tr-t.tla:11vCP.Ju1il!'--AC'\1,.dt 'Rmlbtmt ,not' V(:!11 .. ;i
A. Ulfl1t«t1.i.i~J $io:11111r111 wi!11 IÍ.i.l;i1H1.1.HI. b.uu.t.W, Re,\lükr.1-

b
k•~, !9'11•Ff"''""'"
lilttru1i11111I ~:tlom, wr!i, ,t~m~Of tw X- i',ir-'l.t1¡ Tt:imll'ormM" rmurhon
()~IUJllli!,!'
I;.. (i,µ~n,J ·$CU1tcec,n 0111111 S)i.ia ~ ltUt.~dad.. lfirt" 011.b.!1 ~~1 bJ.IJIL\lliJJl
U1 r}I..-.Pt1111, P•nb t1f &inuil!•P~11r lluih
t. t"rotr:ut.tll o( f l;1ttlVQ(Ot•1'11!11il'Ofnl\:"f Hl\11 ,u1 tf'Vm11011 ol 1i1,111n 1tnc1011
E, Judil•,i1rrau111, ,lhi.>• jfJPR}
G. Q),!tOHI.Ctll11.11~1 f1¡11,,~up PlfJllll.'1.h)II ¡\ $1)1,l'tl fti,llflUt""..A1111ljCAÜVIII,
11, Oin11r1~ ftdil) ....
1, Ovl,ni•TCt1l
''°' li:i~'itir: Pro11\ill\1TJ1
A•io, 'Wl1h URI.; Suprl.cmrm
tt. n.11"""r-ei. ''"""'"' ~n,~~,..,"'
C. fh1r.1mni!líl'ru(co:i1ic1n
u.. t>ifl.}nt11t11f h'otttlllhi
VIL T,ypii:,I l'm1cdfff..Scilon1e,:t lm-laihw.w.l WL<I t'.~ e. Rí:a,ett»• c..u Octl.t1 s'1!i11in1!
mn&!:ll bu>n l'r-t11f,ltn1n111 F. hrrt1'i0" il.ntl lJi11ill.1,
,:

II MAt:NltllZ.lNO INkUSH to 1:W,w11 •S-2.11 11 ittt1111111I tlw.1 tllit Ñtr1ui UI teot11n~u..il!l"11I NI r-11t111u~ 1
in, ,nnn11, 1i1t (ti1J wm,ul nor,111111, "u o'" nc-.J.11w• 1p,1t:. 1,- n11,1...-. rm•
\C.~.11.. • UQ~ma: l. • i.t t;1,~ .t 1:.0JUit.1..111t ~...-11111u- 111411111 Wul! ~~~>.. AL.UU. 4w:atl.- wt~Jl111i ..,.,-,_,., 1u,l lh1.11 -<f.'.IJ..
"~ nr •xélll•,1 cur,=-111 ltu)' I\•• l11it tu• \ftll wu11t11, •·hi.dt lun !\ ,i,>$111,,. •il1tt1 Sinv,:: tt••ur.1lic 1111> au 11cdha bt •_a.a.u 1tuU.Ln bt
lfl"i"!UTY!ílnl'!l m~il M11I, ha it.-Jilll!lnnli11)~rt.T'4.1 m:a..-d mlt,Cbllfl'TffllA mimmht:rt. ll,tJ;--w11,,.., ,,msuu1 nt ..,,.,..1,.·. umrilut ni
al.:,,, lfl:&} ltD>."tl 1111r1..11Uuf.oillt~1kitul ll- h) :io lrmd lhm.- unrimt 11.l lt- 11~1.Ud i.Al.1u.l 1•~111116.I 11111t fülr.:a •lma 11• il ,ma ;,luea il• il
1 w, tuu+,atl l~I fÍ!IL -·¡tj •IIIO w!tf\ !ju r,1n1rnl ~ thlil fjlllt J ·~ ti:ca l ¡(!ll,1 1 ~ ~ta::a I

·nu, fllt:10,.,o;,1."11 .. 111,...,,. ,t11 ,11..111111):n .-11,i •t1Q11l1ü4!! "' ,1,.-

--1:,
'
"'1flr11tth.11!.11 rn11o1fll\ 1111
'

. ..
.. ICvufflltlUt '" rflv ,,,,.....,..v«Hu!\ l,1Y11t ftilt tA'lfR... tn "'~
f\-
mw~~ll•IJ•

1~, ,~ f ¡11,11 ....... 1111~1....,.i,,r,,¡w '""""- ...11 u, .tl11,.-

,, '
ut,,.. llendtv

'
••
r.ieur• ~1 .,.,.,,..• ..,.
•.............
...,...,i..ci -".. ltl,
~u,, .. t ,,..,,ta,,aii.·,i....·
-w....,
w111.- ....... W"•..... .,.
...,,....nt. w,o
, l'b•ffh.r w.,.111
..-.i ....... ,.. '
•
Wl~n llui UXl:lt ..11,;11 IÍ I ITmll.onmrt lt11ll h,; r.m1nml, lllil
C°llrft .l j, 11 ¡fl4U(111.so!I 1itilftUJl,f1 f"Clll'I~ {f'I itll! t!IIIJ!lfl. ('111 !hl l!lllf!IIH
mam:turnw: <;umm "'"" ~o ,04"1), 11111 rrn~ mAowm11hn
j1ru:wJ• k,11,~, l.b&tl l~l.u.u wmw. ,J.DW.wj "'11W'f,R l.ffi.w1J
i'Y\....,~, . . 1111.u11"11111.1,~1~111u~ n..,u1.u ••.,¡m '""' u Uf.i~m. u»"
vr •m'4 11 t ( l f¡t 1 • ! ~ fpr,a:.c: 1) 111 IWUIO.Utittll ltnt_ taOSIW..lrib\ !!4u_
8•1); 11 01• tnudur.m11t w1t1• 11:ouaqfi11á .« 11• rnduut 1)11:.
''"'"9;!11a 11u1nuil1 CÓ.JIIOPI.Íeal,.uuultuQ,tam,l'p' • ·•s~I~ ,ttmnfr • ,f's· Mi
r<ilh~
••i ...
('V!m ,mnntnrmU m 111• rasdQ'li"I l'ffllP!fl1 ... H""'
m1iu ílli l'lOff. tliffllt ,,--.lil.l bo e ltflm011, CQllll:mUillin,
.:a::.l u1.+,.
m,r,Jw... ·~ tttt ,wwtllt.lt. JJt w.. ~
l!Uli Th1u11111.1D .w:iJI lie • v~;Jiu;c~ hin• u dm. 11• 1 h!1111 !11lfi1111•
.,, t a.J p:mvi,111t "•fll!Alltm.....,O j1 no t1u1111"lfr'. 11'1!1•lt•II 1'fl¡t111-.
..io.w.i..t, Uli? ¡¡....._.,, Wlw, MltJ;.111t. ~
~ t'tltf'!'!.111tF"~ ~I
l·JJ. l., ¡1~
ÑIICt. Ulflllli b<t~111ICVílt0 1Jl(I II tu.kl.U111!1ln¡ l1111ffiu1I III
1ini.'t11-11U, 1m"-.,1Mtt.lit
"TI•• ,-.tw..1 lhu.. te, ,.¡ Ttut tti". n'OllmHull w (h1 ~f.!• .,111111 a11,...n1 •
U1ü. w,JJJw a.tam0-"WJ tltlrn tlw iJ:1WJJ)UWltOUl.L 5Lw..
uuu, l)JUl.k St.w..

.
c.uu:c1ll C(mliiutt:t ~ti flvw 1n1l11ut110Uh ltlp 1n. •+•hllt 111111 Ulllo ,;~,iu«

,_../\'
...,..,,.....,J1 !lof'I íhn ~Hj IUHr""Ht \Mf,111¡;.,. fi~- ~l('!JT ,: ~·~\tlii llln!I'
Y,1Júilo of •t1 wlWff 1 .-,o, Oellll.!JM ihii fl1u. lú.'-'l!t! •I llh u: ·ii, emii •I ll,r
11!,~ ,,~ 11 ~J(jU1ptrl¡ 0:11• ll!Mik w1fl tuv, • JIOIIII"' 11 IOVf 1 '"111"
1.1bl u. .,u~· l 11w • ·••l*"'i'.¡. ~ f%J' "''" itMWI. ~ , m ,~ ,._, , t1tt.

...... . . ~lffllrilm. :iimmy ~ i!"Y'OC" brtllm!m ~

,.,11 ••
lfl r"'""'.
Js.111v k ,,. J..,.•,.,111 k....11..-
1~ lfl f":11:rtl
!woo,,1.,w
•• i.. ........
1:111111! r4l11q¡.¡ ~... ·~ 1;1,)'W,·111
10,11 ... ¡¡¡,¡ ,,r ,..., n""'"it.,,, ..,_ ,., .1ii,1111 il11111011 ~ ,111.... , "°'"'
111.
11
t,tltt ..'-11U.W1"1 llfllUII "-' hiiel•u1 ill 1• n11(Ñ1)111m i~,ip- n111iílmn•I 11,,..

~·-
iv1, 1..W,11¡ ,,....111,~ ~""' nifflt ,w...,.,_ • "''"" ,Wlli;f'Jli •
M-OMll*II C1AtlMt Wtl• 1•-tori.•1W•.,_
i..~ •• ftilf M•n.P1 _, fll• V~I· W•11•1'1M'• ,.,,....,._...,..111,....
C..-•-•••••
Wllllltt T""' C,.,.
,._aMr ...... .,.•ll"'lf1i. 0,.,...,1, ~. h k .,.,.,~ ...ay ,11-,m,f.ll, ,..,-~, fml!! llir niñnlin!" nm lhP o~urin!"
 ,.,
1

I he •al<llid flln 1011v 1!1111~ .10,1 , .. 11f 111bu.a1.t fuuu li.J•

t(ttll lllA lmmt11ffllf m lffmll'llmf tl'u fl'l'1MI ,ttm'nrt

1 lo I> JJ1eai mnah um:111 M'U'l~w11 111 l'lgiu:c 15•t f(ti

Wflff ,;¡,..,"" S-41 T,-.+i,.. w-. ..n,mt, lmllllll• c,.rtm11W ..... ,11•• e••
Or•• ""
0.- Ut.Al i...-w,1.·~~ llw. lmw.!h t!Wtltill ~-YH~fl,i)Y Tf111111
•1t•~et. u-. ew1a11 iiubu.tw.. • ttr y 1.Juwlj. w 1milsma Ui);lnf
""'
,......t.e,m,._,..
luiu ,.,
~
1 i.. ,.,.._ ~~ • 0•1111 t-.1~",..'"
ft•lt• C.o:m~•r.""I Ct¡tn""

1i11mt -.:~u,dil 1f tlu11.111u~Ltu11;,i," 1,,w,

' Wlum1 lh.ml Jtt 1111ms !b~•! vu•: 1l11IC. w1uilliu1 ''" 11 u,,,..-.,,'""
n. ,,1 n,

--
f'lflllk, 1 'ITlTl>ffi... n¡l~it OY tnil ~lllut t,¡n-wt:im
lile al111-.,, mlla .....:iml111¡p l)ffttnehlmJ tri\ lhr. llrrn, r.,u,.
llme'bOD¡ !lt1-fflat1: t,.i-..lon:1r.1 lffl11.s-,i1:11,c be «11:'tf'OU lt-
lMnf!II... "'"1!1'111 ltmf t-\11..1111~ 111lnU lt.r ,nnfllJ\ ,'<lt!TTlfl

~11111 ..., w-a1, f'11:i.p1111 w,,111t,1 ... ! flU,Hlillllllll"lf v.·111111 lllfflllli;t,lf!II

0w."'rtf 11flw.i.wii.dl. * ""l'~ 11..uLL -'t WJIUt t¡Ull)l1.tA.llif .11>

11UlnJ.1•11•fün11ri1 ,111111), ft,c, lilrtt:lt:1,lflMtij 4'111¡,t •:l11lll11M d11
.. lltnl ,- • """"' 11! i h11 ,1~"'1tt\11111 <tlt.l"Jlh¡g¡ ¡1t11,,l....«I "11.
o,, hom ((II\V1mt,-., lbe dR\1111 UJ" l 111 'lllfl. 111 lm:I, 11 ,"'tl11>- IIW tlcll11 wlníli1m htt IUIIJ.l'fl
whm L Y..11~ úll 1 1JMJII ni 1tJ11td'1>1111,r .. 1u.111l1n," U111l1•
1111 fln't 1,~ (l.)luiH, .,,u,111(1ff • hltl• itO'!I t."~. ;.1 1ft• ~KIUWDI ' btl:',1'11! .wijl 1.W,.. .,,1 lll).WA. c.:ai,-'Qll.OVJ:.'l \lm;tt'

~cia!ttf' lkHt1wl\1 llw.. 1\1,til<hl dr~m· a.i,U L.rn~., 11,iulloo ·rr.11 p:rol>Jtiílil)'o) 1umrpiJm1111t il• .w11t!lt r.011~¡
,M"co.nll11• te t 1951 AHiE eencn, llllll:. ci.,1uwU• loe i1nv~~ lin'!I .. tf hmwb ;....,. l -nct111 mu ;i·1 'f!'R111immn 1,tll:l!IP tilO
AT't tum, t O,~lil• lla,ffllfl 11flttc M11, ltfllllfl ",,tm
-nnITTJtia 11,U rn ..1il(le. Jiu líuut.11 1"1111 hu rrihlu.. t I" • llo-ph11!1111
l1t1 iltJ.fl! IJ.IJ.11.l ll.111'4 tlui 1n11a!1 i1r».1tf;t pn1H wiT! n1y np-pu.ii11\I)

rl\4 1='>.-,t 1nq lllrf1', 11~,ill!IIS. \,1 j.1111 hwfl• .l:Íftn'íltlO ilr ·ni. 11111.d111ut11,mn11h ll'1' 1 tl1ul!ln.1rn11r h1mlt :::mn t~ !.2h.t11.1

ll•n11m1ij 1.11 Ulf. (u.maJi ..._,.,u 8:rnlt u,ai a ,niciutu! lll'lll ilM~,t t, 1111, tn• • ._,,1,J,u11 11ur,. ,r 110Ullfllis .•.1111 t11lol!! 1•1

!YYI! 1 lon~r t.nnu.h bCCII\Uiltli'll rmSUfl.OC"#vr.ry 'º"'

IJk•
11)11Jwa ,t l.f¡.ilWJ 111111 MMiltll 11J tJl UllllJlbllialllUU
,nrut IJ.¡;p ti-am.lnffll.lt• unll> ~ 1.1J !111n: • .k.1•111 au,~ •

""º
,111w ll!'_f!ftllUIII .-, .. ,., 1-rlllil!i'l'C '" 1b• 11y1111oi ~·1111111ae. /i.l
t,:mn•# ffllNl'Hfm1W1 tn, hrrm'h nn ,..,, mmrt, M"'fW"f"fY,
GIU'f lh11 ii,abt1rnc, lii t.lwi cont1«H1t1 liu, t111ll 1111hJiiy 1h1t11" , lb.o ,1\l','ff IÍ'I' Vill1t11 ,,, '"' ,11r11,m11,.,,.fíaml1r fTbt,tt5,
l'h1 C\lmm 11.. t,.14,\iw, o., 1t111..J¡ 1~ •.1t-

ht 111IUl1ioo 10 lti... «11ntlllo.M11 Wbk!i 1110.ur..nu· ~fli)t.,.ph.~ h 11• 11l~.u,uu111 t,Mt11·~·•111•11I ,1.r1111l 11U1.,u._,.l tfl• .t1R11
p1111~,. lltn w11r,,, m11p•1 ,,f H,• 1iWtli't, oor,,o,t ·,mn • 1l•U11 ,11:cm ··~ .uud11 u,e,. ,.," "Wf.al\1
-.lu.Jm, 1.11 tuJ:U.ltll.O'.UI h1 U111 t1u.wllr.1 ni 1.'111.'!) 4H11n1~i w,11
tly 11,c:. 1tr.01or l'•••~•of lb-e cwn:ttu froni !be: t,.. rik "'múm¡.1, P T)ir. !'flMIL.11111111 tm,.-.ni·rit tltNl~I\ ~ tf ~ !11" ~·1t\W!111

f'!lrw, ,m,, .. 111111 ,inn "Ore-111•1' 41\1Mttmt: 111 lhr!WI ~i-iw, IUl1[fl,
llw ilmult c-.une:11 pellkt h11:':ilJl¡i t>I u1coore1 wW ~ o.uki1·

~.
,Tahh1t·I
41-1111;• b)' 11-tfl~cn II mutin•lo "'.6<•"•
!1,11 •orm1d 1ll,1r11. nr • l'tt11uUm1.u,i,,<'•r.11'~li r.Juildltm
h11¡0ll,ptquk 1nt'Wlll ...;U !.t<J \Wuldol,I l'.lw 11.r.1. ~YOuukl., ¡jj
f11t;I. Jicc•MF!' ~lll~llll)' rn11m• $,,,4)SetOII~ ,,,e:.,h.po º' Cluni• ,l"ül; V•lu•
,,, ,, ... . .. , ,~,c.
11.IJ.11.1..uah.t.u.u..._t W•sot fr.u. •
ilmlll'l 1 r. f tli.l j 11 .•,t,111lrt11 l1--.11t.
t ¡¡;, i"l)'Qtnrlr ffl' • l'll!lil,,.,, ti~
ílldll,I lt\' 11111 IUlllUT"dl I holl ane Cll/ffl11t lt_H!II irlih;ll 111 lhtl
I ilij
.\11111•

,¡O '·
5.M •.3-1-1 -J 1J,.,, --3.n
llf"III
..j,J'!,
',a,.,-arnm Qf l wo cnrr~nu from tlie tlJ-nl,i wtrnfín11• A.'1m11..
lH!f Jfü1I tmly •n~ ~• 1\11\ i..tl=u:ab!lt, lhe...r,&1u11! !•/ lt'.. Jiite.
c:m:nt can ttwh 1o11,1:,it.lu,, ".::Dülar) Wl•Cll l>l tbí: di..to1,.
"~
1.11
~<t
o•
1,10 11,1'
<,.J) ..,., ... 1(1
_.¡,.,
...
j •• ,., lj
i»..Jó -11:;6' -H1...:t1
.o.u) -l ron
-4.::00

ilun n1 lh1111411t1W•phu., .• 1u11!"-

I I" ~ 30\1 •o> ,:..IU) -li,()J
 •

lltclUIM 111 ltlo 11ett11. :e1u111:cllut111f Ltll11af01t1lt:I'whullt11t. ot

oment fflnS'nrmnn.. ,t.,. ererrmrrm h,rs..,;mnm1 11mun nlw,
.... , ... ·-- ".. u
.....
· -- " -
1lmt1.i~Ihe cm~i.lnttil wbcif'i opoJyi:wi .funtltl I(! tf1.e d.U.l:1t11J"n-
11•f mi.A ••

A,1 l'mnlihul'I ,ba.,ttee111111in1, hui.U r>:i1ll!rn.al s..t 011! bo,ri: ~

c:INtt.i n11(I 1n11,Yl'll!ll3C lf'IUltl'l 10,llllrlQllj ff'flPIIC 8,,J). $ÍQOC
llll'l !IH-l!l!mri !t 11111111,1~ 1t"'1M!+'ril, 11.. ff~..,...i.l)'fnrwJt IJ
1lw.11Vt IHI tfüm Ui1r hlllW inna'1l.

0--ó--1 J1---1Ó UL Dll"i~il.lEU\'.SfOR,

-· 1'R•Al!,'.Sli'ORME8 P.RO'D;CTION

Sfllu 1h..,Urf11untbl 1111•)1 .ttl ll1• hn·•,bc:u1ttñt 11i •li i.11:,

W.mll.Lfltuh..,:,Unw mfttu>.f ol Últllllf!tntll1111.bGl...,.11cnf1mll
lU14.I tt1111.i1 tWll'-'11, U ~) sw. 11 111ul1.W... im,ll~

111 '- 1111fihtfllt•1 rM"'f "ltft ooioJilÍ .-n1m,ttJ, ,,, 11),,, mm111
,·1Y'll'I t•1di 1lmh han " flqhn rnc:b,¡i 10r-tN1! 0(1.-1
Wltt1111 ¡._ ..~ 1, 1•t111l~t.i wüJ¡ 11 t1.:utlli1•k«l•lt~d liíu'lk.,Ui. oN'll'l"e, ¡'11• """ dal~ hl o\-err.&W the.11:111J1 l1$1t-,I ;,ulaJ
nw,11,,11111't,11111( min ••"'1'*'i;" 11 ,,111,11mm1 \m111h ftm
w.Iu Utnwu.a.mwtl uf \!........._ 11,cl11, Q.U&t'Mlxitl •••il l¡M II lt, A 1urmcuílc m, ...,u,,.., 1 lllf'"Tl*'t\' 1.1dtf 1.1wJ ill con,
¡mlili•! pdh i• 111 .. CI.IUl'.lj¡inul ti... ~ Tlh+ \l>CIIJtl•flllllllllUI , ..n1o1 ""' wdl, ( 1111 1I IIT1,1n111tJ1t , 111111
mil" µtlml'W Uw mmunmwr mm • .nstntg..m~ fJlo"
fu&li+ 'Nin1t1¡1dOwh t>I UiU lrmd.11 d11r111J11a111 11!.i Y.11l1t11 ;11 s: 1111.t11111111n11nr. uf Ur,f' 4JHt1.n1t11! ltlu) liumc b1t1t c11
,1~ ll"anlfomur 11np«l..ilm:ll 1T\u1n ro 1b11 u1 -1.llc nia, yf lnt' •111Wlllo\1t
.,~ .... 1,k.b tu....... 1111 fli(IWü11..ii1l j.:.ü.illL'I: t.b..ull¡ ÁJ.tJI!,
I h1 0-1111:1111 h11t111 liu llllli W 111 111 Wll yt l,,t IC!18 Ut:Ul 1 !11: udhiú 111,,A. 1t1n•,,mula1l•t1 wfltl R1Jt.1c.:itS11uht•ll)"
,.,_, ··- lllt\llft

t\U(~·n '" fi!r,ulTij•tl¡ '"" ,~11-1t:Unn!I ar- !ltdt"t"I (¡ 91 1h11

'"1111 .JI 111' Ul.111111.¡..1-,th '"'"~ A. ... ti; lllr wmpi111i,~ '-
1ud1 uf !uui-. 11, $nbll iWJ w11W f1um hioU lik." 111 Ofhut Thr. C'A m1au:IMm.111,1hl Jore,inrnl echo: na mi1u~ Nfltllffll)
.,.u.11 f!n11C>pc1t11hu11 ,t • 0011n11111, .,,.
1¡¡1m1111, 1( i:u11t.l n!1• 111 ~lb11ilSll7hll'U.i!1 n~
.. .,,. 1t111,, nd1 HU,·• lf•"·--
,,1 lw:,nou.1(.l~ÚJJltb..'tunil.l ~,~, IIJtW Jm .lw.liJ a•lul timico
!111Alt
1lw t:A ~-- i.llJ•1til,u.l.J. "r lll"•u• UilTl1nr•il.iJ.w11f -...J
Ltitl:J•t;'.l'flCjttlllt.tlot 11.n.tl tflt!ldtinlffll coMhutlltiun, 1u1.-. uc 11111 let'ocuf~ ,llffun:,111111
1111 !1tdl1.1111.11 c:n1:uur1m 11w lle:~
,,m.1111 111( .. .., i-•NOW,,. \itt\'u•~ 11.111 uru, w t,'0011,1u
1 11, ,,, ruu 111111 m ,r.,tm,nm, it,111 r1r-, tmon lll..xi«mr•tnin .Vlffl i!OIA
•11~ ~i.tlfViU)f, &.i. . .,~.,, .._., ~!'ffl~lbo.llili U!tlld¡ ffl'J/ '1t llllc;ffl ihui h1ri1tW lhu 1IW I l1iluu• IFi' 1 '11m!I!!: 1.11 1\loA ,_.

II gmbfoa11 bn1 u l11atwcJ.J1b(l"'t. i!t:uo fu.11d1üu1u su: 1ns 11nfo1 fn1U. M 1 H l•\'*'1 l11M•li•111l 1>ul.1, ,n l)Oblf-11~ ,;n~ lf
-.nrn dum 1mlial 11111.,llh• iw...uq Jm •llt! hi~ •1al1tJrJuul ~ .Uolll Ou j.d1. a.ui
1-l,i.b.t. ·~ po'lw tl11 & lllUUi(Ullllt« ,wtrulhu:,. Q)IUl~ddi b,
¡:,wu!W.l'lu •lll'tT1f uu.11~11f lu tlw 11pp1u JM.•l11.,vu11f'!tl.._
 •••
•

•9"• ••· DimnatlilíalJ ot c..,..;, 111 1 ... 1',,.. CA .ttut•, ..,. ·•

n .... ,oT••

111(. illlpl!l•p,(>IC CUJUUll •t.lrrul tt • Jl~JI jft flPJ1i.l1111un-

1J11 u,..., .. ,,,,.11 rr111i111111 nuJ, ,rnd 1flu 1w<• nn.u-, rutt fo
wnlt • r.,. .... c..i .... e,.,-(lfc.,..,._.
'Tloa.A , ..... ~
I••
--
in T-.i...,,... eA "•le.1l.t -
.t flg¡,f1 ""'
1•!.1111...._ j,j lWijl.W. ''" ll¡,¿ -01~ t.f.&lb. UQ.1:U.IÜJ......J V' W. ~
lutwt rvult, 11,c e,aml"il(9 ii, , ,~ t"'1> ud1::ijt11 wimbtlp Bi:,+,11•
111 tne ,ium1 ¡11n~w1,, 1't,Sii, ~MT11m1ur-.:•mmn an ~w.l
d~inbt1nor1 1$ # V,(o.irn 111 Ítl¡;tm! *"'CIUh'l11 Qli,U~UUOD
•lill.t.l.Jf' !.fo hf! I• lflo,Wfl 111 ffp11"..ii•O lli-tJI libMI Ulf. UIII
i,U t.11.1.tW Ur tr.1Wlli U 11u10,,hlt1ü..w:a l.11111 •P 11..11,I U) u,rrr· II mpc 111·l11 Ult UI tite <,tJCT•IUl.f- wfolli1t, ia11tl:I, Slff,d:1.11!1t11L IIIJ
t•111tihl frw fmln111fttl ,n,411m;i11 tnntfo~ ruuo, 11n11 if <1>p,au111• 101~1.1c. Wf en,mal 1•1111• •11..J l.u.1..11o

ti,, 4!«nilinM.tnfll'ftl !\ ....... )11 !h, 11!'fflflllf r--1! <i.-fmfüm

tflviu1u MI 1111d 8-~) Al• t~\111.mtlY wa:iwr..r-pcntt1. 111 ..op~lyin~ jh, t~Y, l1tocmeat lf1111::foueuu n11!011nn
1mgw1 1l lf'f•1Jo.;,M H lh11 ta1,1 •«' ml111~1,·'h1d •ni 11 ilwt •h1>uS1l 111•i , 1t..i11111\ llf 1)0111,mf J1i11qr1no,11mrm •JlTl'IM"fti..tf
ir.al¡j 1t11U1tl!I \.lJ!l-d.hri'lr,41\M.l~tAl# lillU.i\UII¡ 4.IM 11:Wlff itl• tUt!l.1111.Llliu.ltl.~1"11\,. rw; , .. i.w~, 10 11orCft11i o·h1uGCtui,II~
j.nnul bt1.l111, t hc dlt.t.tu't 1Uffc11111ct !)tLwc:,u IUC carnuH llt 11füh1i.!1ulil-y l\1ii.Tih 11J, {O ll ¡fr.:1.:rm ul 1urm111 1mirm11101,
11111 ,wn ~11uru.uuni. ._,,ulln.--. 1111111 lho.w ,11 tbl'I ,,r,mtmg- ,;,,11 +ndllllll!I; ll'u: jl,'tldJ,1r1t1111 hr dlkUIIIV oi. 1111111 it"IIII ,-lllll'JII
lta11110101111 1tut111~tch
P.,. 0111111111111¡ coil 1:n11d11 ,c,¡urrQII lú Al'ltl.:01111~ ll'Nl re-
ut11mf1'11J.l;ffl\'\lt ~t~ Jlhlw Uir1d-, ,,mt~I\ " , .J
ltlff1 liuK Tht lc.lO'i t1.!1tm.lwu.Q ,u,wjJJll,1,I bd~ ltiWllllli.JUU• tlll.ull!: hj
lhll n1ltlnnml éUtlfllL ~ÓI •Uh1lrt11.al h.llll. U1e- U$Cllltnillf In _J\, 1 l1c~11C1111il!I tiujl hu J. conhnu11111J 1111-nt t•I I A, jq
.,:iirrtntl ue a;~11~. •n\J m1tlim11:.itto11;11111 llinOl U> tm'.1.:.4'1 t•OM:lnl w."Mii~u1mt 111@ (IJllr'mrnt "°nnui,. ~. ~
.1111 'Th11 ,11nrn kn•fh't 1,it•nlrre ~11, lll,,M11'fr~ • , ....,~ ,uu11J tJ.1,1111 • .A.l;huuld he lllltt••ml i~ llh11u1u111111d ...,_ltliit,-
11.t dw. Ullll 111 111,1 11" O \".Ulluill_ /t • o ffflWh I la,at lllll.l\Ull n).f torn111111 AIIMtl+fn llltrUU• t>l' 10 11111 t) ,::s 11 (~, 1,1~

IN «TIIIICll<lotnll wnp111 IJ ,,..,1Clucu1 tmlltr, WYV11l1l l't11n- u... "''",.., ,nw,

TI11 CA 0111nfu111111:rui...r 1• 1m1d1u ¡., U1f CA 1,11m1r11,.,.
!111 lt 1,Utan--luffl'\ ~ pnun.t41·trrt".in lumn1 • &O Jlfl
4.'lltlt u,ih,lhrncc c:liillll.:tcil1tl~• 111ml111wu IUll C.tlll~III ül
:. 7S ./\. ,,.1,11111\ 1"h:11 pum111 • l, l u1t'fn111.'M·,n '°'
1at10 c.11
!til' tnarn #IIUWI lf.amJ\)rrnW •,rntr,ULt. l'li': lll~ .a:-).$
S.S..!... S,6.6, S.i-,J. 5--8~ ~. wll 5.1n TIJt.. !,In tap" 011:>1\
111,m, \tle: ui,m ,,,.111111•ht,w Mm ,i.t i)' 1ll ~(IM,a, t'•f'f ,
U:,.,,aa.lJ..t..uuwt.l wWI,, •.tt.rJ 10 A ,1111.W.,11':W:)e lhci "mrn1
hr IM J,J, I J..er\---
1;.,, A woliJJ Uow 111 11 11urlii:rn ul dtc S-.ft 1Q.1e1:at1.111 coil II
mm 1111111 W<J\! vuin
l11ll.u.e1ku1 rul,u,ti n11;ll o• 11• CA 0111: ;xbtlnl) 1•1111:0110• to
!lllf -m11l1 p,u:c 1i\111',( 11 t fl~ 11+11•1nu r,m1tn111,I tn m,m.miltnllill
lm.w.b !..t.wJ!llL l.lJ.iLlll.illi..HI '*!!IIW.nlt, 1111,d\1¡, ... ul .. u1 ·~
asun¡¡.11111• ••1 ,bo1:1l ..S l•l 6 cy~íetl mITT(t lht I.JA t1:101 Hf-'
f""T'mit., hn"1"1•1f)' ,cm-,k~tl'" tpj!l\i..llillPi\ íhl- l.:.\,,, .. ~
u.·111 rmlv ~t,1 uu 111,uall (\1mu11, nt ttUt11ac: !.- u.clt
r ,.
1

TIW CA-i(ncl~, n ...,,11 tllllCII ,. 'llfhU'! uan,ftrntm: 111mn

u,~"''""'
•• 1Ui1~ IP111•Tvlí11•r.:1")Dci11f lt1 1Jii1llt jglffl1:ml ln1 tinnr.6,
r ,,.. e·" ~
l\1101!11( tlu,
1m1 ... ~._. ....
l!t!115Nll.d"" lurnÁk lit. lliu( _ .. ..._
t-rrmNlf1!'tm !!
11'111 '9111..ltft 11• tn""- 1111,"""11ó':ih11 t,11-n\l lf4tl ...111~-;
NHll# lbu-11 tw+ n.alr:ihime ¡.,JMllia m1 nnrilW n. tíhy h111
llt•) 11\llhll'!! Uflll 11111111"""""' 111\1111~ tt1:,'11u1 t:\IJWIII
'.t;l.llli....ca:w,., h.iJ <11Wt1t +1wh1t:irn, 1..ti,uuw, wi-. .-1 !,U.
tu1!fl t111tl ¡. ~ 10,t f'.ja!a¡ fm .e11 !111i lt 1~111tc¡,t

1'11.+ (."Ji·Ui r,~1, ,_.._rrrlUif fn•f ¡..,-;.M1~ t.A·~i ~ ,.,, ,lt

ti,uh.i" 1li.otf~11111 M1lu.r11!1tllnt111u J¡¡ 1Í1i\ í1111111iin~ ._,,mili.' tt:111 ·~IIUII rn l!t!O j,¡ n1t,IIIJ.f.lllm.i.i1.( l\tt 1wuh,111'1111 ""··-
1, 1tl.. ~u• nttldm.i,11 nt1111r ~w,i:,¡1 (ll 1 tt A •~l/1 l1111fMI, 110111 Hl 41 J~flÍllllf Ir!111 Y,'IKn¡ 11uc:uuu 111,uf ,-'"lwm1 l{ • m • ,cffll
..uilU~ •..Ww .J I~ A lt11Uil¡ r-trnulllllf 111niiili111A Is.;. tw,n ~he ~,,\Jll'IJm, t,A;rf ~ '"'"!! 1l""*11W 1M1...1Ah 11,(' .U-
.1... IIOl.&:tl"II.I iUdotH,l!tlff Hdltr. r>,~(lv• 11111 l~ l1U1111lhtl 1.c.1wdút • •f111t1Jrinat bh'm11, 1101.tl. 1111 11 Mtt:11
,11011111 '!! Mtt ec: in ¡,rrn1rn1 r,:-t'ffnal f11uh cueem on11 •
i Á,j(i ni.,.,,, 'tUW)llli Jlln'tl!l'I.LWWdli0lll'lt:l::ni11. tlltl'.,.
flpw. tlill;m ijij¡md t.b:111 U'.mWhmulJ tp:,'W11 ~·· -.::iiJ,l,..le,ct 1,.
11111tli1411~lñvt «n f•t(II fiimu. .. •'fum1 !lle i;¡¡n,:111 u10,f1mY1er, 1.1•il•c
.,...\i,r1111nm- • ~ ..iJl1 ~ ,oP n,1 hi::i. .. r ',1,1t1.. 111 \lrnt ..
rrnt u1111~nfit1111I .-Ui,•H•'- 110-, «l:I.IL l1tt 'f'iíi•llltt-1,,tt ln.it; Dlltu.. lM Ir.lo-. •·Hi1 u., ....mic.llHnaln,
il"4111111Uf lliUlll11fflllM; JJ •b11111 ...... 11'.111 111,wn,1011 IIU•
º'
i.utM1t"1 W4 ~Jlllillá \ll .11411, J:~li \t>11J.t.llAJ11W '1w> twiilt
111 •lurnr mu ,1,,c comjinuu,1 '<A-vt,rJ íu:i:111 l!m HJ!itrniln¡ cu!!
1mMO t1•líll1J"114 ff,....-..n ,,.-,r,..,rr t.1111 • fl,lffll r,..hirmm) ,.,.,.
l't.. C'A '1'6 111f~i>· btn~lfll~ 111.Í ,m h11J1wl'6t11.f.)p• 1iifÍ11t"t:1tU11I kmh ,.fil"'lh,rfy Jt.., ~mil l11t1111tt1.1J°' l\ut wm1111J l111.u1t1.WJJ..
1m11 •.11 lf4'11u11·r.t1m1 oonlA!fll• t"'lllr:11 •PII U! l'f•1m1r~, Oil<- •ap M 1m-c~ ,~ .,..,..• .,,. oñ m1n ~n1nnc, 1111,y 11,11m1
\..;HNh1" 111111,fl~~,lll'NJ\fl,-,¡-¡, Htlll ~Jt111 .i,lu~li11W 'Vi" Vil ftllt!f.liJ..l.•11 1141 1111!.lJmJl,11 jiMfluma ff.átnlmf .- m~ •ill~ 1

hnmuµl 11.1til (Mhdllll 10111 1kd.l,om•t1mll. 0J1c:1111ml.,;., o.u..( 11111t1Q!lbw_ íUM,- ,.,w( Is. l"Jl.1,n"ti tauu(mt (•11,r,u!I
if,vn dl..w, Í•i~••i! 't•• • Cfll"11K>!l Nltfl I ft 11!\11• !,-1 ti1 r1f m, 1'\lj•f t.ll•'UIIMJM t'l!I mu•" "( 1h1uuf nnJu:i. nil HhT 111~11t1•1
tl+ln••mst0tr',.,, ~ Y ill• 1;1,..,1111t1,111klmu111 &.W1 •M 11.i.lll! IJu1 iU jJJ.IJltul1~11h1 .'.tl.lWiL.wb ~11t.'YA -~
'11Jí!• an 1etlmj11! l(h:Jmun• '(~" ltlt o:1Hii Mt .,f t11<11l n1 MUlfíUII
•HUJM "6".dl?n~n ,...11 ('""!'Ul m4j_. t::mt • ~ .. "lf
-'Ollt (!lt( ....iY ll.01t1 ·1u-. e1111111l11ti1 t,11111 ~11t1 ll«MHIIIJll~· ur ,h.. !1'11• IIL íllT\ Hwu,wi,1tli1t1i 1 \lltil IIIJ j Hit\ IU.ítWl1tlll11,11t
lllm:ttl ltanf!!ntUtt fOh~l'.cml ,o 11)tl\.111:1~ IQ H JU~·•~•¡¡ nruibic,r,tr,-.r11aeu ((111,,~111.111( Jl&&)'I, ri,,-. ~··rl b111p141ni..
••ulil! ~¡,i,,"'~• l.1'1111.~•t!lll.tJr tt._.. ttr Mua.
aa,.1...
A$--,\ i.11trs11i Ut llfll JUloiJU ()vij ..,111 ~ruJ,ju: 1a:iu1ildift 1l'llt 1":)i!.lw<.UuislC:,,1th111111dllh 11.t1: ~1"""'11 ~lllllll.lr tlt
,,,,..,,... TI,rro~ )-A \jlffl·~·"' ft.~uc--m t111r1 rau;nm .,.111, t;ifift t-,t I li, rh,; !11lh.nwtlaluw11 t ll.\tf.. . ,-:!••'
tm,.-
lll 1li. ~'º"' •••11 lollll
t'hilmut11Q!m1 "-111 IMW • Ulu11 ,ildUha h.o:wiu, l,t.o,1j l 1"1111 ....JI.Wl.tl I;~ ®11 ....tlW l.it""'llll tt.f$.
ur Wl!ID!l1('rc J'f'l.1flllmtlll, llll!cl ~in,:111:l!J; c,n 11,1 Jmllll"IS,Y 1nnnr.rencr~111e llJ.IN.lllJnl C!lll cuc111~ Amee 11111 ree1r.
.t 1¡¡,, c:t,1mM•,• !rwan- -i> 111,•I •lf"o'1T!'nl'rlnl j~n-i,tl'1'J.il•••ff...,, ffl'-
t~ IT'ílliUIIIltlilrtll\
• .

_,,.
!......!..\,--

•
t•• ,....,.,..., t~• ..m1tf111111
'I
""*' ~ l!iir{i••..-O.it. ...·,;~ •
1$,eoo,11¡;..r Ouoi l!ll lb Clt!mo L..
ltf ........ ~ tlOI !li,,,c,Mj
 •·'
J

mlJm ~ f"to,(iiuuulki r• mu ni.sx11Yi.¡m
11.Mt),' ~t.1Mtll 1!ü'Jt.ili
r1111n,m,,,·r111T1111
rb. l11nm11,n,,. .. 1111111 111t1I fUk IU .N .. 11 •tiolfnl,tu,,"'""'
biudtln,, ! uu~ 111 UW V,eJ..J IIIC v.llA IH.WI iw.i • 1111<:t.1.uh
j11m1muc 111111f Tlhu 1h 111111 ,~un,, •1>111!11t1111I íh•• 111,
pr..Jmiumrm ~i\>IUTinfflf,... tu,n.ctm.ll.!.,I flTI ftlntdll
.a1n11111 0111d,,,.., lllt1,1M h1.UAIJ11 .. uh tllbllttrnfU Cll'IHllll,\f
..... 111;)1 ""' Ult!IIII 11 (1•1111111 '"' 1 (1 kCllli 11• ('0111a;na (1111111
wi. llu. --.-.,,1.Ji.wJ11~ rt••1111,11w.m \& •11¡•111• ul4,l.&.III, l"
1.Jt.:fCIIUl .,f 11111 f\1111l1111tt111•I Tli¡, ,t~&•eo ul 111t:1lll!l111 111 ilu,
HtU! h .,l11ü1iíti11 11' 1m n«ff n 1~1 ,,¡1'!l111i..,n mi rn,.r,..,.¡lf,
JJLI1wuJthm, nttR II J11to1.IÍll,r,!utül unlt lihuitUI uu1:1!SW

M, lrn•n•I 1.w11ª t1t1,.u11=.,w11, ~JtC•~v ot ~·1.JtW11.1.I l"t'

• ~-'--
rn, hu1,Ja.11i.1n.il (1,t,111ttn,'t ••fl.l 1!11u111111h (lllm 1111111 1f111

w
,r. w«!lt~ Th• ~iMll r.11uu1111•11 '* 111 • 111111111,mri 1h,rmG II
f.uull. $.i.w.. JJ~ IJ.iU; olo'!li nptUJlll id l)!u _..!111!1 v1,:lh1., W 11.n

Pll, 1,- 1liffc1111u~, uH1I '""''' 0,,111110 1STiil!l1 o.1y ni, ,111«1111t
IIIMlh.-_. .iuw" m 11,,, lt111 ---u-cu1I hi' fl1111in>~I • 111. t'"
1.nmtl hul1'. i tlo ilit'lt11111l11f 1um u)UJ• wdl 11111t111l&.

flW ft,lllf \ljlW1ÜIII, fü• • ._._....... 4)' .........•I \.ijj,all~ \iltW tl(II,
vld11, n,, li,u1111abijo;ltlt 11 it- 11nll mn 'º
111 !1111,~deQ lln:111.

b~·
11+cli 11V11~d ,. ""·u•1•1111 , 111 fl•u• ,, 111,1tiro1/ t11" lh " n ..., fl 1111rlffl I
1· .... wimJ1.1t1n11t wuw.1.lúll 'J.U.f dil1l.f WU. 10111,1.11 UUll!W.. 1•i,.,

Jrr 11k:Jiup .. tr:ti limírt 1b1± 1~J)' u,1 v.11!hli:. íhl• 1111111u1 'WII!
ITW!'fl,JI!. !f,.,- .l:ITIWI ~ntl m:nWl1111'1 t~li(" ~IIJf¡•u-tt.üll!

J •J cu,reel 1•11 t th,tt111I hll1lu.

fiilW• , , h .,_...,..,.._
-~·-L
c• .......:11i. , n.. 11u 111111 "Y , ~,,.a.111
~Di...._...,
,...,_... --. ....'" a.-..w-
.,.. wi,.. ~,
fllll 11l4 nilo· fot l&llld HJ 1111)101.'t 1L1Ulljj;f•...,i11tll1t•
tunrrrt tl,ulU.. ,.,t oi 11111 rnuf«l'i'"'"rnTif it~llt n111th1r1.i, tnlt
ln11 •Sf!II 1-1,¡m...._~ U wl •1 1 :i 1 1 111 Jlo,.:i nd~ lt 'fflltlt(.,
10 IIN !Ir! ¡md flll ! rt:111• !mf h•1 f•ut1rntt:nnl 11.•indinp
111U!ll

AI.-M .11W ... ,11a11 •1t¡111ti. ,,, ,11o1 Wl!llllllli ~111HU1U.111r, tUJ

r,., .
Tl.rpacr.11.i~~,1c~ h1rrn mmmd..!U,nq,:icnl
~11,~l1d '" ··-·•u•l lllt 111~11111 lt11tl 111 nn~.. 1111»1
ttu l1ii.lu t.ulU. wl11,. cmueut tlamitu:1"~:-untt1)hn;u1dl l. 1hrt 1,,. 1 ,¡""' Ar-1fü-11,r.m111f 1-.h111 ,..¡,~ t. J,q.;fl,,..tl"
diO~. ro 1p¡rni.nmJttl)' aO ~' tm fin\)' fil..ltu:t,. ~ttcro n11 1) lia.1 1•rntullnn
lll,un,.uJ Ult'!"" .111111" 6ó,I.U1!111Wt "111\1 oia:'.11 1 t¡¡;, t'IU hibli. ~lt'·
.cutW tb11111,1h11tolt ¡. ub1t.l11•0 ~~· 111.11 ~!UIJllll'III U tllll'
trn mol llf U~ 11~1t'11lm11 w1l i;i,.::mt T•PII pu•vwl11 • 1 t ,llf
WU1Ull Wlll:dlu 11'1•• v,1.1.V•u s
In 1 ~¡,, llll rrhr, 11• 1 p,tn:a ..1 M-U11ml.!1t.nnmth,1uu111t1I
• Ottt.WJ'. ln..lh,. .blt.iv ..J ll• ,u¡¡Jr,
v•
'rllAII flll1' mi 1. .111. u~ ~.15, •.l. •.o. ,.,1. HIIII ...., val1111 ,_ t••lf .;,.. fi ••1mo1111,1 Ko."ó)lfll 'lh1JM1ht111,1 ~lllltll l '°
19Kr:1I ,1( fu..u1liw1C11t1l1 uitUIU -..¡ Ml-1.t»-il u.w.JJ1 ~u, \J•
"TI111 nmm111uu plt:lm¡, cun:1:nl 11 JO puu;1U1j 11f lhu 11:.ip ~,d11• 11:):: • 1 f(f ¡O!~ tlÍI. • l.rl°"111IIU I t,ititt• fll~I• 111 Ul'l\th1111
t,11 Utl-JD ~nt .cnmnUt ft.l., rn• ,; l'l!T'ro!'ISÍ •ti "" ta."111'11.ftmrn"n.ll,,...,nff, 1:i1uQ1'1j1'!l &11nlit Slml' ,,t1:•11
1'11.lw. ftll.llk 35 ~,ffn1 ti11nlilf1,lt~ t~lil'o' Tb~ 111mhnum L:m w l..tu"" 11 11n1I "" nr11 h11 u 11, ...... 1 11 Ji II Al
¡i~ri:11411l 1fia. aimrnl lt111 ~m Inri .-lo.-u111 1fifftR11,at u1111 t Un• j;tlll' ..t :mrnnr11nn ,11n1u1¡n.. tllf mr11m11m1 .-C:OI••
...t.'"I.IIÁ w11U tll.fl .,.,-,11!1"! ..ill ,mi "'"' .wnlllAt "'lll l"f\ I.\IHlffl~k" OOJl!m 1,r .... ll.,l'llllt, ...... l,•i • 11~10il!i!IM1y........,
,:i.-1. Otc 001ufm1m.1• nln1& 9( 11,e nllY 11 10 I+ :l A. Jr- A"- .t ..,a 10,11JIU0'" 11i:. fi11l1<t "'"'"'" "'1rrll !~1: tll*11t
pt,tr.lJ11¡¡. <••! b•• rcl.,\y j11r .. ~..__ 11iif111 ,_ <Url" 1allh1t tlao •t<J 1l111,111.-...
..
-'• • lt'Ultf lt1• ,-"4lUuJ•IUTmlll!DC ~ITT*t\l (lnn11tll0iotmfY flfl ,l,..• ti~ 1k.1111 ~ A
lwwe.vct;. l,bB LtlUt!JO lt.W.&thTtnou
...U.\ij ""- 1 ~•Jt:IUi.i ol H11, l111u1lll!'1111u11I 1ud '-11. ,-tt.tl'lll ... 11•• 1c11.ih_11ml ttic 111111)' 01p11]1il1(t me•( IJll dt~b(I wrn
of .JI !b1:11.1mur11 mu) 11C· ~i 1,, w 111' 1,S r,et«n1 ~( lUI ! 111111:ir- tollr t" ...em 1,nm• 1h~l!f ..wUtn,d.
íf'RCHliJ. UMN !hr,,r-,\m!H1,111-. tll-* l--51"6tij4'111t ""'11,1u,J
h1tmoufo i'unllfll ~i..,, m•_f 1w1 Íunrlh.111 utonc.lt ·J1.11b!ij 3l l 11 1ti1CJ'l'I¡ l ne ,mminl 1-n1,u:ínmtffll·4Ut rn, ~')'" -.do q( ~
11111·1111cr11u,1on ,,t P\1-• ~a•~• man w.iU m-. rnmn11m. 'fTC-dtl:1',~urt•, ¡tr,1&1 h, a.111~ i11.1e!.lu1 uU IU. ..w.-
!lmi;IW •IUIJl!t,.. tC!1u·rran-.s(orntt!U 011 lhi ciclu •W• Couue-tl,:ú ·lrH'l)C
'rme s,t,\IQC.111\tflt 11) i;c,in¡,cnialc. lu,1.'lu:JO-o.ronc
1t.f ffTl'i4ffirti HU rt!llt)' Jlo J.u1!11Mlt111 •'4ii'n" IIIN ,rntilrf'11 11~111(),, 1.llíl l ltlrm1Je111r:d i>l' uie,wti,t,._Ucl.u l,W., lJJJI
'f'liii r•lo u dml1111 t• llh 11 •.a,t'i.:.Cnt 1COiid-t!U1nm1u:. I IU (2) tif,>A,a llut,ilfhJ<te'L"'"~ ucmu,1 hum rn• dl1T11u11~
Jll!li.Y~ •11,:11.v• 1Ua1 11 tll OOn1 ,.w 1111111111 11 i.Qt1in1ui•t1 -·- u1l1.11u.mr ,uu A'l'r:fl,i.tffilrmd 1,, tll1, -\.1 ni...,.,.-P lti F1r-
tu, lfR\J liWl \11111,.1.IJfot d W -illhi;il.. UJ.t IUill.fl"' T $ Lit•· Utt !i,t LU.llMIIW.lllW!l IIIJll"l.1.1 ....-111 ftu.w iu ui .• Jurt1t111
1:ebj _..,111M1urn;J11j11111tln1í1u Tlu1.d1,1u:lnisr10 01 IIM 111Ldti:utrtot cxtcrn1111rQi.nlf hl•IU OQ l)U wu lllilt' ol
1uudlfwu' lfU •rt'llw'\·ilm• •vt,ff! ttl• iUJ rdlt. .aiil H,T ltil11i· 11, -pmmlll•i,,W)'~,..f,.11, l'l!l!Ü 1111_. 1uuT~ t-ro111J,1,,111111m
IUu.t.luu ¡Juu, 1.wl ,Med Uilf i:tuuu:iuuldlu.of lll• 111 illlt. 'wt,, <:0t;1111ftod In w)"S, Uw 1cfüf. ..-,:,u.UI ~U~!HIIIOJ
Tllli t111tbJ 11m1 .,f rue m,\lllfi,11 rt\t), ft~\W.-ftr p 'li1,~119tfl" Vwn lh. ~tKn, Ull}IJl'oTJ\IP.,.:u1:mocu..ll UI tf1Ulll.¡ "º"
,, ..11! 41vWrt Ul:al 1l1r Mmr.1,liílnl ffif~1 ·......,.._.Ml!II.~ ',1.11u:1Uuii:.1uwi. Jtt~ Ut..- ~I WtB
I ut111ctt.. !111",~1:111 i!ll tetn m•t0Pfli:at1bo1
,1ut Jnr)(blM11I Hll ,m)' 1141-J-.on w,c¡1 •u~1\..ny1•1fll'IUÍ!
s1ar~N te~u w11 1 ~lt~ \l·lfC'l"'r,11ii•1·J1i111~ "ti.1•rs u~ 1>
{ll[Cft!I UlJ 1,1J,v, t.(fl~iicil ÍIIPllli IJIU~1a1:
JI..
" Q
IV C.Üftll.A L tWt11l?.UNt:S t'OM1TttANfiFOlt,Mllll
~~~
!11«. ,., lUl.
,..-
.•
- .-·1~
lllf':flELDITIALA.E.L.U°t.ÑO . ~
~ •
l'h. h,ll,1wm11 •...,.. , ~11hiril~ 111, 11t:'f!l1t'"~ ""' 1111M11 tk,,... '•"' , .. 11.

- -
tc('lhtg u,J iJ111,t~; 1t.tl11y, lot 11M1~h.'mns, ,1ro1.hidQ11,
'
Wlltl'IC IW\t•JI 1Pflt'c:1Jd1i)' 111)fle.1U'l•J Q( SQMllf\Y Ollllbl.,,, .....
fihret;l!!lf ~t.¡~,¡""'~iffl.f tiM!lt111III• WIU it..nu1tw.1 t.J..- 1wl ••1 ..... ..i:;
cluucc -
t ¡ n~ J.WJt.. .. "',11u IWt.,..~ u, lh11 ¡µ.¡1.111J,11.1 ul o1,11J.111l1 11
l11y (11 w!uih pi4)\0Cfü( rnc11:o., J•) •;inly, At II ar.nenil "'..,. º e..,.,,. ~om- ,,. ti•• t,1,.,.,11111t1tl••1,1•1f m--, ., ,
fi111T!lll"°"j TI! 011h• !W M f-1 ,..,..,111,.,.,!..,IICll•-M•t
TWl&. ,fl~. ~ 11J1lii..:t""rr·itl:r.lUl1,"lnW•Ir,Jiy, •CA
.,..mt Ci.-U;I ;mi lll:lfl,l lil •hbitllJic,11i U'fflO"?<íl'onU.tt4"
,......... ,.,,.__ o.i,.Cllt!,-..:., CT'1.., w.,.. w,....,.... ..
P'flel'.lllfllt t0u.rn•:t '*!~WU~)i 11 ll\'tll:ii1blJ 1'11(?\(I~
•"11111,1. 1mA 11M'l't t ~1f.'t'IW" !W.111W1h 111.l11f, IW·-l 1tn•.
11:11:J Ulr-t)ua UMJ.Ji, p:11111tlh1t ,111lbiJ1j,11ld (01 l1uj11 ,f) rt,IM)'i 1f10UW be ~IÍul><:IINI l'Q íÑIIH ''lt.-~ o.: ··o\d-
11.a•••• 01111111 1mil.1 l11,lill·C11lli.ló.' 11, p1r11tm1fifi¡j"1ífíill''Ulf, Plffllf"l. 11ut ..,,...1:n rt11i::w: ''" • 11111 ... -..'oc-~
~.u1 •111111.i!i.,,-.
flf1u.t t..lC."1!f; mu1111 11 hqj¡J_V .u..i:t.\l Wl'\trt 111111'1 ,,. mo1• U11rn I" ,w1iilfhi.p,11ll.i:_uu1bia11•
p0t111m1u 011Jon~~lrmf iw1.1111 .u,.. "
ll lo timuni l:nn,d•)rim:f IJJI -.,w1.'t. wtu ffl't....jtlm~aM;•
j A lil 1uomu11t1luil lil tt(lOlltm,mdd lci:,u• willt 5) lhJ11r iat',11 O~ •l!:il.il!;a~y-cuncuf tn.nal'ormr:, r-.1~4- a11111111J
11111tl1~1Jm ~\U(~l\l Uat1ti9r111cr1,. T11t• 11n.1n!cn!alf ptu- "°'
t.,; ......t."wu ~-~1t,t. 1t..cu:mm1 nlinwlm, t.,1,1"11d
•1.11~ ~ .t.1uaUl1\tf WIUIUII! l.lllttldy~ ll1Utalll;m'1b• lud 11111011 h,u.J UWll.llloo w1,.,c: 1hc11c: u.i: u~,rt 11111•
ltttrltUI l)IIP.IWl~IIC1m,11fnrrnt1, ,1w-101ÚI> m lhll 11!11)' Jwr. W'indfuU1¡ Ali tOt,lflllllll'l'"'ltlllll ~ QOl.:iJi¡tr;¡d, 1'11.(!
tlfhl;II -S,¡ 1Mn1n, ,:m fN'I ~ l\t mmµ ltl) 11i!U.ti •t • tim.; _...;¡ .. ~ 11ll 4-41ifntr \V A np=...1y
 •••

"' Ann ,1,r: 11,,C',11:l"UII. •Wl.d•.mu.trslll1t.• ..»d 'ª'-"' -..,.. u.. u,• A'.~wL..yltt& IICl:.tl!W." , 1ru1h!wtl1111 ffw wuu
11«11 kl~ted, lhc "111tuµol),j.11111n1r vr 1tl11 w!t1dinp wiJI! r, dll!i C a;et11:a~y.1101onruu1«• Wd~ b,ci 11t1.e11iu.1.t
llnr,:1o11,.,1,11 .. ~......, rr,fT!mf"hlii11l-r,nih ltm 1171"', 11
lnrm,:1 k111J U U,,, "lw ~,1.",11,11 uueJ, u, i.o.11tn11,w.1•
nlllnf.. 1 1i,,11rr ClUll'UI tt1n1forn101-n11i. M :,11,y Up
•111y ~ ~1rr!I, l'IM' 1lll•y•., ,ifl,1tl,.,l 114.tul!11um~ 11riln• (11,1)

wit be ltttr.tmlutU hom Ulll 1111 .. Jtl\.llm I VA llt1Ji11,II~ 01

1bc: 1111nnorn-1.e1 11111'11. 11 '"' 1111n11'0111ui, ,i l!l1JM"d 10
• ...- u~ 1111..J.mwd.V.t...,......itlly•v- •4'w:t.ti*-tlM..
tlJIIH 111~ 1w,,...l11o1u tnu.111w111 JuiúJ ,nou11l l>o t•nd.. n.,.
111111,-.IU ttridl t1rn,t r\ltrqnrnmmi -A11t.,'n "'" i,rnn 'lil'&t • l",.,,,.,,,..,n ot iu11111.11111:m rnuutormu
lilt11,du ••
TI ll,11per::it!IIIEI! ~•I mtrrn1 11111~«:~ ll~út a)~ lk
,tl~fll .. , hl1'"" uu~ ltlt! ,~.-~ l•l,I\,•~ I~ a1t \..._:L .-,.,IT\'Wfft tnmd·•~,11ii..-c
~t1n.1iuu 11ah,tt 11111t;1ll W\111..111 .nc~o. tu111,ml 11111-e .,u,.
1111!;:Q1 nfua.11, .. fie:. wJm:.,1 h> ..,t.. 11111•lf '"' nr11l li110,
'.c::tme .lltP) ~ uJ.dl 11,l).ll.llilJl¡ur IUJ tu.l 111UUJJ 0,Jll.ltll\ ltll-4 • 111 .. ,.Jmrntt ~tinnit, loilh J..._f1"D'!11 u,~
f'cn:ailnp:mb.inh;fi• l,f wrt b11 ,t1111t'111n111o.1,1om flllll-- •1t11.11n 8.MS Atlri tt)¡, • IOOJJ ma.:dml.lm
tbJ11 ... I, ,-.,._.rn~l l1111l1.-"!"nl w tM 11l1191 liJU A I

R¡,; •t:11tu1r1~-iu11ut"rn111111 11Cco1W.iry .,...;t11füy 11:

•IU.IICII"¡ ,.. o1n••
18· l I
Z-s·= l~iil i:imr.rn tnmifom111r .«:ól)\1:11 y ,,uhteo
f'mS)l!ll.\ru:,t,h• ""'"" ,Y!ll!TfflTnttl ... ,,,lk!OWY"

lt, l ¡f .. IU.Ut ilr¡,\IJ .....inmW. ..t..Ulit .t.tm• k\l" A T,bi11 1'111

1:,..-,, (,u b.,-wtL1• •nd h~CHtlnfü:2sr
R,cammm:nd•d ~uu¡a.ich tMI 111d Lu•1 'hr
11,.kt n:11p;e.:l1~r Che •lfh• u;rc1Y 1111n

(1 1'11 = Kdtf u11 ~mnSA tm fO"A\ f.P. 1m1

.s,1111101'11'1 f_Jn,n oT (M" i.:Tn
111im111.....,t1i .. , ..ttt. ~1...,.1r Rt:1117 (!I) (l'I

''"
~·
u
$ - Tl'm ~fl_q,oJI '""' IW'tl 1111"tnl (l
~·· t1 r1,1r,¡1
¡.lf il'
. HU.tlU.1,110-4 ""30 1!
IIU, lUf>I llt,µ :o
~·11in-. Uí11,..- t11• ¡1:1m• ftw,1 l-
'W1ru'l1111.1. 111 tu)nil.1f .. CA·'l.6 1U
U,.w.t..tlwilllt b,a ~111, IW'IJ ál f lblu!.. Wf1~, .IJl~M'"
1ilun~ bn..lt11 lilu!f1 1"111 r~l•y-t dtc,ulil bcc •I o• tl111 \•il,
,.f ,n_ m1·,1JJ1toruu..1nl t.1.p-pou1.1ü"n, tbiu.ui:at.,ru.--
•,111Jdru 11111h11fü:;g ln..11uhu1111116! t~ tlu11p._lh~lil uí.it
SUC'llll Jl.t ri:Q('ITJmleondcl:I \'IUua ttl~wn 11\ lllbi. fi..-lL
ra.Y•
8) '[or..uun wm,c.t ~ho•uflli•nbyñu¡tdtmtl .. 11i.t-
'41t1Vfll tiooofont"' n.i-o tm)rm.im m11 .x:i::iee,t tb p:iir W.lh:r•
a.i:all wJth 1 ,.u...imw.JT~ Ulncunl Uu.ltt1.111nttt
nowb11_, 1ba 11j1u IIIIQI CSU,.. •tCllrlÜlfJ il•lttHllltl~
lf11n, ·n.•11t1(1-rormt11nl'l..furo,(llt'n(il!i ru • .\mr.
'4..l•M 111'11n•l-., hill •lili 111xepuhW inelhod U lb itM
 11 ~ 11 m11t11¡1h11, 11.. 11 111 '"~"'""'"ªl' ,rrnrr.1
khllO ti ,l111J!1,1 f tu.lo

l,A .. tlh l111ul"t1 l'ftl...... llh Ir n.ll'r ...,¡¡,..... f,!lhirt

11:ltu tli• ,nl&) 1 C.4m111:1.U1,l l11 1tltti:i(J to
111• '"'"''"' !fJltft, 11111r

Av-• •·•"!t• w ···- f""e,.,....,,í,.,

••1t
011, ...
....
...-d • •- w•o•il*'I hMl•lt-••
1.T • 111 1 Jll l • ,.-r.. , lmnk:1 , l .\J
111!..., w¡ ...
h h ..., ,1 111!10 ......., 111111.md hull ""'
-e.i .. _.,..__ ...... l;tM:T

. . ..
,,.
V s..útl'l[ ClJJiC'K$ FO]l o\J'l'L\'I~(; TRA~non.ur.A
•
OIITliKENTIAI RELJ\\'S

•
U,~ luik>"lu, ••wrnl,b du.:,•, ltu! l1m,nll.i1b.11 ul •1111 ""''~111 • -'·"-
1r,111~,um1 r1 1nn"t"'ll.O"l
o.11111;1111 vui111m 111n wut,0,11,.,1,.-
v..+n••lf UONI, llllily 1111tl!jt lltH,I
tf! 1111111111, IH 1lifk•11111u..t • _,.,
... 11,, 111:lnu11, lol lllll!1Í"I""' j!Ull~IIOIII

....
•r¡,,, ...11 fbo-, ,remm.,,_...11,¡.4
...... '"r11,........ ,. ,_ ti-,tmn..
"~ •1\ ~ ,.,. •.11, .... hn, ,llllfflMlul ~~r.-,.,.,iurm.J II
0111 • 11l1IW. h,m. Ir 1'11•n111 j• ··!11.11111 i Ll t;...,...t 1•1,.,.,, •• P'I\MINI C'-OII ltWTM Elalft- OI
,,........ u

llm ...1,111.ilN.o.J 1.1,cl..i. fo, llu,,,-..1;11u111lll ut Fi,u...- ll.J J h

Vl"W!! 11\ 1 •""' 1 1.&
lm lhtt ,...,111•1,. >t1t·..-.i ""1 ,...,.. ._,, ffll'""º 1.-.ijt i1 lb
•1\11 I, t1n lh~ •••...a.
111),,.. 11tu1u,h tb11 bar.k t, :r11 ,.,111J11d
,,,,_ 1"11i1..-11111i, w rna,1,1111111 !<otW NI ~,.,.,.." ,., 1 ¡¿,u,
hfr lh ~11111111• ,, Fi11t1111 t IJ 1!11 ••"" ,110.I, •l'umli 1-:
11•!_,., J,;11 W u ... ,,:,llf:C.IU• IU t•u. 11.&,1,,,il111i1"' ~1,1,.. 1\11,1:1o, U·
c:'41.uU,i 111 lul.llHO
!t;lllt l llfl!!IJlh thti 11~!11 IU I ht: 1l1l~lill illtu( #\P:l!. 1111'11
I hn1~ ln• l'l">r.,.nm,•i.."ld~ • ,,m'lf m111d11mw,, 1,, ¡j,,, ,,,..- U V I lMl,,i I
•~•" 1 M~ ¡u~ "~l1i,r11u.."'1 lflll1~l ,11m11111 ~1iu1illl lluw IH
1) t·o, llie nm,p.W ,~u•n III r1,,11~ 1 IJ,.11ftllm11 Uut 1l11o.
IIW ""Y"'•lii~ ,-,rruuu 1,<1,1 u111fll1111 ll\11 w),...i,lit 01n-11n1
m1\1mn1t1 11111.d fo J11 llúll k VA 111~, ,u,¡ Mo~ ·~f , 1),
1,,,,,..,iu;¡,n.., ..... , rn,•~·• ""'"..•'"'' 1f11ai+!l., l,\o ,,n .. b1u1t. 1¡1l. k.
llhll 111,.1111,kr 111 WAlild,_.,._
-'U IJIIU
.JJ,¡¡,
 U ~ ínq,m.-J, VHtllltJlt', ....lc::I \.~ni tJ:U111liiHWJ.1 ~1 t'.th:.:l ti,_. roulmu\Jlif r,u1\• 11( 1 tll: •dat .cofü A, •li!nwn

• f11t!t• -~ to ltw'lpl ~,ifn• ... ¡u'W$Íl1lt( ¡n i:11kwu¡,:,111. uu: CQ!lltt1uuu1t ~w,~11n Auwt1r¡; '" lttP
-...,.,u,,,
-.111 .. ..w< i.t titan, ru A. !Wll 1111, t).lfltll!li l:UI

,-
1
10011

'
·-- 300
;.
i1túlll fluYtjiiJ! j11 tito CUlflilti•• ((lfl 1111i1 ~ lb•n { A
l 11"11tiff,.1 t j,;nalli) wmdll_. 4"111 11t"' Ir- IIHh"'! 1 -,, •
I hl'l1.w11 11rohllrm

Y 1 ' •hillJ,11• tlllltlMll 1111,.<f\i\l i.i- l l

• ,1.(m~) ·s •
reo •

1
. 'lSt
'"'
.,l"lt'.iíJ ..
\ 1,SlíO
lñl ) x
10
O&

1'hn1 ..-i!fl-lllll'.I.... .-.11~ \HUIIII \tu: J ª 1~ 1111tm1<l,1tl

• llnu1 ol tál,llJ j.11

'\',.i\.U• 1r1qf"'hfM'Co\,,1'.1.';1»-fJ t.S.wi•• tftJIJJ

fo ctud:u.. 1111.und,..JIj ..r e;,...,¿ n.l.1.,-,i, ~ lnnu x,,~ ,vi

ll et(J!b~,

! OJ c:;-.1~111.m, 1mflfl•lt:h, ffl.•I• tt,,I I

• s. 12 ·)
M- ( ~- I IOOf>

•Uw
.1 lle il~Jll whJoll (1.>U,,w 1.l11p1;.q..) •J•• tht. t)'11e ffl•r ~.,,r¡ •r-
1 ¡ttl\wl 1 (~. t.\.U i,r 110:

Y A,Lt. i'"•t 'tt~" (A N..J11~1. (!tftyt ti,,:, I t ~ 8111ai t!•• pc1aml 1111'1\llfl(;I! il hiittwníh.11! Cr..t /1Jrrmn

F-1raj1pfüiatfoi,,11 c:A .... )'J.¡ 111, IIJHlllltltJl'o Mflllllltl)l,11 ,,!lf'Tfltit'! nllliC>, •n ·,rn~IIIIRT"'"' 11! t1.a,ii.lmnut (lrll,
1:ull ni1111p, ct:1,f 111mrull 1'ti 111i,I 111- M •!lle,tdl u~ 11\iuJ 01111.t11l,l111i11m:in~ ,l1t,:,1rod1rmmur.J~ t!J(j11}1c:IJ 10 d~
111 :l.r.1ril6·t, 1'ht ht"I iu CAuby, IITT.'" .s.-s. !~s., ... ,~·6. Cfllll".fll ,, .. ~íltrc~, co11lw 1111111, rr..-r..m, ,.,,(, rJ 111,

1 >1::31 U,'-"· ,,-J d•ID, Típ"lllllu,...up l,OQ1 1 tu, l.:Z:, lr,Al.1111.lfflf 1mn1111t lttlti.WIUIIO 11 (' JA/6 J'l) i JOO, tll

L4h f so, 1 $l.l, 11111t !,001 h:aa•rtrW'C,"' 6~. I WU1or • 1 w1t-1•i•lli .. ,n,llj!IMY 1:mTtn1 1'11""
tumu,IJ' -.,tlJ 11, r,in- m~ 1,, )/?_4irrru.,i1j1J,. .ww11w,--
"il· .$.6r:.1 fV-ltJ Ul,.111wtw111101..,,midua.- ~1uwlbkl,, thl! ~ l>';,é' SlJ4 ,\:2ADtJOt1l.:ot • 1iu,111111,l1:ilan.alnf ,.,.
ull)i 11.Utrelll!IIII•> ín Stcp & h, tlUfH!ll!ie,ll;J 'S-!i; wllh. 1ou111r$fm 11,ct ~ Íl)T 1x:m111~. V.t:$111111,~IIM, {y¡•.- A ,uu·
1\-~
1ut10.oi 1 .114'\, ft ,,i. fll~, il\llrf'<llffl'ffl'II m111111tt1,rnl .-•~•ht ~i.lllJIDol'.
ca-nnl!CIIOirt (14 ih.etw 1wo I unt'0:111,rr1 llllll •l1~l'Mn..h1
7) (Uím111i:c .i~lax l'.4:nmn111V 14> fl\l l)ÍoilV ,u,, 1111d m:10111-I Fi¡im: i·f $, 'ffl•·oonlmmlm ítíl"fl1f ,;Nr,a1.--.1h:ttv
/iltl,.,)_._..,
111-- I 11• I l..it .. \' ,i.u.l,. 1hr thtw. úW.,,\ l•Uiii wunajj Hll1•f.mi11cn \bo,J,Wlll1t11,hec...il IO •u•Jd Jl,l!llhlll
dún nmntlcl· 1, i,c,uihlu 1111::nu,,l 11mM1rno

l
'
,u

h. h 11 1,.11m11i..tl11l11.111:h1J 1m.-,h"lt,1lfnrn1lfri• ,ue:t.

-· lnm.,.. '
•1t111 Hlol l

__ ,
'("8 )
- SSi?t .!. ,. . _ ·, 'I ., 'ºº'"
--- ~f
' &k,tti "i11tlll:l ne wcfl w,111m thei fO r111fff!\I m1*rip11e'li
.i. "·U,

.-
t'i'1U 141 T•hl•

.,. ..
",.,".-
u
-· íó •rl'lt ,,u nrla)'411!1il t.1J111t,mn, .. t,51111:irn•,~•• ••'' mi.
*'1¡i:~ 111~l.:Jr muu lk ,..'ba~j,L.n d.ilffthlt 1u Ah<v,
ª'"' ?.9.
"""'"
... . "
ll·I (,. fnll ,.,.. bl IIU n,IJu,• j.1: J.s, ).l. tf.1. +:6·,

-.... -
5.0, IUlll .s:T, tll~tap !J!llu.>•t~ ;:J,~i" Tlitih! ~n..
~~
~
' ~1, . .
IJ) S..-IWI llfl:JY tat1t'W"tclot h•~ .a u111.-1-;1il dvw 11e lf,O",Jtitt
·º"'' 111 Sl"fp • '" tfu11U!llll¡ J111,
lo°"..,....
h, tll111uJ11r ffll.Jlrtlf

... J.JJ/J,l, •JJJJ ouiliJ •' 1.lh1,

.9,?>16'
-... . J •I .U.W: l1l1t J ?.ul'I 411H1 'wtlili .-..11,1t • (11111
111 inntil JlU 1ouUiudut11'.. 111il.llhu}' ~umrnt tunlf¡),inmu
u11 ~,, ,,,1111"(1 ,,~ílJ11"111 flillmc1u,
11,~\I dli•

,r 1:h.,- curem
,.1tk.i \t ~W,,,,,,,iin i .wJ-'
>- •
1, J C:1•~'11 UflrttiOnuill l'1tll,11l <JI Uh~ fllQI}' v.iUt ~fra111 criu,
uw..,wrnllnar IJI tlic 1.IIJ.11.v 1, l!..A tl,'r 1.11111 !.1 uv. UWtt
tMfl((l l)~ M llllllfntl J'lf4<Íufl Wt11\ 11\4 r~ll~ OC.lb
Al .... a:,.· l'.,.,. ,,.,.....,..,.,..,c~:H• ..,,1i1u9" ·
Gwr,.,.., a·11.-Mlf. '""nllMIIW!>CGUHCllta.. , ...

j~, Aflll'f 1r:l1:dlr1f. ihil ,i1,.1/ll;1.11 u.1r11n1.I 11,111.;/mJUttl •11.llil

.., ...., -•••

fll• miU1,JJ1lt..fl 11lmi1rii'br nrchc""*'"
so Ull<11111dJb1..t µ
.._ 1111 OIIHIIII U•n~lornm 114 lli!led. l,•
"' .1;1 ~:o 11-;

~, IJ)u~ ""' 1:0·, .. I

:•
911111 (~· ·, lth I ni j Ol)jJ
1-i<>1 .IJQ

º'
(~1) ,.~,.. 1.000 1:18$ l,..31 l IJ'6'J 2, 119
1
1\"ºª l .o8ó ,,roo ql• I CH 1:~6 t1
u • ·4 j ~1- • j O,J';\
,., UJ!JU J,Jó, Á.JI I
l,000 1.0•1
41& !,!119
1.1,.n ! ~,-,
•••,.o 1.0<,\ll 1 !IST I.Abl.J
1.0® l. 140
i;, lll<)O
 u (~~' -4). H•• llllm• fY¡'lr 11f f'hi1"1 , ih
11ml lnrn.r,...-m .. i,,rfT,nrn111 ,.
f
"°uatn,~1u 1111111 .. 11..J tu
11.-,.,, .,, n1111,11.,. Unfl"
h1lli.1 .. Ulltuhffnlll'III IIJ 111• Hlffl•lóoltlJ.W11,l. Uüa.ib!JJUl!l

• (1 ~dO1 -wI h,J) 1 ÍÍIIJ

n,rmmt 10: 4c-mo ,111c.t1mt 1111.:J ,•lhhc I fli, roit1.:unf
,\ltt1'JIU1 • M,lr I j ¡, j1o111•••,, ltlq A• Wl•tiluT lti• 17">
tlUrY IUUl 11•.t ••lhrt 11¡1,,, 'Wl1hlrun ll(t Nll.w.utlflJJ 111,:: :llt.:'

oml.11w,-. lm nn~ hl'(xJ "l!V ''""' w11irl1i,;~ a11L1t 1141:

~k.eJ
.t.i11/ ·~ 11 A. .. •~•11,'Unn !•!t"l w!jl'I II
n,.- .. ú111 !• •~I "-'+lflffl 1he IS pCr.'.1'11 l'!ll~IIUIHI! 111111! :-unen! ,u 111• 1lthd Wl!t 1111, \11) .,Ll!u r,p..tri11 lllc.1> .:lt.:..:.ktil
I h 41 • jj T\1.,_ lt•· 11),... 111 -i11,1h'lf 1 11.1 ,i 1J1, nm1 •hll(l'fJ111 tb.i, vwu1111, 11,m_.. n, ..1 •" """' 11n
ll\l 1d11y ._..~uJil l't ,11tbf~d?J v ,..,1 t\1lit•p1I uwllwl <,("!US. I 111 111Y .ll1ilil111(ton ,¡j lal.l.b ,1 i..1&11 !.U.U'1ll

.... ,a ~11 • .. •IN rn, •Ul11d.l,., ,,, ,htrftcfllfl+11, .. 111)

,¡'ll1,1tlt l~C'l<llll 1111« wunil1111 l111u~ U ,n-•1111, 1 tll.UIC 1,lu
....,11rnr'!11 H1111 u.~ ~ril1,.11, .. txtm,~I 1,111h 111mmu.1 ull -n., fl'nplr1l'II I lt..Mltlt li'lc¡,;~ u,~ .11lv•w11111 t l¡ut~ k 1)
l1hi.l1.:.t d .. 11 llu.. 1o1w.lt:·p.b.1u hull t.m,,,111. wUI 1.1J1t1 vi
I S,000 11 Ql1 IJ ft LI .t.,.. :áilie ,ntl :_,y!) I\ .,¡, t1,r 6'Y·tr,V
I.IJc: IJ1 1 ·11, ...,. 1rf., 1 tu: m tt hl I hll'l:il rtntu ttuqJ"T! litmii , 1111
N nl!:lllflelJ '1 (ulh,.._ ,, ....~-_;¡."".,;..-·
t"..-.#•l!'.a

11

'1,1111 oinur ~ h 1ml I J m1 '11 rtl'II•

• 111111W , llltu••• I. 1V I ~UJUIJ JJW

f llut:ttt u,.ualunlll!.I uon•

Ulllú
~t ..
i;i;::1J11i:- 11'.mfl'i'T" " 60

Sc.:onllw'I amnna
J I.S 11 •

....
1IC .l,C',UU O .
•• i'.ooii"" ...

1 ""1n, •1filUÜUl'I ~ ~ Wtllln' tl,Kt- ¡CM)¡ Mg•

lw tl•1l 100 J.lllf""ffl 1,.,.oilll1t1; f,.,,1: • ll .,., W111• •-• 11,0 Cu,,11«-1 .. 11 OJ!lw,1ni,W l\ole••
......,..... "ln,...w.,,.,,11·,,....,u .. ......, .....
U.61 •
... Jclu !.fii!Z u~ 1,

"'"
I.UU • :.OU
11 tlw 111llth o..11:. qo, ..unau tm- l'tlc 1•1111, ,u,t.L..,,
1;,UJ.tlUI·
twl.ulwttv.uuotn111a1 oma:r, "'" 11u1 !lllny :nm:rn 1 nnutne n1tt1
l'urrr:1tl h•IU#owtt~ su·1foilllUUU.'" wJJ buat11f11nun-- U 11v •lf llllfl.lM.lú.. li pmr.1 """'111 l~I' a.•I\ 11\tr óffl!,.
11• lh-
1UQ.I o~ rm~d1mcf •1111111. ¡¡., oi.J...t.Jut~ hum rquauon-, llltl.'t-lWl1tlll"I 111.nt, ,t111r1nflt11 nn ti!• imNILlncN ,,nAUJu.i
U! .11 it-41,lil '' ,nJIM·cU, ,11 lntH.J111Jhert-f"11llern~1: ,nrf1nl.1i rw .. {t'A·!6 t:i 111.i.U
...

,,,..
11 thr., ,h+ tlttrtlt ,, 111,!,11111...- ,ui..1,1, ,..um1ü. .. 111

• '" ' ltl

w,-

•• ,m • ••v
•
Pt
• 1
1
·1. •
l __ l &lM

• 1..171 • 1101

- ·.~ ti
•• ~'" 11'1
,., 1 1

• ••
1 '." .......-,
1
'-1·. ,...
-t..
·~-~- ...&
,...,.. ~· ._-,.~_..+, 1 !MI

.•
-=>

'•.
• , 1
:-
••- ~~,
-{J.,!- - -.'t
- - ll •

r~., 1111 c:-...,.1111~~1mni.Úllltl•111fl'!lll"'I 1•

.__,i..,1..t..b!t•
.... ,,k.v~
n+..011u11i1111-•1-11. ..c....-11o111• "'"
11 .1-.,-,.,11or,ucv
""""-
~

Qlitll,b t ... llitot!¡ 1.11................. Cmol!lll.i.,.....

"',.._"' e-."" ~-r1.. ,., .. ,111.. C1--•lftn*
n, 1 t "-v
(!i
i-.,11.•1111ivw11111,111t.tie.1o111M111,•1
~b 11(11 úlU. ~
~ .,,., o.,,....._""'
"''""
TllkMll!l!loil
'",....,, "'"',,....,.w~..,. ...,
,.,.__11,l:-

r.,, 1tu, 1)11011 "'•ulai¡ t:lud, bnwn tu flg¡mt il 11, 1t1a ruiu
.1...... !\ ¡:,,,,,f,111t11! • ,,,11, .... ' ., '.t.,,'I r•1 l i¡'lfll. ~1'"1, fflhllo.lltA t r,..,, 1 •U1194"it
11, Stc1'\ t--l l11·illi•
lb V 1'0 ll~V1A,
1 411¡,¡W , 1..u11.1· IMJI •!! 1,1}
11 1( 1S OOOlVA n. ""' ll1rm11l1 UM!i:Hld. lb11nmM1h MI
•: ii ..,,q,1m1 m.
(LJ,, ·)
·-.¡;. ·-
:s.ooo .?!.UOO M ,.. c.,JI _ JOC, - !fo•
11\t I
.. ... 3, , 1
"'-UIJA
M-.u
{úk ·) . . .
111Mt
''"
... '1111 =G~~ •), ,o,a=m
• ltil: • J,[J!I
 . ..

•¡ l1 l11tn111•11, LJ.u1111t11•UJl"1dt1 ,i.Jd1 ,u11 1.,¡j

11•1 11•1 111111,ti::111111:011111B •• 1 hr ttb-l V llt1·l :6, ~ \
TI11nm,r11T- f'l""fl'in~ ,,,
4,,1n . . ,h
1 .sln'I 111 1~• 1,11,1 pnl mtU:1 ,N 111' 6.cS!
-- fo IUllo• 'J.i
aUIJ ,.., ..... , '"" '"''' w111 !•1t11 trn., lfm<1e.

M•.,l lunn 111..ht1 1 , 1 •ir111111111,..11 Uu u,n1i , .. ,,.., 111 w,111u J ~r .:.t.,~ Sj

ci.n1I, IIIIH, 1111.ui,lfa••ai•rle1111fS1'' 1,, u

.. llf!fllP 1 '11111 .. '•

.. \.
f't II i! ' 11! I l.._ll ....
11 1 1111 ,ilt 1 1,11 C1 •11 r1un11 t~lloMl il• ¡ IIJ:!
_._
e-- ·'(-, ¡¡¡;¡-- • \ 1111H;. ( ~-J lb ... \ ........
11 Hlll I lo

'
tU1t'•!I UN.lill' !
•J rJ11111uu1o

( '). ''"
~
.. u1•1
1
• 1
VI r l 1'11 ..Alu\ l'l'Ut
IIIITER.li.NTJALYW llí fHl~
A lfl')\,fJ t1í 1 AA kll'flkMru.

1 ., 1 jljff"!l:nlu,f $<him. •IIÍI ll•fl"1W•III

R~ 1» ~ 111 ian,ahm
• ... ..11 '), IW' •• J
\'"'"• 1 ,111 1111 ,; 1,11111 ,..,.u1iw ,.. ·~.:, "fllltlt
•.ilt't-1 lmi..-11 i:1 .. 1 k.u:.- ,¡ ¡~ 1ol1111t\.111111111.,.n, .. ¡
•••1•
l!lln91lll.tl •m...), 1m• l'"l'J wt ll•• lumn"11• '"r,1-1111 n l"'
'), IOI• • •I •
ic.. w, , ..11 t .. h ,111 "''"' 1 ,.,ur ,1, 1tw, ...
1111 ut

,m,,..,
1IU-l11:l,,1 1htf-/ti111í\-1-.u111,t1i¡. m1 .¡~ht
u,.,-, .,. ttr ,11 UH 11 1'11111'llM "'"1.uns tW)
• 1,11· l. i du,_ lu"'' 11 1 hfflll·ri•llill uau .11.1 •n re f.hlt11
1 •• 111 1 ,, w,• 1 • i..tt1 11 1,u,,, , , •w:u h ,111 H tn 01rm1u nf!lW 1 '- ";t 1 ~ .t l h,
llt!tO I IIJ1t_r IIIIIU pa:11, !fl'... ., • •111 -:ilr.:11blll'l! •11 f!,11.,v,f

11 f ¡¡ :r 11 , 1 rl,r; 1011 111,- ....,. 1 •hW \ 111 1rn1l ~a1ut 11, ,11,
1
t.-.,.
ell• !1,.t\11tl """'' ,1¡¡
... '
'• 1•
..,.:.;..:.J. ¡\

'11ª'•J1d ,,,..,,
tllif ...,,ut.l

.'kl... "'
4-lli• ..,. , .... l '-tl=:tl
"'" r-llÑII ·~--1.(1¡1,,:fitjllf'V, tw.,llilt•flUl,&Ull!r~I

u1 .. , 1 1, ti'; i;11n• ll'tr ic,.-11r •;1p IICtl't U• flm USI

~I f1 • J 41 •nl.r,nnA fllatiJI w,11,1,1,l l•t .2,t.•!."'

l ,1u h• 111hr •011h rM .ac J l

.....
Ral•• 1-11 O!nll"-111tl ~ -to Uffl) 11 ...... 11 "Mtrll"II

l'lt1tf ···-··-
 -~ill-
••t ...
tn u,t J•luu• Ulill •ullt)' t flfrtf"X 1ni11.,,10111.mr r11rp
I IJu:f; tlll ..t.LUIUltli litll:t UIL lbU~llLilll .U=i I l 111' "1111
monu, rhf111,11 Mn.d J1t1nh1.ul •!lb 1,- IIHL.l an11 ul III
-· . •

,..,.¡ ~· r'-flnf! .. u,,.,,. '" ...,¡,, .. ;.b. 0,11.111,

::::::J
J - . l:m· l
11otncc#1~t1111l111"o••lJt11,i11Ut ,w 11.1 •iu• 1,111..._.. ~
¡_

• --
11w1i.-.11.1,.,,..imu,rt11~• uu1.,t .. !l•tlit,i!ill 111&.1.A
- I' 1 1
'IUI tn1Uv IO'lllf .,,, BM \11Uet0 ol tM lJUla Utltt111tl wtu;.-., •u
l!t, •• " j M11,,11,, r,11,...11 ,,ncr1r °' 1-""' ...
t II
J!IIIMd ••

•4·1, .. -e •.Jl.l ....,\· •

¡·

1 11CJ
111111li,nw1,l,1i i1US•t1U1fllatt1 ia..

1 «ni.111hl11t)' •114 1 bm1~1 ,liíh:u::•h•I ,da, .. pcuum, fric::111

•IN!i•I ,.,,h
"1.J •• ti,,,. f! 11> ~I~ 1\.- :Í j ,.t U1 Wll ~
1
tue ,1111rur
.i!ik_!! 111
hHM ~,, lJ11 tllhll11l lla11•t(UfTILI \IIUI ...
dlQ cv .µrnpt ~ '"' 1n,Jµ.dj~·rr111&.11CSCOIMin?T
UI
l, ..
.
W¡i. "" in• 11! ~1111u11 1n1hl- H! "'.:cllJI\
1-ht..,... 1 Je: Ar,,.,, I'..._ r•oilt.,.
W!lf H111oll"fWt,.•• 11"
•111111,f'9 T•'"' "! fM M ""'• J l11111fo,•11• •ill ""
C.,-,;•!+.d In..,. _ _., C•t111•ilCq,,tMI• of Thti
l•ü• HttU ...... l".i•!h O!ft,t,..ti•I ln•..k11 ll!•
,.ltWV .. f..UIJ'

,,r,r111Huu ...11111.a¡1J11jrln.1.11n1111 l- h.1 OIIMIINIO ,, .. , .. 111~ ... jt-'lfl)' 11}' IU!I• ~•!•} ·lllifXUII !•V~l'i!!II it1" l•lt)"',, Allllllflilhif
•li.lt,•Jb1 ttmat.4'JIIWl•1"l!IIIII"'~ 1'tl1t• 1\ ,1'111•1dJ , •11 bln11 ...!JI .tl41 ,I~ rnllh:fi 1n, •i.w)· ltt fc...r""'1') ln..J.
u. h. J.-"••u...1.1~ -'•ll~tu11, • ,awl,u ,.. ¡11111111.J •111
\'I e fimbnd 6autU a. Dt:ha. Sid(.
tj1u ••prtal:111¡ v.,IJ wrm:-,1 ll· 111wnu1I)' tllPft • 1¡... !•WJ r,~1&u1
i,y - fALto ,d l,w¡., I! lbllll.. u.. ~111 ¡;¡¡ ... "'' 1\1111 A, at... """ • ñ~i.n ¡,,.;u.. 1 ha. JtU11d.nUIII h'J¡¡,~ llt '1'111.llt·
C"iJba1 1111~1&11~ .I"! ÜI IIIUtl j,.rcl•. t!1.r' 1 1111.twi:1111- h.l.th un..i.1uinl wuumt f:.uUJt U 1tw Jlíf,1C1ti.tal blnt

''' ,,. , ,.
ru
...
• 111 "·

• ,. ~+-+-~ .._.,.
-

~-e-- .
•
"'"•-•• ~,
, ....,..."' t;,,r,,1"•
w.,. ,~
.w
r~
r- ow_.. on
i::t ...
1:111 o..,,.,. tu•11••
011,w-..i1..i "IWI ~11 11111
0c.~
....... ,.....-w...1,,t~--- ,:J/111

h:alt• .._., ... ,.,. e,.r.1;11

@)
•
..
ff)II-
•
IIIO..u I
-~-----~
~----'
~11, •· am11111hn1 111111', 1n,r II i;.·01111•utmii111 w,T""111Umi'l'IJ'
tu.t.tl'.tl.i.Ul:uuJ.wmiw ~ ¡¡ tUUd... 1r111>.~1¡n:tlllwl,I, l!IU! ~ 7
•llnun:2tnl-l'Y ,1un1.11; • ux1q.4qu1M~ ou ••1111ut, !11 U.,.
.tna,1t 0'1)1.11íf _,..,20H Tft• .,.,,.-.µ,mu offll'TJl'ff m¡, ~i
.iil1 u• •r•tll:IU,,.l:qtmul11iLia1®lr3amn111 l1.111~11r,
w'fí111h nn ll•"' 11~1 .-.u,, Tli.;,t 110Q\1>11J cnrnn1 1nn11
1-ilrrnm r'ff"lllr: 41¡.....,,..lf'!,..lllmi& ,...1.)1 r«t tlir fffÍ!-<lf'\fl""""
11um1I rompt>e11ul uut • lllp.i.n1pcd:awc ti•ll1101 tllt
P"9i11"' ....,11.t ,i,11m·Hitqi,+•nr• 1111.,rn11 ~mpón•fm ,if1M
1...,, tlllnmt I f 11, i l.11'•-"ili' ·~ ~. .. ""''
•I lhc •wund ntll ij( fü111UlkiucuiJJ tub't wllI1hun111•
lw lJ"!llll~1

•t1i:, rn•lrmt 'f m11(f•ll1S~•

l .
~ ....%1 tlVtW\>tn~ ~id 1M ltsinf-,r.mrd11ilf.1tn1\Ulll!
t,M1111:tl~111111 tr1nlformc1 Hu1ll1u,aunnt lr•••lorttt:m
11•¡(' In • t llt11..,t1fl11111 l1¡u11t ,1r111111k i,litr.11 l!!l!ll ln •o:li!
1
· " ~r = IÍ E::.·
•

........._ .,lllft'III ~Wu.q1 Yn• b WWi.l Yo. 1,11.,1..t.flm, UiP-

"11111 ht lh1 ,1,i,, 10 111111:1111 •111nJ.11(1 ~n11djo:, .... •lldl II
'l'!OIIII ffhJwTY tfl h;¡,m l•l,I l'rnl itlff.,m11úl l"Cl!llftlft
kb,-mt •ill"''' Ji.ilu.f tl11'ffm1l lhtdil11. h1111h11~e1111r' 11 ...
P,.Yi'1 li):'fiml ~ P'1)1111!ll!i) 11111111,w" 11'1 fT-lPff'C 11'--l.s • Tf I IH,!.'
('lf"Wlt ,y\ilnn h l'l!ll'W\tt1118l1 "' ,111,-,rm tr11111• .. 1..1 lt, itu,

·-
tfby llchcm. al,o W-111 nú, &l~led llii lnl:mi:al hu;ilt:lqi 0..dl·
~, 1111f •• •uor11111ru111,d lim"b o,, 1umtn1r pba•

f'nuc:9tlliu írn \111:u• iutcnml í1ull1• ¡. •Jlrj111:Mnl )')' til,anlllf

, ....... Uf,"~''°"''~'*"''"' amo t!llllnM .-.,. ,,.,,.~
.:um:m 'Tmn'b.ínnm un ~IOl·A ffllllh\tm 1, f 1, ii'IJ11l·flll;UII , ...a. 1111 0-,... ..... .,... '"""' ,.._. ...... "1ClfW-
~,im, •..uolint l lt;tl f111t11Ji:p111'1 11t lhi,, ilur,ir•,¡:!li_.. J,1111
.,,., .... ,......... lh•Íf•

~l)l111Mlim11 fi'IIII"* 8·!1 L'' Ali CUJ'"'"' lnnll'ormeil' ¡::rn bt

~ffl'Mlt"A

At1 H111'labn1.. <ra( 2/1 rn11'fu fmm.ranw.:111is,!t1c lwo n-p

'"I IM1111fiW1+11,a *1 t\1; ,1&-.
1.,,u.1n1 ltrJ111rnl,l¡.L ll<>lln t,11r
(IT bt iU irl'), wl1!.1Ht*, Wtt- •lvd.i"!Irum111l ihll1rtum1n
,bl,
..........
110t.1t, •n~/l~ 1nl11y l11p1. m1b,t•11f!"- muu1 1¡,; 1p\J1n 11no
.. '
\-'J.ti f'n>lffl!fflm t\t • G'wiWIITil~h 1 ~f'"1ffl '"'"

111 tt. u1L1t•tfl" a,lcw 4l1c,w111• F1111•• i-J'l. ! 111; Hlld

,trlf"ll'fflt' ~flffllfll1 Hnl,y ... ritt•nGUml!l\,-nltl r11 mlttiln11-rM ....... a..z·~ DilM•111i11f'ft:IIIIICtlllll tf flW Unliif-0..-• ....
n ......_í',.....,1
1r:nr:rri(H II v.lill 1:1 ltif i Q11'111ínmwr .. Tfih 1n11nin11rnrp..-o
r~- 11l1l1ti'Gma\ 111rJ onrl•fflll"I p-1u1~c1:m1 r« 1M u,u,irrc 1!Ul1 tHH proccia 'lllllll'i, 11111..WdJfY Qr 1111urn,1 f11. .11lh '" ch,
,n.,.llrl'. iifJ111allA .-11niu !l\~n1i(11mW"•" tfü! ,.N'l!t'1 • ~n-wt.•w~ tuuWJCJDIC"' an1,.... ~liJLQ 11tur ww •Jut
twlüiuhm .. 11kUttutii:mh::d loJ kt~iJ 1b11 f111tdn1 ló.~, tlillll·~Oflll~ •mt OI U1C i1ri11m .. • .. i11i.l'lu1 Tl11 11,1111 1j11jo
rm¡11tor ti tiitrf'I ~ ,ifl
tnmt.\m1111 o 11, lmm ,c'ffll,.tm
btt1Ll1116 Ule MMlll111 -.u.f'+(ll'Ul9UIUUWII~ •.U uu.ul.b •lllJ.llirJ: um-,nh ui1dff. CDtlUhiKIII. up1!1lllk.1i u:n.
h1,1, tiluu ... Siut•
lhu, lll• 11ua:1ltu 1,11t1 l.bl l1:11uf'lu:1:S•1 1Hffaant111! .tclll) lhtl M:&IJáll"lll!rv,ce u:;ih 1111"11'-b ti ,,,111 iu,.-e 1 l)q¡tl 11npc:1-.to:-
t li

•n,Hllk ¡,.,,l! ~t ""-,,,..,.... I)' •114lrw 1111'-tn:rtnl• '""""" ~IIL.

1tuoH11I 1a111y,-1.ull••l'I"~ lu il1fflun: 11 Wp:u!l.1~ J¡ffc.,ei!Hal
1il,i)' 11rqutt1) 111• t11ui,.1.111.vn-iu """" iu11 llf ,-i,-rn:11d w.u
-lll't1ltll-h.ai.tft1111Wt 1.i\!l,!t l1111111,,~i..i.. W lt-1 "'" ., l !W'
l•1.1t O~ih,.:.uJ toi»ll'I.
'- 11-I '" 1110U~, U..,11nu»11, .. ,,-
w!!tlruu • •11Jui:11f,
111••
:tilTffluttl1d._m11,
...
..-~1--,
.. - "1

l.
lí o·n 11¡rp1,tc!~M1Jrun:~:11I J• fllditltw\l 11nm!i¡) j)le 111111)

~lbr..,, +í.lt a:t\!1- """'Jlwil• at'tm'rll i" J,h,.. 4r¡tt rmrrn ¡nti.• ,

--
111,0U "" lbll l.1.Yi 1!d1.t of lM t11111n ... 1!1,kC 1.1n,t tltn',11, -11
l'wi.f,,• u;~ smnl1.liatrt"Puw n~) MlilllWlty l'fto,,n\, cu...
411.11J n:\MIJ;IIIIMU.Xo~ l1i 1J1tt !illiliJ.illll!!tnil,11 tt1I~•
"'11:1111 ti llftlturbd n!Jwr-4"1~11 ..,.,111>1.1.;:i__¡.;,,; it ,e111.1ü.c.il ,.-
~" fufll\11111 ,111 tt•h•m.......-.wt, l't1t111 huttl,

IH ,, .. ~""' ..... , .... ~Pfl .. ,· ,f,lt ~"*•'h IJl,t «rn::n11rl tn11•

'"""""" ftl 111~ 11\ni.d hll1 (Wnl11f'M.' i1 lh""'"1!
· ,_._ •:P, o-,n.,11•1- ,._." • .,_.""' tnn••-•• ptfh1n1n,.,.'

hr11111m1J11l(Q1/n\m,Jihn11.ITUIIII QlllQIO!
wt)UI ~·'lClwl
~IW 1~JiJ.llCP.;,j'OT...niJ111..Wut~
nw 11•11 .. (.llmt.t'f
""''
VJ..t. ~·lid,J,a,~ Q.dlJI lki'Jl I
''"" º" !aa:+I 111j&djr•1 111 • ut•ni•I f••l!1' , .. -dli:ll1.t l't' ti•
~ti1,dt "rri:sd l•amiLpimi•U~-~f t,ijfffiv~i=r-11111Jft W ll1\•t lsraf'J'11.cJit11,n rJ.f P!fl!ftlUU' ~iq blifff tm:lj..

«1111111111Jkm.1l l11t1•1'tmne1 Allfflr~ttkl uka.,• ,0111 h b,, ,,11 h•n1~, , ... 1 bo ,,ntm.:ttd k,111111,1!1lt 1ilHuw1lliJj •~f,.,_¡
tmo11.1r1 m1>: O!ltl'.pt.U- $1J1rut 11_.-s, l1.. "1-tu ••"'l . . lhit ~-1,111nd~ 1111tu:11i,11n1 r.um1111 ·r,., ,11.11111rr1~•--••• re
-,uu,1rn»lu11" 4'i1..ahu11lll.r.~•.._~ i. flt1ll~l\t11Jli~ rr.- ~rlrir~l ~!lhlll -,.,ntntITTI .,~., 1~,,..,..1,t talt111\r-
lCltlffl.1.Q~ ltom:-onn'(!lbix. tra1n1orim11 '.R•'L"t.1n11ll\llf lo •!U u11t1tMtmci.....11lu k'!ldi
ti! 1Jtl~mn11r~'flovw lllf Oll fr,,tJ rf111 ~)' fl b,11•n~ Ir! tllf
1 ~¡..!.) till'~llLl .,,..,.11.,ttit:1tk1t1 "-.ctm( "'lllilmlUt fez 1.1.111 w .u11tiAW «i1111 ~ 11" 1lil ....,l b w~.-1 f!r--
fo.11á111-,n•• 1.hrt1réi:rEilll r,,,.,·n, Tti111•~a11.i, c111 ilt.l•!tWM~ ,u •¡ IUHI µ1"4:ttoJ1eW j!JWl!Utt,Clllllf.-, lti!\llllUIL ('HUI!
M"'to:"!'l l)'("!fi'~n Til'Rl'll'd tt"f oltfl!'O,,lhOO ,m, ~1", {l11rnl•l 1fi)f0illmf M 111, m-¡nfffffflllr-

,,w,
•llu.,,I ti~ 111 l.11ui,._1 ta11JI, ,mi a. 1i.1l11"t" lri¡i¡n:UJ, ifll•
twrr.Xw1t1t.tim conifíuon 11: <.0rn1.·u11), rra1SYJn•f• ,us 111J ~8; 11 11!í1)1;11111111111tcd tq, tO u:m• •ll •00!1 •VA
•Wll>J lit 11,,wiit ,~ üll11t• '71iltl'lt' 4V t 'ylffl•t'"""'~*"" • 111t111,.U ij,u llllc,lil dtUhUH91. tdWU- IIWl!ts~
Ieun 1•n1t1 lt!lll tXt(io¡IJ tf\vdi.t 11
e::a.1.ltmilJ
u1,w1111ilj •utll:h'A t•>
1u1u VJ1~1...-lotautctW.lc ¡f,,w1'1 !O I O llr..•lnt •r• !1111.1 ~ I'

lp(IIIII.I f1' 11u;-,111~ t,ttw\,'" th,i 1Ufftj°UI 11111 tt• ,(110 '"••fl ' 11iltrr, t,r111n "A ,HJI "flnlll'$ mHf!~ .:b1111Vt111 ~ .... ~
~ ~ 1.U/t~Ui.""3~ ydll.t,tt 11ut4.J_.,.._1.1Jy'"''' h JI i..,1,n:l,e,, I• ••N• -. .. 111111 ,q,runlllJ II t Hl'h •I ~
..,01to11111ji l•J • ,.-!Ji.11Bff,-1J••1111trpliiu•r •J1L"f'''"'1111i;:.1f (1njHtA.. fh• SP~ 111')¡11 110 IQQl~ ttm:1hffl ti> 'b¡lu,11t-r
u• ¡nqTtwlt, fflftllf1IA1ih• ttlan ttl11 .. U lirm1 l4J t,!!lif, nw.mHlt,uU1!
,.i,,. t10We:t1.,_., ir ..llU iut,JuUc:i tu. ,1,:;.h, lh 1c= llu.Ulifff ••il
kOIJlrltll 11 pil),titd r1 S'.fl IIMt:i:n,11 ti.!: -~..,"llppiao 111 -,1lt11, ,.rnn.01,,,-cf11 ¡'\]a unt.
Ult tillf>mllÍllll lU..,11 ~n.ll..ilul •lluUI ~liu.~UII ül\',ffl¡lÜ~
Ull.mUi!3iJ""S\' tit:fo)\o;1n.ti1Z1.~ Wtin 11• •,lttJlll! •~· 1'!1t SP~ i.ri1yl\,it1,t1111Ji!l•l"C ,11fit,E f•t•!I~ l/Ji';fll}i., jflJ)
4tir.llff I m1111'ff • 1•1"'1fll~ 1111 \•.-uh~t 1111111ut 1111r11:t1t .. f .yiit. .. it,,,,enitl1,f•A"1t llm .tn,1' tf.., t.1,n
wn ~u:11111 ru11w ••b.lAI ji, uuw,•J lu. ttntalu.t ~,~1
~11.11 lffcr• h nn 11Xtu11•rr.w111111u •.aren 1, 11111 l)nnn111 cin
;,,,11111 ht·rm-"'nl1q1,u11:11-.ifürr,.Mil.!.-t~ll!'°'1 fh•
U11 1,,b1111• J11 i,lfllt!WIIIWÜ ,11t1~ ~Wfllij o~IH"fJtt•pi. ltd...- A i.uh Oitrntl l<.t II u11•JWmm,1aulu ill H o•f't1l~ll
•,ff, il 1f111 n"(í'tl.J:JUIUO,,'Wl!'~lillfl! 11 JIQ't .«WIIIIIIIIH .111111'! ·~ flui'u'l' (r ! nt t&i.&tl
111n &:lllll!lf m1i1atC'lfY1!1Jr Y ,OJI
to., Utmr.,, lnr~illlW WUJL - J..u•,I ~1111\• nw fh'"H'""""' 411111 ~~ ~ l'ivm.1~
 41tll \c.(1,~~- +oi.Lw• ~" 11o,1l,.q ll"""'UIJJ'~··· •
ld.b,)'• º" unml pmn1l .. l1\l::II ~eJ O-tf!ll1'1il •11,1'1 ilwl lfHilulmU !..
11tml! lu11h,•0~1:umrn1 1"11\f• mm 1il11 ,111 ,...¡,¡ 1,, 1J11141'r:1 Tht ..:111'11!• lt nw too:nmrffll!Nol bl)loil'
111111111J ... 1111, (ul!f1>.
, .,,m• ftlll'lfml f111Uh •ll) l.~ ,_..,to..
11.-r. at, r""f"IJ, -.T 111'1~ "'"~"",r."
•1url\ .Ht t.1•1•Jv1Wl!J ~, \.1~!\l4UIJ.
1,1.llll.Jl..l,I r,"'li.ill li1t1 hu Üill .. ,mil,111111•)" Út'IOlhTCltl tl:.ll.)' loul h,e,•111. til !US1f ~ld;uu ~oahrtt 1:-.:\Ut 1tUtl11¡j lt1m-
p,•l«ltml a flolll)lt111.ut 01up111n,~-, 'b:u! ll<J tµpllt.111.ou 1• 1on11 .. , ,11,11a1111t11•
b1,,.t\',! l)',l lt.t ! lttc,l\lt ,~, .. u 11,, -4 11.J ll\,, J...U;,t ~ ,111·-.1111111

--· ~
1111 coor.1111-H khl

rt.,..dl......, 1..-11d11•111tr ..... w~ .,,• ..,__~ e.! bo ~ .. " ...,

pK:llu¡1, ,, •.., vi 11lu!lil ,¡,atm1mcnj ••i•y'l 1101il I'* iiil 1th11tw.

llm 11v~1l!'111J CHTflmf <\n m,'Tnorlhm' tbn.!NMH ,tf.-y
,1111111tJh• u,~uln• tii. ltnl 1t.ui.b1Niió>I. Sc.llhl4II al )(1(1 ,..:r
ll'III '" ·11141 llffCC.M t•1 11'11! !111IIJIUfffl11I t fllll~illlltU 01 ITIIJ
1 ""' 1rn1M,1'1, !1Jtl,..._¡,1 hlrh,, \I¡~ • .,, ...-~u.111.\1.tWl!II
¡;g, u,l,hil"11 li 1io! pc-Jl•!f, •1J11:1 1 !HI 1m1nim:1mu: "~•)'•
·r1. .n•1ot.,1.ucurn1,, "1, u 1111 1'1\lm, (11l~1111W'f' !'!'l'"fm,!,.t.
<.>,11n:inrirnl !clu}'i r,1n1:101 ,.,. ;uul im¡1mm1l) pu.•h•tlJU11
.. wmr.l lt11 ! IJk ... \iittrmil f,t4¡Jo • 111vtw,1uJm11.,,, ~..u.lldi!.
11) tlbt lnunlo1011•11 f 1.. 1 ~p,nrlo111 .. ,¡ !11111o•y m1,"111i l 11ulra
• ,\b111tna.:. IW 1•n• ll~I..Q\ULn•.1'111~ ,np 1:pm 111 ih, 11,111
'"'t'fil! ,fl.f'\- J 11\'IW YUII• !!\JI)' l..,•~ tf .,.mzW t,.}IIIY\
11,1 j
tb..: ,un!n\10111 lu,,u~lt I.IIUII '(jjl!Ull M ..... fü • !11••11d11
thu:e.1~1lo1."' fn.nR~ 11111mlt111, •fl('ll1i,I ,,r In~ ll"ITTl'IÍI ,l'fft,
.tü"u:111 tJ:l~Lt11HdllUl!WlJldti t1tclu11t1111111-. u.,tJ l1oe--
t,,WII !1:111 Juul! am1n1111111t •••O 11nu1í11
I h-c,1..11u1·111 ir.hu:• lllll 10 ,.111.,ltd lllf, 11tul11 wínJllllJII vi u,
fllluHllflJl'ltrmer nr ll~Wlllt.Ul.'l)I IWIM1)tl'l)ff fllll\( •!IQOII
*1,,'M'·1kjo.t!11W1 l 1.1;~ IPIIT.ll"'f' wm~I,' .,IU.,J\ 1411,,,.11 ~Uii.11
•m•ltu if \'A. I\Uo, tlü-u 1nh11(v 'lltllUh11r1u1111t
,-,.i,y\'UJTfl-'I" \IIJ'l"I ¡1rt.11t11• t11aU, 1,~ ,mM ~••"'
JWulJPffln\ "n1t11u ....v.u11.u:il l•tt i•um.L,J1I
ITI111dlom1l ilhll1i1u 1d11rtu11 r.1hi 11~ j1&111l 10( llwt"lrtrll\er
lbt'~un, fft,C11>tiiltwl111111( 1tir
fnn.'lNJrf'n'l~t•m w~
•~im,1nm1i l11l.1r1 lt ~ 1lr01'h11n J IM U111Wl~JIIUI t1i¡l;11.-ec: t•
1~>• ••e q¡nn11.:011 iu .:ipn:IIW •11:sn !Úf (!IJ\I 11\lrl~I (\~-
1#W!lr,I ~-.1t
f""li,;i~ ''ll"IIW.ftl'ft l',IIIIV .61• •l !" <~
hlll), !111.1 1tUI 11, ~•.uul, t\lc um,•.lut htri
I l=,:,t~ ... rtl!aM
II Ri.. imlh-an h- 11.il t•"' -..,!ft,,urw:uJ
fht mutJIHC"lll td•y• -eere hiJ111\1 lt 11 ~,1bli,m..-:ui.Qi> ou
n, lf'itltl"tll:'llM <IN 1o,ut1n111: un, .. ..,.~euuullu ..7 1111.lu or '""
l'IY·'c-:1rJ luml..- , .. tl\w.uu.u.J.h1 "111Wt:. g,.~ tlt.lJI ~._
i µ.
1 º _j.,
T ••
,-111.U• l•fA Q\MJIMlf!l:1.,.,t fllll•( *•UI 9ilo:f,. f"Jtll ... ttftl,I
....... _ .... In, •vll"M tm11, ,,.,-111\t•
YII n·v,c Jr. L ,,u111·e11\> 1{ St111UtUJi"'"~
l.'llJUSl'R•At ,\ND t{l.M.Mfilt.(W.J.¡_¡.o~ E'A
fR.4NS.fOAtilí::R.S
1r1, u ••, 1 lrl II u t 1111h,~1, 1,1 i 11,111 11111mtd t¡..i 1,1,, •ti• 1111111 lc.r lttll
11.111•• .i ul!llfwll,11 ,uftirenl innn 1A• ,u¿¡ ll) ! !!t l!tlll111'1
T11t ,1¡¡a,_m,,'"!t h1 tm'l•ll'.i IY• .,Jl,mi= ,tt • !lolmiliwl ,,1 í.Ut,
tr11l 111•lul lll•JU.lf, t111:illJ11!~•)'lllhn ve.11kuu1 itm m:rt ,..,.1
(11 .. UJJQUll'IIJ. •(•rt.Ó1 CO(ll(lllllllOMI l!Jllll.lOllln, •h1l 1 ... ,
.s,, ,11.1, "'' 1 11#' '""'-'i. ,, ,trlllll'tT,i, UJE.J m,I 11 tt 1 ,~111.wl
Lww:uur
.µ:n-)' •1:.~ !'i~i ,•MICll ll~1t 111hum~ 111, r.M,..11 ¡, lt1¡uro, i-ZST,) !h)O
fffn,~"7
Jltc111t...li.U ~Lmu huw H,i,1im111, 1110..lfl "-"• lt. t.1•11~ ¡.,,
111111110,mar p11ih·.1~n. n,11
l1n1t ¡1tu1oc1,i.,11111 ,.,,111111411 r:i>,-
11,r ~, 1 'M-11• ...~r1•111t i1U1i:1•1til~l lt~JVI l11iJ¡¡,.1 lVV~ ~·~ "''
IIU tuhyc au1 be- .,.J, JtjocUllktf' 11¡1un 11111 ..,,(.riJ)' ,,( In•
rlMt! 11n,1 Ll11 op11..t11111•fl'Jtit111ai111•11111q1II• l\,>,\,11 • ~lj,1~ 1
11.i \n.....:.tlé UJ~ i,.O ::~ •.l.U! 111 1001 J•rt"l'I"" 1,tn1111-.
....11..tluJ! ÍIJf P.!~ !Ja1íl•.11lihr..1 ,1n-.·t jl)IJ 1111 .. w,111 ,n,
, ~ Ja1fl)l1Ualfflnl lai~¡i.,ll'JI' 1llf</U~ ~..,, I•
lt111.I ,urm""•'~ l111-~1tJI tu IJH•ltnil 1¡111Ju ltan11ur111n
.-vup:>11, fi\'4\-t••IHIW, t..i•¡ 11nil t.to·..n 11¡n:t.ur rno1•111•H! "'
rnmtW ¡,~ •~Ji~ rl ,.,, 11w w.iwliv~ .¡¡1...._ Salu:II IIIJI '"'""-
~<111 JtU•ti,,!c hi lltgJlltotultN,11 U,\l(IIIIT111I~ 11 ~uu,111 ••1111 1) l ll •
,hou'l(I Ti. u .. 1t fl1 ,, !lt t11fó11Df 1 !,I t,,rt,w- •,'lil (f(H11\."'I
l..i.ü.l.1> .,.¡,1 fi)f ,ut.u:..u •lu,uUJ.11""''"', l.1111 Um1:, , t I U
whillh bijll l!rn,llcr Si=I' flft~III" lbt~f ¡¡t:t'IJIHI Oiu:k.1,p,
...n11& ~ .....Wf tJ. dU fil'" 1\11,0 ·-""" M&IIW ~llt. T'fT
l1:.:1J1w tui l!,t1.hl 1.urh ..
i..¡11

\i rt.n l l'tH•»: 111wt ,1) i(l'!) \'iff<'f 11 t .-il' , U111u,w"'n Ml(

.......1.1..J , •• , 1 ....,,."I» iJn-111 t.MaW.. 11~ a.lJ
t;O ,11.sUlll1 ,..¡'$i-:oo,i,, (,,- 1.t<lltkt111n.1Jt11@ t.'1llu&11 1,111 ..
rr ,f'¡f! l!lllllll,. 11 l'f 1111111111!,u.u f11Hl l1111,f1M 11"1' Ultll\l fl111ii114 lo
SI)~ 4,11 w.. IWU.UIWW. •1.w11111 .,11111:nt u1Uu ••

... •11¡1~ 11 mmmillJ -~Mir#!' •ttttl\Íll'fY .._ ... " ....... l,íf C't'f,._

-
Mo,, i1 ...,1,rom,.r11'f\i1c.dlia11 (F!f1.u• ,.j(i1, 111•,r Jn"et'... ,.,1

-
(U, UIHm•&l 'WII "h I hl! j'll~fl0 """" ffQ ~flTil llftVWTI !11 f i,
Utf,-.a.l, fl••l1# !,-,.,t..'11¿~ ~t 111~'9,_I ji!~ ,a.lcth.11
•t• ,....
e.
(.,., ••111 Jll}t1~111, t ¡l-1,11\-:p!u111f1,o itJ, ..,~11 raim, ...-1,riut
' ,. 4 .. ~ nn:aU 111 •M 1itt,·r,m-ml tnn~ l lrf'W~rrr.1111 1
.1111.tlrluiU lu1l1n;ilim,llil1i 111111, 11.111 iwM 1Ul1111,-.,m1Judne
"°'
é
11>,mñq1, irirn:h tlJ~llff 1111, 1•11 flmll~I ltf ti,fj' n1m11n1
l'hi- li•"tt""J' ~til•~l 1• 1 ~• ~t '-'m,'\·Ur .. ,.._
uf 1 ~,i.1, t 1d. l'WU tl,,, l.wo ::nunu ,,,,, r:o.... 1t11t11litt ,rn
"'r'tnltf .,,.,u•
Mo:imum 1'n<I'" 11-flain "liun ,t.:11c1rr-
ft.'IU• .cul la p~ n., ~ .Jut !ip\UjJ.zm~I 1.!1.1!
11,ha:111t 111, 11,1mvn 111'rlj1011·,j.,J,; 1114 J•'ll

~ ... '*•• ll\l11nul fd1II. 111. 1 wm .,utr.rwnlul u1fl'ffl'1111, 111 111•

"111j iOIU .,_.,..!111•Tit I Nf .. •l•I JIÍ~ ln,,t¡Ap,#'
\l\i, wr ttlrtv •t1--111T1w ""lr.llW'iv•~ l11,, .-,,,111.,¡·1ti11
Tl:zt.-m.i•irl H111miiffm•' IJllltlJ) 111 lh, .. 91!1• ~w illil'IIM bt 11tuO... 1 t.. .:1111 ..1111 ,,. dw ltilii .•1,1 .... mhllly • J1tu1M!. c,o
;::,iup111....,.,. w11 !! '~" 11 a,,rnr¡n(I;" •ltor1•11• yvl,lfll:,.i,4 Rf1íl IIUGl]II' ··~unn• ,.,...,,., Tllf ntHIJ11UUIJ qw:111U1Ul pw(Jw¡~

. ..
-~.,.
rg ~·ff
I
i. l>.t1 VA,. iil'III. Ciju~l ...1uutt111o w I ii. '"'"' ,,.,11111lnl'lL. i t1r111p..
cxml!¡r; cmnrnt 110.51\, All.Mu,h 111>t u ~nUI!'! *' ,
1111
111.1.,.. L Ji· 111,I,¡~~ IJi.,, 1,,\tal.!. t!Wly • h'J.til~r' fl\~l'l,,w.
Of n,, tna1,11h.uJ !'1ut1:u1 H#11-if.wnuar t«•mtl\\1')' wrn:,11,
'w'tl&u•f•, •n\:n1al o~t•mIII lf<:llUIIMll ! Mttlf"lf ti I l,,
I.UN; ._,11hu,1Um11 aw. utiul 11J U.11,1 u.Ut,.¡ \.UU.Lúm11:u1 iJ.,
1104 l:lrlt- 11\ r.c h!c11U1ml tricic,1:tt•I ll:!1110hO.)' 111111 b, 1tlJ•
l.llll'l>hlllf !nl'lt • ~ll'Yt f,it-.. , n1J1m.Jit..-:1rrnn:. Jt.mll1••/"fnfl!
U l. lW1i111tlk10 khfl u.... 11,r11ntl lu li1:11tW•ul•v 111,11~
....,Jiua 1 1•'1 l:;l\ 11) 11(• 1 ~111••t
IIUOIIU) U!ln-rllJ trll"'lpnntl

~~-
~ lle tCQWHJ 1J, l11IJ!,l t1•~ ,MIIII••~

-r~··•
•• 0-111111 .. ~111t ltl!mlill ,111111

...
¡........

·- .
..,.
¡
--
·~·
$11111 "'"-
•
a,111.,,1 ""'"'"" ~
•
Sllnw-1-
,n;11
S~~..,.,..11' Mi
..,,....,,,.i ,
tlg'" • 2?: cieMW:I._. ... ,<>r' •th...,,.,. 1M CWC tlJ'TOI
o,_.
ú,11,.,olroo.,,

,..., e--,.••
•1 1li-9J01••
'Cltllit&.mll...,••""-1'1
•••,~n ,..,.,""' "'"'"
Fli,, ... •·t•, c..-.;.......-, 011•·•~· 011:,,. CNe (81'fl» o._i
o,111,-t111!""41' Wlflllll! l he C•HllOllllld St:i•- lo

...,-.,a.tkN•••01-111..,.\i.>tw•
........ '·'"""""""'..
r\!.11u, .. :, ,linw• l!m 1!1'Pt1•Ut!11\II Wlt•I\ 1\10 •l(lt11111) .,y. 1tc1~m, Sot1.:l 11n11m~1,14 ...111,um•H ,uffM¡i,111 ¡rr-1""'"' t•b!ltf'
l._ 1Tll.-.!' i... (l1•t1l11• lu( O,• .-vt1..m11I
l(m n fl'\'lf"lfT'!fflit1'-1i 11111\t líl'ITill11l •r• ,,,,.IOll, fin füu, hu nauT •1.•11:1(1111 ¡
l.iuh tr-1111u, '-.ln~ f'1m11n11_11u.1~rmn111t-o,IJ,¡•JO ~·tllu llfJtimi Uttlll.• 'I 11~ ~·t•ltl.Ulij'ut ij, UW!k t,1ua.w,y tuw wti.l ,,
UI\' 111lrc1 +f.,11111111,:m nt I i:. !Wlll runnn 111m1,,uun1 m:11il ,11111 m tfn¡¡tu ;11h•!11tf'lf lt1t ltim,l1•11a:r1•m:nr.11I1u)'ti)•bm1
,j¡¡1 fllMUh1nlJ l t.!11 "91!, 11' ¡fl 1t ..r11h I" <l.ittM flllrl lrol.ut, tf h~'IJ "'"'"•
1t1d 1t1t1tiutui111t rn~11,1llu1111 t 1i•illliot1H i.hc•lllll l!c. l11k•11
t,i..udJuu:,n 1o Clrl!'1ll~ J IG 11,1.j I) 1 fi "wt..¡11 !!l f !i!U! !l•Zl¡,
t~iO tc4, 1;........iw ti!¡, h,d,.u :LJf._.,, 11,tlWHJ IJuh .. 11 lllf> pntlaf) •v,m-e i\ CMu.lUllll.t lutA lllt!fl '• • l'V'ffll"
f11e1up itqumu:e oJ 111- tlntt.llQIUl!I Llllll)'i ltl u fnOvWt 1,.,uuc .... 1 l1i&tr:(.1'1Adm, tlt!c • h1dJ u1,
,:1111111.d ,¡_.
1;11.!'1m>
l 1 \ !l H, 1nra -.o 1.0 l \ 1 li iTIT"' !M 1 \'H \\U mV' 1111111 .. "'" ~ lfTIGn11¡11te ")' IIJI 1'1lll!IIY OJQIII" (11T
·s:,J 11~,i l.&l 1:to uip1l..l ,11,,1 ir,-.11 Uuk., t.'111v11, ~.,,, ••.lt.c:.t-W, l~·~ff . ..i!U .w '-" ,...w.~ .,,,. .....
C'R rt:l,!)'foi ¡,mv11Ht l"<'W~(\H°lllllll"Cllf f!f(IICIQIIIUI llj:11t1•• <•I ,tu} •MI• 111l111~•Y. IIIL'ltltJ• 11111r 1.1.mumtr.Jlu11 fliJl!ut:
ttl H~ ~.toff' ~11\n 1.-, fl1l"l'l' olllTI ~w,! !11 fl'í:1111'1 t1\
11 tln tt11ñh\1 m" 111 lik• ,·1111111 w W•I IIWI lh«r tuul\J 1clt.lmu, t11111,,1111MI, 1)11 .. 11111111111111.¡111~
i1.a1•••i1l ,1w,.,1ll~t ~11r-
,._..11nN!lf llll(J\'1, 11\1111111111,•111 tl•nw. 111 1111111~ •~::, 11nil Mn ,1m:1tll l'f 1111 11rcm.9 •n~ ú11lt 111ru1 p11,n1~111• wi11, 11u1+'1
f IIWlf.llH~ u. ., ... lii-t 111-i.i, Hv r· IUllltV l.1di jltlr· ett.ill. 111i.Ji.fl¡t'11 lb,. i,mu.t, j.¡i,, .~,., Scvrt,il ~'~•rt
<-11
-

-
-
-r,ui,fum,u 1 ,uH•rc. 1111~11 01ttll•~ n • 111.11 .,f 11.1111..tb,;...-
1,un, 'fllíf1 110 thl'l-'"'1ir&o !"11a1,l.1ir .. fftc 111n,1M..1.arn .,,ullt.•11•
~i.J¡¡.w.J ._llli lJw <J',llUUUSÜt!ll V't \f~ll UI l.!iwtWft
'º 111'111 .,,

rx l'lt<rf1jt'T1Utt Of, ttfl.\Sl. !\JloOlf' irEGU1,,~;TOU

All\1) VOl.;TAl!..l RII..Ul11.-,AT0fc$

\ ~h f,w;i:,I..J.l(gririm,fn'lm,:r '11ill11TI m1J..1't11l1 ,m,.

r.,1-11 la t••IJl•f¡¡,1j YUllUp' (tll 11 '"" lu lllilli!I llW, ~iih lf¡j
~lll ... 9~1Jtml! ~1,1:,0.. • Wbl I tu o.uttlro! f!tHl,l't IW.W 111 Uil
Wllltnl Á \'hl~Ij!tj!tu.U11j1 11.MM:111.-iu \,111,mpkO! .. !l~
•h\1111in I IC t¡y wmu¡¡¡i ur lnUK.l..lfftllll II rqul.tt1-'<I "fJllllJlt1 Ulf
,j lm• 11'1 ífmllit w'lt ll l'n Mrltfl-l(l'flTfnllfl ~ 1tlltl1ll Th41tt 1-WO
lrn1a1~•11u~ ..nnihll h.n11.1IIW "' l inrrll!I t1mi 11.n•I •11 rxnriuw
tmlt, ll~!Ed •11111 , ... lllr•~ •1nm1tt!' CUl'ft aulf h¡ •p=1t
1.i111o &lt-¡,,,rni,.1111 Hit .J.v.1111nM 11• 111 ihit lnM\, lh,-
a...:h..Jn¡. mul tllur i. wy~ er U1tlu.«mu11d.11d; •lt1i 11.- ni la

•id...... º"
1111!1 m~-. ,-. nm'1tu1.1,II u, 1,11.., 111111 "' 111!11 mtu 1w111«.11ii1
1UWJU1 Uu!sdw1llill llhWlau1• UI llle.1'.U1Jj~
lmU, 11o1-tln•n m t,U!rn• ,-JI • 1m1le h1111k am 111tm1ll:m.111
L,,.. J"f'"LI.. l)')!h Ir••
rh1111'!!;,n~Jt ~·ti11:1'1 ml.lll¡;'t'cvuLrn&
'.L.. l1Jod1nai. 1 tls f1ttttuUl.11 wNimu1111 .. U,11 (IIILl•'fl:11lio i1t41U4
luur 11.11.d ""ll.11!;>! 1 quJ!lt..-,llt" :n lir!C!l llt 1l1e ....... rq wnn:n
..;j.Q-----, 1111' lmtll. l\ •1•1u111M:.l.til. 1 ¡"'"'"
l>-JJ ,i11,w4 ; ,, ~ tlAl'-11!1!
0<1o11
l.hiJi 1;t1i1hl IN u,i1e.d IUt U,u. i~l>ilwld" fl'lilllrc 8'4) I

~--+---f..-------------•'
.. • .
h.--
"""
1
t e ,, .
.....,,. lw 11~11 w wm, 1,1c1tt1.tuw.11l l.Ao M.'lr1ntÜ!Ut' hlt!l..li.''',.ll~
tj11dm111iil,'1 , ... ,u~•11, 111 1\.,. m11nnn1t11 fin, 1uur1111·m11,
... fl"'llnill~I ilffl'Ml"II ,•.,,~.,, ..,., ,,..111\'fou ...,••~ "" tfiti ,~
tun1t,,1 f11IIIM)' .\Uinuuilill ,ul,o,,,,lf la 11.f!C\:illl j)1,1bt.l,~
,v,11111m11 IQil! 1{111 WQOIUUl"J 111r••t11 ,... o))l••w,i bHOH! l'!IJ
l'f.lltl,l!f '-'W\.1.1 ht.ulr.4t1t 1 &>!11., ... ¡j

Wt101t II tlmTflllh 11¡'lft1 tlut '"' ili111ai..t1 A11(! Fl'll,i-ifP -.Jl."Jm1

!t. .'JO. ,l.!ucc, '11111!1 t11N •r"S u•ial 111,,.,1uurul
,-..,....:,.t --
lv1:m:;ah(H>.,.\l,AtlfJ ""
~11 •llft Vll!t<I'•• Q1011t1..i,
rr.. Allf.l• R-"'"U•J.,r,.
 i
.,------,.-+ +-e

_____ ..
,,.,r"'"'''----
-
,,.....,....,
._

n....,~ rffi l\-tU,f tlllll)'", u,u~ 11111 1fful•I 1111.1,ida1uv•(.a~ ,ooucmu,i 1111.1111iITTl\f1 flrnll•1t•rin1,., ,a,mmmnliffl. t.1'111,
JOVt.t41l'lt ,:tWctrhim.. .ü..iJlulollt Jn JtiJw. J.D Ll:lll CUUl:llb j)IIIW .... l,ll.l)tll liwi wilJ t11nd111t" 11t111• C:lm'!II\I r'-'1 \ j¡¡ I..IJ,"et•I•
Ju, l'(_.41••1 •N•IU!4 ~a:loc.TullJ lo ¡1.. 1,1_..,- Sinw ,11
lt, 11111 n,c 111bJ
i1h!kwm::111h 111:N In lt',11fJJTtlMfl o!m:..ut .Uliar:,iUJD. w.mlf·
utA tiltw.1J1.1ttt1l lhr- .. nii11 wrni.1:fil111 hmi. ntrmllHíli.111 \kuet 31S'(lltJ rtl11.:," mi• NI t1t1••J ¡ul)vldtt it.lfün:11U..I
nfff'l'O!h~ l.'111 "'" 1ffe.¡t I IK" «TF nl.&>·i; flf0t«:11~u ttlf •rf\'·~nn 1rnndo1rn,1 l\f.SJIPWII 111 f11,i11t:
i-)-' ,1_,. ~MUl'til lu11d1!1:11111- .... f1" W,.MUII j .. ~j~,ialii li, l>
al~ u, !lw 111111~! ro~ "111:c .w.indhaat u) 01u11,.1• ~c111

-
~
•-·.,;c:.-Tj-J,-~,-• -l. 'hlll,ÍMt! flrnft..•T.111 fin ,.,ll •Mllltlf t'lllf

• 4
• ¡ ""

• ilun t,n,, º""""'

....... ~.f., ,.,..... tt.31,
Ooft-"l•If'r.,.K1•"" 1 Tll• ""--
Uf(. ~¡..

.
•• id llll- f1~t.ttli.i°' :ti ll.wti!itUlU11lUl!I..Y¡,.\Wl"1111 tia•
lurJ...a f:IUI.\~ sJ?.uál.J t\C: ui~uucul A HtWl11 ol 2::9 JOf •ti
,,11h1uuf111.-,fü,mt _.¡U 1rmfl,Wh!!llr""'lfim, s'ln¡,. lh,· Plff•t'!"'tilll P't•l!Nlíl".' 1.-.. 5,.-
~'""'"•• .. Tt-
i wtl,¡¡1m1I .. ~tL.ot•dJII wv11 c,:111n1ttl~il 11, 11116 l.!J1b:11I 1'!...,._ A•!i•• RJt0,111"°'.-.ff!au1•*'1,
Pll.ffll\!, lliey Qll\ft'11 •Ffll) P'ffl *'19Ul?f!CC '11n!Clf fQf "•
tctf'ltll "1)11tl,I 1!"'11• ~-•11w11llt1 1 li. fHll"elll lf'Sf"l!i01ni, ... K Jl111 H1111 •'-'111~1, thu•,11111 iu 1-..mT 1"'4 ih,t..Clllit wJwW-t.
lot •M7Jf 1-ebft 11ir1 be ril i1..1 Wvo u, \11!1111 .;a1.111c11tc.ll wv, *
11" 11-1v ,~ ... llnt-cJ11111111.u111 I• tl.-i.1111•0 r,.• u 1111,d \'11tt:a¡¡,
 \w 1lu 11muf nu111,,
t1¡1o1ui\1111I .,,,!
11ir, 111 !!l"lkllnlltlf f"11Me-
,.~.., 1UIU J iw-.. ~llihmUdr ; ,Wi f lb""·!I, ·t ..u.,- ..
"1111 hl flu1 lln~__.•,a1111lnl 'IIIIUl.1111 I /.1 • 1~!1 lhtt w,,.._ , -----• -- -~ Q
'°""'" 1
. --·
1t•11U1np.;a .. 11111,l«l 111,f'l',mllh,t1111f 1hfini1-\órulf11m \
1
.:&.l"lflltun~ en ~llctli..t1I htuU. wl1\cti l'll.l'o' nw..1.u.« iitt,wu w11o •\
•• Ji.!
·¡~
-,, fht RTIIJIIw1n1f11TU Ulll'l.'.lll..., fi1fl,f llf!N'll111lfl ,11 lhe- ~ iS
•w;i-
\ 11 1
'~Hunr,u•n ...<-! 11!! V•lllffUll ljlMh •tll f•w••• t!l'itHl'i~'{',)O.
;" 11,1,1 '+'I.I.I.IÜIIJl.lili.O ldl. wl.i, tl1""·Utlllol i.w111111J1 • 1rt1Mt,1i
•
\
1 ¡. 111.=··
.,
1 •
fxlQol• h1cim!11•11111" •lmuml1:,1.1ht •' 1 h• tui 1111 11i11thlt~
' ·-- --- • .
n,11n1,..,, f\ttl? 1~11'" ~, irntl Uft 1•11111tm1J ti- l,,w1lu~
Alhl lt1ot1 ...t fuu11 ..du1111, powu A\flhtU r.nm1(Hui,. \ ,y¡1t
1¡¡f111111I) 11~! l.&UÍtl vfl hn• n.~ VI ttill ,1.¡01 ,, ....
laf "(IIUWI
"111•'""' 113*
c.,,,.111,-!•r-• ..-,•-rv 0 .... ,.11,.~
o,rn...ll lh'-'11.. .......,lff,~11 •"4 '•• lkliU•tll.l•
11' 1:M l1'd!JJJ1
uim .,, , .... ,."". •n-w~ fl11:G"la:J,:,r11, s-11,1,J•• •,11
~ t.1~1 11j'\'1A..._,. !11 jji., w!J~ 'Wll/le-..1.ij\~.,_, I~ .:,e).~
11Ut 1lC 11111 b1mli d!) 11111 Olllt!l":MN In lil!!Jhl IU tWf',.(!.lt11r.•
'"'"'~•"• ~ 1111 lf 1w1"'111)1!f11 "11 ,,,of>k•n,, !lt'fl'IMt. , llf
it 1; w:... • LUolúJJ t. ...ii- ....11.i;iid o ,l\1 'YI\ 111 1 ltw• i-.i.l
lm 11l,1111fü

O«vltit, 1 NI lt.'.D-J NI:,, 1 l.i 11• tNUJrnt rn~mdl .. r 11u, ,ri6I

c''l"f llnll "*'°mUu)· prcrv~ ,01nil\YI' lfAlm1I 1111111 jl11.1,
t111..1h111 l,w tt1,!fl.1!1tl1...,'"°"111111111 111.Jlt• rm t"'II' ~Jit.1) o.... Yt11ta1•

tiJc di IIM..ndti~ umt fin: t1tht.-1¡m•th,., 111.uunl (IM1t- e""""''••

'"""' .. u ....
A"91.1IS1.,9
M.ts1119
li.COIIIHIO,
1l11í\w11 t111 • ¡µ-..11u11.l lu1.1h 111 tan ..110 11111,own 111 1 IJ!.mti-31_

'"'""' l·ff ;·!l>fo'S~•lll'II• CVJ1'111\U !U!\ t.l!"'t•ttni•íG'•Uull.

"'"11• 1• Tf1• flf!HO Af!Qlt fttlt(llttor of l'MIIM't ..,,.
11:,... ,,,,"'o n, ... e;~ 1t11n a,i,o,dl,11M111

--·
1t1N111111111,01
w,,.. t, ....""'" tl•1M•"'º
-Íl!&""Jillhllm•l)r'1:*fflt rlW) i• 14((111UIU!tUIID"Í(II I h1111t. 111111 \
1 "rr«illlY -41trl,·,,. ltirrt l.. • 1t11it!i p,lo!ttnWI A.<" m ,r:;.mt:
1
1
h111J In ilt,t!. UJI lhll!ljt!t((qjj4l!f1Mnl
'1
__
\• •
•
}
'
..
,......,. •-M: h••••I.• Otflulltl
..
-- ---
~qltfftl4Jl'l'.len,S.ou•-tlwrr.m•
- S111C11 1ne: ,«nnCl::'1.,.i Q,·,.cm .,¡,I¡ H 111111011rl1hd íu am111 ~·
rllqtílifli,• d11 rq: tm111wl.rnf lrnmf/'.!"1T,1t an l<lrJm"lti=d
.q:11.Trlfl ,'ratmil h1.d1 • l!) lhc ~1.-ii,e JÓOWl'tldl l'il!lull 1l JS
fo1 • ••oo.,.,.., a~uun..11, ••.- ""·'"" , ·~·• ""'• •• n111 '"f:ri;itmm, tt:111~, )o,'"~ C'ltfrn,~1•1m,~1u11 ~,ur-,-111 um,
...... P.'-•A""'III- A•.,11-'l,oOc,f f'll'"''•t·31 ,01....,_. t,,,w1iJt 11t1AU.W1U ~ittll.lll.1!1 lf! 1 Jlj,W• "-'\JII, lb-
lm,-,nm:rn:::nm1- ~¡.¡., f1lutc• 111111 IIMI 1t1:u1.1:1I i,ró"IJ!m
t).,...._ • i ~: \(U.~ ffl'•vJ ~w.i.!n 111,:cl~m11,. llt1111.~-' 1 Ha ,,.tilofl(l'gm:ili~ rwihtL1mn, fh•• mlhy ~i.11íl lhi- u, 1»-

.u1d lur-lbi.tU:et,t11hnli\l •il1fl• ptlUO•lt>-tlDUll,I hhllU úu <i11lfoJt1 11rllll tt11uml ·~i.,1t1 l11 lU~ .....u.u.,o.lW tytltW. 1,1;,u
.... 11-~CUUl.f µ.111111fllllíll)' ih, l,Uflt111 UO'ft nr m~utnl ee- ,j¡·J.ll>ni!IIIT n~ n?$1)'"- Uh!lt 11:a 111• .,.J.tc1Ht---rt*ur'$lrli}T,
;,w.ict, m1 ti-: 1KUUtmulnrn1t""Ut!Dn~, 1 t1i! l'tüllll!J ..,,uuilttt aH-flM"llfltf"tllllf'!;! 1111 Mi.ti! 11111•,n:., !lllllt~
I r-1,uu: 1!,--301 .Siumi I hCI 1r.biy 1ru1y1n111( up, '" t'!IU}tt11U
l1111lh\l i1111Nt \-.HJ UtoJ ~~··11/l,I hit rT'lf'tlih1-lli~1t Wll'fl !h• rlln 11111111uh1\11 \nnh ••• Ml,lqn, •w11.:1'11!\l h)' , lltlillt&ÍY"'-,
hai twc1~m1uil Jl'úUllíl hll•y1,. ill w11ll d .wil h ! I NL Wil'-tl lbilf lUA ~W.!Jcliull ~"'IJfU, iJlc'f "C'
w.!11y1UJ.1-..,.
li111p11t1iit1lnum11:t• l11u ili 11• bt-Hd IJ,,-. 1;! l ltttiilounet-11
1b:r~1nt. rnnanll 1"•1•r, t tmtl .. ftl"~ r;.,:1j·1n U/111t -··
~IIJ. i.•m.-..... p.._-¡,, .;uli ....... _. jet¡,,...; ....., jklllll·ttllll!l
lm1M11a 1JUll11a 1111ruiu1111,nl _.,
a..-,~
• • • !IUll>.,11',_
J1 ....

r;:-1.
...
f--í
.
,t © 1,.. 1,t (¡} ¡,, ,,.,. i!l\1 •
1_ 1

.. .,•
'. .-
.
••• A111tt--Lff.'.V,.'1...,
•--""''"' w.v. °"'''-
in,.,._..,.,., .. T-ir........_
Sii:W.- wtt•

Flf•"'·.....,.T+i1
l"'te,1.-llll'I: .. 1f;ir..J, .....O,v-'"'1-, T ••1..ti.11,..., w11t
,.,.,.~~~~-~-
.l{!L.~~~~,~
l.,-'"-S:lkl1_.;,e.,,tm'~.,..--~
Al-lt•"'-"'·'"1tt.

-
-·
Kl ~"TfftOONlfE.CJ·W,.WY.1\W!Lt• raütStOJUU.lt
rRO'HCllON

5')1~ pi,iW..u l;;t.laliJ.Ultllf \••IJ.#• nm11l•I til il,t-cq ct11rnt<tdl

wjudilllJ rot t,U11~ lllml!l!illl Of ·~ '111 fll Jflo'UU!UIIJI, ~J
Jtim.11~ tt~ ¡1..-¡i., ,HIII ~I¡ lkfl'IIUW!l!lll!i11U¡\jl jw~
tWffn llttt 11rnlut,1 tlld k..:odll••Y ..iUd<1l iile t:Jnb.lr-
pcmt1 Pl1 lllta¡ fcll'lnt"l',¡t,nl 11' rn~wi 1;\!l1J!lta1t\ "'"'"lu,p •i.
im••l.lllt •• ¿&.._µ. Wii~ A• t\1l!-w11,.- trljjwf '"' 1 •
bb"uvc.r.. 1 •)'11 ~th·c'1.Ull1 l,):!Uf1111iw "" ,•~t(I, !m1,11tm:l:u1c
11 (lfH-.,.111.l .41111 ttf t'lflll!l '°rliíl 1!1 !Ml!llaJffl(I l'llll'I'
rw,n;tl.lfi.Lw't'f lt1u.u lt H!.fh -.a,i1~n~ll •11!mn4 .. ,.,;,....ri,,,
pouu,l ht1II• 01- lll11 '"'>' Mrl!, ,y~~I 1l l\(11h wnnflit;t, 111e
~lt. 111\.. "'~"'"'1"11,, s:,,..i+tn ...... ~~ ....,~
~~
,,mCOII , .. ~ ÍIIHUt11i
mlj~ ,.,1111
ttllhil lit tht ,1:it11111, ,14c K1•1h ,1 ..
n~f ,:e~ •1.J.1.IW'1W' C!I! !Cll!
pb11..=
11t1u,~, ,111111l(l b11 ~"'" "' ..........
,._.t.'·~U,--.l¡¡_'.,
~ w11111111111,\¡v,u,, 111r111n~,.ei11u.t ~ ittt ~ i.~1,·i.,"'. U¡'·!jj
i.t..mt.•lut ,m;.11 i.,,1.-,.1j ..~ ... ,

rz..,,;·t-,.to1 1,inrf»!!'-""'1911 wn Dt<i.. T,Jf'!•t~ ..... ""'"

\l'n••flO' .tiN111 411 t.._Tw• JI¡-
 u.,
., " rn.m •ltflf'lt"'lql:Trrr.

f@
.. -111-0
•~ Swi1du1¡j lt11i11l• u~.:I 1m ,11! 1.r41.ud1t11-.
• S)'1tft1nil1u1.1t r-cui&W.11...-..

-~-
u.,

~-
tll.,:nl •tiu.ut e,r_ucivr.. ti.JI: si:-ln!nll)' u•il lm 1:11\o Wul 11.lu,
-lt~ fl\J ~,ueu•i.l fur liY ¡¡¡¡fitu.. ,wlnniid dnrm t1aaon ,-.r-
.,w•udJ.(,~ wul ,~11cllt-,11(111 I etJit!l.tiiwia it~t11iilt~ U.. 1 tu,
u.a.~
! lf I
'--'
.....
1© tt111f111lylf!$ ")"Ual'I¡ 111/J 11fl•• ·tm1rl IIC'rltfll-,

(ticm1 ~'ltlT) Pffutlf ~ ;Jto..t~ '>•~1! i"'Hí.r- -.,1f

•pflhuullon. 'l li,U dJ111dlln • ,li,;c 110111 ) ilf I L1 MVA, 11l
..;yl¡qc "'ffi!I fmm ~Ñ J ~ tu "?6! kV n11;r 911 M .-1111l*
fi!h,.., • ,,,.._ U!m-. •il fflf"i~ fy~ ..,¡¡~~1*-' t.r
•::f'p,t'cl-lJtm•..»ll'4\, r1w coilll1H'liolll!llíQ)' IIC ( 1 1 ibm11Jy 10
t\.r ,...,.-,,m,11,un, Íl'Nllf4lfl tn'f!011lt1nh1y:o¡,mflfflf•!'l1,.

~--. -- ....... Ulll.Ul1"tlU1t t11111.11L~1 !1<1-.m 1lfih• biaa 11/ JJ1 li>ik•.h.•w•
•n4111fll l'•~•t,$UA11t.11t1 w'i1jl tbt J,.nt ~ur.m.._••nft- 1 l'ltM
,~.¡ 11111,ll.,.flflnf •111m ~•!r,,fflllfl, 1

-
l !11P!'1"11111u" W't•l(II 1u, C11:11111tq¡tlllll 1111¡:t:.flV \ll !k1•J1•11• ~
~tu.i.t ....: 111 •b ,nr • pii11 ul! LW,...u..1..u.uw:alUll unuiu 1..-(o
cuj! b,-¡;..,,..,. 11111if<:uo 11~. T'I•• n,i,h11~ 1.1f•l ln1 1•11,1.Jn
flll .f'11WIY·111«fflht.LJI1•! gn:,,:nuo!,i Uu'!"l~f\ 11 tic111nhn.i1,,r

•
- ,.,
-'•
,u".,. RU .. 1111 f11uh1 nyulu 111111 11JI fü"1 lll1flliW11lt li~ ..,!.. ti

J ¡
• .1 "'''~ 1 ""'.,.,.." t.,¡ 1111! wi-11...-v ,j,j. H;U1•llNmrt
/Áill hhillflr:i 11111 11enffil)t un,it, -hhttllt I ho •101-(i'I)! hHll
lf.Ull .,¡µ

tiil t,;il•l~~·-•~li•t-11~(>•1t,..,. II...)•~

f11Ur- •-e1: ,l'rhfOOfln.há yt.,_.,..,.
T,,.-,O,""" tfitlf Ww
~IV Jlf1U'1l fipu1:1111~, '" "'"nlll '-:- ..1111:e, fJna: 1mt 11u111u
.i f'oUvi'.t,1.t,11\, 1u1~w,, ~t.111 l!h110,..ir.:t1 t;~J..tthn tu.~
,.,-,v•1•
!li-·'V•W-...,UÑll ....,0-.,,-1.. -hl. '.
~IIJUWlfO 1,11 IIWilUllllit UUllilth M1.m.J1uii:;s

XH l'ROllCZJON 010:SIIU.Nl fU:041:'f01~$ Ut1tt••t1~.ltll..lo11 •11 i1li11I • ,ll1111iar an ,_,11 111 • ,.._,y i\lf11
t1t.-rv~t111w• 4'11.cu lm1¡& t.a li..... ••d1:t o.,..11-ut1 r,.,~ e.t1!1 •
Ullt '·~••"' 1'1-1141.itt~ ..... ter-4.t J1u,,.¡-,.fflUU,,..t~
,.,¡lffn:l,j
Ít(h'lou to 11'l<okl uc.:.b11l•I wt:l ól 11CYb¡tiOMlil lmW ti~
t11un filW tr.rmm!rf'-" htinJil'ld • U\I tr.u:.,11ttttJ1l,t11,ll:if'I l•.l!!J
1n1I i::1hle-, 111qolnu1fu111i o..ttL..11~, ,.,.oomp111tt.1IO>lui lhct1
Í4tF np1ic¡t1Y4 rrml~IWI rn,,.....,...nv
.C:\P).{Ílllll1'i1 rmuucn \ "~ Unv.-.n1111F1•~:le..,l(.111.ll1• gc1m11U)' lni~.iir~ tt> l!!'m+ 1,W
P'!ll!ttl\tMI ..-!ilt/1, lht ff'illm! <tlU~ iJ'*,t• 'l. .t~· lm, rmn«I~ trml" .nl,l "rf'I yf11"1'1• w.!I Cl"'lli.:-rtnl ~f ,.._.
VA lf IO':R•:t11(lui1 il.tnu"f' d IIU! ~·11'1ai+ ot 11111 .VJI• i,.1)(1 IJIO lél11\,1JJ•ttu1-'1.:,. fltc.111\11.l S•t11IIVIA,,Ulllll1Ut r.Lt,-. u,1
• 41 '1.ltl'1110n •1(hl\l!' l\tm1lb ,,,11 lli, ~·1111wrr,,, cu11ft1itñmA, ff{út1t•1imlfl•a, no~ 111•,ui I itJJ f?1t11tí• ,,rnmu,, 111111 t1:11,
tn .. ,.1,w -llt,.U. ¡¡ '••lll,(DUlr twl,hi..tm 11~ Y .\Jt~ itJJ.• dtfl110A1b) ~"45tlnf JI ¡,uUI:...; l~u.Jj l111:1,i ~,j.._w "'-·IH1
.lldf "'••IIW ,ui11:1,,l--ai I~•• 11111nprnjái.~urilljl au,r.riml O¡,a. tiU11d •llh.lt\11.11111 l.12.n1fuum11• •!~ f•> U1.u:.ndo1 MYJ\
11,,.r lli11ñ rncp,t•II• -m MlA,.11 1.i1,,:c; ,,1 lml.t..mllAl tW,k.o luJ11ll11,Ul1I l111ili"111;-fmlll il'frt t,1 mnuíh'il"ij'IPtll! di~ tm'l,J.lll
IU.J 1,o'-...U ;pi_U!WJ.W1J1.(1,111.1111J 1t,1ui .. 11Lu ulilij ttq,iltt Uu tttn1111,1 ... -Q&1•~1WJlv t,111 ,mi, lluu 1.11 Wluu • llit i::uitUIJ.
,Ufil;umt •u!0,11111,••f V t\lt'•NX(1rmum.11ni. n-u1. ti 11nani, ·11t11T11'ill1I fl II r~111!cf)' ~11 ¡;nm~ 'Wi,lft M.fUntUI pqc{?t
WUW! \1:i111t ~"'11117!1 1twl lh1t l!r11t MIC'\t. fS1Mli; .MJUl.lmutU1111.1ii:_ü¡;¡
 ....

,Tur1IJ.t',.«at11.1ctull twwi~ w.i1 b.J11:.hlut1!111b, l.t.aut< ~M b.11 tOt !lb.,.,. thu -•n• w-11••uu11. tu.rtt:m ( l 11>) "'º•I ti
l111111B- fil'••• 111t1.f!11111ut ,00111,
S.ip,1111.1• 111~tli:u·p11111u:uut1 llldM1i1 1.11 ,ia 11urntm trn t.. ,tn lf!.Hlil~ ni, muJ'\11 1•1•t01J<
ll!Li•o 4u: ·~11 ... wl11,,I Wi.c::i., rn.1.u.....6 U\r .h:uu:Uir1111:r Uult, ~ 1.1u.. li&llat.wU11\&J.l.tl..,~11t1 lll.w.~t!llt:f"
j1,,,..111m1 m111,w,e1l,11••.hu1111• !\•1111;! 111 Ji.a:111, 1 j1t• IIUlll 1:,t;t.ifllllU111t 11 !f1~ 111i.l.'C11~ 111 (~llllll:t'!ll!d !O ern 1111,

611rM 1111t1lh1l TM111tL110 ••.iu., m, pr1lfH'hO!l fn ti, '"fr1IOl1d ,r,,unlid't.m'ft, ~Ohmut ~IN 1111,;1n1.¡1....,r,,m:1tt,t 1111,
.....,¡ IJl,,J u...._ ••IUl.ilittJt•1111iluuli ""'"'«' Mil
1111 1 'º'l'f'l 1111 n11,,.1, ... "'-ht11• ••:i1id,., ,1t11.f "'• MI di jl.uru,ru 1hn1Utlmi.11n.
l11111ht fo '411111 •••"" llti! p,,,-11 Hh) ,11 10111111 '"l+l1111• Umll'11
<ltpmlJlm¡ NIH1tmt Uv ~,~11,M.JjJIW" 11.nrn1eil

-n,, pRiit;:::ll\Ylti;Íln,:¡uo «.ni1110:n)~·1i.w11 lúl f'QdiJI fil'¡..

".-1 f 11111111..~111 ,- ,hl.lo""-111.t•

II A.,1-tt11,- ú~I"'"°" .. 1 IJ!Pllcs.llle 10 ... llllJU 'llilll"

•"lid ,,,u
!1o1t11lw lili-ij IIWI _.. .. 11WI

•
r111,,..."·•> .,,,., .....,.,.G'l!II"""
o.-,·,11r1 1'"" ...""~'"..•""º"
,....... ,.,~ ,.,..~ t ......
1,,..,11 111-c:.,,..,
(líllll:r r1~1lt:'".:f\n1 n.,.11'-"IIJII tn.'fl. ..-11411~ t.u.f1 11 llkta1lu.-.lllP"'
•lit tij<~~ uuf,t.l.t; •wl tuUlu!ll. llt1~ 1t11&.1ltt6' Ju 11. lll!J
1t,o,I Vli:IWI XILIJ, llifíu11111r.l rw1111aio11

-'1:11.iilla ,ih~• ,hneomlui re.l.i1.- l li) 1111 _...,_.._ in I tzl"'"

¡,~11 uc: 111.mfn.:alWII l'nr ill ner , luct--fl t11uc 11f •• 111:lci·¡ll1111t! r•
Mt•of.<filrM,~.i., 1111.M,..;1&1,•i jftl,Jillt4 IIW 111•\ U1!1,V1lfl\ f14fll' wi,14, Wlli! •iil¡IW- tll~ 1111114.~,,I lit -,m,&it ,¡¡¡ llrt1111il11I
1uof1t11tlm111'r1illlN• fto11 lllbl wt1mwl l!1olu T.tlri•llQI 1, ree- 1c.by•...hl lli.1111!:uut)'ut!, IÜ., !11111 J:l.tit 1t1ht(t JIIU!l:I bolti
~•mn1oid.ed, 11.U.h1111¡f1 1b pól11J'1<111 •• nuuu.u11u. ti•iJ flfl' w:1•du,1 u.il f11111Uu1J! 1.;m1,.1.. 't11iu: 111_. 11111111 wiU 11q maa
__.16i..un, .-1 t Á.ILilLll:Dli.U.lt:Utd,Ja:. liJiWUl.l.tt JWWll..w:fld t!ilt S -i:w 1..11.t lnw,IA....._., "lllwu,ú,.~ , odulU ih# ••nrntla.c tJ•¡i..
l\fD)' ,¡11i:s- tt1nc -.,, l'Zlll!I wh.. ,c 1'I r,u;ll 1.-tl 1111 J.a111fbfo .-O.i-- nilap t:in¡ he ,,IIIIL ti";:i!m Otc ~:J "' tf-1!.uunull)I rA,
!lni" Jtlll'f lfHI t!M ~Pn. .ttl.a)" l.l)qllffl'tfl 1111 litft H,,~ """' rn.,..-m:iY i'i"'i1"11ll1!i.l.._ l,lt1fl (Jl"l'T•~ ••111111\tJnu:m:,;
119,ul lhl.i 11 ,nerit ~l1l1 nw11 u,, 11,11 Mi-,,..
J»wh 1h11 prrl- luulhn't,t•t11ul\ 10.1,1 A 'lti1 tliit ~A..i uoJ u.l 8 A 1..tr :U
f:i"'!. lf'l¡¡y
---111&'.JII-.,
W.J &llllltfll:11111 !Knf•.- '1111 1 llt'-U111:al \lll1llffn\d f•.i,,-
r"'
t ... 11 "'°r ... '"" 111 !"NI f • ,.. 111 IHll i•HI IIIUT 1,r¡ 11\Mllt 11, 1•p•11u11 I'"
•at)' i,ww.cüiJtl U,U.., U ~i..; lu1J ,,•,ttrrhm ¡.>t tlllm1Ut.lW1
~hffir:-11fíill Pl•ll>tui,011 ÍII •nd"'blt.fu, (1m!h qinttiJ. lfi• ••
ll:r,lf f,m~..ai.U...t ftll<.l1tul'f prmr.tdi:r~ MM....,"'.. ,-....-.
i,1o)h:l:1Ju1111.<t( co.,w .ttel 11Allllll~blo 10 d.t)'t1,,.1111Jb..

1 tJ."""1Tfl"f'!l t,ITT..-irnJ1 pmtl w111 ..,nn, tr,~fi,>11nr, ft n.., •• ~a.-,~.,.-•,.~ º"._.~.., P¡iM .. !.._ W-1\ o,....-i
•lü•W• i11 F:ijj!,,......_.,,
-n, '"11J npm,il;rn ,,.1 ,nn,11:n-h.. lM OJ'OUIWI ,._
,lli..n• •,..:,-.
Olt'111111Mlffll .... !! .. ,,ottcn ... ,.,,
Pll!IW" ljpfl: co IUI\N.m;PIJlTl'nl DlliU tJn 11rc 1111 pi f f
'"""' t4ttii ,M,nt ntllt,..,. ..,rtnl 11 llr n1 i,,.umoo•u~ ",1111!,r-C.'A·l(I..., UL'A "''-1 ••• l,rwsl lm • ,....,.,
11nllü,ot tn1'----aLtl •J fll't 1h11;'f t-;dr'J l;w1u.11I J'ltt •C\111nd ¡.,. 11ilfl'l'f1t1u1I rlu1 tónr 1tlli1tlm.s ,n ~(11ttérlt1I h> ! la.Oett!II
IQ"'!IIUJ \.ti,. t D!I 1?111.« ti\ O..• lq l O /l. 11•11 1,if11y j >ut.l ti Ílllcitl¡IUI .._.nti !ll!"'Jlt1HW'U:tl1 llt111114'Jfllfl JI! '1111Wrl !1t
flirl l1i11.11,• 11:11•, tl.im, 0.-$0~ icl.Hq J.L.1U¡•f''"W.IIII) lwW J~wu,, ,..µ fllu IUIU11Ulll1 .. ll..il.11g,
••f, h• C"Á•IG t- o 1 s A na,,, lllh.1 ._ ,.J"lí'' A 111, tol"',
fli• ~º" tllt S11ut1t f.111\'W' ,,¡111um.,!lf 1111~'i:,mn•i:uuf1g 1111
l\ltffill lV{tM11l ,•do<rf$UHI\ 1 tff r,rr~ t-..!a1tf'1' t,vlo,;:I Ion t.h_!ljt-... ,1111MIJ ~11~¡,¡1·11, J. (!'JU;1 da I ~ k-~d. ""1lL u...li.w,.
wtl b .n: ¡¡¡ füj I ho> vY,m.!ÚfC~tllffCtufl(I f'COl1!t'.lw11 «uu. ¡j¡j¡ 11>«1.knu.11T11.1w11 lt; Pi11.11 t. J· :s:
tim ,lotri fhJWlt.
,n.t. Na.::t111t t1ft lMtl ~~l.r.ffl

01) hH11 •pici,,il• .Jhmt tsslltoi• 11111 IUlüllly ,c:onnttCIOlf I•)

tlt11 llltlUIO QI 1 powqr iramlm:m.i -..,u11bl~ 1111tfl I lw tlffll
jlt1A1,w111 l1W.ll.a 111:Ul 1!11.ill,_. a;UUüA. iJM.t \Jfill.1111t Ulit •
.. ,~••h•I &)'«,:,n 1u11mnq1fc" !hrunuti tllftl 111n ...... 11Qt furo:--
1 « 11.an 11mllfl&1lil. "'1nrml ,te~ S"ft·,11·11I !l·u, • .. M w11 W!,
l1ijmt1 l·A.I),,1111,I tt\llaljló IJ1111llah1u± 'lfvlll1U1119 lti Pfpr,
~J •• (.h~tcc1 l 11 'T"" füml \,o111 n,11u1011111Yt1t,~
•1'1'11 ltm,.,,...I nwu ..,uwtW1 U111 ~u ... i.i iU.c4•...i 1-1..61 ,(Jll
•il1111u 'or Sin,i.~ Lb: #iluo (:t$Uldl.Uu:t to uouu1¡ ,-."'ª'
r,r¡c. , ... lrnptt¡:1111111 nJ I lm .i.Jl•~ .. ta:,1 r~)ll.:n',.... ~,~y
1v11lj¡il.lk .tll!J.IJ (WI 4.Ü;•wll III t.b,r.-11,n·1111Jt1tnu dÚ§UUl:t..
Wl1J" ti~ in iflHr) l,lll'f'Qf fa1 1' ¡mnml (1~,I ii¡ !.IUI( I 1!11.ifJ.
~IHII .... _ , .. _ tn,1.......... 0_ ..itl;TI ..... o ....-:c.,...,,lfl Wi'lfl
0,.,,,. ... Dlfl•tNÍ.IJ,j ll"o•-tto,,, t,:,., •flll"( •0110c•1
il\~ Mco1'11h11 wnnl •,u lill l;ff~ U <Q~ ll \jlllliU 1~ uhuw:
lnili\J.d ~, nt111tihg, 11,e toCCOndat.f W.11mu m~v •t<,ceill h•
~JIIIIJUUl .. l1.. nm1l 111Uu11 u , ltnr ,,,it11111 tnn1Hl'lml~
U111 ~ !tJ1!,·..,,u1ü fl(&;ut«t !\,:&~ pn,~ll)ffll 111 f'.Jlnttl111":I
ccmlih:111J1m\ 11! 1)h:1~ rna¡murico1A ~il 11me.,Y11n14n11n1
Wll 11 11""'111\"'1 ,'!llíTnlllllJ, PIW W11tie.lr4'11&e tj'&l&!l'!f\¡ tf!t->11•
l•ulit whltildO m,l lt1... w, ;t«>11ml c11mtt).l oc.:w u ffllil!t
w11 ,~,n (h.,i 1;.iink. Tn,,vt\Jrll\ 1h11 ui,,,JiOd t ,1,1l.y1111t•
~~ ... rt'l,Ü;,Uc.iü litt~li .i..u.ld.JI. ..uaU.wJ...

..
,.....,, ,,,.,1 11Miuu111•••H-•·Q1oune1,,u fOfl Or.w,.,.¡ "•""
011,NÍIOII

,..,.

•·•1t. c. ... 1... • Ll'it-• .,,.. 01-..0111.,...,i.1,.,.,.. _....,,

-e-
FI•-
.... '" ..111~--

r11r,1•w u ..., uiit.1A ~.im:JHtmmuw1~11111.1" 1100 •---"'Wlrfól!'!-

_
. . .. fl'o< @~
tlt u11od 101· 11.- J!C,Hn~ 1Tlfí111c:1dl111 (1'1Nt A1hlll io111d ,,...
•,i:. n.

-
1i. .,rn illf',,hfm.c: t,.) 11ál.q , I Yf" 1-wc :i1 tv-r. 1'M"I
tlml,.ilr lt 11i. <mrt1!11I lu,nfui "uu p1!l'llJ111.1~11111 1'1111Y 1- ln•
11:nm Tlui"~l11t:KIJYJ• r. ibo ,,,. tu P14U11. ~:-, .\"-t, uu
.x:
,;llia<¡i!,fi1i1I.IUIW ,.., 11i1 -dtl\li~L .k.11,:llii-11Vi..1111 tll ue
:r(;..,;ed!•w 11tit11 • t,:,~t•rnlfir? mr1nul c:urnnl tum:t(ll:mc.1 Agoullt ••t ,..,.,
,. ._,~..... ~ ...,-
G~-tJ Ulttt V,;,1.M• ,,-a.1,11-, ~
1111 t.1.. u, 1fwh 11i'm11
• .....

f'I!. (:\1.8 ftlili (I.IÍ

r.oohSI III
jQ~ Jtf'W,1ii1n1 lmgl(j,. l!tUt~iit1,III
f ·~~('"lfÍ ff1 llf r(!,1\l"!IUMIII Wllllf, fim TI llfl'fo"
lll
.
.,..
,.,~· . -. ..
··-
cae, ui..11.M/CV-{I1,,,•Clllll:ll_ll.\¡ Jl1f 1o,.1J1A11111llI ss
~I 'y
• .-r..

Wl-
01 i:11•uo; F•M •lann., I he ! if'•.Y (''1:..8 1)r,m1o•i I f,t, Y ni

--
IIJl"9ri:_ f'M fll!Anri 11t'!!liia!f,lrtn. ... .,,1t1hlli1tifi ltn','111,,tt"(
•ll(t11!1l i1t>t .~ •.......t ll1l''e.V• OtJ J ?'1,\1 rntl'I) mil.. •~ ' ~i...~,
J"¡t-t
• 1
,...~.,.o, 1• ~~ 10 A1t111 ,1,., 1ofu111:= !tal~, r'i•"
,-w,y 1t' ,u '"
,.,rn... fki.: t\111111.,.. • 1..

f"!llW IJl'OlN:l!;Qfl J"111 lhlr<!"l!C.I!~ !11"1UdQ1'1 ~·11lilllll1,,1

14 4..,,., ....
ti,n.
4-'!:"¡
l

• liv ~lf' 1J!tll'W!lfll11U~vl~ é>mn;uuo1I

puiíedlul• !• lh•hnul fte r,n A¡p..11,t ~:. wiUtour .SON!;f'JN
dlllirmtl.1j jn'r,t«-ll«n f' t.lt t.~wlh 11jJM,.,. iji... ""'W1! fl ilio
r11un •-'•· S1111t1,
Tiollt l,\<~
•-,oo' Wlill • ~·••ffTwí, tft ,._
11111f,""' l•..-i11,i,c...i,11:-,,otlli•
'Y •
tqr-
ñ11,1111: 8-0: ""IJ),uul )0Ñ1'1 N.. 1't111 •m,11lttt1t111nu"'t'Hur lJ,.....,00..-1"°.,_._. iflrl•I' .... ~.·

,i.1111 t,!OIC~lfol'l 'º' 111noll,.r,1,11 .. h111:t1,,, i!Al114 !l ll11o,oi111

t'Wa1111rtll !hn H'f'l'ff.'fll\i:t ~lu.ttl. ll-""'lllt..11.,, 1t1 U11pid.,wl=
ttmmd (11,II Oii,111!1 ..r,-11,:rp ~ am• !\<' •11 ~·t 11•h,h,I 1,b1111t dwull 1nr: 1lmde.,J:un11 1! ¡htlruuU 10
C~IIUillHI "' # 10,1,11 alllnllllL'...llllUIII" 11 .-fl1ff41J" or) fl'llt!
.-.11,1t1'C!II 1 1111=W>1m1 1 IW: t c1n•t\1rw11 h m 1 11~ t r:1.1111( ormm ll1l'l .:.t»1! IJ, llw•~~Ut..U11.1..A1l~~JJu~ 4ÍA!11ljjllme 11)111
ffl!"'itlilli fim:11 tl'fí'l'l'l\li.\ t111t1111'1iMd-(1U1U. lf't,LtU.IUft1 li O~ (ht foul1 tJ1111 uo, ~.,, 1.11.rnh41•! pumu1 i11 ,,rna jOa• i;tw~~
f,n-,,o .11m11mH'•Utl,,,o WLl k.11 w.i it M.ttb-1ru,1.id~,ie. 41 u,ul 11-
1.-.. •\t"'flll'UJ .. ,rnt fl~llf' 11l..-111l,~ ·Üurnt u-
lttf-i L un I l,e 1iliu.w·b11U mGC,u't í, 11, 1i1 lml ,Ud, (lj'M 'f1it11 ¡r.tMllllb~. i1111t 111mf1,nn11 ll~I 11>114 n13,u,~1ul r.t10 loe:-
wsnait lt.twdonw:cf IJ r w- tJJlliif,Jt to'JU' lliff 11n,1tU~I .tJII tt~,un-r.nuw1i1 ,.., 1.-. tTllm I Jlllf'"'111 Kn11m•rnil f!MI
fflc-1 r.._. h.udÍll m~• u,111U1l,1 •mfnot {IK !ffll 1m11l11t ~~ ... ,.114 l\:,.,,.q l bt.JJJult ~-· -.u• C11.uul.p!' Uüt t,1111111" .- 111'1.I ... '
~MVfn ,u·YV leQIHutlle rum1.111s-.yp.d1i111udfy~JI h:o1Jn 11 lf-oot l!.il:m
limi1t lfl+' 1~-:e·i4I.Ylmllol 11fi• lfflllPfü\,ll.lJtttf lttf. ~hi~IU.
Irr!f 1mpti11111,1~ n, -.:lblt «r<omt4.t,.ut ti•• 1~IVA'm• , • ., to ,t,; 111J i•11' • fouol h:11 <tl'llul t,d11t nllot<;.,,t itttl,)(da111:,. tln,
u.d.. ltJ llilH::tr.lL.,:Hb&:s iUe' .l'ON)JlN ..UUUJd Ut'tlUUJ.t~ ~rra: llffl'ICQ:un:c íll l'ua11,~•lr mw ~lffl1Jllf,:,¡l 1fl 11,, r:uno.1
nl•Y (f!gu .... lC""111ulll 11-4,' 11 qa 1prl llli ¡l'tunnl 11lff1111111
Ull m fíP• &--l**rn•IIJ ht..tpV.lb:ti mtr,d '""""
r11, 11,n,II 1ul'i11uiu.:11x1111111-1111t1111t ~(l'lfnfll uooir.md '-tlll,
lLWl 4~..t.u.w.) 11•11111 lllt .al• mi. lUfJl!I , lun, l hi:t 11i,nm1I
111 lrJ'1!.nlH11 111d,11l111:iN11,- C(1D111ll11cn11~ 11,11n ~Ull• 11,1 ,..
Lfiit¡1 "lf;l"tl.--,Umt t1111.W 1r11~1, ilif lhu.U 111 ¡"*'""· im ti!::IW.tlit '"l1ma1r• 1*" 1i,1flnvttll!h IWllll"I'~ 11111111&ia1.1,1,ul1

Wlllli> 11,. llilll•Ofd o. "r J"llttUfi ul111 Ofhn ltlc: 'f"!l"fll 11ni.l td!.1111<1• COt'ldJI lótlt. WÍtiii •.f!o:<!61 di.in• ;¡lf Nkll"•
:JC"nau'n•hy, lu ,m1i'1t:11.!blf 111i1111111tf 11t11 11pun1111 t1u11i '" "'"' bom .tc1p1utfl, IIU't w.U "'°"111,l)' 1•1111•• tntr ut:J.P.liJ/
~IH~pt, .1uiil Li• l.1cd11111..U.......,. !.UlfJ~l·~«-.uYa .•&11111..11~ '"'u!.Wttttl' '11ljdlutU.U!!Mtt.i jü&llhJ ...:11 l>t ~ it,, Ld!IIHI?'
u,Oact:ifti ltw unü, WhU:i WWiÍVJW(.l'air(~m 11111 tm~..io w111ion.
t1un lllil11 i:a.o ¡¡,ri,1i1~, l!lJlr, illrmll ~«n·hhrrnt 11\mi.i.i;
t:w:LJ.I.W.t. ÍII ~fÓIlUJ!•ci.u11m1~l,tn1r11I lhn tr.:rnnn11l11 ,¡,¡ 41 dW U&t1,H.l.),,.l'llrü U!lltl '1,1!1111!l 1 111 ,:,ri,-, tllmlL. j M L"ll'mnt
11•• •mU 1'Ju 1111'~ 11 flllll"'!ll~11t ro 1in 111wr'1'Jld""'!':I •111 j11c,ns• r,•• roQ t,d"'lin tt911anc..- 1111;aywm (l¡w,Tiitf
""'" 1r1,.,, ·llft~, • ló'll'UCll'l'II..,,, n .. ull'f'"l••11'" t:fimlllf!4tid ... u at 1¡_::, '\ 'Jtr.lllih'• ••11•1.·mw , ~ t-t!ln Y,.til,4 M •f'il"JAI.ª
0<1,:m ilt rn1• ,,tia .. un N 1,r,pun1entt-.d h.)· Spu1111.111itt.1I O.m... Wlllt II ti1tlllt 10 ll,YOUI op:t,,111:irn u• IYtl.Cllf hi,iulcn,i.a ,mi • ,1
¡'llm11t11,,.. i tllun1 ua(IIÚlll\cc A11l11~w-nm fuiun V otlli 1111 1mii1I fimlt\i 11111' IUC1uf1l ot' ,n.. ~lc.d .-.fl.«11 t!111 ~1IQl'lo1f •
'f'l:!,llJ.tll.l• .I.A (1( i,hJw t 9.11.@1 lt(l11.11I ir., tJ,r ~titar t.-• p.hua. a·,..w¡; 111h i..lJ• '-'k"-iit,t,Md.t.1u.1ii.h fir'-lll, ~" o.q
itu:>W.ll wfih. IDCV.f IMl.1Ull imr,,tllll'l'-4 or 7.a: Fo1 ,ni. c.01110· lb'W lretllltlt"Oi fm• •Nciijij ,........ tt.111:. I IM'I 'itlll .. ~··llfllJ.Ítc~
, 111n..t•i> ai111i.11w- m~wulh íftl' O.O'JmNlll 1b º" i1tm f<rnn ; '!' .-".-i .-.sr·t111il)Tffi'i~ 1twr u~.,l ,1.1dt1 ,,11t1in,1'"*"'.c.U,
im·SAL t.~• 1111 11.pJJ!!C,;M411' h1u11.

Chapter 9
Station-Bus Protection
Author: H. J. Ll
l. lntroduction
II. The Linear Coupler Differential Systern
A. Applying Linear Coupler Bus Protection
B. Setting Example for Linear Coupler Bus Protection
C. Frequency Response of Linear Couplers
D. Advantages and Sumrnary
III. Multi-Restraint Differential System
IV. High-Impedance Differential Systern
V. Setting Example for KAB Bus Protection
A. Setting for the Voltage Unit
B. Setting for the IT Current Unit
VI. Protecting a Bus that Includes a Transforrner Bank
VII. Other Bus-Protective Schernes
A. Overcurrent-Differential Relaying
B. Partial-Differential Relaying
C. Directional-Comparison Relaying
D. Fault Bus (Ground Fault Protection Only)
9-1
l. INTRODUCTION
Differential protection is the most sensitive and reliable
rnethod for protecting station busses. However, problems
can result from the large number of circuits involved and
the different energization levels encountered in these cir-
cuits for externa! faults. For example, if there is an exter-
na! fault on one circuit of a six-circuit bus, five of the cur-
rent transformers rnay supply varying amounts of fault cur-
rent, but the sixth and faulted circuit must balance out the
total of ali the others. Consequently, this circuit is ener-
gized at a much higher level-near saturation or with vary-
ing degrees of saturation-giving rise to possible high false
differential currents.
For the same reasons, de saturation also is unequal. De sat-
uration is much more serious than ac saturation, because a
relatively small arnount of de from an asymmetrical fault
wave will saturate the transformer core and appreciably re-
duce the secondary output.
Of the several available rnethods for solving the unequal
performance of current transformers, three are in common
use:
a. Eliminating the problem by elirninating iron in the cur-
rent transformer (LC linear coupler systern).
b. Using a rnulti-restraint, variable-percentage differential
relay, which is specifically designed to be ínsensitive to
de saturation (CA-16 relay systern).
c. Using a high-impedance, voltage-operated differential re-
lay with a series-resonant circuit to limit sensitivity to
the de component (KAB relay system).
11. THE LINEAR COUPLER DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEM
Toe linear coupler scheme provides highly reliable bus pro-
tection. Of the three systerns commonly in use, it has the
fastest operating time; is the easiest to apply, set, and main-
tain; and can readily accommodate switching or changes in
the bus layout. Since iron is eliminated, an air-core trans-
former-a linear coupler-is required. Adding a linear cou-
pler can be a disadvantage, particularly in existing installa-
tions where adequate current transformers exist.
9-2

Externa! Fault
Bus

15 5
Volts Volts

Bushlng Typo Wound Type l l

Figuro 9-1: Linear Couplors Input Devicos. (Appoaranco is Similar !6000Amps
to Convontional lron Coro Curront Transformors).

Linear couplers are air-core mutual rcactors wound on non-

l
3000Amps
l
IOOOAmps
l
2000Amps
Foult

rnagnctic toroidal cores, so that the adjaceru circuits will

Interna! Fault
not induce any unwanred voltages. Usually mounted in a
Bus
circuir breaker or transformer bushing, linear couplers can
be designed to fit into the same spacc as a conventional cur-
rent transformer. Bushing- or wound-ty pe units are avaíla-
ble for ali voltage classes. Typical units are shown in Fig- Z¡¡
ure 9-1. The single conductor through the cen ter of the 5 10 o
units Iorrns the primary of an air-core reactor and provides Volts Volts

a definite linear relationship between the primary current i ! 30

Volts
and the secondary voltage. By design, 5 volts is induced per
1000 amperes of primary current, producing a mutual irn- -- IR

pedance, M, of 0.005 ohm for 60 Hz. That is,

t l l Feeder
3000Amps IOOOAmps 2000Amps O

Esec = Ipri M Volts (9-1)

Figure 9-2: The Linear Couplor Bus Protective System With Typical
Values lllustratíng lts Operation on Interna! and
Externa! Faults.
The couplers have a negligible de response, so only the
steady-state conditions necd be considered. The linear where
coupler methocl of el ifferential protection is a vollage-
IR= currenl in linear coupler secondary and
re lay
differential scherne in which a series circuit is used. The
linear coupler protective systern for a typical four-circuit
bus is shown in Figure 9-2. Ali the linear coupler second- Esec = voltagc induced in linear coupler second-
aries of a particular phase are connected in series wilh one ary
LC rclay to form a closed loop. Under normal conditions,
or when externa! faults occur, the induccd voltages in ali lpri = prirnary current in each circuir, rms sym-
the linear couplers are cancelled out. On interna! Iaults, the metrical
net voltage will opera te the relay. For thc simple series cir-
cuit shown in Figure 9-3.
M = mutual reactancc

= .005 ohm for 60 Hz

Zc = sclf-impedance of linear coupler second-

ary

(9-2)
ZR = relay impedance
 9-3

0.4
~
0.3

0.2 I'
- JI'
0.10
/, IV1
,r, , ,
I

.oe

Figure 9-3: Three Phase Applícation Schematic for The Linear

.06
.05
.04
-- - J ,

"J
,, r

Coupler Protection System.

.03
/, V J '/
f--Recommended 8011 Top-a., / /v
The lead impedance can be neglected, since it is negligible 6011Top- -!- )/
.02 ,__ Rongeof Setting
compared with a 30-to-80-ohm relay impedance and 2-to-20- 40SlTopJ '+. /J
ohm self-irnpedance of each linear coupler. The self- 30SlTop /Í IJ,
impedance of the linear couplers is a function of the design .010 I I

,,
",
I 111
.008
and is stamped on the nameplate. The stated impedance is )
.006
accurate to within ±5%. I J /
.005
vi)
vv
V
.004

The mutual impedance, accurate to within ± 1%, determines
the spread between the maximum externa! fault for no trip-
ping and the mínimum interna! fault for which the relays are
set to trip. For the externa! fault shown in Figure 9·2, the
worst possible case would occur if the linear couplers on ali
the unfaulted source circuits were out by +I %, and thc lin-
ear coupler on the faulted circuit was out by -1 %. Maxi-
mum error is thus 2%. With this maximum error, if the re·
lay were set to opera te for an X-ampere interna! fault, it
would also trip for 50X-ampere externa! faults.
Applying a 2: 1 safety factor, the recommended application
range between the máximum externa! fault and mínimum
interna! fault is specified as 25: 1. The externa! fault usu-
ally will be a solid three-phase fault, while the interna! fault
will usually be a line-to-ground fault.
Two relays are applied with linear couplers: the LC-1 relay
operates at 0.5 to 8 VA; the LC-2 relay operates at .0085 to
.062 VA. Toe typical energy curves for the LC-2 are shown
in Figure 9-4.
The LC-1 relay has a solenoid operating unit (ac contactor
switch) connected through an impedance-matching auto·
transformer with 30-, 40-, 60-, and 80-ohm taps. These
taps represent the approxirnate interna! impedance, ZR, of
the relay. Interna! impedance will vary in magnitude and
phase angle with contact travel. Above 150% of pick-up,
the time of operation is 16 ms or less.
Toe LC-2 relay consists of a polar unit energized through a
full-wave rectifier and impedance-matching transformer
--
~j
/1/ !/1)
'1 1/11
/, 'J V
i .00 1 1
J
J) '!¡ V
2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70 100
Curren!in RelOy, M,lhomperes
Figure 9-4: Typical Energy Curves for The Type LC·2 Ralay
with 30-, 40-, 60-, and 80-ohm taps. A contactor switch
shock-proofs the relay , The 20-to-30-ms operatrng time in·
eludes 12 ms for the contactor switch.
The LC-1 rclay was originally designed for high-Iault cur-
rcnt busses and the LC-2 for light-fault curren! busses. Op-
crating cxperience has shown, however, that thc LC-2 relay
can also be used for high-fault currcnt busses if a resistor is
uscd to limit the opcrating curren! within the recommended
range.
When systems are grounded through a current-lirniting irn-
pedance, or when the 1: 25 current ratio requirement is not
rnet, a fourth or ground-type LC-2 relay may be required.
U.A. Applying Linear Coupler Bus Protection
Thc first stcp in setting linear coupler relays is to determine
the maximum fault current that can occur on a fault exter-
na! to the bus. This value is divided by 25 to give the mini·
mum setting. Comparing this calculated value with the rnin-
imum fault current for a fault on the bus will indicate
whether a ground relay is required.
9-4

The relay-óperating voltage is obtained by multiplying the d. Selecting the 60-ohm tap and assuming ZR = 60 /22°
mínimum setting current by .005. The relay tap should be ohrns = 55.63 + j 22.48 ohms, the total secondary circuit
approximately equal to the total self-impedance of ali the impedance, Zs
linear couplers in the circuit, since maximum energy trans-
fer exists when these impedances are matched. Close
matching is only important if the mínimum setting is crit-
ically near mínimum fault. In fact, deliberate mismatching = (36.0 + j 48.35) + (55.63 + j 22.48)
can be used where the relay current is higher than the relay
range. = 91.63 + j 70.83.

Il.B. Setting Example for Linear Coupler Bus Protection or, Z5 = 115.81 /37.7° ohms.

A typical example will illustrate the application and setting. e. From Equation (9-1 ),

A section of 230 kV bus has 6 circuits (3 transmission lines, Mlpri = 953 x .005
2 transformer banks to the 115 kV systern and l bus tie),
The maximum externa! fault is 23,800 amperes rms syrn- = 4.76 Volts
metrical, and the mínimum interna! fault is 1800 amperes
rms symmetrical. The linear couplers on the six círcuíts f. From Equation (9-2),
have the following self-impedance:

Transformer bank #5 9.8 + jl0.75

Transformer bank #4 3.9 + j 6.6 = .0411 Amp.
Line 582 4.3+j 7.2
Line 382 4.3+j 7.5 g. From Figure 9-5, for IR= 45 mA, and the 60-ohm tap,
Line 682 3.0 + j 3.6 ZR = 46f11° ohms ínstead of the assumed 60 ohms of
Bus tie 10.7+jl2.7 step (d). This modification gives the total secondary cir-
cuit impedance, Z8
~ZC = 36.0 + j48.35

= (36.0 + j 48.35) + (42.65 + j 17 .23)

The linear coupler relays are set as follows:
= 78.65 + j 65.58
a. The prirnary current, lpri
or, Z5= 102.4/39.82° ohms.
_ 23,000
---- 25
Repeating step (f),
= 953 Amp.
4.76
IR= 102.4
b. Since lpri is smaller than the mínimum fault current
( 1,800 A), three LC-2 relays can be used. = .0465 Amp.

c. The sum of the linear coupler self-impedances, Zc Since this current is above the recommended setting leve!
shown in Figure 9-4, a resistor should be used to reduce
= 36.0 + j 48.35 the relay current.

= 60.28/ 53.33° ohms. h. Using a 19-ohm resistor in parallel with the LC-2 coi!,
and assuming a coi! impedance of 48/22º ohms for the
 9-5

160 j. And in step (f),

150
-- = 4.76
140 - - l
sec 70.4
130

= .0676 Amp.

-- --
120
1

i
110 The currcnt in the rclay coil of the paralleled combina-
,- ,- tion is
100 ,__ - - - >-----

90 - - ·- - - =.0676x 19
1
80 \ R 66 O

?O '\ <,
= .0195 Amp.
\ \ ..........._
--::: --
-- -r---
60
\ '\
50 1\
r-, ~ .son Top- -
k. From Figure 9-5, ZR = 56/22° ohms for 19.5 mA on

-----
\~ 1--- 1
1
the 60-ohm tap. To adjust, repeat step (h). Toe total
40
-, I"-.. 1Í. 001Top-
- secondary circuit impedance, Zs
...... i4on;rop 19x56~
20 30!11Toon
1 !9+56/22°
10

=19x56~
74flM
Curren! in Reloy, Mtl rornperes

Figure9-5: Typical lmpedance Curve for The Type LC-2 Relay. = 14.38 /5.6°

60-ohm tap, with a relay current of 35 mA, the resistor/ or, Z=14.3+j 1.4ohms.
coil paralleled combination has an impedance, Z, of
Repeating step (i) and U). above , the total secondary
19x48~ circuir impedance, Z5
19 + 48/22º
= (36.0 + j 48.35) + ( 14.3 + j 1.4)
19 X 48 /22º
=-----
66.0 /15.8° = 50.3 + j 49.75

"'13.82 /6.2°
- 70.74/45.32° ohms
= 13.74 + j 1.49 ohms
I 4.76
sec = 70.5
i. Again, as in stcp (d) abovc, the total secondary circuit
= .0674 Amp.
impcdancc, ls

and the current in the relay coil,

= (36.0 + j 48.35) + ( 13.74 + j 1.49)

19
"'49.74 + J 49.84 'R = .0674 x 74

That is, Z8 = 70.4 /45.06° ohms = .0173 Amp.

9-6

For IR= .0173 Amp on the 60-ohm tap, Figure 9-5 indi- not change the installation; it only requires a relay adjust-
cates that ZR = 5 8 /22° ohms. Sin ce this value is quite ment.
close to the 56 /22° value used in step (g), the calcula-
tion need not be carried any further. In most applíca- 11.C. Frequency Response of Linear Couplers
tions, one or two calculations are sufficient.
Linear couplers transform all frequencies very efficiently.
The relay should be adjusted to trip at 1 = .O 173 Amp on Bus differential applications with back-to-back switched
the 60-ohm tap by using the rnagnetic shunts at the rear of capacitors can produce very high frequency, high voltage
the polar element assembly. transients. Magnitudes of 4.75kV rms at 2900 hertz have
been measured across the linear coupler secondaries. Type
If', for this example, the maximum fault current were in- R VS signa! arrestors can be used on the linear coupler sec-
creased to 35,200 Arnp, the calculation would be: ondaries to clip these transients. They have a 60 hertz
spark-over value of 1100 volts rms, an impulse spark-over of
I . = 35,200 2600 volts and discharge voltage levels between 1100 and
pn 25
1600 volts (8 x 20 microsecond wave crest) for 1500 to
= 1408 Amp. 5000 amperes. As non-symmetrical breakdown of the ar-
restors can occur to produce mornentary false relay current,
Mlpri = 1408 x .005 an 8-12 millisecond dela y should be added to the relay, par-
ticularly the LC-1 type.
= 7.04 Volts
II.D. Advantages and Summary
Using the same 60-ohm relay tap, step (k) is repeated using
ZR = 52 /22° ohms. Thus, the combined resistor/coil im- As illustrated in the above example, the linear coupler bus
pedance, Z protection system can easily accommodate system changes
and future expansión. In addition, it can be applied toan
= 19 X 52~
unlimited number of circuits.
19 + 52/22º
Since the linear couplers do not contain iron, there are no
= 19x52~
saturation or transient problems. The setting is calculated
69.98/16.6° using only Ohm's law. Toe operating time is less than 32 ms
= 14.12/5.84º for the LC-2 and 16 ms for the LC-1. Both relays req uire
mínimum panel space. The operating voltages are safe for
That is, Z = 14.05 + j 1.44 ohms. personnel and well within the insulation limits of all con-
nected apparatus. Since linear couplers may be open cir-
Tite total secondary impedance, 25 cuited with complete safety, circuits can be switched among
severa) bus sections much more easily than can conventional
= (36.0 + j 48.35) + ( 14.05 + j 1.44) current transformers.
= 50.05 + j 49.79 In connecting linear couplers, the four wires from the star-
connected couplers should be transposed with respect to ali
That is, Zs = 70.6 /44.85° ohms.
other circuits and carried in the same conduit or duct. If a
7.04 multi-conductor cable is used, the other conductors should
'sec = 70.6 not be used unless there is no possibility of their inducing
tripping voltages in the linear coupler circuits.
= .0997 Amp.
19 Manual test auxiliaries are used to check the scheme during
IR = .0997 x
70.6 installation and at regular test intervals. To check the nor-
= .0268 Arnp. mal differential both for correct connections and for a
shorted coupler, three high-resistance voltmeters are con-
This current is within the recommended operation range as nected across the relays. With load currents flowing, these
indicated in Figure 9-4. Thus, an increase in current does voltages should be very low or zero. Since the circuit might

also be open at sorne point, a second test, which requires
opening the trip circuit, is also applied. A low series volt-
age of 0.6 or 1.2 volts is introduced into the differential
source. Approximately half this test voltage will appear
across the voltmeter; the remainder will appear across the
rest of the loop. An open circuit will cause the voltrneter to
regíster zero voltage or full-test voltage, depending on
whether the coupler or relay circuit is open.
lll. MULTI-RESTRAINT DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEM
Multi-restraint differential schemes use conventional current
transformers, which rnay saturate on heavy externa! faults.
For this reason, the secondary current output may not rep-
resent the primary. In a differential scheme, the current
transformers and relay function as a team. When the cur-
rent transformers do not perform adequately, the relay can,
within limits, make up for the deficiency. For this scheme,
a more complex relay is required than that described for the
linear coupler bus protection system. More elaborate appli-
cation rules are also necessary, since there is a lirnit of cur-
rent transformer performance beyond which the relay can-
not compensate.
The multi-restraint differential scheme uses the CA-16
variable-percentage differential relay, which consists of
three induction restraints and one induction operating unit.
Two of the units are placed opposite each other and oper-
a te on a common disc. In turn, the two discs are connected
to a common shaft with the moving contacts. All four of
the units are uni-directional; that is, current flows in either
direction through the windings, generating contact-opening
torque for the restraint units or contact-closing torque for
th¡; oporating unit. Each restraint unit also has two wind-
íngs to províde restraint proportional to the sum or differ-
ence, depending on the direction of the current flow. lf the
currents tn the two paired windings are equal and opposite,
the restraint is cancelled. Thus, the paired restraint wind-
ings have a polarity with respect to each other. Using this
method, six restraint windings are available.
In addition to providíng multiple restraint, the variable-
percentage characteristic helps in overcoming current trans-
former errors. At light-fault currents, the current trans-
former performance is good, and the percentage is small for
maximum sensitivíty. For heavy external faults, current
transformer performance is likely to be poor, and the per-
centage is large. The variable-percentage characteristic is ob-
tained by energízing the operating unit through a built-in
saturating autotransformer.
9-7
The saturating autotransformer also presents a high imped-
ance to the Ialse-difference current, which tends to limit the
current through the operating coil and to force more equal
saturation of the current transformers. On interna! faults,
where a desirable hígh-difference current exists, saturation
reduces the impedance. A further advantage of the saturat-
íng autotransformer is that it provides a very effective shunt
for the de component, appreciably reducing the de sensitiv-
ity of the operating units. At the minimum pick-up current
of 0.15 ±5% Amp, the restraining coils are ineffective.
When using the CA-16.relay, the current transformers
should not saturate when carrying the maximum externa!
symmetrical fault current; that is, the exciting current
should not exceed one secondary ampere, rms. This re-
quirernent is met if the burden impedance does not exceed
Np VcL -(IEXT-100) Rs
(9-3)
1.33 1EXT
where
Np = proportion of total current transformer
turns in use
VCL = current transformer accuracy-class volt-
age
IEXT = maximum externa! symmetrical fault
current in secondary (amperes rms) (use
IEXT = 100 iflEXT < 100)
Rs = current transformer resistance of the
turns in use (ohrns)
For example, if the 400: 5 tap of 600:5 wye-connected class
C200 current transformers are used,
Np = 400/600
= 0.67
If IEXT = 120 A, and Rs = 0.5 ohms, then the burden (ex-
cluding current transformer resistance) should not exceed:
0.67 X 200 · (120 · } 00) 0.5
1.33 X 120
= 0.78 ohm (9-3)
Settings for the CA-16 relay need not be calculated. Field
experience indicates that one CA-16 relay per phase is satis-
factory for the vast majority of applications.
9-8

Externa! conncctions are as shown in Figures 9-6, 9-7, and This rule does not apply, however, when three feeder groups
9-8. The term circuit refers to a source orto a feeder group. are involve d. Three feeder groups require connections as
For example, assume a bus consists of two sources and six shown in Figure 9-8. First, each prirnary circuit must be
feeders, and that the feedcrs are lumped into two groups. identified as either a source ora feeder. As defined here, a
feeder contributes only a small portion of the total fault
current for a bus fault: ali other circuits are sources. Next,
Restro,nt Windings a number of feeders are lumped into a feeder group by par-
+ R alleling feeder current transformers. Each feeder group
must have less than 14 Amp load current and not contribute
Auto more than 1 O percent of the total-phase or ground-fault cur-
Tronsformer ren t for a bus faul t.

op Restro,nt
Wind1ngs

+ R

Figure 9-6: Connection of One CA· 16 Relay per Phase to Protect

a Bus With Three Equivalent Circuits. (Connections
for One Phase Only are Shown).

The bus now reduces to Iour circuits. In paralleling current

Auto
transformers, each feeder group must have less than 14 Amp
Transformer
load current (restraint coi! continuous rating). If the bus
reduces to more than four circuits, source-circuit current
op
transformers or source- and feeder-circuit current trans-
formers should be paralleled until only four circuits remain.
These four sets of current transformers can then be con-
nected to the relays as shown in Figure 9- 7.

':;"
Restraint Windings
+ R
Figure 9 ..e: Connection of One CA-16 Relay per Phase to Protect
a Bus With Six Equivalent Circuits. (Connections for
One Phase Only are Shown).

IV. HIGH-IMPEDANCE DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEM

While the high-impedance differential scheme also uses con-

ventional current transformers, it avoids the problern of un-
equal current transformer performance by loading thern
with a high-irnpedance relay unit (Figure 9-9). This arrange-
+ T
ment tends to force the false-differential currents through
the current transformers rather than through the relay op-
erating coi!.

For this scheme to be effective, the secondary resistance of

-=
the current transformer secondary circuits must be kept
Figure 9-7: Connection of One CA-1 6 Relay per Phase to Protect low. This requirement is met by bushing-type current trans-
a Bus With Four Equivalen! Circuits. (Connections
for One Phase Only are Shown).
forrners and current transformers with toroidally wound
 9-9

87 87 87
Posmve
Phose A Phose 8 PhoseC
A~~~~~~~~~~---~~~~~.-~~~i--~~~-A
B 8
e e

Negotive

@ 868 Contacts to Trip 8reakersand Short 87 Relay Terminals

Device Chart
Type Funcuon
87 Type KAS Bus Differential Relay
868 868 Type WL Lockout Relay
52· Breakers

Phose A Phose8 PhoseC © Jumper These Termmals ,f IT .s Not Required

87 87 87

Figure 9-9: Externa! Connection of Type KAB Bus Differential Relay.

cores, such as those used in metal-ciad equipment. All cur-
rent transformers should have the same ratio and opérate on
the full winding. If taps must be used, the windings be-
tween the taps must be completely distributed, and any
high voltage at the full-tap terminal caused by autotrans-
former action should be checked to avoid insulation break-
down. In general, auxiliaries should not be used to match
ratios. Where auxiliaries cannot be avoided, the additional
impedance and the high voltage which they transform
should be checked, both to ensure satisfactory operation
and to avoid insulation failure.
To minimize the impedance from the current transformers
to the junction point, all the secondaries should be parallel
in the switchyard, as close as possible to the current trans-
formers ( Figure 9-9). Optirnally, the junction point should
be equidistant from all current transformers. From the
junction, four leads connect to the three KAB relays. The
high-impedance differential KAB relay consists of an in-
stantaneous overvoltage cylinder unit (V), a voltage-limiting
suppressor (varistor), an adjustable tuned circuit, andan in-
stantaneous current unit (IT). Presently, the voltage-lirniting
suppressor is a one-disc varistor , whereas in the past, a fcur-
disc unit was supplied.
On externa! faults, the voltage across the relay terminals
will be low=essentially zero unless the current transformers
are unequally saturated. On internal faults, the voltage
across the relay terminals will be high and will operate the
overvoltage unit. Since the impedance of the overvoltage
unit is 2600 ohms, this high voltage may approach the open-
circuit voltage of the current transformer secondaries. The
varistor limits this voltage to a safe level.
Since off-set fault current or residual magnetism exists in
the current transformer core, there is an appreciable de
component in the secondary current. The de voltage that
thus appears across the relay will be filtered out by the
tuned circuir, preventing relay pickup.
9-10

The IT current unit provides faster operation on severe where

interna! faults, and also backup to the voltage unit. The
V k = knee voltage* value of the poorest current
range of adjustmen t is 3 to 48 amperes.
transformer connected to the relay,

The KAS relay has successfully performed operations up to
externa! fault current of 200 Amp secondary, and down to
interna! fault current of O. 27 Amp secondary. Its typical
operating speed is 25 milliseconds.
Thc overvoltage unit is set by calculating the maximum pos-
sible voltage on external fault as f'ollows:
The rnargin factor curve, shown in Figure 9-1 O, is based on
tests of the KAB relay in the Westinghouse High Power
Laboratory. The curve includes a safety factor of 2. The
maximum nurnber of circuits that can be connected to the
relay, or the mínimum interna! fault current required to op-
erate the relay, can be estimated from the following equa-
tion.
(9-6)

(9-4) where

where 'min = minimum primary fault current (am-

peres, rrns)
V R = pickup setting of the V-unit ( volts, rms)
le= secondary excitation current of the cur-
rent transformer at a voltage equal to the
R5 = de resistance of current transforrncr sec-
setting value of V-unit (amperes)
ondary winding, including interna! leads
to bushing terminals IR= current in the V-unit at setting voltage
RL = resistancc of lead from junction points to V R (amperes) (that is, IR= V R/2600)
the most distant current transformer (one-
ly = current in varistor circuit ata voltage
way lead for pilase faults, two-way lead equal to the setting value of V-unít (am-
for phase-to-ground faults)
peres) see Figure 9-11
lp = maximum externa! primary fault current
N = currcnt transformer turns ratio
(amperes, rms) contributed by the bus
X= number of circuits connected to the bus.
N = current transformer turns ratio

K = margin factor 2.50....--,--.--.--.-..--.--.-~-~~~----

2.251---+--+--1----1,--1--1--1--4-1---1---1--l--4-L---
The rnaximum voltage occurs when the faulted circuit cur- 2.00r-+--1--t--l-+-+-+--1--1--1--4--1--1--I-J

rent transformer is completely saturated and there is no l. 751-'....+-1--t-+-+--+-l-+--+--l--ll---l--l--l-~

saturation in the source current transformers. Thc maxi- 1

150
\Rs+Rd IF · '"'~ ~ •• u •
M~<imum V Un,t SettingVolue ¡t,;= 1.0
Vo _.._

mum voltage is equal to the resístance drop of the second- SF 0 NVK 1.25 ~~

ary current through the leads and secondary winding of the 1.00 "'<~~~t,,;,,......__
saturated current transformer. In practice, the f'aulted cur- :;: '«~~~~~~- ,, ·¡
rent transformer will never completely saturate, and the l<4: ~ ~
RecommendKAB Reloy ~
---..,., "v"; /Unit
0.251-+-1--1--11---1---J::!,'4::.....,M<A, / . / Settin~
. , ~,3 Ared / r/,
... u.7,.,
/.1
source current transformers will tend to saturare. As a re-
O .60 .80 1.00 1.20 1,40 1.60 1.80 2.00
sult, the actual maximum voltage is less than the theoretical
, e- VR
value. The margin factor, K, which modifies this voltage, Mafg1n rOCIOf K= ( Rs + RL) lF
;;¡
varies inversely with the current transformer saturation fac-
Figure 9-10: Empirical Margin Factor for Setting The V-Unit of The
tor, SF. KAB Relay.

1 (Rs + RL) 1F *The knee voltage is defined as the intersection of the extension of
(9-5) the two straight-line portions of the saturation curve. The ordinate
SF - NVk
and abscissa must use the same scales.
 9·11

1000 The mínimum setting of the V-unit in the KAB relay , there-
900
Klne Disc Type-¡-, L fore, should be at least 266 V-the larger value for either

-
800 the three-phase or phase-to-ground conditions, as calculated.
700
/
¡¡¡
! 600
¡....,, ....
~
V.B. Setting for the IT Current Unit

--
:i 500
o Four Oisc Type , 1/
> 400
300
~ . The IT setting is deterrnined from Figure 9-12. The higher
200

100
.01
--- 0.1 ,o
value is used as the ordinate as determined from the three-
phase and phase-to-ground fault. Thus for the example, the
ordinate value is;
Amperes l RMS)

Figure 9-11: Typical Volt-Ampere Characteristic of The

KAB Varistor. Three-Phase Fault: (0.93 + J.07) 60,000 = 300
400

F I (0.93 + 2 x 1.07) 45,000

V. SETTING EXAMPLE FOR THE KAB BUS Ph ase-to -G roun d au t:
400
= 345
PROTECTION
In Figure 9-12 using 345, the lT unit setting is determined
to be 43 amperes for 4 disc KAB and 12 amperes for one-
Assume a six-circuit bus for which the maximum externa!
disc KAB.
three-phase fault current is 60,000 amperes rms, symrnetri-
cal; the maximum externa! phase-to-ground fault current is 550
45,000 Arnp, and the minimum interna! fault current is
500
10,000 Arnp, The current transformer ratios are 2000: 5
450
(ANSI class C400). Vk is 375 V. The secondary winding 1
For One Disc KAB- """\ 1

1 '" ...
resistance, Rs, is 0.93, and one-way Jead resistance to junc- 400
, )
tion point, RL' is 1.07 ohms. ~lz 350 ....
;;...1 300 .. /

+
~
/
V.A. Settings for the V Voltage Unit s
(/)
250 /
/
200
.
'[

For the three-phase fault condition: ~ 1-For 4 Disc KAB

150 ~ .....
100
(0.93 + 1 .07) 60,000 = O B (9-5)
--
400 X 375 . 50
~~
o
From Figure 9-1 O, K > 0.82, therefore: 1.5 3 5 7 10 15 30 50
IT Unit Setting (Amperes RMS)-
100

Figure 9·12: Typical Setting Curve for The IT Unit The KAS Relay.
VR > .82 (0.93 + 1 .07) 60,000
- 400

= 246 Volts (9-4) vi. PROTECTING A BUS THAT INCLUDES A

TRANSFORMER BANK
For the phase-to-ground fault condition:
Ideally , where the bus includes a power transformer bank,
(0.93 +2 .07) 45,000
X J = o.sz (9-5)
separate protection should be provided for the bus and for
400 X 375 the transformer, even though both protection schemes must
trip ali breakers around the two units. Such a system offers
And from Figure 9-10, K>0.77, therefore: máximum continuity of service, since faults are easier to lo-
ca te and isolate. Also, using a bus-diff'erential relay for bus
45,000
VR2: .77 (.93 + 2 x 1.07) ~ protection and a transforrner-differential relay for trans-
former protection provides maximum sensitivity and secur-
= 266 Volts (9-4) ity with mínimum application engineering.
9-12
However, econornics and location of current transformers
often dictate that both units be protected in one differen-
tial zone. For these applications, either the rnulti-restraint
HU-4 or the CA-26 relays should be used.
The HU-4 relay is similar to the HU and HU-1 relays, ex-
cept that it has four restraint windings. Also, the rectified
outputs of the restraint transformers are connected in se-
ries, providing a higher restraint force when a through fault
occurs on the bus. Since the de saturation of current trans-
formers will allow current to pass in the HRU transformers
and possibly pick up the IIT, the llT unit of the HU-4 re-
lay is set at 15 times the rms tap value to prevent false trip-
ping for externa! faults.
Similar to the CA-16, the CA-26 relay has a stronger con-
tact spring and a higher pickup of 1.25 ±5% amperes to help
override inrush. Its variable restraint curve is more inverse
than the CA-16, and its operating time is approximately 3
cycles.
H Other methods for protecting busses are in limited use: ( J)
Harmonic
Restroint
Unit
(HRUJ
Differentiol Unit Operating Winding
ond lnstontoineous Trip lT Unit
Figure 9-13: Typical Applicatíon of HU-4 Relay for Protecting a
Large Transformar Bank Associated With HV and EHV
Busses. (Auxiliary Current Transformers for Ratio
Matching are Not Shown)
Restro,nt
Auxiliory CT
forRotio
Restrolnt
Figure 9· 14: Protection of a Typical Transformer Section Where
The Transformer Tertiary is Brought Out for Loador
Connected toan Externa! Source.
Of the two types, the HU-4 relay is preferred, as it is im-
mune frorn operation 011 transforrner magnetizing inrush.
The HU-4 should always be applied for large transformer
banks or for banks associated with 1-IV and EHV busses. A
typical application, shown in Figure 9-13, protects a three-
winding transformer bus with four circuits. Figure 9-14
shows another typical application used in EHV systems.
The CA-26 relay is applicable for relatively small transform-
ers remote from generating stations, HV, and EHV busscs.
Here, inrush will usually be light and will not cause the
CA-26 to operate. If', however, complete security against
inrush is required, the HU-4 must be applied,
With the CA-26 relays, the Iour-circuit bus connections of
Figure 9-7 are not recommended Ior bus protection, since
the relay may have too much restraint when energlzing the
bus on a f'ault.
The bus CA-16 relay should not be used for transformer dif-
ferential, since it is too sensitive to override magnetizing in-
rush.
VII. OTHER BUS PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
current-differential schemes with overcurrent relays, (2)
partial-differential schernes, (3) directional-cornparison re-
laying, and (4) the fault-bus method. Except for the latter,
these schemes are most often applied as economic compro-
mises for the protection of busses that have been in service
for many years.
VII.A. Overcurrent-Differential Relaying
The differcntial circuit is obtained by paralleling ali the cur-
rent transformers with an induction-disc overcurrent relay
across their output. Relays must be set above thc maximum
false-difference current for an externa! fault. That is, very
little saturation can be allowed if any degree of internal-
fault sensitivity is to be obtained. A certain amount of de
or ac saturation can be tolerated, beca use ( 1) the operation
of induction-disc relays on the de component is less effi-
cient, and (2) the relay operation is not instantaneous.
To increase the response of these schemes, the de time
decrement must be short. This requirement virtually limits
applications to substation busses remete from large generar-
ing stations. The most common application is in a ground-
differential systern where the critica! externa! fault is a
 9-13

double line-to-ground fault. The phase-fault components The directional relays close contacts when fault power flows
can cause the current transformers to saturate unequally. In into the bus section. Back contacts on the overcurrent re·
these applications, the C0-2 relay is used with operating lays open contacts when the fault is externa! on the feeder.
times of I O to 18 cycles. While the relay cost is low, the Ali contacts are connected in series, and, when the fault is
engineering cost is usually high, since considerable study or on the bus, the trip circuit is energized through a timer. A
experience is required to assure correct operation. time delay of severa! cycles will perrnit ali the relays to de·
cide correctly the dírection of the fault.
Vll.B. Partial-Differential Relaying
The disadvantage of this scherne is the large number of con·
In this scheme, only the source circuits are differentially tacts and complex connections required. There is also the
connected, using an overcurrent relay with time delay. The remote possibility of the directional elements not operating
relays protecting thc feeders or circuits are not in the dif- on a solid three-phase bus fault as a result of zero voltage.
ferential. Essentially , this arrangement combines time-
delay bus protection with feeder backup protection.
VII.O. Fault Bus (Ground Fault Protection Only)
Where some or ali of the feeder circuits have current-lirniting
reactors, a partial-differential circuit is used with distance- This method requires that all the bus-supporting structure
type relays. These distance-type relays are set into, but not and associated equiprnent be interconnected and have only
through , the reactor impedance. The reactor impedance is one connection to ground. An overcurrent relay is con-
used to select between faults on the bus and externa! faults nected in this ground path. Any ground fault will cause
on the feeders. The scheme is both fast and sensitive. fault current to flow through the relay circuit, tripping the
bus through the multi-contact auxiliary tripping relay. A
VII.e. Dírectional-Comparison Relaying Iault detector, energized from the neutral of the grounded
transformer or generator, prevents accidental tripping. This
Directional-comparison relaying uses individual directional scheme requires special construction measures and is expen-
relays on ali sources and overcurrent relays on all feeders. sive,

Chapter 10
Line and Circuit Protection
Author: J. V. Kresser & J. L. Blackburn
l. Introduction
A. Techniques for Line Protection
B. Relay Protection Systems for Line Faulls
C. Selecting a Protection Systern
II. Distribution Circuit Protection
A. Relay Application to Radial Feeders
B. Coordination
C. Coordination Time Interval
D. Selecting an Overcurrent Relay Tap
E. Effect of Extended Load Outage/Cold-Load Inrush
F. Selecting an Overcurrent Relay Time Curve
G. Jnstantaneous Trip Applications
H. Phase and Ground Relays
J. Fuse and Relay Coordination
J. Coordinating with Reclosers and Sectionalizers
K. Distribution Feeder Protection Systerns
L. Coordinating with Low Voltage Breakers
III. Subtransmission Circuit Protection
A. Criteria for Directional Relays
B. Using Overcurrent Relays to Protect Loop Circuits
with a Single Source
C. Coordination on Single-Source Loop Systerns
D. Using Inverse Time-Distance Relays to Protect
Single-Source Loop Circuits
E. Protecting Loop Circuits with Taps
F. Short Loop Circuits
G. Using Overcurrent Relays to Protect Loop Circuits
with Multiple Sources
H. Coordination on Múltiple-Loop Systems
1. Setting for Relays M and N
2. Setting for Relay L to Coordinate with Relays
M and N
3. Setting for Relay B to Coordinate with Relays
H and J
4. Setting for Relay D to Coordinate with Relays
B and L
5. Setting for Relay C to Coordinate with Relays
E and J
6. Setting for Relay A to Coordinate with Relays
C and L
7. Final check: Relay B Coordination with Relay
H
l. Protecting Loop Circuits with Multiple Sources Us-
ing Inverse-Tirne Distance Relays
10-1
IV. Transmission Circuit Protection
A. Fundamentals of Distance Relaying
B. The K-DAR Phase-Distance Relays
C. The lnfeed Effect on Distance Relays
D. Effect of Tapped Transformer Banks
E. Zone Application of Distance Relays
F. Distance Relays with Transformer Banks at the
Terminals
G. Distan ce Re lay Characteristics
H. Are Resistance and Phase-Dístance Relays
J. An Example of Distance Relay Application and
Setting
V. Ground-Fault Protection
A. Distribution Circuit Protection
B. Subtransmission Circuit Protection
C. Directional Ground Relay Polarization
1. Voltage (Potential) Polarization
2. Current Polarization
D. Mutual lnduction and Ground Relay Directional
Sensing
E. Negative Sequence Directional Units for Ground
Relaying
F. Evaluation of Ground Relay Polarizing Methods
G. Fundamentals of Ground-Distance Relaying
1. Using Zero Sequence Quantities
2. Using Modified Phase-to-Ground Voltage and
Zero Sequence Current
3. Using Phase-to-Ground Voltage and Modified
Phase Current
H. The KDXG Reactance Ground-Distance Relay
l. The SDG Solid-State Ground-Distance Relays
J. Fault Resistan ce and Ground-Distance Relays
K. Mutual lmpedance and Ground-Distance Relays
L. Transmission Circuit Protection
VI. Series-Compensated Transmission Line Protection
VII. Protecting Direct-Current Systems
A. Principie Types of Direct-Current Relays
B. DC Equipment Protection
C. Circuit Protection
D. High Voltage Direct-Current Transmission
10-2

Chaptcr 10 l. INTRODUCTION

Most faults experienced in a power system occur on thc

Line and Circuit Protection
CLASSIFICATION
lines connecting generating sources with usage points.
Justas these circuits vary widely in their characteristics,
configurations, lengths, and relativo importance, so do lheir
protection schemes. * Sorne of the more common and
OF ELECTRIC POWER LINES
widely used protection schcrnes wiJI be detailed below and
in Chapters 14, 1 S, and 16.

Alternating-currcnt lines are commonly classified by func-

I.A. Techniques for Line Protection
tion, which is rclatcd to voltage level. While there are no
utility-wide standards, typical classifications are as follows:
There are seven protective techniques commonly used for
isolating faults on power lines:
a. Distribution (2.4-34.S kV): Circuits transmitting power
to t he final retail outlets.
a. lnstantaneous overcurrent

b. Suhtransrnission ( 13.8-138 kV): Circuits transmitting

b. Tirne-overcurrent
power to distribu Lion substations and to bulk retail
outlets.
c. DirectionaJ instantaneous and/or tirne-overcurrent

c. Transmission (69-765 k V): Circuits transmiu ing power

d. Step tirne-overcurrent
between major substations or interconnecting systems,
and to wholesale outlets. Transmission lines are further
e. Inverse tirnc-distance
divided into:

f. Zone distance
l. 1-ligh voltage ()IV): 11 S-230 kV

g. Pilot relaying (see Chapters 14, IS, and 16).

2. Extra high voltage (EHV): 345-765 kV

I.B. Relay Protection Systems for Line Faults

3. Ultra high voltage (UHV): greater than 765 kV

Relay systerns for phase-fault protection of power lines are

Direct-current systcms can be classified as follows:
a. Low voltagc (24-250 V): Auxiliary power in power
plants and substations; control circuits; and, occasion-
ally, utilization power in sorne industrial plants,
b. Medium vollage (300-600 V): Transportation industry.
c. High voltagc (grcater than 600 V): Long-distance bulk
transrnission, submarino, and major system intercon-
nections.
outlined in Table 10-I, those for ground faults in Table 10-11.
The last column in each table gives the approxirnate relative
per-unit relay equipment system cost of thc basic time-
overcurrent (CO) systern.
I.C. Selecting a Protection System
Severa! fundamental factors influence the final choice of
the protcction applied to a power line:
d. Type of circuir: cable, overhead, single line, parallel
línes, multi-terrninal, etc.

b. Line function and irnportance: effect on service conti-

nuity, realistic and practica! time requirements to iso-
late the fault from the rest of the system.
 10-3

Coordination and matching requirernents: cornpatibil- Table 10-II

ity with equipment on the associated lines and systerns. Relay Protection Systems for Ground Faults

Number Relative
To these three considerations must be added economic fac- Type oí Protection Basic Relay Type Required Cost (pu)
tors and the relay engineer's preferences based on his tech-
nical knowledge and experience. Because of these many Tirne-Overcurrem co 1 1.00

considerations, it is not possible to establish firm rules for lnstantaneous and

line protection. Toe remainder of this chapter, however, Time-Overcurrent COwith IIT 1 1.30

will focus on basic application rules and coordination pro- Product Overcurrent CWCorCWP 1 2.20
eedures to aid the engineer in the selection of proper pro-
tective systerns for distribution, subtransmission, and trans- Instantaneous and
Product Overcurrent CWC or CWP with IIT 1 2.SO
mission circuits for both phase and ground faults. Also
covered are series-cornpensated transmission lines; and de Directional Time-

systems. Overcurrent CRCorCRP 1 2.65

Directional Time·
Overcurrent CRD 1 2.85

Table 10-1 lnstantaneous and

Relay Protection Systerns for Phase Faults Directional Time·
Overcurrent CRC or CRP with IIT 1 2.95

Nu,n~r Relative
Type oí Protection Basic Rtlay Type Required Cost (pu) lnstantaneous and
Directional Time·
Time-Overcurrent co Overcurrcnt CRD with IIT 1 3.IS
3 1.00

lmtantaneous and Time· Directional lnstantaneous

Overcurrent KRCorKRP 1 3.60
0.ercurrent CO with IIT 3 1.30

Direclional Time·
Dlrectíonal lnstantaneous
0.ercurrent Overcurren t KRD 1 3.80
CR 2.70

Directional lnstantaneous
lnsuntaneous and
and Oirectional Time·
Directional Time-
Overcurrent IRCor IRP 1 4.10
Oeercurrent CR with IIT 3 2.90

Direcrional lnstantaneous
Directional lnstantaneous
and Directional Time·
O.ercurrent KRV 3 3.40
Overcurrent IRD 1 4.40

Slep Time-Overcurrent C0-4 3 3.80 Directional Time·

Overcurrent CRQ 1 4.65
Directional lnstantaneous
and Directional Time· lnstantancous and Direc-
0.ercurrent IRV 4.10 tional Time-Overcurrent CRQw11h IIT 4.75
1

lnverse Time-Distance lWO KD-10, Directional lnstantancous

plus 2-Element CO 3 6.75 Overcurrent KRQ 1 6.10

lnverse Time-Distance KD-10. Directional Instantaneous

or K D·S plus SI). 2 2 8.30 and Dlrectional Time-
Overcurren t IRQ 1 7.00
Zone Distance two KD·IO,
plus KD-11. plus TD-4 4 10.20 Zone Distance SDG-2T
plus SDG-4T, plus Tl).5 3 27.50
Zone Distance two SKD-T
plus SK D· l T, plus TD-4 4 13.20 Zone Distance three KDXG, plus KRT 4 30.00

Zone Distance two SKD-T Zone Distance two SDG-2T

plus SKD·IT, plus TD-52 14.20 plus SDG-4T, plus two TD-5 5 43.70
L0-4
U. DISTRIBUTION CIRCUIT PROTECTION
Lines from distribution substations are usually radial to the
load area. Open loops, operating normally as radial lines,
provide alternate supplies to the load from different sub-
stations. These loops may be temporarily closed for po wer
to flow between the substations; that is, in either direction
in the line.
For the purpose of relay application, a feeder is considered
to be radial if, ata particular relay location, the máximum
back-feed (fault current in the non-trip direction) is less
than 25 percent of the mínimum fault current for which the
protective relay must operate. The following discussion
covers protection systems for radial distribution circuits.
Il.A. Relay Application to Radial Feeders
Radial feeders can be protected by non-directional overcur-
rent relays. Figure 10-1 shows severa! sections of a typical
radial feeder. Because the feeder is radial, each section re-
quires only one circuit breaker at the source or distribution
substation end. To clear faults at (1) and other faults to
the right, then, only the brcaker at R need be tripped. To
clear faults at (2) and (3) and in the area between thern,
the breaker at H must be tripped. Likewise, to clear faults
at (4) and (5) and between them, the breaker at G must be
tripped.
R at H.
ZHR (2)
Lood Lood Lood
Figure 10.1: A Typical Radial Feeder
None of the relays at the breaker locations can distinguish
whether the remote fault is on the protected line, on the re-
mote bus, or on an adjacent line. The relays at H, for exarn-
ple, cannot distinguish between faults at (1) and at (2),
since the current magnitude measured at H will be the same
in either case. Opening breaker H for fault (1) is not desira-
ble, since it would interrupt the load at R unnecessarily.
Two techniques are available to solve this problem: time
delay or pilot relaying. The later requires a communication
channel between the two statíons and will be covered in
later chapters.
Time relaying delays the operation of the relay for a remote
fault, allowing relays and breakers closer to the fault to
clear it, if possible. In the exarnple shown in Figure 10-1,
relays at H will delay for faults at (1) or (2). lf the fault is
at ( 1 ), this dela y will allow the R relays and breaker to op-
era te before H. Thus, although H would not open for a
fault at (1) (unless the R relays & associated breaker failed),
it would operate for a fault at (2). This technique, called
coordination or selectivity , is designed to combine míni-
mum operating time for the close-in faults with a long
enough delay for remo te faults. In Figure 10-1, for exarn-
ple, the relays and breaker at R must coordinate or select
with those to the right (not shown); H must coordinate
with R, and G with H.
Relays are coordinated in pairs. lf, in Figure 10-1, breaker
H relay trip characteristics have already been coordinated
with whatever protective devices exist at R and beyond,
the breaker at G must then be coordinated with those at H.
For the three critica! fault points-(5), (3), and (2)-the fol-
lowing data are required:
a. Fault at (5): Maximum and mínimum fault currents.
b. Fault at (3 ): Maximum fault current, which determines
the required coordination between breakers G and H.
c. Fault at (2): Mínimum fault current, which determines
when the G relays must opérate to provide backup pro-
tection for faults on line HR not cleared by the breaker
( 1)
U.B. Coordination
Relays within a systern can be coordinated using graphs or
tables, although graphs are generally more useful for radial
systems. Serni-log (log absissae for current and linear ordi-
nate for time) or log-log paper can be used. Log-log is pre-
ferred when a number of different types of devices, includ-
ing Cuses, are being coordinated on one graph. The current
scale can be in primary amperes or per unit. Any dífference
in current transformer ratíos must be taken into considera-
tion when determining actual relay currents at different lo-
cations.
The coordination procedure is conducted as follows (Fig-
ure 10-2). First, assume that the desired relay type (tap
tange and time characteristic) and current transformer
ratio have been determined. (The selection of these varia-
bles will be díscussed later.) Then:
 10-5

Moximum Foulls e. Select a tap for relay G to operate for fault (2) mini-
(1)-(2) mum and, for a phase relay, not to opérate on rnaxi-
Mínimum ! 11
1
1
( 1 )-(2)
Mox,mum I
1
1 mum load. The fault (2) minirnum should operate the
1
(3)-(4) 1
1
1 relay on at least twice pickup, although compromises
(3)-(4) 1
Mox,mum (5) 1 may be necessary (see Section 11.D. below). For phase
1
1 Mnu;num (5)
relays, the setting must always be above the maximum
1 1 Moximum
1
'1 i load.
Set Points l 1
1
1
1
1
1
f. Select a time lever such that the relay G time-current

t ~
Curren!
Bocl<up Zone Protection
PrimoryZone
~ forReloy"H" ~ forRelOy"H"
~ Bockup Zone 10<Reloy"Cí'
1
curve passes through or above one or both of the set
points X and Y and provides the minimum operating
time for maximum and mínimum fault (5 ). This step
Pmnory Protecl,on
Zonef0<Reloy"G" may require adjusting the tap and time lever settings.
Usually, the maximum fault currenl is the most critica]
for coordination.

Mínimum FoullS g. Repeat the above steps for each time section "up
r-----;('1')-'(~2')--,~~r,~~--,,~~~~~I~~~~~~~
M1n1rnum , 1 • 1 stream."
• ( 1 )-(2) 1 : ;
I
Mox1rnum : : 1
(3)-(4) 1 l 11.C. Coordinating Time Interval (CTI)
1
M,n,mum (3)-(4) 1 '1
t
!
Mollm~m
'
(5)
Marnmum
'
(5)
1 1
1 Mox,mum Toe coordinating time interval is the mínimum interval that
1 1
'
1
1 '1 permits the remote relay and breaker to clear a fault in its
operating zone, Factors influencing the CTI are as follows:

Curre11t
a. Breaker fault interruption time.
ZBoek ~P ~ Protection
Primoryt Promory Protection~
~one"Hº'.. Zone far Zooe for Reloy "G"
~ Re ~ Reloy"H" b. Relay impulse time-overtravel of the induction disc
I Bockup Zone after the fault current has been interrupted.
I"- forReloy"G"
Figure 10-2: Coordination Setting Procedure for Relays at c. Safety margin to compensate for possible deviations in
Breaker "G" of Figure 10-1. calculated fault currents, relay operating time, and cur-
a .. Determine the critica] fault locations and the fault cur- rent transformer ratio errors.
rent values.
For coordinating at above approximately 3 times mínimum
b. Plot these variables on the time-current graph, drawing trip current, the CTI should be in the tange of 0.2 to 0.3
vertical lines at the various values. sec. Toe larger CTI's should be used on the steep part of
the curve to compensate for errors below a multiplier of
c. Determine the operating time for the next "down- three, A CTI of 0.3 sec. is comrnonly used.
strearn" relay for the maximum and mínimum fault cur-
rents. For relay G, this operating time would be the 11.D. Selecting an Overcurrent Relay Tap
one for relay H on fault (3) maximum and mínimum
(shown as points X and Y, respectively ). This assurnes As indicated above, phase-overcurrent relays must not op-
relay H has been set previously to coordinate with the erate on the maximum load current that can occur on the
line. Situations where temporary overloads may occur,
relays at R and to the right.
such as the cold Joads discussed in the next section, must
d. Add the coordinating time interval (see Section 11.C. be factored into the value used for setting the overcurrent
below) to points X and Y. This step gives two set relays. Thus, it is important for the relay engineer to coop-
points for the characteristic curve of the relay at G. erate with the operating engineers in determining the maxi-
10-6

mum possible load for each circuit. This maximum value-
the short-tirne rnaximum load (STM)-can differ from the
rating of the line, and is the value that should be used for
setting the relays.
The tap (mínimum pickup value of the phase-overcurrent
relays) should be at least 2 times normal maximum load
and generalJy not less than 1.5 times. Assuming that the
STM is greater tban normal rnaximum load, the tap can be
selected as the next available tap greater than 1.25 STM.
Current transformers are normally selected to provide sec-
ondary currents between 4 and 5 Amp during rated rnaxi-
1.7 times pickup. To prevent tripping the breaker, then,
the relay operating time at 1.7 times tap value should be
slightly more than 2.3 sec. (about 2.5 sec.). For the C0-9
very inverse relay, this condition requires a time dial setting
of 1.25; for the C0-11 extremely inverse relay, a time dial
setting of 0.75 is required. Time dial settings of 1.5 for the
C0-9 relay and 1.0 for the C0-11 relay are suggested, unless
operating experience indicates otherwise.
1 1 ...
\. Average
ürrent ro Pomr X

X
400
mum load. As a result, the pbase relay taps will usually be
above 5 Amp.
r-..,
-- -
....._ ·x· Reloy Pickup

The above limitation does not apply to ground relays, since o 1

E r-
1
load current does not produce current in their operating ~ 100 1
1
windings unless it is unbalanced. To avoid operation on 1
possible unbalances in a normally balanced circuit , a good !
2 2.3 3 4 5
rule of thumb is to set tbe ground relays for not less than Time in Seconds
l O percent of tbe maximum load curren t. Figure 1 0.3: Typical Example of Feeder load Current Following
Extended Outage (Cold Load lnrush)

II.E. Effect of Extended Load Outage/Cold-Load Inrush

Although the extremely inverse relays provide faster fault
A particularly critica! load for distribution circuits serving operations than the less inverse-type relays, they still over-
residential and cornmercial loads is the high transient cur- ride the cold-load inrush.
rent inrush that may occur when a feeder is energized after
a prolonged outage. For these "cold-load" conditions, the ll.F. Selecting an Overcurrent Relay Time Curve
diversity of intermittent loads is lost: consumers tend to
leave more than the normal load connected, and therrno- With the induction disc unit, five different characteristics
statically controlled equiprnent will start as soon as the volt- are used in distribution circuits:
age is restored. The overall effect is a very bigh initial cur-
rent, or cold-load inrush. a. Definite mínimum C0-6
b. Moderately inverse C0-7
In general, the pickup of time-overcurrent relays cannot be c. In verse C0-8
set above this transient without severely comprornising the d. Very inverse C0-9
protection. Setting the relay below the transient will cause e. Extremely inverse C0-11
it to begin to operate on the cold load; however, the current
will decrease below the pickup value before the relay has These tirne-current characteristics are compared in Figure
time to operate. l 0-4. The time lever settings are selected so that all relays
operate in 0.2 sec. at 20 times tap setting.
A current-time curve for the cold-load inrush on a typical
feeder is shown in Figure l 0-3. Since such curves vary con- The choice of a relay time characteristic is a function of the
siderably with different feeders, each utility must develop sources, the lines, and the loads. Since these factors vary
its own system history and probability data. Assuming that throughout the system, a characteristic that is ideal for one
the time overcurrent CO relays are set at twice normal max- line and one operating condition requires comprornises for
imum load, they will receive operating current for the first other conditions and associated lines.
2.3 seconds that the feeder is energized (Figure 10-3 ). The
average current for this period is 3.4 pu, an equivalent of
 10-7

10 G H R

T,me of()perotionot
Twice P,ckupeurrent
0.8
C0·6 0.33 Secones
C0·7 0.75 Seconds Load Lood Load
e0-8 2.5 Seconds
'2"' C0·9 3.0Seconds
s.
0.6
e0-11 10.0 Secones
11)
s
E"'
¡:: 0.4 ~
¡=: en
i
T en
0.2
Distonce

ºo 5 10
Mul•,ples of P,ckup
15 20

Figure 10.4: Type CO Curve Shape Comparison M.-,,mum

;
/
"'E /
~ .,,,,/'

lf possible, time curves with the same or approxirnately the
same characteristics should be used. ldentical or similar
curves applied at different places in the systern tend to
"track " together as operating conditions change. If differ-
ent time characteristic curves must be used, all possible op-
erating conditions must be checked carefully to ensure thal
the CTI is maintained for selective tripping. (Using similar
characteristics, in other words, rninimizes coordination
studies.)
Fixed-time and inverse-time characteristics for a systern are
compared in Figure 10-5. Toe last feeder supplying one
load center can be protected with an instantaneous overcur-
rent device set into the load. Since no coordination at the
load is involved, no time delay is required-as shown from
bus R in both time-distance charts.
In lhe upper chart of Figure 10-5, the Iixed-tirne character-
istics approximate the definite mínimum time (C0-6). The
relay at H is coordinated with R, and G with H, as shown.
The advantage of this arrangcment is that the operating
times are relatively constant and independent of changes in
fault levels from maximum to mínimum generation. On the
other hand, the operating times for heavy faults near the
source are very long. For this reason, this arrangement is
not practica( where lhere are more than one or two radial
feeders from the distribution substation.
Toe lower chart of Figure 10-5 shows inverse-time relay
characteristics, For faults near the relay , particularly for
the maximum conditions, operating times are very short.
Unfortunately. as system conditions change from maximum
-- -- _., ,,.,,
o,srance
figure 10.5: Comparison of Fixed Time Vs In verse Time
Overcurrent Relays on Radial Feeder Circuits
to minimum, operating times vary considerably. Even
though this arrangement can produce very long operating
times for minimurn faults near the remote bus, it is corn-
monly used.
Line length is also an importan! factor. For a short line-
one whose impedance is low compared to the source imped-
ance-the fault currents for the close-in and far-end faults
are essentially the sarne ; that is, the inverse-time character-
istic gives a relatively fixed operating time over the line. In
such cases, the definite minimurn time characteristic is pre-
ferred, since the operating time will not vary as much for
different generation levels as with inverse relays.
In surnrnary, the ílatter curves (C0-6 and C0-7) are more
suitable when:
a. There are no coordinat ion requirements with other
types of protection devices farther out in the system.
b. The variation in current for faults at the near and far
ends of the protected círcuit is too small to take advan-
tage of the inverse characteristic.
c. lnstantaneous trip units give good coverage (see Section
11.G.).
10-8
Toe steeper (more inverse) curves (C0-9 and C0-11) are
more suitable when:
a. Fault currents are significantly different for the close-in
and remote faults. (When the line impedance is large
compared to the source impcdance, for example.)
b. There is an appreciable current inrush on service restora-
tion (cold load).
c. Coordination with other types of dcvices with inverse
characteristics, such as fuses and reclosers, is required.
U.G. lnstantaneous Trip Applications
Adding instantaneous trip units to tirne-overcurrent relays
provides high speed relay operation for close-in faults and
rnay also permit fastcr settings on the relays in the adjacent
section.
lnstantaneous trips may be used on a distribution feeder if
the close-in fault (máximum and/or mínimum) is on the
order 1.1 to 1.3 or more times the máximum far-end fault.
In other words, the instantaneous unit must operate for as
many of the line faults as possible but to avoid miscoordina-
tion, must not operate for the far-end fault. The greater the
ratio of close-in to far-end faults, the more of the line the
instantaneous unit will protect. In terrns of systern con-
stants and setting, the reach or coverage of three-phase
faults on a Iine can be determined as follows:
n= (I 0-1)
K¡
where n = per unit of line section length protected by
the instantaneous unit
K· = instantaneous unit pickup current
I
maximum far-end fault current
K = source impedance
s protected line impedance
with reference to Figure 10-1 ; for line G H:
1Far bus= __ v__
2s + 2Gl.i
V
l -----
IT- zs + nZGH
IIT zs + ZGI-1
K.=---
1 1Far bus 2s + nZGH
solving for n:
zs (1 - Ki) + Zctt K8 (1 - K¡) + J
n=
K.l
For relays at G in Figure 1 0-1, Ks = Zs/Zc1-1; for relays at
H, K5 = (28 + Zc1-1)/ZHR; etc.
Recommended values of K¡ are 1.3 for the solenoid or
plu nger units with transient overreach (IIT, SC, IT units),
and 1.1 for the cylinder units w ith negligible transient
overreach (KC-2, KC-4, KO, KR types, IR types). Substi-
tuting Ki = 1.3 in Equatiori ( 10-1 ),
1 - .3 K8
n= (l 0-2)
1.3
If the source and line impedances were equal (Ks = 1 ), the
instantaneous unit would protect almost 54 percent of the
line (nearly 82 percent with Ki of 1.1 ), for three-phase.
The minimum value that can justify the use of an instan-
taneous unit for line protection is a matter of choice.
Since the relative cost of adding the lIT units to CO relays
is quite low, they are recommended even when the líne
coverage is low for maximum faults and zero for minimum
faults. The arrangement provides fast protection for the
most severe, heavy, close-in faults,
Uslng instantaneous trip units can change the coordination
set points and allow operating times on the up-strearn
lines to be reduced (Figure 10-6). The new set points are
at the pickup points of the instantaneous trip unit corre-
sponding to X' or Y'. Fault 31, in rrns symmetrical value,
is one that occurs just at the pickup point of the instanta-
neous trip unit. Since these 31 faults depend on the setting
of the instantaneous trip units, they cannot be determined
until after the initial fault study has been made, the instan·
taneous trip unit set, and the fault location determined us-
 J0-9

ing Equations (10-1) or (10-2). As a result , it is difficult to Jays and one ground relay are usecl, thc círcuu should be re·
take advantage of this rcduction. Nevertheless, instantane- moved from service during tcsting and maint cna ncc.
ous trip units still providc faster tripping for the heavy
close-in faults. Thc above arrangemcnt assu mes solid syst ciu grounding.
Other t ypes of grounding are dcscr ibcd in Chapter 11.
Furrhcr information on ground relay application to solid
G H R groundcd systcrns is givcn in Sect ion V of this chapter.

11.1. Fuse and Relay Coordination

Bccause fuscs have a ume-cur re nt characteristic t hat is

much more inverse than most induction-disc time-
overcurrent characteristics, coordinating these relays and
Iuses can be difficult (Figure 10-7). A fuse curve and t wo
sets of rclay curves one for the C0-1 1 extrernely inverso
rclay and one for the C0-9 very inverse relay are plot ted
on a linear time/logarithmic curren! scalc. Jf rclay curves
GI
E are drawn on the basis of appro xirnately equal operating
¡.:
time al high current , they will cross the fuse curve as shown.
The right-hand set of relay curves providcs a good margin
of protect ion at high levcls of Iault current but is u nsat isfac-
torily slow for medium values of fault curre nt . part icularly
Currer1 with the C0-11 characteristics. lf the right C0-11 curve
T,me Zonefo,j 1<--;-_1rs1an1or-eous P,o·ec11on lo'>e f:r wcre moved Lo the lefl. it would coordinate better at lower
l?eloy ''H' Reloy -( Mox,murn fou ts
fV ru mum Foult current values. As shown in Figure 10-7, t hc C0-11 curve
lnsrori·o,eous Protecnon Zore for
Reloy:''H'IM,n,mum roul!s would then cross the fusc curve at high valúes of fault cur-
T me Zone for rleloy "H" 1
~ Mo-,mum Foull ->¡ rent. Usually , either t he very in verse (C0-9) or lhe ex-
tremcly inverso (C0-1 1) character ist ic can be set to coordi-
Figure 10-6: Coordination Settings for Relays al Breaker "G"
of Figure 10-1 With lnstantaneous Trip Units. nare wit h Iuscs. By adjusting the tap and time lever sett ings
áreas uf crossing such as those shown in Figure 10-7 would
Cold-load inrush may be above the instantaneous unir set- impose impractical or impossiblc opcrating condit ions on
ting desired for máximum fault protection. To avoid oper- the circuit.
ation wher e a setting above this inrush is not practica}, the
instantaneous trip circuit can be manually opened at restor- When plotting fusc curves. the following three time charac-
ation and left open until the instantaneous trip unit resets. teristics must be considered:
For manual operation, a slip contact un the control switch
which is open while the switch is held in the "close " posi- a. Maximum time lhat the fuse will carry curren! wit hout
tion prcvcnts opcration until the inrush subsides to drop suffering damage (partía! melting), which would change
out ihe instantaneous unit. lf set above cold-load inrush , its normal operat ing characteristics.
the instant aneous trip unit se t t ing should be at least 3 times
the overcurrent tap sctting, or around 6 times normal maxi- b. Melting time for thc fuse links.
mum load.
c. Total clearing time for the fuse lo clear the circuit.
11.H. Phasc and Cround Relays
The Iirst t wo character ist ics are used for coor dination wilh
A circuit can best be protected using three phase relays and protcctive devices beyond the fusc. Normally, curves based
one ground rclay. With such an arrangerncnt , one relay on the rnelt ing-t ime character ist ic are provided wilh a
can he removed for testing and maintenance and the circuit "safet y band ": in this case, maximum time curves are not
can still be saf'ely energized , l lowever , if only two pilase re- required. The total clearing time characteristic is used for
10-10
.,
E
,=
Current ( L()(J<lrithm,c Score)
Figure 10-7 Current (Logarithrnic Scale) Comparison ot Fuso
and Relay Curves
coordination with othcr protcctivc dcviccs, including relays,
altead of the fuse.
11.J. Coordinating with Reclosers and Sectionalizers
Reclosers are circuit-interrupting devices, similar to circuit
breakcrs, which include automatic tripping and rcclosing
facilities. Normally, thcre are four rcclosures befare lock-
out: one instantaneous and three adjust able , time delayed.
Three types of controls are used: series t rip, relay trip , and
static control. Serics-trip and static-control reclosers have
adjustable time characterist ics overa wide range of míni-
mum pickup and curve shape. To simplify coordination
wilh protective relays, the relay-trip recloser can be
cquipped with any of the induction disc and instantaneous
tirne-overcurrent relays. Wherever possible, relays with the
same types of time characteristic should be used. Adjust-
ment of time curve shape for the serics-trip and static-
control reclosers usually simplifies coordinat ion with re·
lays. Thcre may be problerns, however, in cases requiring
coordination with relays, recloscrs, and fuscs, in that or der.
Sectionalizers are usually single-pele dcviccs, which do not
have íault-currcnt interrupting capability but which can sec-
tionalize a distribut ion feeder during a permanent fault.
The scctionalizcr is opened by an integrator which, in turn,
is operat ed by the faull-current pulses resulting from the in-
itial fault and subsequent opening and rcclosing cyclc of a
recloser , or by the reclosing of circuit breakers ahcad of the
recloser. The integrator counts the numbcr of curren!
pulses and opens the sectionalizer after lhc count has
reached a preset value and the circuir is dead ,
Secuonalizcrs simplify the coordination of reclosers and
fuscs, since , for currents above the reclosers mínimum trip.
thc sectíonalizer can be set to open for any zero current
point in the reclosing cycle. This sequence ensures that the
Iuse is not subjcct to any additional fault current.
Although scctionalizcrs are not so cornrnon as they once
were, they are still widcly uscd in underground distribution
systems.
11.K. Distribution Feeder Protection Systerns
Figure 10-8 shows a typical feeder circuit using a circuit
brea ker, rccloscr , scctionalizcrs. a nd fu ses. The three re-
closures of breaker C should be time dclaycd lo allow clear-
ing of faults beyond recloser H. The firsl rcclosurc can be
instantaneous, however, if Lhc instanlancous trip units of
thc rclays can be set short of 11, and rhe reclosing relay can
lock out subsequent instantaneous trip operatio ns after the
first reclosure. The recloscr al H can be sel for cither onc
or t wo instantancous reclosurcs; thc othcr L wo or threc
should be time tlelaye<l.
E
G H F e
o
S,ngleLood
Note: G, Circu,1 Breoke, w,·h 3·Sh0t Rec os,ng
H , Circun Rec'Oser
C, D oro E, Fuses
J ond F, Sec·ionolizers
Figure 1 Q.8: Typical Distribution Feeder Protection
The instantaneous trip unit will trip breaker G for faults on
thc load siclc of D, and only a rnomentary outage of t hc en·
tire feeder will result as G recloses. For a pcrrnancnt fault ,
fuse D will open before G can tripa second time.
 10-11

Figure 10-9 shows thc coordination curves í'or Lhe various slation battery. The t ime-current characterist ics of these
protective deviccs on the feeder of Figure 10-8. Rccloscr H dcviccs are differcnt frorn the CO ime-ovcrcurrent
í rclays.
must be set to opérate for ali faults along thc feeder into
branches C and E arid, therefore, must coordina te with fuses As shown in Figure 10-1 O, there are f'our dif'Icrcnt charac-
C and E. Secticnalizer F can be sel lo open during thc sec- ter istics; long delay phase with an inverso characteristic (top
ond or third open period of rccloser H. This arrangement right section of lhc curves), short dela y phase (rnicldle sec-
allows servicc lo be restored to bra nch J f'or pcrmanent tion), phase ínstantancous with no interitional time dclay
faults in thc arca between F anti C and r and i::. Similarly, (lower right scction) and ground (left curve). Thc scttings
secticnalizer J can also be sel to open during the second or are continuously adjustablc and can be easily set anti testecl
third open period of rccloscr 11. ln this way, servíce can be in the ficld with a portablc test set. An opcrating band
restorcd on the F branch for permancnt faults in branch J. rathcr than a curve is uscd to describe their cnaractertstics.

A typical applicat ion of these brcaker s ata 480-V sccond-

ary unit substation and load center is shown in Figure
10-11.

A typical application with coordinaticn curves is shown in

11G1
Breoker
~urrent ( Logornnm1c Scole )
Figure1 ().9: Typical Coordination Curves for The Protection
Devices on The Feeder of Figure 10.8
Figure 10-12. The kcy systern current data are plottcd f'irst
asan aid in coordinating and sctting the various devices,
These are: a) motor starting, b) lransformer full load, e)
transformcr magnetizing inrush cst imated at 8 to 12 times
ful! load at 0.1 seconds, d) transforrner maximum with-
stand (ANSI Standard) for thrcc-phase and linc-to-ground
faults bctwcen 2 to 5 seconds, e) the three-phase fault cur-
rent (19,600 A) Ied thru the transforrner from thc 4.16 KV
source, f) the total secondary unit substat ion bus thrce-
phase fault current (24,400 A) which includcs t he source
contribution of 19 ,600 an<l 4800 A backfeed from the
motor loads, and g) thc total load center bus three-phase
h1s·o1toreous lrip fault current (20,000 A). This cxarnple assurnes severa!
motor feeders although only one is shown. Circuit breaker
A f'ccding one motor is set above thc motor starting curve
(a). Circuir break er B coordinatcs wilh A. Círcuit breakers
C and E coordina te with B. On double ended substations

The propcr coordination technique marches tirnc-current where a normally open tic breaker (E) is uscd, the incoming

characteristics anti maintains no lcss than the coordinating (C) and tic (E) breakers havc duplica te scttings except for
time interval (CTl) between dcvices subject to opcration on the shorl time delay. The incoming line breaker (C) is set

the same fault. Thcse conditions require a knowlcdge of to opcratc one time interval longer than the tie breaker (E).

the maximurn and mínimum current valucs for various

faults a long the feeder, as well as of the characteristics of The primary protcction for the high voltage sidc of thc scc-
thc protective dcviccs, ondary unil substation normally is furnished by high side
currcnt lirniting fuses. As illustratcd in 1-'igure 10-12, with a

11.L. Coordinating with Low Voltage Brcakers high capacity source, the current limiting Fuse is currcnL
limiting for faulls as low as 33% of a maximum faull. The
Low voltagc breakers, used in eircuits of 600-V and below, fuse curves (D) providc very adcquatc phase fault prolec-

have built-in solid state overcurrent trip dcvices which actu- tion but not for ground faults. These are normally re-

ate a solenoid trip mcchanisrn. Tripping energy is obtained stricted and not isolated by a fusc.
from the prirnary fault current, rather than frorn a separate
 .lOO -1-l-+-+-----

200 -1-l-+-+-----

100 l J

-+
,110·· Ch -o, ,1 .. .o r
CuhhrOl~IJ 01 .t '), ú,
n11d IC, 1 ·nt'~ ~,t S,;1•
t, r$.~,
1,011114

11 111 511011 r)pjoy r 1me

<.O 0101NI010,!),Q,jj
(,,,,n., ·,,,,e, ond 0.18 seco-es (01 2.5 ,
01 J :J,0.
J
.
,... 11,bro1t~O '•r
T mP~ $ho11 Dcloy P,ckup)
e
' t () •;econd~
1
t111

1r~1an1:1neoi..• .. P Clo.u~
(ni b,Oh!(1 Cll 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10
03i--l-l-+-++------+---'f----f-+-+-I--~ 011d 12 t ,mes seoso- Ro11,•q

.02

1 ¡

.O? .:l3
.
.~ so 'º roo
Cur1el"\1 .,, r,.,1u111ptes or Sensor Ro1 ng

Figure 10-1 O: Low Voltage Air Breaker Time Characteristics (Type OS)

This fuse prot ect ion is very inadequate for transf'orrner sec- a high side Iuse is very good for pr imary maximu m phase l
ondary faults located between the transfor mer and the rnain phase and thrce-phase faults but vcry inadequate for the
secondary brcaker (C). The rna xirnum secondary fault more probable high side groun d tault s and restricted sec-
would takc approximately onc sccond lo blow hc fusc í ondary faults.
(Figure l 0-12). For a more probable 50'%., fault , lhe fuse
would takc bctwccn 15 to 20 scconds, This illustrates that
10-14

1000

700
~
--'---
I t =-~f-'-: ----+---~-
1

eoo - - --~c~fc·mc, _
•vi LJod
~ -
300 j 1 . l

--::-~ -to .. u
20C
1
-
-ÍJD

·oo 2t:O:.mo o
re
- IOOOKVA \.,A......A.J
4160 480
50
- --·
-
1
~.75°/o
+ l9.G80
I• "
u
-<
16GOnrrip C

se .._ ~>- -.
?O

·o
1
1
1
5
IS¡,, 1
1
..
1
(,~
l. 5
!11 1
~ 2
~-ll l(¡J ven BruO<l" e; ,1
lou6 rrne:>014 ¡-,i '4f.
6 S1·COl'(l :>elOy I JT-80
-
--~+++-- 1
, __ _¡_ _ _¡_t-...,_

i
1 -~
21---f--+-iH

.l ._,_
>-

.07 ,_ 1

.oe 1
- ~Mnx1mum 30
1.
- __ 4l60VOIIS
.05 '
1
.O? 1

\ 1 1 1
5 ·,o 20 30 50 70 100 2CO 300 500 700 000 2COO ~00 5000 10,000
Seote X 100 'Couent ,r A moeres o· 480Volts
Figure 1 0-12: Protection and Coordination for a Typical Secondary Unit Substation and Load Center.

Data on thc use of current-Jimiting breakers and mínimum III. SUBTRANSMISSION CIRCUIT PROTE.CTION
recornmendcd [use size are availablc from manufacturers.
Loads to which these breakers are applicd are protected Subtransmission circuits may be radial, loop with a single
against single phasing by an interlock dcvicc t hat trips che source (a distribution substation bus), or loops with two or
breaker when any onc fuse blows. more sources (two or more distribution subst at ions).
 10-15

parallcl lincs In :1 distribution substation const itutc a spccial of the line and rcmorc back-up oí rhe line (IIRJ beyond.
case of Ioops \\ ith :1 single source. Radial subtransrnission In othcr words a dircctional re lay should be used when:
circuits are protcct cd in t he sarne way :.h are radial feeder
circuits, und thc samc applícation criteria apply. Since sub- 11 max
------ > 0.25 ( 10·3)
transrnission cir cuits are thrce-phase, three-wire circuits. 12min or 13min =
ground-Iault protcction is applied as on distribuí ion circuits
groundcd at t hc source only.
b. The maximum load currenr toward bus G is grearer than
the maximum load toward bus H. This cond ition pcr-
111.A. Criteria for Dircctional Relays rnits more scnsit ive set tings, which muy or may not be
required , depe nding on the current through G Ior a rnin-
When there is a source at more than one of the line terrni- imurn fault al the end of the adjacent lines, such as ar
nals, fault ami load current can flow in cit hcr dircction. bus R. This case assumes that the relay at G is used for
Relays protccting t hc linc are thcrcforc subjcct to fault cur- remole backup of section IIR.
rent flowing in both directions. lf non-directional relays
were used, they would have to be coordinated not only For instantaneous ovcrcurrent relays or instantaneous trip
with relays al the remote end of the line but with the re· units (ussurning sufficicnl margin between the close-in line
lays behind t hem. Since directional relays opera te only tault ami thc remole bus). a d ircct ional rclay should be ap-
when fault current flows in the spccif'ied lripping direct ion, plied if thc maximum currcnl 11 t hrough thc rclay f'or a
they avoid both this cornplex coordination antl the possibil- f'ault behind it is equul to or great er ihan 90 percent (80%
ity of cornprornising linc protcction. for source angles >óOº) of the pickup sett ing of ihe in-
staruaneous unit (IT pu). For rclay (; in Figure 10-15. an
instantaneous <ltre..:tional relay should be used iJ":
Figure 10-15 shows a linc, with a sourcc at cach cnd , which
could be a scction of a loop. 'I'he following procedure de·
11 max
termines thc criteria for a directional unit by cornparing rhc -->
ITpu -- 0.90 (or 0.80 for source angles > 60 o )
currents flowing t hrough the relay for faults at cithcr bus.

111.B. t:sing Dircctional Ovcrcurrent Relays to Protccl

For time-overcurrent relays, a directional relay should be
Loop Circuits with a Single Source
applied al G if, in Figure 10-15:

A loop circuit with a single sourcc is shown in Figure 10-16.

a. The máximum fault current (11) through the relay for a For the purposes of thc following tliscussion, ali brcakers
fault on bus C excccds 0.25 times thc mínimum fault in this circuit will be considered closed during operation,
current 12 through the relay for a fault on the remote at least for a significan! amount of rime. (Should a brcakcr
bus H for the protcction of the line only or 13 thru uie open, the system becomes radial.) The re lay application
relay for a tault on thc re mote bus R for the protecrion rules are similar to those for radial circuits, cxt:cpt that di·
rectional relays will be rcquirctl al all localions but I ancl
I O. Non-directional ovcrcurrcnt relays can be used at 1 and
I O. since no current ftows through these locations for faults
in thc sourcc syslém an<l on bus C. (This application is in·
G H q dicated by the doublc·arrow linc bclow thc br,;:aker.)
(1) !3)

._.,,.,.,_--IA~-------~
At aJI other locations, current can flow in either direction

-,·
-LoodOu1
through the relays for faults to lhe right of bus G. With
~~2 load taken off at each bus, load currcnt can also flow in
Retoy - Load In
eithcr direction through relays 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. and 8. lf loads
-13
are tapped on lines GH and GT, through load current can

Figure 10-15· Criteria for a Oirectional Unit Requirement also flow in eithcr direction through relays 2 and 9. Thus,
at Relay Breaker ""A'" directional relays are intlicated at ali these loc:itions. Thcsc
10-16

Table 10-111
G H R
Phase-Overcurrent Relays for Single-Source
Loop Circuit Protection

Relays if Relays if
T s Relays if Non-directional D irectional
lnstantaneous lnstantaneous Instantaneous
Breaker Trip Units Are Trip Units Are Trip Units Are
Locations Not Applicable Applicable Applicable

Figure 10-16 A Single Source Loop Circuit and its Protection

I and 10 co CO with
Instantaneous
relays will operate when thc pickup curren! is above the set-
Trip Units
ting, but only if the curren! flows in thc direction of the ar-
rows, which, in cach case. is into the line.
2 and 9 - KRV*

Depending on thc rclativc valucs of the source impcdance lo

3 through 8 CR CR with IRV
thc various line impedances, direct ional rclays rnay not be
lnstantaneous
required at ali locations when the criteria of Sectiori A,
Trip Units
above. are uscd. A fault study will best determine whcrc di-
rectional relays are required.

*lt' back up for line Gii or c;T taults is dcsircd, use 1 R V.

In practicc , dircctional
relays are usually applied at ali loca-
tions to accomrnodate any Iuturc systcrn changes.
111.C. Coordinat ion on Single-Source Loop Systcrns
Por this singlc-sourcc system. lines Gii and GT can be pro-
tcctcd by instantancous dircctional overcurrent rclays, set In principie. the coordination procedure Ior relays on a
vcry scnsitivcly at 2 and 9. Such relays will providc com- single-source loop is the same as for radial fccders. The
plete sequential protcction for ali the lines frorn stations H fault currcnt on any bus, cxcept lhe sourcc bus, is grcatcr
and T. Sincc thc fault curren! through relays 2 and 9 goes whcn thc loop is closcd ; however, when t hc loop is oponed
lo zcro as the fault location rcaches bus G, the instantane- bel wccn thc fault and thc so urce bus, lhe current in any
ous dircctional rclays cannot ovcrrcach. In other words, for branch will increasc. Since coordination is based u pon rnax-
sorne area on the line to the right of brcakcr I or breaker irnurn fault currcnt on thc remole bus, it must be assumed
I O, the fault current through relays 2 or 9 will drop below that thc loop is open at onc cnd. Thc same assumption
relay pickup as it approachcs zcro. rnust be made for rninimum pickup settings. Coordinat ion
at máximum fault current s will apply for ali condit ions,
For thcse sarne faults, however, the current through relay J since overcurrent relays of the sa rne time character istic will
or I O will be maximum. Either the CO relays or , if applica- have a grcatcr time margin at lower currents.
ble, the instantaneous trip units will opcratc in rninirnum
time. When breaker 1 or 1 O opens, the current mercases Por directional relays, two sets of relays must be coordi-
through relays 2 and 9. For line Gil faults, the current natcd. For the singlc-sourcc loop circuit shown in Figure
through relay 2 increases in the tripping direct ion ; while for 10-16: with breaker 10 open, relay 1 must be coordinated
line GT faults, thc currcnt through rclay 9 increases in the with relay 3, 3 with 5, 5 wit h 7, and 7 with 9; while, with
tripping direction. Thus, for linc CH faults close to bus G, breaker 1 open, relay I O must be coordinated with relay
breaker 2 opens sequentially after breaker 1. Similarly, for 8, 8 with 6, 6 with 4, and 4 with 2. Relays are set in re-
line GT faults close to bus G, breaker 9 opens sequentially verse order. As indicated, only relays 2 and 9 need be in-
after breaker 1 O. stantaneous, unless line backup is dcsired. Also, unless
there are tapped loads on lincs GH or GT, relays 2 and 9
Typical uses of lhe phase-overcurrent rclays for the single- can be set below load as long as maximum load currcnt does
source loop circuit shown in Figure 10-16 are summarizcd not exceed the continuous currcnt of thc relay on that tap.
in Table 10-111. A time dial of 0.5 will providc instantaneous or very fast

limes for relays 2 and 9. Relay 4 is then set to coordina te
with relay 2, or relay 7 to coordinare with relay 9, using
the procedure described in Section 11.B., above. Next. re-
lay 6 is set lo coordina te with 4, 8 with 6, and finally I O
with 8 in onc loop and similarly in the ot her loop.
lnstantancous trip units, where applicable , rnust also be set
on the assumption of open-loop conditions that givc ma xi-
mum relay currents for remore-end faults. This procedure
is described in Sections ll.G. and 111.A. b.
111.D. Using lnverse Time-Distance Rclays to Protect
Single-Source Loop Circuits
With single-sourcc loop circuits, the in verse t irne-distance re-
laying schcrne offers distinct advantagcs. The schcme is es-
pecially advantageous for long loops with many sections,
where the relays at the bus-cnd brcaker would require a
long time dclay Ior a tar-cnd fault. The in verse time-
distance scherne consists of a Zonc I distance relay (21)
(typc KD·I O), a long with a similar Zone 2 distan ce relay
(21) that torquc-controls a two-unit, inverso time-
overcurrcnt rclay (S 1 ). Thc rcach of the distancc rclay is
independent of source impcdancc variations; it can be set
below and is indepcntlcnt of load curren t.
Zonc 1, set for 90 perccnt of thc line irnpedance, protccts a
rnuch largor portion of the line than docs an instantaneous
unit. Zone 2 is set through thc ncxt adjaccnt section to
provide end-zonc and adjacent line protcctio n. Sincc the
two-unit overcurrent rclay is t orquc-controlled. it will not
operare unlcss t he Zonc '.? rclay has opera ted.
The principie of application is shown in Figure 10-17.
Ninety percent of th..: linc is trippcd al high spced. For the
remaining 10 percent of lhc line, thc opcrat ing lime of t hc
51 (CO unit) can be made comparat ively fast (equal loor
less than the coordinating time intervals) since coordinat ion
is with thc next Zone I instantaneous relay , rather than
with thc timc-ovcrcurrent u nit , This condition applies as
long as the relay's invcrsc char acter istics maintain a separa·
tion between points A and S ( in Figure 10-1 7) which is
equal to or greater than the CTI. Short-line problems will
be discussed la ter.
The CO may be set on a tap whose valué is less than rnaxi-
mum load current, sincc thc controlling Zone 2 unit will
not operare on load curren t. This arrangcment provides
fastcr backup protcction for t hc adjacent section than
10-17
Adt3C.ért L re 80:Ju~ ..,/':¡
Pr ~,yP,::Hec11ion
7:}'le S'lOwr $.')!Kl
\y '
Ceo- ;,no· ·'!CJ A
f me 111"('(·,'~
___ ..
----
Zcr-e l
f-o'-----otuf---r~
Figure 10.17· Distance Over Current Rolay Time Characteristics
would directional overcurrent relays with instantaneous
trip units. For simplicit y. the CO relay time characteristic
has been shown as a single curve on Figure 10-17. In prac-
tice. however , the lime characterist ic is a band that
broadcns as distancc lrom thc rclay location increascs. Thc
band limits are the opcrating times for maximum anti míni-
mum fault conditions. Thc CTI. as shown in Figure 10·17,
is for thc maximum Iault condition.
lll.E. Protecting Loop Circuits with Taps
Circuits with load taps prcscnt coordinalion problcrns
if thc tap impcdancc to its bus has thc sume order of rnag-
nitude as the impcdanee from thc tap point to lhc remole
line terminal. In such cases, time-ovcrcurrcnt rclays rnust
be coordinatcd with thc protcction at anti beyond the tap
bus, as wcll as with prolcction al the re mote bus anti be·
yond.
With the inverse time-distancc schcmc, thc zonc of instan·
taneous protcction can he quite lirnitctl if thc tapis near
the relay terminal-parlicularly if Zone 1 must be set so as
not to operate for íaults protcCLcd by thc fusc. Ccnerally,
Zonc 1 would be set inlo but not through the transformcrs.
This arrangcment imposcs no limilation as long as ZT is
greater than ZL (Figure 10-18). r:ast n:closing and subsc·
qucnt lockout of Zone I permits the fuse to clcar trans-
former faults (see Chapter 20).
lf Zone '.? rea ches chrough the transformer, t he CO rday
must coordinate with the fuse and low-side breakers (main
and/or feeder). 17or faults in and on lhe low sidc of thc
transformer tap. the current from thc remot<' cnd tcntls to
make the impedance sccn by thc rclay appc·ar largcr than it
actually is. The Zone I setting musl ncvcrthi.'lcss be ma<le
on the basis of actual ohms. since the infeed effet"t <lisap-
pcars if the loop is open al sorne point. Also. lhc Zone I
10-18
-

rcach must remain short of both the remote end and of the for such systcrns are vcry complex and frequently require
low voltage bus. cornprorniscs in protect ion. Suppose thal, for lhe systcrn
shown in Figure 10-16. lhcre are sources al each of the
busses (instead of only at bus G). In this case. relays l and

-- -- --- -- l O rnust be direct ional, and two coordinat ion loops will ex-
ist. Relay I must be coordinated with 3, 3 with S, 5 with 7,

----- ------- 7 with 9, and 9 wilh 1. Similarly, relay l O must be coordi-

nated with 8, 8 with 6, 6 with 4, 4 with 2, and 2 with 1 O.
f---- In addition, each relay must be coordinated with a ny othcr
circuits or loops connected to that relay's remote bus.

These multiple-sourcc loops tcn<l to ciose on each other, so

CO mus1 Coo-cmore
that thcrc is no spccif'ic starting point in the coor<lination

TZr procedurc and thc last rclay inevitably <loes not properly co-
ordina te with the firsl rclay. A trial an<l error process is
) ~- CO mus· Coo,d note
y ncccssary to adjust the seu ings. This laborious procedure
rnust he perforrned for both máximum and mínimum opcr-
Figure 10-18: K0-10/CO Protection on Sectíon wíth Fused ating co nditions. as wcll as for rhc various lines in or out of
Transformer Tap.
service.

The Zone 2 setting may also be based on actual ohms un- /\ goo<l st:irtin!! poinl for hc coordinution
í prccess is al the
less thc Zonc 2-(;ontrollcd CO rclays are to actas backup largest sourccs, whcre thc closc-rn fault curren: will be
to thc transformcr sccondary main brcakcr relays. In this large and thc rclay time corrcspondingly short , The corn-
case, thc effect of far-end contrihulion rcquircs that thc putcr coordination program , dcscribcd 111 Chapter 1 2. is an
Zone 2 setting be detcrmincd on the basis of apparent invaluable aid in this proccdurc. Thc progra rn is dcsigncd
transformer impedance. The apparent transformer irn ped- lo handlc more conditions than can usually be rnanaged
anee for a fault on t he low voltage bus is: wit h hand sctting.

( 10-5) lll.11. Coordination on Mult iplc-Loop Systerns

where K1 is the current distribution factor at the relay loca- l~ach re lay in a muh iplc-loop system is coordinatcd as de·

tion for a íault in the low voltagc system. A complete dis- scribed in Scction 11.B., ahove. Each loop rnust be coordi-
cussion of apparent impcdancc is given in Scction IV.C. nated within itsclf an<l with a<ljacent rclays in other loops.
The techniquc is illustrated rhrough rhc cxamplc shown in

lll.F. Short Loop Circuits Figure 1 0-1 9. Thc t y pi cal 23-k V loop shown in this figure
has a source at each end an<l loads in the middle. Por sirn-

"Time stack ing" occurs whcn the line sections are so short plicity, only the top load bus is shown. and the two scclions

that the fault currcnt is cssentially the sarne for near and are considered syrnmctrical. Three-phase fault currents are

remole Iaults (Figure 10-5). Since Zone l can provide high shown , and fault locations are marked with an "X." Each

spccd , 90-pcrcent coverage , the long delays for the section fault is indicated with a circlcd nurnber followed by the to·

nearest thc sourcc occur only for end-zone faults. Very tal current in amperes at 23 kV for maximum and for mín-

short lines are essentially extended busses and are best pro- imum conditicns, respectively. Below the breakers, the di·
tected by pilot-wire relays. reclion and distribution of the fault current through that
part of the circuit are shown. For example, for fault ( 1 ),
lll.G. Using Overcurrent Relays to Protect Loop Circuits the current lhrough thc relays and breakcrs at A, 8, C, and
with Multiple Sources D is 250 Amp maximum and 210 Amp mínimum. The
same current would also flow 1hrough E, F', G, and H for
In general, direccional relays are necessary to protect loop fault ( 1 ).
circuits with multiple sources. The coordination problems
 10-19

il
(4) i?OO -850

:r )(

!.?KV
t ,,•;:::;o ese
- 2·'100-800 l 2 1000·7:¡Q
'·2:>0·210
1 2·1'00
3 200·180

t Be
5MVA :f;, , r • IA 1120 380 31\ 320·300
23KV 2· 1000· 7~0 800
4·500·400 ® (i~,0·450
r
4
3 200-·90 '1 250 ?I()
IS(•I• ··~;:·,, "¡¡"¡ <D 3)
\ o
?;\KV
1·250·210 -3·200 180

1 500·410
-1·?750·'410
2 1000 7:>0
4·550·400
·-
-
3·3200 \180
2 1100 800
t:-650·450 -
~f-
3·400·360
·~t6()KV 1 2500·1200- 3·?00·'8í) ·- 1·250·210 ... 3 3000·'360
\f• •,JL• HU(

-
Q) 3000·lu?O @!,t:00·1360

-
K .~: í :)~ /.:.,~'
IOMVA 10MVA

(!)2'·; i, '.,•. 11 0J7i,.JJ·1 '

)¡<3: "'·· •J-:~,.>' Notes:

l LOCd )ººº '125.5

3xc~
251.0
,
/\~ipe,es 01 23-<V br 5MVA
AmpP.tP.f. 01 23KV fo, 10MVA

"o·JI' Curren1 '.),s1r1ou11on Someto, Tbe Lower t meof Figure 10 19

--+---~---- ? 3KV A"Foa Is o-e t, ne End Foulls; ,.e., lA· •11,.11 (f)on L,ne 01"A"w,1h Breokcr"A"Ooen

(Ali C,ne,ts o-e Arnceres nt23KV: Sow•ce Conne: rec Here Sarre os Top
Figure 1 0-20: Líne Relay Current for The System of Figure 10-19.

No1es:
I P) W 1h "'oql1001 111~01 't,'ond ''t," ;)pen, Tte C011cn1sorc 420· 380'1rrpc,cs
{S) w•nFou1tonLmeo1 "D'iono "D11 Ooen, .... rieCurrernsor~ 3?C-~C0Amce·es Table 10-JV indica tes Eq uation (10-4) critcria for instanta-
neous units.
Figure 10-19: Example of Relay Application and
Settings for Loop System

The settings suggested Ior a non-directional IIT unit corre·

Since line relays must respond to faults on thc line rat her
than on thc bus, Figure 10-20 shows the curren ts through
the breakers and relays for the top linc scction. The fault at
each bus has the samc total magnitude if it occurs on the
linc side of each breaker as if it occurred on the bus itself.
The current seen by the relay , howcvcr, is quite different
in the two cases.
A cursory revicw of the system indica tes that directional-
phase relays for both tirne-overcurrent and instantaneous
units are rcquired at breakers B, C, F, and G. At cach of
thcsc lccat ions, the fault current toward thc bus is greater
than thc currcnt for faults at the remete ends. Thc reverse
is true for brcakcrs /\, O, E, and H. As indicatcd in Equa-
tion (10-3), the dircctional critcria f'or the overcurrent units
show that a directional relay is rnarginally preferable for
protecting the line only. Either a dircctional or a non-
dircctional relay could be applicd for D and E. lf, however,
the relay must provide backup protection beyond the re-
mole bus, a directional rclay must be used. Using a dircc-
tional relay would also avoid future problems causcd by
system changes.
spond to 1320 and 1440 Arnp. primary with the 200:5 cur-
rent transforrner ratios. For D and E, no protcction can be
obtained for close-in faults during mínimum conditions. A
non-directional IIT unit is still recommended, ho wcver,
since it provides high speed clearing for thc most severe
faults-vclose-in during maximum coriditions. A KD-1 O re-
lay with CR or, optionally , and IRV rclay would per mit in-
stantaneous settings of 30 Amp. sccondar y (1200 Arnp.
primary) for A and 11 and 32 Amp. sccondary (1280 Amp.
primary ) for D and E. This arrangcmcnt would mercase
the high speed coverage Ior ali but thc mínimum operut ing
conditions for O and E.
The protective relays for thc systcrn shown in Figure 10-19
are sumrnarízed in Table 1 O-V. Line relays are set as fol-
lows, For ali breakers and relays, 200: 5 ratio currcnt trans-
f'orrners will be uscd. Thc full load through ali brcakers, ex-
ccpt 1, J, M, and N, will be 5 MVA, corresponding to 125.5
Amp. primary or 3.13 Amp. sccondary.
For breakers M and N to avoid opcration on cold-load in-
rush, tap 1 O has been predeterrnined. Since the brcakers
are 5 and 8 cycle, the CTI is 0.3 sec.
 J 0-19

(4)'200·8!'>0

z sv i_L,, ~o
--i---ll-)(
@21::,0 1550
----+---.--)(-
eso 2-i:00-80G 2· lOOC 750

l 1
1 ?5C·?l0 5·200-180
5'v'IVA <? _ 1• ºA-420 380 3A-320·300
23-<v 2-1000· 750 e e 2 1100-aoo
4 500·400 ® ® 4-650 c50
3 200·180 1·250 210
(SPP·~3'f'' p" • (i) @
A o
23KV ?3-<V -1250-2·0 -3 200·180
- l-2750·141C - 3·3200-1180 ~·~~

· .500.co 2
,: 'ººº
550·<:00
75()
- 2-1100·800
-4-650·'1!>0 -3·400 360
·2500·1?00.... 3·200·18,) 1-250·210 .... !>·3000 '360
Q) 3;)00 • lG20 G\)3<'-00 1360

..,
•, Nores.
[ _ood ~ I?!>.!> A"'lpPrPS ar 23KV fo, 5 V',VA
?.51.0AmoerPSO' 23~V for l()MVA
"ou1· C...rren1 O s1roou11on So-neto, Thc ...owcr L,neof f'ir,¡ure 10·19
~ ?3KV A Fo,·,,:vP ,re ('>Orours •. e., lll ~ouir0_1()lll1near''.A'\\111h 8,eoker"ll"Open
"'-. Sov,cP eo~rec1...o -le•e Scme os -op
Figure 10.20: Une Relay Current for The System of Figure 1O·19.

Notes:
lR) Vb'h :::-ouh :>l'l L nt-01 A11ond A" U:-e"', - ·14..• C.,, rcr,!> ::;,t. ~20 38:.,i.i,'!'\:)et~
IS) W,'"'"ou11on ... ,,eo1"!)'ond 'D" CpPn.TreC,·rpr·~,,p ',, J·' :.~""'"" Table I O-IV indicares l:..quation (10-4) criteria for instan la·

Figure10.19: Example of Relay Application and

ncous units.
Settings for Loop Svsrem

The seuings suggested for a non-d irectional IJT unit corre-

spond to 1320 and 1440 Amp. primary wit h the 200:5 cur-
Sincc linc rclays must rcspond to faults on thc line rather ren! transformer ratios. For O and E, no prorect ion can be
than on thc bus, Figure 10-20 shows the currents through obtained for close-in faults during mínimum conditions, A
the brcakers and rclays for thc top linc section. The fault at non-dircctional IIT unit is still recommended, ho wever ,
each bus has the same total rnagnitude if it occurs on the sincc it providcs high speed clearing for the most scvere
line side of each breaker as if it occurred on the bus itself. faults closc-in during máximum conditions. A K D· I O re-
The current seen by the rclay, howcvcr, is quite different lay with CR or, optionally , and I RV rclay would perrnit in·
in thc t wo cases. stantancous scttings oí 30 Amp. secondary ( 1200 Arnp.
primary) for A and II and 32 Amp. secondary (1280 Amp.
A cursory review of the system indica tes that directional- primary) for D and E. This arrangemcnt would increase
phase relays for both time-overcurrent and instantaneous thc high spccd coverage for ali but the mínimum opcrating
units are required at breakers B, C, F, and G. At each of conditions for D and E.
these locations, the fault current toward the bus is greater
than the curren! for faults at the remote ends. The reverse Thc protcctive relays for the system shown in Figure 10-19
is true for breakers A, D, E, and JI. As indicated in Equa- are summarized in Table 1 O-V. Line relays are set as fol-
tion (I 0-3), the directional criteria for the overcurrent units lows. For ali breakers and relays, 200: 5 ratio current trans-
show that a dircctional rclay is marginally preferable for forrners will be used. The full load through ali breakers, ex·
protccting thc linc only. Eithcr a directional or a non· cept 1, J, M, and N, will be 5 MVA, correspond ing to 125.5
directional rclay could be applicd for O and E. lf, however , Amp. primary or 3.13 Amp. secondary.
the relay rnust providc backup protection beyond the re-
mole bus, a directional relay must be used. Using a direc- For brcakers M and N to avoid operation on cold-load in-
tional relay would also avoid future problems caused by rush, tap I O has been predeterrnined. Since the breakers
system changes. are 5 and 8 cycle, the CTJ is 0.3 sec.
 Table 10-IV

Applying lnstantaneous Units to the Systern of Figure 10-19

Maximum Maximum Equat ion Sctting Maximum Mínimum

Remo te Reverse (10-4) for Close-in Close-ín
Fault J.3 X 1.15 X Fault Criteria Secondary Fault Fault
Location (Amp) Setti.ng Setti.ng (Amp) ».
-
90 Use Amperes (Amp) (Amp)

A.H 1000 1300 1150 250 250 = .22 No n-d ircct ional 33 2750 1410
1150

200
D.E 1100 1430 1265 200
1265 = '16 No n-directional 36 3200 1180

The coordinat ing paths are: with 6-1--14 Arnp. IIT ínsranraneous t rip unit.
inverse time charact erisr ic as shown in Figure
a. L with .\1 and I 10-21. For relay L. opcrat ing currcnt is t he
surn of currents in B and C. For Relav K. op-
b. D with B and L; B with H and 1: H with K and F; and F erating current is the sum of currents in C and
with D and J. F.

c. A with C and L: C with E and J: E with G and K: and G

A, 11, I, Bus dif'Iercntial: Type CA- l 6 re lay. opera tes in
with A and l.
and 1.5-to-6 cycles for bus faults. t r ipp ing break-
D, E, J crs indicat cd .
The first step is to set M ancl N. and titen set similar coun-
terparts (not shown) on thc lower line of Figure 10-19.
1, J Transformer diffcrcnLial: Typc HU relay ap-
Next , L and K are set, thcn I and J. Loops (b) and (e) are
plicable, but typc CA-26 might be used de-
thcn set in turn.
pending on 69-k V systern as discusse d in Chap-
Table 10-V ter 8.

Prorecr ion for tite Syst ern Sho wn in Figure 10-19

For 69-k V line proteci ion: Type 113 polyphase
directional relay wit h TD-5 tirncr, 0.2 to 4.0
Loeation Protection sec. Re lay is applicd so that no load curr ent
will flow from thc 23-k V to 69-k V systerns.
A,D,E,11 Ty pe CR-8 relay , 4-to-12-Amp. runge with I O-
to-40-Amp. IIT insta ntancous trip unir, inverse
Relay opcratcs for faults in 69/23-kV trans-
forrner and 69-kV systern. where fault currents
time characrcristic as shown in Figure 10-21.
lhrough I and J are very low. To coordina te
wit h remotc 69-kV system relays, the H3
B, C, F. G Type IRV-8 relay, 2-to-6-Amp. rangc, with 4-
to-l ó-Amp. directional supervised instantaneous
starts the timer to trip I or J in 1.0 sec,
unit, in verse time characteristic as shown in III.H.l. Set ting for Relays ~t and N
Figure 10-21.

Use the data from Figure 10-20 and mark on Figure 10-22
.\l.:--- Type C0-8 relay. Hilo CO wit h 1-12 Arnp . the maximum and mínimum fault currcnts for fault (4).
range. with 6-144 Arnp. IIT unir inverse time With tap I O. the equivalent primary current on the 13-kV
characterisric as shown in Figure 10-21.
Si·d e ·IS JO x 200
-
7·2
x - = 1 2~) Amp, ª' "3
L kV . Th. IS va 1 ue .IS
5 23
K.L Partial differential for bus a nd transformcr pro- plotted on the curve.
tection: Type C0-8 relay . 1-12 Amp. r a ngc.
 10-2 l

\
Next, assume that an IJT setting of 18 A has been selected 3.0
Pnose Reloy"Mono N"
after analysis of the 7 .2-kV feeders. In this case, the equív- 2.8
co-s 4-12 2001~ e I
200 7.2 2.6 I.T. 10 40Amp
alent 23-kV primary current is: 18 x-5- x = 225 A at
23 2.4
Settings
l.I, 2251\mp o· 23 KV ((20 01 7.2 ,<v)
23 kV. This value is also plotted on the curve. 2.2
2.0
-
\-
\
(Locked Out Alter Firs1 tnstontoreous Irtol
Top 10/\rnps l 125Ampo123 KV)
~,me D,al #?
The time dial setting for M and N w ill be determi.ned by -g is ~-~
the 7.2-kV systern and rernote-end relays, but assurne that ] 1.6 P1c4-uµOI
time dial 2 has been dcterrnincd. From thc time curves of r 1.4 ~ 125t.rno

Figure 10-21, the time curve points for figure 10-22 are:
"'E
.:: 1.2
/ \ :.....-'-- "O)Mm,mom ~
\ l....-+@)
Mox,murn
to

o.e
-, . 1
lns1ontoneous "!'-..
Multiples of
Tap Setting
Primary Current
at 23 kV
Time to Close Contacts
(seconds)
0.6

º·" ¡,
íripoi 225Arnp
/ - -~ t--. t-- 1--

0.2 - -
2.0 250 4.00
0100 200 300 400 500 700 1000 1~()() 2000 3000
-
2.5 312 2.38
P· mo·y /\mpe,es 111 23KV
3.0 375 1.65
Figure 10.22: Relays "M" and "N" Sottings
4.0 500 1.05
5.0 625 0.78
7.0 875 0.58 111.H.2. Se ttíug for Relay L to Coordina te with Relays M
10.0 1250 0.46 and N
16.0 2000 0.36
Figure 10-23 is Figure 10-22 rcdrawn lo illustrutc thc set·
These values are plottcd in Figure 10-22. tingof rclay L to coordinatc with rclays M and N. Relay K
(on the bottorn line oí Figure l 0-19) is assurned to have
the sanie setting as L. Thc máximum and mínimum values
of faults (2) and (4) as seen by rclay L are marked on Fig-
I r
ure 10-23. Fault (4) máximum is thc critica! Iaulr (1200 A
at 23 kV).

3.0
...___ Phose Reloy "L" Se11,ngs
2.8 1.1.15€01\mp (1.3X1200)
C0·8 4 12 200/5 CT
Top7.0Amp
2.G ,_ i.T. lü-40Amp
-1 '-- ( 280 Amps Pr,mory)
1 1 1 Se1 Poin1
4 2.4 1--
22 ...
P,ck upa1-
L - ""º'' ~
\· "M ond N" 0.17""""'"
l?OOAmp (ll.3x)
2.0 2801\mps- ~~_._ íirne D,01 tt?
\ ~)M,,,,mum, (Appro<imo1e)
1.8
\ 1
Full t.coc- ~~~ · 125Amp
16

1.4
\ 1
@Mox,mum
1

1.2 ~
\
1.0
' \ 1 1
@M,n,mum
1-

,...___ \. (VMox,mum
08
'~ r: ~\ 1
M,N ~~ir.
0.6 ~ ~,
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 tO 12 \4 16 20 e;;;
r-,
Mult,ples of Top voroe Currem ~,N
1
0.2
1560
Figure 1 ~21. Type C0·8, IRV-8 Time Current Curves
200 300 400500 700 1000 1500 2000 3000
P,,mory Amperes 01 23KV

Figure 10.23: Relay "L" Coordination (Set "K" The Same1

10-22

The mínimum pickups of L and K are set at approximately The minimum tap 2.0 is choscn on the basis that load will
twice full load: lhat is.'.! x 125 Arnp .. or 250 Arnp. Thc not flow lhrough 8 to A. The relay is directional and <loes
250 not require two times full load setting. Since tap 2 has a
equivalent sccondary current is = 6.25 Amp. Tap 7 is
40 continuous raling of 8 Amp. the load current frorn A to B
selected to give additional rnargin, since this relay encrgiz cs i11 the relay coils is wcll within its rating.
a transforrner bank. Tap 7 corresponds to 280 Amp. pri-
rnary ; this value is plotted on the curve, Tap 2 corresponds to ? x 40, or 80 Amp. primary. The
250,
. . 1 fau 1 t tap mu 1 tiple
. .rs --,
1 200 or 4.3 t1111cs
. . critica! fault múltiple, then, is or 3.13. al which value
TI ie critica pickup, 80
280
the opcrating time (CTI plus 1) should be 0.3 plus 1.0, or
The operat ing time of M and :-J at 1200 Amp., from Fig- 1.3 sec.
un: 10-22, is 0.47 sec, The set point for relay Lis 0.47
plus 0.3, or 0.77 sec. Frorn Figure 10-21, for 3.13 multiplc and 1.3 sec., the time
dial is approxirnately1.75. A time dial of 2.0 may be uscd,
Using thc curve from Figure 10-21 for 4.3 multiple and or the value dcterrnined by tese. Using tap 2 (80 Amp. pri-
0.77 scc., time dial 2 is selected, which gives a time of mary) and time dial 2, the curve points for Figure 10-24
0.95 scc. Alternatively , the mult iple and time requirernents are:
can be spccificd and thc time dial set by actual current in
Multiples of Prirnary Current Time to Close Contacts
the relay. This latter mcthod would give a time: dial of ap-
Tap Setting at 23 kV (seconds)
proximately 1.75, instead of 2.

3.0 '.!40 1.65

Using tap 7 (280 Amp. prirnary) and time dial 2, the curve 1.05
4.0 320
points for Figure 10-23 are: 0.78
5.0 400
10.0 800 0.46
14.0 1120 0.40
Muhiples of Primary Curren! Time to Close Contacts
Tap Setting at 23 kV (seconds) Thcsc valúes determine thc curve of Figure 10-24.

2.0 560 4.00 5.0 -, . r T e ..

--~
1 T T
"A''Open
2.5 700 2.38 28 Phose Reroy "B"
l e:.
3.0
4.0
840
1120
1.65
1.05
2.6
r --'.a>-'.m- -=mm-
::E
~
::. -
. "
!: o-
::. ::E
iRV 8 2 6Amp 20Cl5 CT's
:.·. 11 161\n-p

, ee ee
(Orect.0!101 Superv,sed)
2."
5.0 1400 0.78 Serr,ngs
2.2
7.0 1960 0.58 20 -- - f- -- :T !.T. 240M:
rop 2.0;SJAmp
t. 15 X 250)
P, ..,a,yl
"'
o
e
1.B Set Point
The IIT instantaneous trip unit is set ar 1.3 x 1200, or 1560 8 1(,
_ Pck upo, 1 ·.3 Secordsot 25Qt,mp ( 3.13x)

\. \
- me OiiQ P2 l l:.p:,ro:..,motc)
Amp. at '.!3 k V. This selting com:sponds to 39 Amp. sec- "'~
V) SOAmp

ondary. f
.=
·"
1.2 - t 1 ¡ 1

1.0
__ J...¡ 1
::11
[
1 @'Ainimum 1 1
111.H.3. Setting for Relay B to Coordinate with Relays H
1
'\ ®Max,mum
::.B
and 1 (The setting is the same for Relay G to Co or- ,,
,__ ... ' .... ... _
0.(;
dinate with Relays A and l).
~"'"""
0,1.!
I
l
np ot

The setting for I is given in Table I O-V; the setting for I[ is 02

OAnw
1. -·- 1

unknown and cannot be determined unril ali other rclays in

~ ' . ' - 1
WO 30C, ·1CJ5:u '00 \.;OC 1580 2000 3000
t>· n·or) f,-,:;ereso· 231' V
the loop are set and coordinated. Howcvcr, with a conscr-
vativc sctting of 1.0 sec. for I and large currents for line Figure 10.24. Relay "B" Coordination (Set ..G .. The Sanie).

Iaults out of H, there should be no problern coordinating B

with H. Thc critica! fault for Bis (1) maximum, giving 250 The instaruaneous trip of the IR V-8 is set Ior 1.15 x 250.
Amp. primary. or 287.5 Amp. prirnary (7.19 Amp. secondary). A setting
 10-23

of 7.2 Amp. on 288 Amp. primary will provide high speed, 3.0

-
Phose Reloy "o"
-J
se, Po,nt

·r
l
sequential tripping. After Amp. opens, the fault current 2.8 CR-8 4-12 200/5 CT's l:°~;~con<Js Ol 800Amp
_ _ (2.8ox) __
increases to 420 to 380 Amp., which is above the instanta- 2.6 - LT. 10-'10Amp
Seumqs T,me O,ol #l.25 ~
neous unit pickup of 288 Arnp. Relay Gis set thc same
beca use of systern symmetry.
2.4 - I.T. l430Amp ( l.3 X llOOl

2.2 Top7.0Amp
"'º~'·'"'
@Mox,mum - 3400- ?00 <1200 -
(280Am~ Pnrnory} @M,n,mum , 1360- 180- 1180
I
2.C
l@Max,~um
III.H.4. Setting for Relay D to Coordinate with Relays B 1.8

and L (The Setting is the same for Relay E to Co- 1.€ 1

\ ~)M1~ <})Min,mum

ordinate with Relays G and K ). 1.4 -

'
P,c~-upa,--...
1.2 280Amp ·1--

Since relay L opera tes instantaneously for the rnaximum 1.0

@Moximum
fault (2), the critica! fault is (2) mínimum. Critica! fault O.ll
1rRe1oy"8"
\
current is 1550 Amp. for relay L and 800 Amp. for relay L - ' 1\

D. Relay D is set for a mínimum pickup of 2 x 125, or 250

0.6
r-,
Amp. prirnary , (6.25 Amp. secondary ). Tap 7 is select ed
C.4

C.2
1 -
to give a mínimum pickup of 7 x 40, or 280 Amp. B L ,8
:)100 200 300 400 500 700 1000 1500 2000 3000
:=.r1rnary ArrperP.$ or 23KV
800
The critica! Iault multiple is or 2.85 for rclay D. The Figure 10-25: Relay "D" Coordination {Set 'ºE" Thc Sarne)
280,
operating time of relay L for the critical fault value of 1550
1550 place, therc is little probability of a transfor mcr or bus
Amp. is 0.70 sec. ( = 5.52 múltiple). The set poinl is
280 fault occurring whcn line AB is open. Sccond, whcn rclay
0.70 plus 0.30, or 1 .O sec. at 800 Amp. From Figure 10-21, L operares, it trips C, interrupting line CD,just as does the
for 2.85 mult iple and 1 .O sec., the time dial is approxi-
tripping of IJ.
mately 1.25. The 1.25 value may be used, or the time dial
rnay be deter mined by test. Finally, the 1 IT of CR-8 is set for 1 .3 x 1100, or 1430 Arnp.
(36 Arnp. secondary).
Using tap 7 (280 Amp. primary ) and time dial 1.25, the
curve poin ts for Figure I O- 2 5 a re: Rclay F is set the same beca use of system syrnrnetry.

lll.H.S. Setting for Relay C to Coordinate with Relays E

Multiples of Primary Curren! Time to Close Contacts and J (The setting is the same for Relay F to Coor-
Tap Setting at 23 kV (seconds)
dinate with Relays D and J).

2.0 560 2.50

The sett ing for J is given in Table 10-V. In this examplc,
2.5 700 1.55
the setting of E is the sarnc as that for D, as described
3.0 840 1.00
above. The critica! Iault for relay C is (3) maximum, which
4.0 1120 0.60
is 200 Arnp. Coordination with E is not difficult, since it
5.0 1400 0.45
opcrates instantaneously for fault (3) maximum, or in
7.0 1960 0.35
· ovcrcurrent
0.28 sec. for the tune urut. c32
-- = ºº
280
11 . 4 mu lti·1-

ple). For fault (3) mínimum, relay E operares in O.SS sec.

With these set t ings, miscoordination will occur for a bus or l l SO = 4.22 mult .iple , . d.ia 1 1 . 2 :,S) . B ot h va I ues are
(-- time
transformer fault while line AB is open. Under these con- 280
ditions, relay D will trip before relay L: both relays have within the 1 .O sec. time of relay J.
the same pickup, but rclay D has a time levcr of 1.25, while
L has a time lcver of 2.0. This potential miscoordinat ion The mínimum tap 2.0 is selected , sin ce load will not flow
must be tolerated beca use the in crea sed time dela y req uired through C to D. The relay is directional and <loes not re-
al D to assure coordination cannot be justified. In the first quirc two times full load sctt ing.
10-24

Tap 2 correspouds to 2 x 40, or 80 Amp. prirnary. The lll.H.6. Setring for Relay A to Coordinate wíth Relays C
200 and L (The set ting is the same for Relay H to Co-
enºtºrea 1 f au 1 t mu 1 tiple
. . --,
rs or 2.5 at which value the op-
80 ' ordinate with Relays F and K).
erating time should be 1 .O plus 0.3, or 1 .3 sec. From Fig-
ure 10-21, fer 2.5 múltiple and 1 .3 sec., the time dial is ap- Sincc rclay L opcrates instan taneously Ior the máximum
proximately 1.25. fault (2). thc critical fault is (2) mínimum. Critica! fault
current is 1550 Amp. for relay L and 750 Arnp, for relay
Uxing tap 2 (80 Am p. pr imar y) and time dial 1.25, the C. Relay A is set for a mínimum pickup of 2 x 125, or 250
curve points for Figure 10-26 are: Amp. primary (6.25 Amp. sccondary ). Tap 7 is selectcd to
givc a mínimum pickup of 7 x 40, or 280 Amp.

Multiplcs of Primary Current Time to Close Contacts

Tap Set ting al 23 kV (seconds) 750
Thc critica! fault rnult iple is or 2.68 Ior relay A. The
280,
2.0 160 2.50 operating time of relay L for Lile critica! Iaul l value of l 550
2.5 200 1.55
Amp is 0.70 scc. (1550, or 5.52 multiple). Thc set point is
3.0 240 1.0 280
4.0 320 0.6 0.70 plus 0.30, or J .O sec, at 750 Amp. Frorn Figure 10-21,
5.0 400 0.45 for 2.68 rnultiplc and 1 .O sec., thc time dial is 1.0.
7.0 560 0.35
10.0 800 0.30 Using tap 7 (280 A prirnary) and time dial 1.0, thc curve
15.0 1200 0.22 points for Figure 10-27 are:

l
3.0

2.8 _@le"_, Phose RelOy "e" Multiples of Prirnary Currcnt Time to Close Contacts
MOK1mum _"0"0v1
JRV 8 2-6Amp 200/5 CT Tap Setring at 23 kV (seconds)
?.6 T.T. 4-16Amp
( Oorl'Chonol Superv,seo) ~
2.0 560 2.1
Settings
I.T. 240Amo (l.15X200)
Top 2.0(80Amp Primo,y) 2.5 700 1.2
3.0 840 0.8
"'e: o
1120 0.5

~-::.~~
~~;:~dSot200A'1'1p(2.5K) 4.0
i.,
e:
l ,me O,ol #1.25 ( Appro•1mote)
5.0 1400 0.38
7.0 1960 0.30
r
¡::
1.0 J The instantancous I IT unit is set for 1 .30 x 1000, or 1300
o.e Arnp. primary (32.5 Amp. secondary), Scttings are
@Mo•omum 1---~-
0.6 rounded off to 33.0 Amp. (1320 Arnp. primary).
I
OA
0.2 lf a bus or transformcr fault occurs with linc CD open, re-
0100 200 300 400 500 700 1000 1500 2000 3000 lay A will operate beforc rclay L. Under these coriditions,
Prornory Amperesot 231(\J
both relays receivc thc samc current and are set on the same
Figure 10-26: Relay "Cº' Coordination (Set "F" The Samc). tap; thc time dial for Lis 2.0, however, whilc for A it is
1.0.
The instantancous unit is set at 1.15 x 200, or 230 Arnp.
prirnary (5 .75 Amp. secondary ). A ó-Amp. setting on 240 Relay H is set the same be cause of system symmetry.
Amp. pr irnary will provide high speed, scqucntial tripping.
After D o pcns, the fault current increases to 320 lo 300 lll.H.7. Final Check: Coordination of Relay B with
Amp., which is abovc the instantaneous unit pickup of 240 Relay H
Arnp.
The sctting for relay H is the same as for relay A. Thc in-
Relay F is sel thc same because of systern symmetry. stantancous unit setting of 1320 Amp. primar y means that
 10-25

3.0 acteristic compatible with the charuct er ist ics of othcr sim-
Phose Reloy "A" Set Point
2'8
CR·8 4-12 200/5 CT 1.6 Secones ot 75CArrp (2.7()
ilar relays in the system simplifies coor dinat ion .
2.6 I.T. 10-40Amp Ttrre D al !I 1.0 ( Aop,oxunote) -1
Se!!,ngs 1 1 1 1
2.4
r.-.1300Amp(l.30X1000) Q)Mo"mum 03000·?50·2f50 Thc K D-10/CO invcrse tirnc-distance scherne can be modi-
2.2 Top 7.0Amp 2lC- J<:lQ fic<l by replacing the K D-1 O Zonc 2 and CO combination
(280 amo Pr rno-v)
2.0 with a type SD-2 t ime-d istance relay, For all phusc-t ype
~ 1.81------~.-+--~ faults. the SD-::? relay provides an essentially linear relat ion
1
iT, 1.6
P,ck-upot
280Amp +-+--+---!--\-H--·t-----,----1-~ between the operat ing time and the distance of the fault
.s 1.a ,__ ,.__, ......... _-1--1- from the relay location. A t ypical application is shown in
~
¡.: 1.2 Figure 10-28. The time-distance characteristic can be made
101-----1----iH--+--l lo pass t hrough the origin, or it can be given an adjustable
0.8--- vertical offset on the time axis.
o.6~--------+-
s
... __ G H R

e
J
200 JOO 400 ~00 700 1000 1500 2000 JOOO
P•,mo,y Ampe,es 01 2.3-<V

--
Figure 10·27: Relay ··A'' Coordination (Set ··H·· The Samel Zone'

relay II will opera te for (1) line Iaults under bolh rnaxi- 1 1 1 1
mum and minimum conditions. On tap 7, lime dial 1.0. G H
o,stonce
R s
the time unit opcratcs for ( 1) line f'aults in 0.2::? sec .• la) Equ~I L,ne Sectoons

2750 . 1410
(-- = 9.8 mult iple): or 0.35 scc., (-- = 5.1 multiple).
280 280
Both vulucs are wcll with the 1 .O sec. time of I use d in thc
coordination of 13.

111.1. Using Inverso Time-Distance Relays to Protect Loop L---·

-,,:i:;- T-
T1 '
Circuits with Multiple Sources
1 1 r
G H R s
As discusscd in Scction 111.D. abovc, inverso tirnc-distance O.stonce
Leqend:
relays (KD-10/CO) can providc high spccd protcction for \ • Coord,not,ng r,me T, • fome lntercept Ts, Set T1r!'C
90 pcrccnt of the line section as well as improved protec-
fbl Unequal Line Sectioos
tion for the remaining 10 percent of the line section and ad-
jacent lines. Figure 1 ~28: Time Distance Relays with Type SD-2 Relays

For line sections of equal or ncarly cqual lengt h, the SD-2

The rclays are uscd in the same way as de scribed in Section time characterist ic can be made to pass through the origin,
111.D. lf the protectcd linc is tappcd , rclay application and as shown in Figure I0-28a. Thc Te sctting is t hc rcquircd
settings should be modified as describcd in Section 111. E. CTI with thc Zone I of the adjacent section. The T5 set-
ting is the required CTI wit h thc SD-2 rclay al H. For
In multiple-source systerns, backup protection may be lim- equal line sections, the CTI is cqual to 2Tc plus TI, where
ited, since the fault infeed from the remote bus to adjaccnt TI is thc operating time of lhc Zone I relay (assumed to be
line íaults can reduce the rcach of the Zone 2 distance re- 20 ms). Thus, if the line secrions are equal in lcngth. as as-
lays. The infeed also affects the fault levels for the overcur- sumed in Figure 10-28a. the time curves can start from thc
rent relays, Ncvcrthcless, inversc time-distan ce relays are origin and will be parallel.
gcnerally easier to apply, permit more sensitive settings of
the inverse time-overcurrent units (settings below load), and If the Une sections are uncqual in lcngth, the casiest proce-
irnprovc fault clearing times. Sclccting an in verse time char- dure is Lo star t with thc rclay in the last li.ne section. In
10-26
Figure 10-28b, for example, assumc that section RS is the
\ast section with type SD-2 t irnc-distance relay protcctíon.
Further , assurnc that the protection beyond S has high
speed relay operation for close-in faults. In this case, thc
SD-2 relay at R can llave a time characteristic starting from
the origin and a slope lhat will provide the rcquired coordi-
natíon al point S and at all points beyond , up lo the termi-
nation of its required reach.
Thc slopc of the relay at H can now be obtainc<l by sctting:
(1) thc time Ts at S equal to the intercept of the rclay R
curve at S plus Te, and (2) the time al R cqual to T c· A
linc bctween these t wo points, projectcd lo H, will give the
required intcrccpt for setting thc time intercept T¡. Likc-
wise, for the relay al G, a line drawn bctween T8 = 2Tc +
T¡ at R and T =Te+ Ti at H, and then projected to G will
give the required Ti al G. lf thc T¡ intercept at any relay lo-
cation is negative, the curve must be moved upward to Ti=
O. It may be possible to reduce the slope slightly and still
maintain coordination at the point of furthest reach.
If thcrc is a so urce bct wecn the relay location and the far-
end bus of the adjacent scction, the infeed will affcct the re·
lay characteristic, For cxarnplc, if there were a sourcc on
bus H in Figure 10-28a, t hc infeed would affect the charac-
teristic of the relays al G. In cffect, the slope of thc charac-
ter istic will be increased for faults beyond bus H, rcsulting
in longcr operating times for backup on the adjacent sys-
tem.
The slcpe will not increase, howevcr, for faults on the pro-
tected line scction. Thus. lhe opcrating time for faults on
the line, including the end zone is fixed and independent
of generation and system changos. Thc infeed effect will
incrcase adjacent linc operating time and consequently
hclp avoid any miscoordination.
IV. TRANSMISSION CIRCUIT PROTECTION
Transmission circuits are invariably rnulti-source loop sys-
tems lo which thc applications and principies describcd
above apply. These key circuits transmit electric power
from the gcnerating sources to thc distribution centers.
Fault levels are usually high, and, if Iaults are not cleared
rapidly, they can cause system instability as well as ex ten-
sive damage and hazards to pcrsonnel. For these reasons,
phase-distance relays are gcncrally used in place of che di-
rcctional ovcrcurrent rclays, except at the lower voltage
lcvcls. Evcn at thc lowcr voltage lcvcls, the trend is toward
the distance relays, For the higher voltage lines, onc or lwo
pilot-type systems are used in conjunction with oras a sup-
plcment to phase-distance relays.
Only non-pilot applications will be discussed here. The dis-
cussion will cover relaying for three-phase , phase-to-phase ,
and two-phase-to-ground Iaults. Cround-Iault protcction
will be discussed in Secuon V.
IV.A. Fundamentals of Distance Relaying
A distance rclay rcsponds to input quant it ics as a function
of the electrical circuir clistance between the relay location
and t he point of faults. Thcrc are many typcs of distancc
relays, including impedance, reactance, offset distance, and
mho.
Basically , a distance relay compares thc current and voltage
of the power system to determine whether a fault e xists
within or ourside its operating zone. The pioneer bearn-
typc distance rclay can be used to illustrate the operating
principie. Considcr a horizontal bca m pivotcd in the centcr,
with a voltagc coil on onc cnd and a currcnt coil on the
other. Thc coils are connected to a powcr line through in·
strument transformcrs. Supposc a solid f'ault occurs on thc
line ata distan ce of nZL ohms from the relay. Sin ce the
voltagc al the fault is zcro, the voltage, V. on the re lay will
be thc nlZL drop from the relay to the fault. This voltage
provides a magnetic force or "pull" on onc encl of thc
beam. lf, for this fault, the current or operating force, \, on
the other end of the beam is adjustcd to equal the voltage
or rcstraint force, V, the beam will be balanced. That is,
(1 0-6)
Should a fault occur bctwccn thc rclay and the nZL dis·
lance, say at n(ZL - L\Z L) ohms from the relay. lhen Lhc
restrainl force, nl(ZL - 6ZL). would he lcss than the oper·
aling force at the same current rnagnitude. /\s a rcsulL, thc
beam would lilt down al lhe rnrrcnl cnd. closing the con·
tacts at that end. lf the fault wcre bcyond the nZ L dis·
lance. say at n (ZL + L\Z1) ohms from thc relay, then the
restraint force, V, would be grcatcr than thc operating
force, l. The beam would then tilt down al thc voltagc cnd.
and the contacts would not closc. The exprcssion "balance
point." which describes this tltreshold locus of opcration

for distan ce rclays. is still commonly u sed, e ven though
modern distancc rclays opera te on quite clifferent princi-
pies.
In general, the opcrating torque, T, of a cylinder-type dis-
tance relay is:
(1 O· 7)
At thc thrcshold or "balance point," T is zero. Then,
(10-8)
and the reach, or ohms to the "balance point," is:
V
- = nZ
I L
(10-9)
lf delta voltage and delta currents are used, a set of three
relays (one for cach phase) will provide operation by one or
more relays for ali types of phasc fau1ts within the set
balance point impedance (nZL).
The major advantage of distance relays is apparent frorn
Equations (10-6) or (10-9). Thc relay's zone of opcration
is a function only of the protcctcd line irnpedancc, which
is a fixed constant, and is relativcly independent of the cur-
rent and voltage magnitudes. Thus, the distance relay has a
fixed reach, as opposcd to overcurrcnt units, for which
reach varíes as systern conditions changc.
Any linc scction in a powcr systern can be represented as
shown in Figure 10-29. In this figure, ZL is the irnpcdance
of the line to be protccted from bus G lo bus 11. Z S is t he
equivalen! source impcdance up to bus G, and Zu thc
equivalent sourcc impedance up to bus 11. Zc could be a
parallel linc cqual to ZL; but , more generally , Z E reprc-
sents the equivalencc of the interconnccting systern be·
twecn busscs G and H, cxcept for line ZL.
Figure 10-30 shows a sirnplificd representation of the pro·
tected linc for which distance relays are to be applied at the
bus G line terminal. Thc systern can be plotted on an R-X
diagram as follows. With G as the origin, the phasor irn-
10-27
pedancc ZL of thc linc is drawn to scale in lhc Iirst quad-
ranl.. (Either per unit or ohms can be used, although sec-
ondary or rclay ohms are gcncrally preferred .) For modern
relays cormcctcd to wye-conncctcd current transf'orrners:
ZpriRc
=--- ( 10-1 O)
Ry
whcrc Re is lhe current transíormer ratio, and Ry is the
voltage transíormer or dcvicc ratio.
G H
-----n--
Figure 10.29: General Representationof a Line Section
Between Two (21 Busses
Botonce Poin•
G or Reoch H
-----0-
t.= Bus Volloge
f" (Alter note L,ne Stde}
R
(b)
Zs
Figure 1 ().30: (a) Representatíon of a Line Section
and (b) the R·X Diagram
Zs, thc sourcc impedancc, can be plotted from e; into the
third quadrant : at 11, the sourcc impedancc 7.u can be ex-
tended, both impcdanccs at their respective magnitudes and
angles. ZE in this figure is assumed to be vcry large or in-
finite relative to thc othcrs. In applications involving sev-
era! line scctions, Zu would be the re mote line section be·
yond bus H; Zs would be lhe line scction behind the G
line relay orto thc Jcft of bus G (assuming there were no
other lines or sources at either bus G or H).
10-28
A nurnbcr of distance relay characlcrislics plotted on the
R-X d iagram are shown in Figure 10-31. The operating
zones are inside t he circles for thc types labelled a, b. and
c. That is, whenevcr thc phasor ratio of V:J falls insidc the
circle, the distancc unit operares. The bearn-type distancc
relay, described ear licr , would have the non-dircctional char-
acteristic shown in Figure 10-31 a. When used for faull pro-
tection, a sepárate dircctional unit limils tripping to line
faults, orto thc uppcr half of the circle in Figure 10-31 a.
Sin ce the bearn-typc rclay is no longer manufacturcd , litis
charactcristic is obtaincd by olher techniques.
By modifying eit her the restrainl an<l/or operating quan-
titics, thc circlc can be shiftcd as shown in Figures 10-31 b
and c. The characterist ics sho wn in Figures I0-3ld ande
can be obtained in thc sarnc general way. Therc are a num-
ber of mcthods for obtaining these characteristics, thc de-
tails of which are bcyond t he scope of this scction.
Load can be reprcsentcd on thcsc R-X diagrams asan irn-
pedance phasor, gcncrally lying near the R axis. The phasor
líes to thc right when flowing into the protecied line from
the bus and to thc lcft when flowing out of thc line to the
bus. Load is bct wecn O and 5 Amp. sccondary at or ncar
ratcd voltage ; faults are gcncrally al much highcr currcnt
Jevels and lower voltages, so that thc load phasor usually
falls outsidc the distancc opcraling circles. Since these
conditions do not hold for the reacrance type shown in
Figure l 0-31 d, this unit cannot be uscd alone. Also, be-
ca use the rcactance unit is not directional, it would, with-
out supervisión, opérate for faults bchind thc rclay. The
reactance unit then, nceds vcry carcful supervisión and is
not a particularly dcsirablc characteristic for most applica-
tions.
The blindcr charactcristic (Figure 10-3 1 e) is csscntially
two rcactancc-typc units shifted to thc linc anglc. The right
X
X L,ne
Forword
Reocn
ÍOfword
Reoch
-r---
1~~---Re11erse
Reoch
o..ecaonollJOII
(When Used)
(a) lmpcdancc lb) Mod,hed lmpedance o, Offset Mho
Figure 1 0-31: Distance Relay Characteristics
unit operates for a widc arca to the left, and thc left unit
operares for a wide a rea to thc right of the X axis. To-
gcthcr, the two provide operation in he band shown. A
í
t ypc a, b , ore unit should be uscd to rcstrict the forward
and reverse rcaches.
With single-phase type relays=those with ene d istance cie-
rnen! connected to each phasc t hc R-X characteristic of
Figure 10-3 J applies only to the unit on the faulted phasc.
For three-phase faults, loads, and thrcc-phusc power swings,
ali three single-phase distance rclays havc a reach of nZL
along thc linc (if are resisí ance is neglected). Ali thrce wiJI
opcratc for any thrce-phasc fault between the relay a nd nZL
set point. Generally, only ono of t hc t hrcc relays will have
a fixed reach of nZL for phase-to-phase and two-phase-to-
ground faults. For cxarnple, for t.l-C faults, relay B operares
whiJe relays A and C "sec" a largor apparent impedance, at
a different angle. Similarly, for A-13 faults, relay J\ will
have a fixed nZL reach, while rclays-B and C "sec" the
largcr apparent irnpedance phasor. Fer C-A faults, rclay C
has thc Iixed nZL reach. relays A and .8 will "scc" the
largor apparcnt impeclance. This cffcct coultl pose a prob-
lcm with rcactance rclays, where thc wrong phasc-
su~crvising unit could rclcase its reactancc unit and cause
incorrect opcration.
Thrcc-phasc typc rclays respond to ali faults, rcgardlcss of
the specific phascs involvcd. For example, the K-DAR re-
lays have two operating units. Onc unit responds to any
three-phase fault bctwccn thc rclay and the set reach of
n7.L; thc othcr rcsponds to any phase-to-phase fault (A·B,
B-C. and C-A) between the relay and thc set rcach of nZL.
One or both of thc two units will rcspond to ali two-phasc·
to-grouncl (A-8-ground, 8-C-ground, and C-A-grounc.I)
faults from the relay to thc set reach of nZL.
(C) Mho (d) Aeactance (e) Bhnders

[V.B. The K·DAR Phase-Distance Relays
K-DAR phase-distance relays use linc drop compensators
that produce two phasor voltagcs, which are i.n phase when
a íault occurs at the balance or reach set point. This condi-
tion produces no out put . Faults insidc thc balance point
shiít lhe volt agcs in a direction to pro vide operalion; faults
beyond the balance point produce a shift in the opposite
direction to pro vide restraint (Figures 10-32 and 10-33 ).
Figure 10-32a i.llustrates the operation of the t hrce-phasc
unit of thc K0-4 and K0-10 phase-distancc rclays. With
three-phase potcntial A. B. and C applicd wit h linc currcnt
(1 A - 310),
() 0-11)
Thc 10 componen! provides double-phase-to-ground fault
coverage for systcrns wit h a very low z0 rclative to Z 2.
For these faults, t he three sequen ce networks are connected
z
in parallcl. lf, in thc limit , 0 gocs to zcro , lhc negativo
sequence nctwork is shortcd out, leaving only the positive
sequence nctwork , as for a three-phasc fault. Fer very low
z0 systcms, thcrcforc, doublc-phasc-to-ground Iaults
"look likc" thrce-phasc faults, and thc thrce-phase unit re-
sponds. The 310 helps cover thcse faults but does not enter
into the phasors of Figure 10-32a, which are for thrce-phasc
faults.
The compcnsator is set so that Zc cquals the positivc se-
quence impedance from the relay to the balance point
(nZL). For the three-phase fault at thc balance (fault 3),
Vx terminales o n thc Jinc betwccn Y and Z. The result is
a zcro-arca trianglc and no opcrat ing t orquc on t hc cylindcr
unit connected to X, Y, and Z (see Chapter 3). Faults be-
yond the balance point (4) and behind the relay (!) pro-
vide an XYZ triangle lhat produces opening torque. Faults
(2) inside the balance point produce an XZY triangle and
operati.ng torque proportional to thc arca of t he lriangle.
Close-in. solid thrce-phase faults produce an ABC trianglc
with a very small area. That is, Y and Z would collapse to
thc origin with vcry lit tlc orno operating arna. To avoid
this. memory action is provided by delaying thc collapse of
Y ami L whcn B and C voltages approach or equal zero.
10-29
This delay is long enough to allow the insrantaneous (Zone
1) three-phase unit to opérate and trip a breaker for zero-
volt three-phase faults. For backup (Zone 3) and other
fault applications where continuous to rq uc is rcq uircd , a
different unit with added currcnl-only torquc is applicd ,
This arrangcmcnt rnakcs thc units no n-dircct ional f'or the
heavy , el ose-in Iaults. These are thc K D-41 & K D-1 1 re·
lays.
The operat ion of thc phase-to-phase unit of the K 0-1 O
phase-distancc rclays is shown in Figure l 0-3 2b. Wilh three-
phase applied voltagcs and current I A. 18, and le from wye-
conncctcd curren! lransformers,
( 10-1 2)
lhe compensa ter is set so lhat 7.c cquals t he posit ive se-
qucnce impcdance frorn rhe relay to thc balance point
(nZL). With a phase-to-phase fault al thc balance point ,
the XYZ trianglc has LCTO arca for an A-B. B·C. or C-A
fault. Figure 10-32b shows t hc phasors Ior vurious B-C
faults. At the balance point , a 8-C fault (3) rcsults in
"v z: bcing cqual to zero. For 8-C faults bcyond (4) or be-
hind ( 1 ), a restraint triangle X YZ is produccd , ,111 opcrat ing
triangle XZY is produccd fer interna! 0-C [uult s (2).
Thc K 0-1 O phase-to-phasc unir will also opera té í'or most
double-phase-to-ground faults. Togcthcr , thc two units
providc complete coveragc for all typcs of doublc-phasc-
lo-ground faulrs from the rclay to thc balance point sctling.
Wilh lhc threc sequence nctworks in parallcl for thcsc
faults, thc fault tcnlls to "'look like" a phasc-to-phasc fault
when z0 is largc comparcd to z2. lf z0 goes to infinity.
the Llouhlc-phase-10-ground nt!twork bccomes cquivalent to
the phase-to-phase fault network.
~kmory a..:tion is nol rcquircd for this unit. and high tor4uc
cxists for thc solid. zero-volt. phas1:-to-phasc fault al thc re-
lay. Assecnin Figure 10-32b.when Y8c c•qualsO. Vzy
and Yyx are large, providing a large opcrating XYZ tri-
angk
A similar sc:t of relationships cxists for lhc solid-state
K-DAR rdays: types SKD, SKDU, SP, etc. The phasors
for th.:sc relays are shown in figure 10-33.
10-30

Bus Zonel Reloy Bus

Se1 90% of L,ne Seer ,on
2 3 4

K·DAR Reloy ~ocolion:

Be,ng Coosioe-ed
1

I Botonce Po1n•
/i 1
1
1 1
1 1
18olonce
Foull Behind Reloy Foull Wrlhin Bolonce Po,nl Foull ot Balance Pomt Fou II Beyond Poin1

r.,-------. /',
'
'
' X
..l.------...J
l{·l4Zc) ~~}\//\ Ve
{Vy
¡ ----1
I
I

'
'
'
(-[AZcl: / ,'
''
'\
1\ ,/
/ >; Á<:::-J.-----,---
I /
[4 ... ...,,_---1.,....,...... !4 • 11 / A'o::--:-....,,r--• lA
I I I
&.1,-~•y \
Zf"'--+--'7 t._.¡ 1,.
1 /. I
-,L--'--'-'",-9 y'.
\

/ I
I

l. ---~ ¿_ L \

{~~ {~~ 1
t.
1 _
X
VB
{Vy

(1) ( 2)

Note:
The VolloQe TrionQleso1 Eoch ~o.~ ¡
l4·3Io• ·Ua+Icl
~Comoensoro, Zc
Foult Locor,on ( l, 2,3ond 4 l

-_ --·==-rvvvvv-._---_::
---_-_-_-_
Represer11 TheV01toges see-
Dy T~c K·OAR Reloy Terrnmo1
Locored 01 The Shaded Breoke,
ToVOIIO(le
Tronsformers
:: __ _.i-r-_-_
-_
-_ ToCyllnoer
far 3 Phose Foults Occurir19 01
or Oev•ces Unit
Eoch t.occnoo \l,2,3or1d4)

Phoso,s Shawn Z • Z ~

Figure 1 0.32 a Phasor Diagrams of K 0·4 and KD· 1 O Phase Distance Relays for Faults at Various Locations (Three Phase Unot I

o~j~ol- -x*-¡--
.""onti l ~_,t'iO,
r'v:. Bus
~l~l J. )<l1c .)1 1 ,n,, <)ec- on
2 3
.....--+-4-:'.-~-Y-
/';
!
[;/1!~ íittlO) 1:'0'•(•1"
¡
1<. 1
be,nQ 11'•,•.J,,,,., 801nn: t Po,·,1
1
'
,
1
'
23 Fo,1• w,rh,n BolMce Poinr 23 roult 01 Balance Po,n, 23 Fou II Beyon°d Bo tooce Po,nr

rt1Zc

.:
le
·H \\"

1
'.r •. - - -e ' z
'il-~
·ltc·Iel~: v,z
(l) ( 2) (3) (4)

No1e.
Ttir Vn11ngr ·,,n'i(.;IPso1 [ocr
¡;-n1, 1 LOCO! 011 1 l.~ , ? :Jt10 -1 1
I,~,\:-----,;>--t--------·---,yy-.ryy-,
~ co,--~e,,,oro, Zc
. J'
P.en•e5{>n1 1 ... ~ ·.,::>'fCY.Jf·•> ;Pf' ..
t;.·,. ... h,c, i\- ~•• ",':, r<P üy Tp,m,-,o
To VOIIO:.JP j O :,:
U >------4>---------- --------<lv TcC;1,f'der
~~= ~
T,·(Jri,,1orm1-,,
t.ocoieo :J' I" r,e S"ICC·e<J ~,eoke,
to- Pr-..1se 10D'iCSe í 01,...l'S 'Jcr. ... ,1ri9
OI ~:Jrt'l 1 :)CO'•O"" , ',:>. ',;)nj t: 1 co~-----<O>-~t---------1•----~~.,....--,----...,..-o~
;.3 ~ Gom~~nso-or Zc
3 t "e :a\

Figure 10.32b: Phasor Diagrams of KD-4 and KD-10 Phase Distance Relays for Faults at Various Locations (Pnese-Phase Un,t)
 10-31

Figure 10-33a applies to lhe threc-phase unil for which With thc relay set so that Zc equals thc positive scquence
the volt a ges are: linc impedance lo thc balance point (nZ L) a t hrcc-phase
fault (3) at thc balance point will produce V X y = O ancl no
torque. For faults beyond (4) or behind (1), Vzy leads
V xy-a rcstraint condit ion. For faults insidc thc balance
point, (2) Vzy lags V xy-an opcrating condition.
(10-13)

Tolkl11ooe
Trunsfo,me,s
o, Oevees
R Phose
Ang1e
es Compo11ror

RS

-----,x---o-t-cJ 1¡... l::..::c_:->e_:.

,,,., ,.,,c..,* ··~"'_··_cn k, o+-oi----)lf-(-------
3 Phose Fou 1, 3 Phose F 3 Phose Foult
Beh,nd Re1oy w,rh,n Boloot º'°' Beyond Balance Po,m

¡__
~-!,

'
·le ·O
e

110-18!
,' r,

I
I

:,;
I
'
/
/ C B
I -z- ;/(Vy VAH
ZY º J ' ( PPIOsor s Not Sno..n l
Rest,o,nt Cond1•,on Becouse ~"P Cono,·,on Becouse Bolonce Po1n1 ~es1,o,nt Cor>d111on Becouse
Vz v t.eecs Vxv Vzy l ogs Vxv I No To,gue Vxv-Ol Vzy teces Vxv
/1} (2) (3) (4)

*Pt>oso,s to, Cotcu,1 Above

Xcs z :?s
.
=_J
A B
1( • [

1 ~
y

X5

Figure 10.33a: Phasor Diagrams of Solid State K-DAR Distance Relay for Various Fault Locations (Three Phase Unit)
10-32

Figure 10-33b is for the phase-to-phase, solid-state relays would apply for A-8 and C-/\ faults. The B-C fault at the
where the voltages are: balance point (3) produces V zy = O and no torque. For
faults heyond ( 4) and behind (1 ), V z y Jeads V xy-a re-
straint condition: and for faults within the operating zone
(2), V zy lags V xy-an operat ing condition.
(10-14)
The operation of the K-DAR relays on the R-X diagram is
The compensator is set so that Zc cquals thc positivo se- given in Figure 10-34. The three-phase unit is a mho circle.
quence line irnpedancc to thc balance point (nZ L). Al- where the reach at any point on the balance point circle is:
though the diagrams are for a B-C fault. similar diagrams
. -
2reach - 1 /2C2c
. - le. l!Lo > (10-15)

L
11 F
To 'iOl•o~~ ~'1ose
-,on,fo,~s llo~IC
<:1-, ee~·.c~~ Coni~o, 10,

~
11 L

r .--~~~~-l!-..r,-v-,-vv·~ !
~ C~fl·~r,tO'Ot
·.,, le-lb

~-x---o-t-d~~~-x- ~--~x-o-+-o,---x~~-
Zone l RPlny ~1e1 9ou·o CI L (!{" t.Ht1:)•

.3 4

BC Riull BC Foult BC Foult

Beh,nd Reloy w,,h,n Bolonce Po,nt 8eyono Bolonce Po,nt

l
le

I
I

'

Restroonr Condrt,on Beccose Tnp Condmon Becouse Bolonce Pomt R~tro,nr Cooomon Because
Vzv t.eoos Vxv Vzy LO<JS Vxy ( No To,gue Vzy00) Vzv Lecds Vxy

(1) (2} (.3) (4)

Figure 10-33b: Phasor Oiagrams of Solid State K-OAR Oistance Relay for Various Fault Locations (Phase-Phase Unit)
 10-33

~*
Botooce G H
________ ,--------- :,,o,r1

~-
G F

~
!
¿L , L,1~
---z
X
I= 71 .1
Figure 10.35: Effect ot lnfeed on lmpedance Measured
by Oistance Relays

IV.e. The lnfecd Effect on Dist ance Relays

"" Phose ro Pncse l)n,1

Thee ;>oose un, t When there is a source of fault current within t he operating
zouc of thc distancc rclay , its rcach will be rcduccd and
variable. This inf'ccd cffcct can be secn from Figure 10-35,
where there are ot her lines and sources feeding current to a
Figure 10-34: The K·DAR Relay on The R-X Diagram. fault at F' from bus 11. '!'he relays ar bus C. are set beyond
this fault point to r·. With a solid zcro-volt fault ut F. thc
This defines a circlc wh~se center is offset 1:rom e; at 1 /2Zc voltagc for thc rclay al C is thc clrop along thc lincs from
and whose radius is l /'2.Zc. ~Vhen O is oº.
~reach is O al the Iault to the relay , or
thc origin. Whcn O is 180°, Zrcach equals Zc, t he Iorward
reach or set point. For the phasc-to-phase unit , rhe reach ( l 0-17)
at any point is:
Sin ce relay C reccivcs only currcnt le, thc impcdancc ap-
ireach = l /2(Zc - Z s> + 1 /2(Íc + Zs)l.(/ (10-16) pcars to be:

The first terrn is thc offset, and thc second is the radius of VG
the circle. For thc phase-to-phase unit , lhc circle does not 7,G apparcnt = Ic
pass through thc origin and.varies with source impedance,
except at the sel point. lf Zs cquals O, thcn í hc character-
istic is a mho circlc through thc origin , as Equation ( 1 0-16)
(10-18)
reduces to Equat ion (10-15). Whcn 8 equals 180º, a re-
verse reach is establishcd. This function has no practica!
significance, since t hc curren! reversa! that occurs whcn thc
ZH
fault moves from thc linc sidc of the current transf'orrncrs =Z +- (10-19)
L K
to the bus side always produces restraint [ Figures 10-32 anti
10-33, faults (l )). As a result , the relay is direct ional, and where K is the current distribution faclor (phasor), which
the opcrating arca cxists only in the Iirst quadrant. within equals le/( 'e + 111). This apparcnt impcdancc compares to
thc arca of the sector of the curve frorn Zc to the R axis. the actual impeclance to fault F of:

\Vhcn 8 equals ?º, the terms containing 7.5 cancel, so that ( 10-21)
Zreach equals Zc. Thus. thc phase-to-phase charactcr istic
is fixed ar the set point and variable at ali others. This vari- lf 111 is zero (no infeed), Z apparent equals Z actual. As the
ation poses no disadvantage , sincc ncither load, power infeed increases in proport ion to le;, Z apparcnt incrcascs
swings, nor any type of balanced conditions can produce by the factor (111ilc)ZH. Since this impedance , as "meas·
operating t or quc. In other words, the operating and sel· ured " by the distance relay , is larger than thc actual, the
ting of thc phasc-to-phase unit is cornpletely indcpendcnt reach of the relay decreases. That is, the relay protects
of load and swings. lcss of the line as infeed increases. Since the reach can
10-34

never be lcss t han l L in Figure 10-3 5, Zoncs 2 and 3 pro· Since K is always less than I when 'u = O, Zc; apparent is
vide protection for thc linc. However , remete backup for always greater than the actual irnpedance to thc fault,
the adjacent line(s) may be limited. Since infeed is very (nZL + ZT).
common and can be quite largc in modcrn power systerns,
the trcnd is lo local backup (see Chapter 18). Similarly , relay H would "sec" a higher apparent impedance
of':
Note lhat. thc infecd effect varies with system configuration ZT
and changes, and that the apparcnt impedance may be a z11 apparen t = (1 - n) ZL +1-K (10-23)
rna x imu m under either maximum or mínimum system con·
ditions. The Zone 1 relay al G must be set for 90 per ccnt of the
smallest value of the actual impeda nccs, ZL or nZL + ZT,
IY.D. Effect of Tapped Transformcr Banks and not for the apparent irnpcda nccs. Other wise, Zone I
may overreach either t he transformer or bus J-1, which
Thc cf'Icct of a transformer bank tapped off a line must be would rcsult in miscoordinalion. When ZT is less than
considercd , ulthough it often presents no problern. Thc (1 - n)ZL, relay G cannot protect as rnuch of the lineas it
typical case is shown in Figure 10-36. The infecd fault cur- could without the tap. Usually, t hc tap bank is relatively
rcnt from bus II causes the relay al bus G to "scc" an ap- small, so that ZT is large cornpared Lo Z L·
parcnt impedance for faults in the transformer and low-
side systern circuits. As describcd above, for a fault at F, Zone 2 must be set grcatcr than ZL to protect t hc linc,
relay e; "sees": When ZT is lcss than (1 - n)ZL For thc rclay at G or the
setting for Zone 2 is grcater than nZ L + Zy, thcn Zonc 2
vG requircs coorclination with thc rclays in the low voltage sys-
ZG apparcnt
,
= -1-G tcm. As long as II is in scrvice , the apparent infce d will
shorten the reach. Whcn Hisopen, howcver, t he infeed cf-
fcct d isa ppcars.
nZLIC + ZT(IG + IH)

le; A cornplcx rclationship affccts thc rcach oí' single-phase

type dislancc rclays through star-dcltu or dclta-star ban ks.
Since l F equals 'o plus •t-1, and le_; equals K lf, where K is
To thesc relays, a phase-to-phasc Iault on one sidc of thc
the currcnt distribution factor for the current through re·
bank appears as a phasc-to-ground fau lt on rhe ot her, a nd
lay G,
vice versa. For thc K-DA R distance relays, however, ali
phase-to-phasc faults on onc siclc of a star-delta or delia-
zT siar bank appcar lo thc relays on the ot her side Lo be a dis-
Zc apparent = nZL +K () 0-22)
tance ZT away. In othcr words. thc phasc shift does not
affect their reach as it <loes í'or singlc-phasc relays.

The abovc d iscussion of thc transformcr tap on the lineas-

sumed no sourcc of í'ault powcr on thc low voltage side. Jf
such a powcr sourcc cxists, it produces an apparent imped-
ancc and rclay undcrrcach for line faults: on the (] - n)ZL
section of Lhc linc for thc relays at r., ancl on the nZL scc-
rion for thc relays at H. Again, Zone I relays G and II
must be ser for the actual, ralhcr lhan apparcnl, imped-
ances. Zones 2 and 3 must be set for the rnaximum appar-
ent impedancc to cover thc líne section. When the tap
source is open, of course. lhc rcach will be grcater. This

Figure 1~36: Apparent lmpedance for low Side Faults

situation presents a significant problem on mullí-terminal
on a Tapped Transformer Bank lincs. which will be discusscd in Chapter 17.

IV.E. Zone Application of Distance Relays
Ilistorically, three zones of protection have been used to
protect a line section and provide backup for the remote
section (Figure 10-3 7). Each of the three zoncs use in-
stantaneous operatíng distance rclays. Zone I is set for 90
percent of the line impedance. Zone 2 is set for 100 per-
cent of the line plus approximately SO percent of the
shortest adjacent line. Zone 3 is set for 100 percent of
both lines and approximately 25 percent of the adjacent
line. These classical settíngs define the protective zones
only if there are no infeed effccts. In practice, there is al-
rnost always an infeed effect al the busses, which reduces
the reach as described a bove.
Sincc the Zone 1 (Zl) tripping is instantaneous, the zone
must not reach the remote bus: hence the 85-to-90 percent
settings. Thc 1 ü-to-I S percent rnargin provides a safety
factor to accommodate differences or inaccuracies in relays,
current and potential transformers, and line impedances.
Toe l O-to-I S percent cnd zone is protected by the Zone 2
(Z2) relay, whích operates through a timer, T2, set with a
CTI, as for overcurrent relays, Two zones at each terminal
are required to protect ali of the line section with 70-to-80
percent of the line having simultaneous instantaneous pro-
tection. This protection is independent of systern changes
and loading.
Toe backup Zone 3 also operates through a timer, T3, set
as shown to coordinate with Zone 2. Coordinating dis-
Zl(X)
ZHR)
T3
Z2(01
23(0)
Figure 10.37: Step Time Zonas of Distance Relay Protection
10-35
tance relays, with thcir fixed reach and time, is much
easier than coordinating overcurrent rclays.
For directional-comparison pilot rclaying, Zone 3 is used
to start carrier. lt rnust consequently be set with reverse
reach-in the opposite direction to the protccted line sec-
tion. T3 must be coordinated with relays opcrating on the
lincs behind , rather than ahcad.
An application of distance relays to parallel lines is shown
in Figure 10-38. Here, thc T2 settings on each parallel
line should be the same. Thus the remole ends of both
lines will trip if a fault in any end zone is not clcared by the
near-by brcaker and relay opcration. Suppose that, for
fault Fl , the H-end breakcr does not clear as ií should on
Zone l. At G, both the top and bottom line Zone 2 relays
"see" this fault and operate in time T2. A similar opcration
would result if the fault occurred at F2.
lf both T2 settings were not the sarne, the unfaulted line
would be cleared first. lf T2 on the bottom line were
greater than T2 on the top line, for example, the top line
Zone 2 relay at G would opera te to clear the F 1 fault first.
But if the fault were at F2, the top line Zone 2 relay at G
would operate, even though the bottom line Zone 2 relay
should clear this fault.
Where severa! rernote lines have different lengths, the Zone
2 and 3 settings involve compromises (Figure 10-39). Since
line HV is short compared to lines HS and HR, setting Zone
Z3(X)
~~---- Z3(Y)
Z2(X) Z2(Y) Z2(ZJ
n T3
S..sH
T2 r2
BvsS
ZIIZ)
y
ZHO)
T2
T3
Z2(Pl
Z3(Pl
10-36

2 at G for SO percenl of line IIV providcs a maximum of
5.5 percent coverage for linc HR and 8.4 percenl for line
HS. This coverage is further reduccd by the infeed ef-
fcct. Additional coverage could be obtained by increasing
the G Zone 2 setting and increasing the correspondíng T2
setting lo coordina te with the T2 times on lines HV, VW,
and WX. Thc rcsult would be long end-zone clearing for
line G. lf pilol rclayíng is used for prirnary protection, 10-
creascd backup with longer T2 times could be used.
Setting Zone 3 to covcr line HR would provide coverage
lhrough severa! scctions HV, VW, WX, and XY-requiring
a longer T3 sctting. Again, the infeed cffect from lines HS
and IIV probably would not provide T3 coverage for line
HR. This fact rcemphasizes the need for local backup in
modero power systerns.
IV.F. Distance Relays with Transformer Banks at the
Terminals
The reach of a dístance relay is measurcd from the Iocatíon
of the voltagc transforrncrs: the directional sensing is from
the location of thc currenl lransformcrs. Voltage and cur-
rcnt transforrners are usually al approximately the same lo-
cation for most applications.

-----Z3
22 Z2

Zl

-----Z3
Z2 Z2

T2 Zl
72
1
Z2----~---'
Z2

Z3------------'

Figure 10.38: Distance Relays on Parallel Lines

,__-------------11---------------...j
16

5.5
G
T n
T2
H R
4.5 8.1
5
13

74
s 3.6 T

4
7.5

4.5
3.6
Note:
~ues ,n Secondory Orvns 40

Figure 10·39: Distance Relays Looking into a Bus With Various Length of Adíacent Line Sections

Where the line includes a transformer bank without a
brcaker on the line side , there are severa! ways of applying
distance relays (Figure 10-40). Using I H and V 1-1 for the
line distance relays is preferred, since the rcach is a f'unc-
tion of nZL only. Alternatively, IL could be used with v11,
which would also make the reach a function of nZL only.
In seuing the relay with high-side primary ohms nZL' the
curren! transformer ratio, Re of Equation (10-1 O) must in-
KvL
elude thc ratio of the power transformer (Re= RcL_K __ )
VH
and the ratio Rv11 of the high-side voltage transformers.
Taps on the power transformer will change this ratio and,
therefore, the reach. Unless t he relay settíng can be
changed each time the taps are changed, Zone I must be set
al 90 percent of the minimum secondary ohms using ZL.
Zone 2 rnust be set al more than 100 percent of the maxi-
mum secondary ohms. The first requirement prevents Zone
I from overreaching the remote bus. The second require-
ment provides end-zone coverage.
.,
VH{Roho RvHl
Power
Tronsformer ~ Voltoge Tronsfo<mers
t VL(Roho RvLl
Volloge Tronsformers
Figure 10.40· A Line Termineting in e Transformer Bank
lf the powcr transformer is a wye-delta bank , either the
low-sidc current transformers must be connected in della or
auxiliary current transformcrs must be used. In this way,
the rclay current will be equivalent to the wyc currenl that
would be measured on the line- or high side. Figure l 0-41 a
shows thc connections for the delta on the high sidc, and
Figure 10-4 lb lhe connections for the wye on the high
sidc.
Thc advantage of this arrangcmcnt is that , while distance
is measurcd from v11 and includcs only nZL, the relay will
operate for faults in the transformer ZT. These Iaults are
within thc nZL setting, since the rclay is directional from
z1. The impedance for transformer faults is apparent: thc
voltagc is a function of the curren! from the re mote cnd ,
while the current flows from the near end. For the system
shown in Figure 10-40, assume a solid three-phase fault of
total value I between the breaker and transformcr, with K
10-37
per unit Ilowing through the low-side current transformer
and (1 - K) per unit flowing from the far bus to thc right.
Then,
and
(1 - K) llT
Z apparcnt = KI
-(1-K)
- -K- 2T (10-24)
Norrnally, ZT would be larger than nZL for Zone 1 appli-
cations, limiting the instantaneous protection. Zoncs 2 or
3, however, could be in thc order of ZT
A more comrnon method is to use V L sincc it may not be
economical to provide high-side potential. lt is more con-
vcnien l with VL and I L to use prirnary ohrns on the low-
síde (V L) base. With single-phase type zone distance relays
Bus
H
set through wye-delta banks, it is necessary to shift both
the currents and voltages to provide high-side quantities
equivalent to those that would be measured at IH and V H'
Otherwise, for high-side faulls the distance relay would
"see" a complex impedance, which would be a function of
the line transformer and source.
For the K-DAR three-phase type relays, however, this shíft
is not necessary. The conventional wye current and line-to-
line voltage conncctions of I L and VL will provide phase-
fault protection in the transformer and on thc line. The
reach is a function of ZT and nZL only a distinct advan-
tage. Since the impedancc of the power transformers is
known accurately, Zone 1 of lhe K-DAR relays should be
sel through banks as:
Zc for Zone l = .99ZT + .90ZL (10-25)
In essence, this method uses lhe K-DAR relays as a line
drop compcnsator rathcr than asan extcrnal dcvice. Again,
thc powcr transformer taps, if any, must be taken into ac-
count, as discussed above.
This method has the disadvantage of limitmg line proteo-
tion when ZT is large compared lo ZL. For examplc, íf
ZT = 1 O ohms and ZL = l ohm, then z1 is set for
9.9 + 0.9 = 10.8 ohms (10-25)
 10-38

CTR01,o RcL CTR0110 Rc:H

--10
e~~~-+-~-tt-~+-f-+-'t---+-~~---~-;---.~

Low Voltoge ( L) H,ghVoltoge( H l

l rc-rA
t>b l~=~
A Turns Rot10• ~

CAB
Rc:L • Volloge Ro110, ~ RcH nRc:H
lnRCL e
KVH /3KVH RcL RcL
l 1A-JB N=KVL' n= KVL
n
N"._13
RcH=n73Ñ

RcL
(a) Delta on The High Side (ANSI Standard Ccnnectlon}
CTRaflo RcL rA=~·Ic)
A

B --
le= n (lb-la)

le= n nc-lbl
e

Turns Ratio= n
Low vonoce ( L ) High Voltoge( H l Voltoge Rot,o = N

c<J
A o

B
cAb N•KVH n•~
KVL' ./3KVL
N=./3n

IA·le• n Cl0·1c)· n Ub·l0}• 3 n lo

le·Ic=n Clb·Iol·n Clc-lbl•3nlb
lc·IA-n C!c-íbl·n <ta·lcl=3nlc

(b) Star on The H1gh S,de (ANSI Standard Connection)

Figure 10-41: Connections for Low Side CT'S to Provide Equivalent of High Side CT'S.

Subtracting the ZT of I O ohms, lea ves only 0.8 ohms of tíon on another tap. This assumes that thc scttings are not
the line protccted or 80% rathcr lhan 90%, if high side volt- changed with the taps.
age V H wcrc u sed.

Taps on the bank can change the value of ZT and the re- Zone 2 should always be set for the maximum apparent
flected value of ZL such that setting Zonc I to never over- ohrns so as to protcct the line for any tap. This may cause
reach on any lap can result in very little orno line protec- considerable overreach for other taps.

The third possible arrangement is to use V L and IH" There
is lillle advantage in this method, since the ohms are still
measured from the low-side bus. Directional sensing would
be from the line current transformer location, rather than
from lhe bus-side current transformcrs.
When the line terminales in a transforrner bank at the re-
mole end, Zone I can be set into the bank to provide 100
pcrcent high speed linc protection. Only with the K-DAR
relays can Zones 2 and 3 be set lhrough the bank with an
accurate balance point of ZL + ZT + ZLV systern for aU
phase faults. With single-phase type relays, the reach
through wye-delta banks is variable.
Light internal faults in the transformers will probably not
produce enough varíation in current and voltage to opera te
the remote distance rclays. Consequently, transformers
should have individual protcction. Such protection does
presenta problem, in that remote breakers must be tripped
to clear the fault when the local transformer relays opérate.
Remote trip systems suitable for this application are dis-
cussed in Chapter 15.
[V.G. Distance Relay Characteristics
To surnrnarize, the advantages of distance relays for pro-
tecting line sections are:
• Greater instantancous coverage
• Faster end-zone fault clearing
• Fixed zone of protection, relatively mdependent of sys-
tem changos, which requires less setting maintenance
• Higher independence of load
• Easier setting calculations
• Grcater sensitivity
The voltage impedancc characteristic of a distance relay
(Figure 10-42a) is one measure of its independence of sys-
tern change. For modern relays, the variation in the balance
point impedance is negligible for ali voltages from rated
120 V down to less lhan 5 to 10 V-the voltage available to
the relay for faults at the balance point, or "reach," of the
unit. This voltage, then, is the threshold or decision-point
voltage rather than the voltage available for faults within
the operating zone.
10-39
The voltage impedance characteristic defines how the relay
will deviate from the ohm value indicatcd by its setting.
The droop at low voltages reflects the energy necessary lo
overcome either the spring restraint in the cylinder unit or
the forward voltage drop of solid-state components.
Two characteristics exist; both are quite close in the K-DAR
relays. The steady state or static curve is deterrnined with
voltage gradually decreased lo cause operation. The dy-
namic curve rs deterrnined with normal voltage suddenly re-
duced to produce operalion. The steady-state curve applies
with line-side potential when a dead line is cnergized into a
fault, while the dynamic curve applíes when a fault occurs
on a pre-energized line.
Low balance-point faull voltages can occur on a very short
line supplied by a very weak or high irnpedance source,
This is not a problem in most applications. Consider a
solid three-phase fault at distance nZL from bus Gin Fig-
ure 10-30a, where the source impedance behind bus G, is
z3. Then, with ZE infinite,
V
r -----
G - Zs + nZL
or (10-26)
The line-to-line voltage at the relay or bus (Figure 10-42b)
is:
(10-27)
For propcr operation of a distan ce relay,
(10-28)
where q is the fraction defirung the minimum voltage.
For example, if q equals .05, the mínimum voltage is .OS
x 120, or 6 V. Cornparing Equations ( 10-26), ( 10-27), and
(10-28) and solving for z8 in terms of nZL,
(,/3-q)
Zg> -q- nZL
or
nZL -s(JJ~ )zsq (l0-29)
1040

T
r eo -1
Locot,onot Foulr ,nPercenr ot Aeloy Se11,ng

i~ "º
0% 67% 90%

~
.~
30
s
'J

--J .....,. 20
!:
1 s
~ 10
~ 1
Foult o
1
-•- i.~---
1
V¡,
0o .o5 -A,~-.,.,~~----....,.., 1 '
Peioy \..\:)ltoqe,n ee- t.,n11
'º
-ls --Jnz,._f. º1 2 10 100
(r.e,qy Level I lZcl
200

Sou,~e RelOy Loco•,on

(al Vollage lmpedance Charac1ens11c (bJ low Relay Voltages for Balance Po,nt Faull (e) Tome of Oper auo«

Frgure 1 ~42 Characterist,cs of Distance Relays

Usmg q = .OS as a typícal value , the application wou1d be
questionable if thc source impedance were more lhan 33.6
times the balance point impedance. In other words, the
balance-point impcdance should not be less than 3 perccnt
of the source impedance,
This rather extreme ratio bel wcen linc and source imped-
anee may sometimos occur at short periods of light load
requirernents, when a mínimum of generation is connected.
lf the voltage-irnpedance curve falls off towards zero, as it
does for the K-DAR relays, the reach is reduced during
these periods. llowever, the fault current is also low during
these periods, and probably less severo from a system stand-
point. Zones 2 and 3 will also providc protection for the
rcduccd arca, since these zones are set beyond the line sec-
lion.
The opcrating lime of distance relays is a function of the
energy available to thc units during thc fault. The tirne-
distancc curve of the instantaneous distancc relays is rcla-
tively flat from thc rctay out to ncar the balance point.
Here, the gradicnt of the curve increases rapidly as time
increases, approaching mfinity al the balance point. The
time-distancc curve for the solid-state relays is faster and
flatter than for lhe elcctromechanical relays, which have a
somcwhat more inverse characteristic.
Figure 10-42c shows the operating time for the K-DAR re-
lays as a function of the IZc product and the fault location.
lis the fault current, Zc is thc retay reach or setting. Thcse
curves, which can be obtained for each distance unit and
type of relay, can be applied to any system and any setting.
center of thc charactcrísuc (l- igure 10-31 ). Thus, for the
mho clcment, Lhc opcrating energy is zero on the circle pe-
riphery and maximum at the cenlcr. For this reason, mern-
ory action or currcnt-only torque is required to operare lhe
relay for close-in, three-phase faults as the circle goes
through lhis point. Ihese close-in unbalanced phase faults
are gcnerally near the center of thc operating circle for the
K-DAR phase-to-phase unit , providing large operating en-
ergy.
Distance protection for a short line is a function of the
voltage avaitable for an accurate decisión (Figure t 0-42b),
the operating energy (Figure 10-42c) and the reluy sctting
dcrivcd from Equation ( 10-1 O). lf the rclay rangc is in
qucstion, the use of a larger current transformer ratio,
eithcr in the main current transformer or through an aux-
iliary current transformer, in creases the secondary ohms.
The transient performance of a distance relay is its ten-
dcncy to overreach its setting bccause of the de offset
component of the fault current. This tendency is particu-
larly important on Zone 1 applícations. K-DAR relays have
negligible transient overreach because the compensators are
air-gap-type transformcrs.
Phase-distance relays wil1 not opera te on line-charging
transients, which are short-duration currents at, or near, full
voltage. As a result, the irnpedance phasor is high and out
of the forward-looking reach of Zones I and 2. Very long
settings for Zone 3 relays might produce mornentary oper-
ation, but such relays have a long enough time delay to
override any such operation.

The operating energy on the relays generally increases as the

fault rnoves away from the balance-point locus toward the
 10-41

Current lransformers used with distance relays should not

saturare for faults occurring at thc balance point. Limited X

saturation for faults inside the operating zone presents no

problerns for the K-DAR relays, as long as the relay curren!
is not reduced or shifted enough to cause the ímpcdance
phasor to fall outside the operating zone, However, sincc
this determination requires a complex calculation, it is de-
sirable lo use good quality current transformers.

Since most voltage transforrners and devices havc capacitics

far in excess of the relay burdens, they are adequatc for
Figure 10.43: The Reach of the Mho Distance
use with distance relays. The subsidence transient of Relay at Various Angles
sorne capacitor voltage devices requircs special setting or
added time delay for static-distance relays, (see Chaptcr 5). The most comrnonly applied K-DAR relays havc their set-
ting adjustmcnt based on O cqual lo 75°, that is Zo: equals
Except for the phase-to-phase unit of the K-DAR relays,
Zc, or the rcach equals the sctting at 75°. Thus, ifthe pro-
which do not respond to balanced conditions, a load of 5 tected line angle cquals the distance relay angle , the setungs
Arnp. secondary at 120 V appears to the distance relays
are exact. lf the line angle is 85°, the 75° characteristic
asan ímpedance of:
will rcach 98.5 percent of its set reach [ cos (85° - 75°) =
120 O. 985 J . 1 f il is 60°, the rea ch will be 96 .6 percent.
2Ioad = ,J3 5
Transmission line angles, except for the lower voltages, fall
= 13.86 ohms secondary (10-30)
within a range of ±60° to ±85°. lt is not practica! in most
applications to change the relay angle for these smaJI per-
If the rnaxirnum load will not exceed 4.5 Amp., then
centage differences. An altcrnativc, usmg Equat ion (10-31 ),
Zload equals 15.4 ohrns; or, for 4.0 Amp. maximum,
is to set Zc for a higher value at its 7 5° angle, so that Zo:
Zload equals 17 .3 ohms. The angle of load will generally
has the desired value at the line angle. K-DAR relays, pre-
be between oº and 30° lag. On the R-X diagrams of Fig-
adjusted for phase angles of 60° and 45° for the three-
ures 10-3 J, 10-34, and 10-43, the phasor will appear near
phase unit, are available for use on the lower angle lines.
the R axis in either the first or third quadrants, depending
on whether it flows into or out of the lme. In the majority
of applicalions, the load phasor will not be near the relay To avoid operation on load at a given angle, the relay set-
operating circles, particularly for Zones l and 2. For very ting, Zc, should be less than the valúes given in Table
long or heavily loaded lines, the load phasor can fall within 10-VII. For cxarnple , the three-phase unit should be set at
the mho element characteristics. In these applications,
the characteristics of Figures l 0-31 b or 10-31 e provide in-
creased discrimination between load and fault ohms. As TABLE 10-VII
Fault Reach versus Load Ohms for the mho Characteristic
described in Chapter 19, systern swings must also be pre- (See Figure 10-43)
vented from entering the operating circles long enough to
opérate the T2 and T3 timers. Angle o: of Angle o: of
S Amperes 4.S Amperes
Mnximum Load Zc Reach Maximum Load Zc Reach
Sincc an angle inscribed within a scrni-circle is a right angle, ( 13.86 ohms) (ohms al 7Sº) (IS.4 ohms) (ohms al 75º)
thc reach al any angle , o:, (Figure 10-43) can be written
as: Unity P.F., 0° 54.00 Un11y P F., Oº 59.60
10° 32.00 10º 36.00
20° 24.00 20º 36.60
30° 19.80 30° 21.78
or Z 40° 17.00 40° 18.78
z - o: (10-31) 45° 16.00 45° 17.78
e cos (8 - =)
10-42

less than 19 .8 ohrns secondary to avoid operating on 5- Phase-distance relays may respond to single phase-to-ground
Amp. load at 30° lag. lt is for this reason that 20 ohrns is faults within their operating zone and, hence, offer addi-
selected as the maximurn for the 0.75-to-20-ohrn K-DAR tional protection. Although this proteclion will usually be
relays, Relays with a longer reach (1.1 to 30 ohms) are for clase-in faults, (approximately 1/3 of the phase fault
available for special applications. reach for the K-DAR relays) it should not be relied u pon.
The actual reach for these faults is cornplex and varíes wilh
Irnpedance lo the distance relay can be related to three- system conditions.
phase kV A or MV A as follows:
Single phase-to-ground faults externa! to the phase-distance
relays will not cause the K-DAR relays to operate except
for one special case. That is a solid line-to-ground fault,
just behind and externa! to the K-DAR relay protective
zone where there is a very large zero sequence current reía-
or 1000 kV (10-32) tive to the positive sequence current through the relays,
y31
Applications of this type that can cause a problern are: (1)
relays using V L and 1 L and set looking into a wye delta
1000 kV
I=~-- bank that is grounded on the bus or relay side or set into a
.,/3 zpri
grounded auto-transformer ; (Figure 10-40); (2) the remate
source ahead of the relays is predominantly zero sequence,
kVA=V3kVI
with little or no positive sequence; and (3) a tappcd line
(Figure 10-36) with the bank grounded on the line side and
_. ¡;; 1000 kV
-v3kV -Ji z . operated with the remole H terminal open.
pn
Since only the three-phase unit of the K-DAR relays is ad-
1000 kV2
(10-33) versely affected, the solution is to modify the externa! con-
zpri
nection as shown in Figure 10-44 which removes zero se-
quence from the three-phase unit. This modification re-
kV2
MVA=-- {10-34) duces the phasc-to-phase and three-phase overlap for
zpri
double-phase-to-ground faults. In the majority of applica-
tions, the phase-to-phase unit provides complete two-phase-
to-ground fault protection without the three-phase unit.
Applying Equation ( 10-1 O), the kVA, MVA, or secondary
The additional coverage is also less important when pilol re-
impedance in ohrns "seen" by a distante relay wilJ be:
laying is used.
1000 kV2 (Re)
kVA= - Phase rcactance relays can overreach on forward single
2sec Ry phase-to-ground faults. This can occur with short lines, low
zero sequence impedance, and fairly long starter unit reach.
or
The overreach becomes worse as the fault angle decreases.
Relays can also opérate on reverse faults for low zero se-
= 1000 kV2 (Re)
( 10-35) quence current. Ali these problems can be avoided by re-
zsec kVA Ry
stricting or carefully secting the starter unit.

kV2 R )
MVA=-(~ IV .H. Are Resistance and Phase-Distance Relays
zsec Ry
ln general, are resistance either has a minirnal effect on dís-
or tance relay protection or presents a very serious problem.
Are resistance is usually insignificant. This is substantiated
by many years of field experience where different types of
( 10-36)
distance relays are in use on similar applications with good
performance.
 10-43

Tolm Three PhoseFoult Phoseto PhoseFou1t Double Phose to

Groun<I Fault
0-0Un,rs 3QJUn,ts

~
\.-<">--<~------+-- ¿~
"'
s:
\.-<>--1------+--0
lo

/7i"o
Breoker 15/!:>CT(Not Requored ,fT,onsfo,mer figure 10.45 Representation of Are Resistance for Phase Faults
rs Delta Connected on Bus Side

Voltoge Connect,ons Not Shown butore Stondard

exponentially. Eventually, when a high resistance is
reached, the are breaks over and shortens. Then thc resist-
TronsfOl'mer
anee suddenly drops, and the cycle is repeated.

In one series of tests equivalent to 76 kV, low are rcsistance

L,ne
Figure 10.44: Oistance Relays Connections When K·OAR Releys
are Set to Look into a Predominantly Zero
Sequence Source.
Ares are quite variable and speeifie ficld dala is difficult to
obtain. A cornmonly acceptcd value for currents betwccn
70 and 20,000 Arnp. has been an are drop of 440 V per
foot, practically independent of eurrent magnitude. Thus,
440 s
Rare =-- I ohms
where sis are lcngth in f'ect and I is fault current
Are length, whieh is one-half the phase-to-phase spacing or
conductor-to-tower distance (Figure 10-45), is proportional
to system voltagc, For 34.S k V and up, s/kV varíes from
approxirnately 0.1 to 0.05 at the highcr voltages. Taking a
conservativevalu e of 0.1 thcn, for p hase-to-phase faults:
values of I to 2 ohms lasted for approximately 0.5 sec.
The maximum value of severa! peaks was 25 to 50 ohms.
The low initial valué means that Zone 1 will be affectcd
only slightly. Any effect on Zones 2 and 3 would be of
little importanee, since the area of eoneern is baekup.
lf the fault is supplied from both ends, are resistance is like
a tap on the line (Figure 10-45), so that thc rclay at either
end "seos" an apparcnt impcdance. lf, for example, ZT
is replaced by the are resistance Rs/2 for the systern shown
in Figure 10-36, thcn Equation (10-22) beco mes the irnped-
(10-37)
anee "seen" by thc relay G, or:
in the are.
(10-39)
For three-phase faults, K is the positive scqucnce current
distribution factor. For phase-to-phase faults, 2 K is K 1
plus K2, the positive and negative sequence current distríbu-
lion factors. In practice, K1 cquals K2, so 2K can be used.

Rs In a power system where load is flowing over the line ini-

R =-
are 2
tially, the voltagcs of thc sources at eaeh end are not in
44 kV phase. Therefore, K is a phasor. The net result is that,
while the current distribution factor inereases the are re-
sistanee value, it also introduces a reactance effect. Thus,
the are resistanee cornponent on the R-X diagram, instead
(10-38) of being parallel to the R axis, is tilted upwards or down-
wards. The direetion of the tilt is a function of the angle of
where kVA5e is the three-phase short-circuit kV A. the source voltage at one end, relative to the angle of thc
source at the other end. Systern eonditions that cause a
Toe above formulae give a single va!ue for are resistance. tilt downward tend to produce an overreach effect; those
In practice, the are resista nee tends to start at a low value, that cause a tilt upward produce an underreach effect.
to hold this value for an appreciable time, then to build up This is illustrated in Figure 10-46. The underreach effect is
10-44

grcater Ior lhe mho units; for reactance

effcct is greater.
units, the overreach
. ,·----50
G H
Miles------
ZT LV

-
IG Mo-
Are Res,s1once ~·lorK•0.5
Apporenf Effect

------ Reoc1once
Ltne Z•0.259+ ¡0.786 Ohms/Mlle
K·DAR100Unil
a) Single Llne System Diagram

--
LV

Figure 1 0-46: The Are Resistance Effect

I
1
I
I R
lf lhe are resistance is negligible, as generaUy seems lo be 1
I
I
the case, then all types of characteristics provide good pro- I
1
1
tcction. Whcre are rcsistancc is significant, thc reactance 1
I
clement is less secure, since it can opera te for faults beyond 1
I

1
thc remole bus. Studies on short lines with very heavy in· I
I
I
fecds havc shown lhat the reactance unit can overreach I
more than 25 percent. On short lines, the K-OAR phase-
to-phasc unit operating circle expands approaching in ap-
pearance a straight linc lhat lilts al lhe line or adjustrnent
angle. This characteristic offers incrcased are coverage and G
is quite secure. b) Otstance Relay Setting on The R X O,agram

Figura 10-47: Example of Distance Rahty,ng

TV.I. An Example of Distance Relay Application and
Setting and voltagc lransformer ratio Ry

Two 138-kV line sections terminating in a 75-MV A trans- = 138000:115

former bank substalion are shown at lhe top of Figure
I0-47a. K·DAR distance relays are applied at G and H, = 1200
and, for sirnplicity, settings will be considered only in one
direction. The linc irnpedances from G to H to R, along The secondary or relay impedance ZR
with the transformer impedance, are plotted on the R·X
120
diagram in Figure l 0-47b. (Diagrarns of this type are not
= 1200 x 2pri
rcquired for setting.)

= 0.10 Zpri ohms secondary (10-10)

With current transformer ratio Re
In sccondary terrns, the various systern impedances are:
= 600:5
1 st Section:
= 120
 1045

= 50 (0.259 + j 0.786) 0.10 z2 apparent = 4.13 + 1.24 + 1.24

= 1.30 + j 3.93 = 6.61 ohms secondary (10-18)

or
1.24
= 4. t 3 j 71. 7° ohms secondary =413+--
. 0.5

2nd Section: = 6.61 ohrns sccondary (10-19)

!f Zone 2 at G were set for the apparent ohrns, il would

overreach Zone I at II ancl into Zone 2 al 11 when 111
= 30 (0.259 + j 0.786) 0.10 equals zero. ln this case, Zone 2 al G must be sel wilh
longer operating times for end-zonc Iaults on line ZGH'
= 0.78 + j 2.36 lf Zone 2 al G were set at actual ohrns, us shown in Figure
l 0-4 7, thc rcach on line z1 IR wiLh infced would be 25 per-
= 2.48 171. 7° oh ms secondary cent, instead of SO percent, assuming K equals 0.5 for ali
z
faults a long line 11 R. This case is shown as Z '2 in Figure
Transforrner: 10-47. The 25 pcrccnt value is obt ained frorn:

Zr= 0.09 (138)

2
X 0.1 z2 seuíng al G = 4.13 + l /2 (2.48)
75
= 5.37
= j 2.28 ohms sccondary
Equat ing this with thc apparent ohms sccn by Relay C load·
/\t G: ing into line llR from equat ion 10·19:

2.48 r
z
Set 1 = 0.9 x 4.13 S.37 = 4.13 +QT
= 3.72 ohms al 75° relay anglo where r is thc rcach into linc llR. Solving, r cquals 0.25, or
25 percent rcach into linc Z¡fR·
At 11:
z
The 2 sctt ing at G of 5.37 ohms with 25% coveragc of
z
Set 1 = 0.9 x 2.48 linc HR wilh infecd will give mínimum opcrating time for
end-zonc Iaults on fine Zcu· Alternativcly , z2 al G could
= 2.23 ohms al 75° rclay angle be set for ZGI-I + 0.75 ZHR• or 6.00 ohrns secondary. This
setting provides 37 .5 percent L11 R line coverage with IH in·
With the line GH at 7 l. 7º and the relay at 75°, thc error feed.
from Equation (10-31) is cos 3.3°. or .9983, quite negli-
gible. With módem brca kcrs, typical T2 times for Zonc 2 will be
approximately 0.20 to 0.30 sec. An average value of 0.25
The infeed effcct at bus H will reduce the z2 rcach into the sec. is recornmended. With no other lines or equipment off
ZHRsection for relay G. At G, the actual irnpedance set- bus R, Zone 2 at H can be set for z11R + 75% ZT, or
ting for z2 would be:
z2 = Z actual
z2 actual= 4.13 + l/2 (2.48)
= 0.78 + j 2.36 + 0.75 U 2.28)
= 5.37 ohms secondary
= 0.78 + j 4.07
Frorn Equation (10-18) or (10-19), the apparcnt ohms
from G for a fault at 50 percent of line ZHR would be: = 4.14 ! 79. J 5° ohrns secondary
10-46

Again no adjustment of the 7 5° relay angle is recom- Setting z3 at

C for 14.63 ohms would mean a reach into
mended. the low voltage system of 14.63 rninus 13.52, or 1.11 ohms
secondary with 111 mfeed. With zero infced, the reach into
A Zonc 3 rela¡ could be applied al H, then set through the the low voltage systern would be 14.63 minus 8.82, or 5.81
transformer al T and mto the low voltage systern. In this ohms secondary when 11! equals O. The Zone 3 limer
case, the Zone 3 relay al G would be sel for approxirnately should be set to coordínatc with thc low voltage systcm re-
50 percent of the bank impedance and would be pulled lays for faulls out to 5 .81 ohms secondary, as "seen" by
back by the r II mfced. Another alternauve would be to the relay at G. Typical times for T3 are between 0.5 and
omil Zone 3 al H and sel Zone 3 al G, lhrough the bank at 3.0 sec.
T into the low voltage systcm. Even with lhe infced of IH,
this sctting would prevido backup protcction of line ZHR
V. GROUND-FAULT PROTECTION
and lransformer ZT.
With a few significant diffcrences, the general applicalion
The arrangement does have several possible disadvantages.
rules for phase relays also apply to ground rclays. Ground
First, opcrating lime may be long, since T3 must coordi-
relays are for faults involving zcro scquence quantities, pri-
nate with relays in the low voltage systern, particularly
marily single phase-to-ground faults and sometirncs two-
when I H equals O. Also, the breaker at C could be tripped
phase-to-ground Iaults. (The latter faults are hybrids, part
for sorne transformer and low voltage system faults,
phase and part ground.) This discussion will cover only
rather than at H. Light faults in the transformer may not
three-wire systems; that is, systems for which ali the zero
be "seen" by the distance relays, Finally, of course, relays
scquence current 11ows in the earth return or ground wires
at the remate end of 18 must be tripped to clear these
associated with transmission circuits. Of the three-wire sys-
faults. Since, however, this protection is backup in case
tems, the discussion applies only to "effectively grounded"
the primary relaying fails, the probability of z3 operating
is low.
systems-those for which the x0:x1 ratio is not greater
than 3.0, and the R0:x1 ratio is not greater than 1.0.

For the z3 at G:
There are two basic types of ground relays: overcurrent
and distancc. The directional or non-directional overcur-
Z actual: ZGH + ZHR + 1.25 ZT
rent types are used widely at mosl ali voltage Ievels, In ad-
dition to their lower cost and complete independence of
= 2.08 +j 9.14
load, the power systern provides more rapid attenuation of
current with distance, and a relativcly higher independence
= 9.4 ! 77 .2° ohms secondary
of system changes. This makes t heir application and setling
easier than for íhc phasc rclays. Distance relays, though
Z actual just through the bank
more cornplcx, provide a longer anti Iixed instantaneous
coverage, which is esscntially indepcndcnt of systcrn
Zi = 2.08 +J 8.57
changes. Because of this facl, the trend towurd using tlis-
= 8.8212_6.36° ohms secondary tance relays is growing.

Ground rclays usually can be set and coordinatcd intlcpcnd-

Z11R + 1.25 ZT
cntly of the phase relays, evcn hough thc faulted phasc cur-
Z apparenl = ZGII + K ( 10-22) í

rent does ílow through the onc or more phasc rcluys. Thc

= 2.86 +j 14.35 prirnary rcason for this indcpendencc is thal thc ground re-
lays are set onc-fifth to one-tent h more scnsitivcly lhan thc

= 14.63 J 78. 7° ohms secondary phase relays. lf t he sensitivity ratio is incrcascd hy using
higher ground rclay taps or lower phase rday taps, some
Z apparcnt through bank ZT only miscoordination betwccn lhc phase and ground relays may
result. The more scnsitive scttings obtain.1ble with ground
= 2.86 +j 13.21 relays may mean a higher burden on the curren! transforrn-
ers and their performance shoultl he chcckcd as described in
= 13. 5 2 !11 .8° ohrns secondary Chapter 5.
V.A. Distribution Circuit Protection
A distribution circuit rnay be prolected with a single, non-
directional ovcrcurrent relay, as shown in Figure 10-48.
Positivo and negative sequcnce currents are balanced out al
the current transformcr neutral, so only 310 currents pass
lhrough the ground relay (SON/51 N). Since, under normal
balancedconditions, 310 is al or approaches zero, a vcry
low pickup current IS used, typically 0.5 to 1.0 Amp.
While ground-fault currents on distribution circuits are
generally higher al the substation than phase-fault currents,
they decrease ata much greater rate wilh distance from the
x
substation because 0 is considerably larger than X 1 for
the feeder circuits. With the exception in fault-current
values, application and coordination of the non-directional
overcurrent relays is the same as for the phase relays, as
given in Section TI above.
CO IIT
CO IJT CO IIT
50N/51N
CO IIT
50/51
Figure 10-48: Connections for Overcurrent Ground Reley.
As wlth phase relays, instantaneous trip can be used to irn-
preve rclaying, particu larly for close-in faults. 1 nstantane-
ous trip unils are more applicable in general with the higher
attenualion of the fault currents with distance. High tran-
sient overloads and unequal current transformer perform-
ance can givc rise to "false residual currents" and, hencc,
misopcration.
The choice of a relay lime characteristic is usually limited
to thc invcrsc or very in verse type (C0-8 or C0-9). The
very inverso type is the more commonly uscd, since its char-
acteristic fits well with a wide range of fault current, provid-
ing good coordination. However, where coordination with
fuscs and/or series trip reclosers is required, an extremely
inverso characleristic (C0-11) would prohably be preferable.
V.B. Subtransmission Circuit Protection
Radial subtransmission circuits can be protccted in the samc
way as distribution circuits. For loops with a single sourcc,
direcuonal overcurrent relays are applicd in the sarnc way
as phase relays; instantaneous trip units are used whcrc ap-
plicable. Again, if the instantaneous trip need not he direc-
tional, relays such as the C'R line can be uscd. lf the instan-
taneous trip must be directional (using thc same criterion as
for phase relays), relays of thc IR line musí be used. Non-
directional rclays, with or without instantaneous trip, may
be used for lhe source bus breaker.
For loops with both positive and zcro sequence sourccs, co-
ordination for ground relays is usually not so difficull as for
phase relays. The zcro sequence sources do not usually
change much with system changes, since these sources con-
sist of grounded wye transformers that are left in service re-
gardless of any transrnission system change, except an erner-
gency outage. For these strong, local zero sequence sources,
the total driving point impedances at the sources (Z0 plus
Z plus z2) do not change nearly so much as they do for
I
phase faults.
Directional overcurrent relays can be applied to tbese loops
in most cases. Although non-dircctional instantaneous trip
units can sometimes be uscd, directional instantaneous trip
units will generally be required. The inverse tírne-distance
schemes, described in Section 111.D., cannot be applied to
ground relayíng.
V.C. Directional Ground Relay Polarization
To determine the direction of a Iault, a dircctio nal relay re-
quircs a reference against which line quantities can be corn-
pared. This reference is known as the polarizing quanlity
and, in this context, reference and polarízing are synony-
mous terms. With zero sequcnce line current, either a zero
scquence current or voltage or both must be used. In
modern power systems, with their mutual induction prob-
lems, the trend is toward the use of ncgative sequencc quan-
titics for the ground directional unit.
V.C.l. Voltage (Potential) Polarization
The zero sequence voltage around any bus in an inductive
power system can be used for polarization (Figures 10-38
and 10-39). The voltage measured on the bus or just out on
any of the four lines al station H will be essentially the
10-48

same as ~r a fault on the bus itself', or out on any of the
lines. Howcver, thc currcnt lhrough any of the four
breakcrs will change direction according to the faull lo-
caí ion.
Thc polarizing zcro sequence voltage is oblained frorn the
open-della secondary of grounded-wye voltage Lransformers
(Figure 10-49). Phase voltages are also required for the
pilase relays, instrurncntotron, and so forth. In such cases,
cit hcr a double-secondary voltage transformer or device, or
a sel of aux iliary wye-groundecl, open-delta auxiliary trans-
Iorrncrs can be uscd , Thc SO- or 60-Ht voltage across the
open delta is always VX y equals 3 V0, or VaG plus VbG
plus VcG·
H,gh Vo11oge
the fault. (An exception with high mutual induction will be
discussed below .) Thus, a current transformer in lhe neu-
tral measures 310 for current polarization, the polarizing
current shown in Figure 10-SOa for a wye-delta bank and
that shown in Figure 10-SOd for a zig-zag bank. Wye-wye
banks, cithcr grounded or ungrounded, cannot be used for
polarizing (Figures 10-SOb and 10-SOc). The groundecl-wye
of three-winding wye-wye-delta banks can be used ( Figure
10-SOe).
The separate neutral currcnts of the thrcc-winding wye-
dclta-wye transforrners cannoí be uscd for polarizing, but
current transformers in cach grounded neutral must be par-
alleled with in verse ratios, as shown in Figures 10-SOf and
10-SOg. Assuming lhat both thc high voltagc and low volt-
agc sides connect to a ground so urce, ground faults 011
lhe low voltage side (Figure 10-SOg) result in current flow-
ing up the low voltage neutral and down thc high voltage

===t==L ===E ~===.===: neutral. Convcrsely, for faulls 011 the high voltage side (Fig-
ure 10-SOf), currcnt flows up thc high voltage neutral und
down the low voltuge neutral. Hencc, lhe reversal in either
vo11oge Transfo,mers or Dev,ces neutral does not provide a rcfcrcncc. By paralleling thc two
G
'-+---il-4>----t---t--1h neutral current transforrncrs, howcver, 1 pis always in lhe
sarne dircct ion for faulls on cithcr side sincc, on a per-unil
basis, the currcnt flowing down he neutral is always less
í

than the current flowing up the other neutral. Thc currcnts

i- - 3Vo --iy G shown in Figure 10-50 assurnc one pcr unit in the wyc wind-
X ings and one pcr unit in the delta or tertiary. The actual
(+)~
Va current distribution will vary as dctermined by thc zcro se-

vcAvb
X
Al1ern01e ,f Double Seconóory quencc network.
vonoce Transfarmers or
Devices Nol Ava,lable
Va Thc tcrliary or della winding can also be uscd as a polariz-

v,, JVo-t>, ing sourcc. 1 r there are no externa! circuits from the delta,
one cu rrcnt transformcr connected in any lcg of the delta
will provide 10. A current transformer is requircd in each
Ve
of the thrcc-windings if lhc delta is connected lo externa]
PhOsars far o Phase "o" lo Ground Fauli
circuits, so that positive and/or negative sequcncc currents
Figure 10-49: Zero Sequence Polarizing Voltage Source
can exist during load or faults, These current lransformers
musí be connected in parallel lo cancel out positive and
V.C.2. Current Polarization ncgative sequence-and provide 310 only.

The currcnt polarization rcference clepends on lhc availabil-
ity and the connection of the power transformer at lhe re-
lay location. Various bank connections are diagrammed in
Figure 10-50. The current in the neutral of a wye-grounded-
delta power transforrner can be used for polarizing. Foral-
most any ground fault on the wye-side systern, Lhis current
is always flowing up the neutral when current is flowing to
Autotransformers should not be used for currcnt polarizing
without careful analysis since they are frequently unreliable
as a rcference. Autotransformers that are ungrounded or
withoul delta tertiary cannot be used. Such units can by-
pass zero sequence ín roughly the sarne way as can the wye-
wye grounded banks. Groundcd autotransformers with ter-
tiary are shown in Figure 10-51.
 10-49

Tlne Phose Oioorams Zero Sequence Network Three PhaseDiogroms Zero SeQuence Network
Neu1rolBus EotherWyeor Delta
,.........._.,
-r,-
NeutralBus

- _r_
~¡~ ~
___:r- ! h ~!~
Neutro!Bus
FoultsonWyeS.de r-
Polor1z1ng Curren! far~ -
Polaroz,ng Curren! for Foults
on The Right Hand Star S,de '::!J,_¡:;..__
(al DeltaWye Grounded Bank
(e) Wye or Oelta-Detta Wye (Grounded Bank)
(Ground Source Suotable for Polarmng Relays) Ground Source Suotable for Polarizing Relays
NeuorolBus

GroundFoult on Ttns Sode Neutral Bus

;
1,0 Zo of L Systemtl! !
(bl Wye-Wye Grounded Bank (No Ground Source)
Not Su1t1ble for Polarmng Relays .._ _ ToreeUnns RL VH
-
ZL
.., ...... "'

Neutro!Bus forPolarmng Fi;.=~

-Ip•3
(f) Wye Grounded (Deha·Wye Grounded Bank)
Ground Source Suitable for Polarizing Relays

Ground Foult on This S,de Neutral Bus

(el GroundedWye-Wye 81nk (No Ground Source) ~
Not Su1t1blefor Polarmng Rel1ys
! Zr !:
Neutral Bus ~ ~!4.J~

I _ 4 ~ - \
Foull ZoofH
.._ ThreeUnots Sysrem
far Polarizinc¡¡
-Ip•3
{g) Wye Grounded (Delta·Wye Grounded Bank)
Ground Source Suitable for Polarozing Relays
(di Zog Zag

Figure 10-50: Zero Sequence Polari:iation from Power Transforme, Banks.

For ground faults on the high voltage side (Figure 10-51 a), From the zero sequence network:
IOFII is the zero sequence currcnt in amperes, at kVH in
the Iault. The current flowing through the high voltage
( 10-41)
wmding of the autotransformer is thus KolOFII amperes.
The current flowing in the low voltage circuit will be
PolOFH(kV HfkV L) amperes at kV L· Because of the phys- Substituting:
ical connections, the current in the neutral of the bank is,

kVH
1NH = 3 (Ko10FII - Po kV 10FII)
L
(10-42)
kVH
= 3JOFH(Ko - P0 W) amperes (10-40)
L
10-50

Three Phose DiOQrOms Zero Sequence Neiworks

Foull
-KolOFH

-+KolOFH

tl>
lrH"EQuotoon (10·43or 45)
(H}
ZoLS

Foull
(L}
---+ KolOFH t. z:»
H<o
-e-
l 1,..H • Equot,on(10·40o,42)
1.0

(al Ground Fault on The H,gh S,de

Foul!.,__ SolOFL

1 ZoLS
+--SolOFL
1[? (H}
1-So

-
--- $olQFL lrL •Equo1,on 110-490,51) Foull
(L}

~ loFL
RoKvH !
-= t INL'CQUOhOO (10·46o,48)
10

(bl Ground Fault on The Low S,de

Figure 10-51 Polariz,ng from Grounded Auto Transformer Banks

Thc tcrtiary curren! (inside lhc delta) is:

( 10-46)
kVli
ITII = IOl'II (K0-P0l ,v3kVT amperes at kVT
Frorn thc scquence nct work:
(10-43)
and , smce
( 10-4 7)

<Ko-Po> = Ko <z L z > ( 10-44)

OLS + -L + T Substituting:

ZoLS + ZL kVII
ITH = KolOFI 1 <z +z +z ) "3k V amperes
OLS L T V~ T

(10-45)
( 1 0-48)

For ground faulls on t he low voltage side , (Figure 10-S I b)

The tertiary curren! (inside lhe delta) is:
IOFL is t he uro sequence current in amperes at kV L in the
Iault, and s010FL is thc curren! from thc autotransformer.
~
The current from the high voltage system will be R0rOFL ITL = IOFL {S0 - R0) y'3kVT amperes ar kVT
(kV L/kVII) amperes al kVH. Again, the bank neutral cur-
ren! is· ( 1 0-49)
and , since
 10-51

2oHS + ZH tion (10-42)J. If the neutral is to be used for polarizing,

(S0-R0) = s0 <2 +z +z ): < 10-50) Equation ( 10-42) must give a positive operating value for ali
OIIS II T
possible variations of ZoLS· For ali situat ions lhat fall un-
20IIS + 211 kV L der Cases I and 3, the tertiary winding can be used with
l - S 1 ( )
TL - o OFL Zous + ZH + ZT V)kVT cither one or three current transforrners, as described above.

amperes at kV T
(10-51)
Table JO-VIII shows an evaluation of the above analysis, as
il affects lhc use of either the neutral or tertiary current for
polarizing.
Most autolransformcr installatíons will be reprcsented by
Cases I and 3 shown in Table 10-VJII. In these two cases,
the autotransformer mayor may not have a ncgative equrv-
alent impedance branch. lf they do, t his irnpedance, on a
cornmon hase, usually will be less than the systcm irnpcd-
anee, Thal is, ZL is of'ten negatrve ami less than ZoLS• thc
low voltage system impedunce. In recent years, autotrans-
z
Iormers have bcen built with ncgativc 11, rather lhan ZL.
For these autotransforrncrs, z.11 will gcncrully be smaller
than ZoHS· In ali of these situations, the neutral current
will always ílow up lhe neutral for all low-side faulls, but
may vary for high-side faults, depending on the bank and
the low-side systcm impcdancc and the voltage ratio [ Equa-
A small kVA autotransformer with a negative equivalen! irn-
pedance connected in a very solidly groundcd systcm can
produce a negative ZL larger than ZoLS on a cornrnon
base-ora negative ZH larger than ZoHS· Thcsc situations
are Case 2 or Case 4. As both thc neutral and tcrtiary cur-
rents reverse for high- and low-side faults, vero scquencc
current polarization is not possible.
For autotransformers, then, curren] polarizution is frc-
quently unreliable. Parallcling thc neutral and low voltage
current transformers with differcnt ratios or using auxiliary
current transformers may help give proper polarization in
specific applicalions.
The zero sequcnce voltagc is corrcct in ali cases: al either
the high or low termina Is of the autotransf'ormers, E0 or
3E0 will not reverse for high- or low-sidc faults. Howevcr,
tero scquence voltage can be quite small whcn ZOLS or
z011s are low. The prcfcrrcd method. in fact, is to use a
negative scquencc dircclional unit.

TABLE iovm
Evaluating Use of Autotransformer Neutral or Tertiary Current for Polarizing

Value of
ZT Value /::,. Value t:,.
( ) = B
2oLs+ZL+2T of of
Value of
or 1NH 1TH
<20Ls+ZL) =A Value of Value of
or ZT kVH kVL or or
Case Fault ( 2ous•ZH+2T ) = D
Number Location Equations (ZoHs+ZH) =e kVL kVH 1NL 1TL

1 High Side 10-42, 45 A Posirive B<I >J - Positive Positivo

Zero or
Negative
2 High Side 10-42, 45 A Negative B> 1 >l - Negative Negatrve
3 Low Side 10-48, 51 C Positive D<I - <1 Positive Positive
4 Low Side 10-48, 51 C Negative 0>1 - <1 Positive" Negative

b, Ncgative current indicates a flow in t he oppositc direction from that shown in figures.
* Could be negative or zero, but probably nol practical.
10-52
-

V.O. Mutual lnduction and Ground Relay As the fault moves from G to H, thc induced current loRS
Directional Sensing in line RS will decrcase, reverse, and then mercase in the op-
posile direction. For example, when o plus K0 equals 1,
Transmission lines on the sarne tower or paralJeled along the 'ons will be zero. lf n plus K0 is greater than 1, then
same right-of-way are rnutually coupled, For positivo and lORS reverses.
negative sequeuce, the mutual irnpedances are less than 10
pcrcenl of lhe self-irnpedances and can be consiclered negli-
For sorne conditions and fault locations, it may be difficult
gihle. For zero scqucnce, however, thc mutual impedancc
to sel the overcurrent uníts to distinguish between faults on
can be SO percent to 70 percent of the self-impedance and
Une Gii and those on line RS. Mutual induct ance will also
is, lherefore, significant. Tl:e mutual írnpedance affects lhe
cause incorrect directional sensing on line GH for faults on
magnitucle of ground-Iault currcnts ami can result in incor-
line RS. A similar analysis applíes.
rect dircctional sensing, as describcd bclow.

Correct directional sensing can be obtained for Figure 10-52

Figure 10-52 shows two paralleled three-phase lines with
if the neutrals of the currenl transformers can be paralleled
zero sequcncc isolauon, except for the mutual coupling.
al G and R, and al Il and S as well. A practica! cxamplc of
The two systems can be complet ely isolaled or, more corn-
thís situation would be parallel Unes terminating in trans-
monly, lied together to comrnon generation sources. The
former banks at each end with grounded-wye on lhe line-
lines can be al tite sarne or diffcrcnl voltagc lcvcls,
side and delta on the bus. On a per-unit base, the currcnt
flowing up the neutral on the faulted line is always grcater

r-
AY G H YA than the current, resulting from induction, ílowing down
2
--1 ->
K, l to,
.
1 Ko
thc neutral. Hence, paralleling the currcnt transformcr pro-
vides a net currcnt up the neutral for any fault.
R
T 2()t,' i s YA
AY

t--
3 Zor.s 4
--} • -+ Mutually couplcd lines, with al least one common bus, pro-
z()!l !Zos vide no directional sensing prohlems as long as ali breakers
Figure 1 0.52 Mutual Coupled Transmission Lines With are closcd (Figure 10-53a). Whcn one breaker is opencd,
Zero Sequence lsola11on howcver, zero sequence isolation and íncorrect directional
sensing can occur. In Figure 10-53b, for examplc, a fault
A ground fault al or ncar G on line CH in vol ves no dircc- near G would be cleared by breaker I relays. When brcaker
lional sensmg problcms al cithcr station G or H, as shown I opens, line GS curren! flow reverses, and incorrcct direc-
by lhc primary current directional arrows. The 310 currcnt tional sensing occurs at S.
ílowing from H to G induces a zero sequence voltage in line
RS, causing current to ílow as shown. Thc polariz ing and As systems becorne more complcx and more lincs are paral-
operating currents are propcrly oricntcd to opera te the di- leled on a cornrnon right-of-way, thc mutual effcct can re-
rcctional rclays ar both R and S, so that litis current appears verse current in the grounded neutral of a star-delta trans-
asan interna! hne RS faull to lite relays at 3 and 4. former bank (Figure 10-54 ). This problem is occurring with
increasing frcqucncy.
The current in line RS induced by uniform mutual coupling
(Z0M) for the length GJ-1 will be: The zero sequence net work for a mutually coupled trans-
mission system is drawn in Figure 10-54b. Current flow ar-
- Ko10F n 2oGH +( I - Ko) 10F (1 - n) 20Gli rows are for a ground fault ncar or at bus G. The voltage
10RS = 2oR + 2oRS + 2os drop between the zero potential bus along line RS starting
from the transformer at S is:
[ 1 - (n + Ko)l IoFZOGH

where n is the per-unit fraction of ZOGH from bus G to the

fault.
 10-53

the correct pclarizing directions. This effect is influenced

-
G H Yt.
Foult ZQGH 2
t:.Y t- by Zo4·
4 s
r-
ZoM Yt,
3 ZoGS 4
..... V.E. Negative Sequence Directional Units for
Ground Relaying

(al Ali Breakers Closed (No Zero Sequence tsotauon]

Negative sequence directional sensing is becorning increas-

-
Breoker l Open ingly necessary because of mutual induclion problems. The
G H Yt.
~ Foult ZoGH 2
D.Y
!
f----- directional unit is a cylinder unit operated by Lhc product

4 of V and 12, obtained from sequence networks, as de-

r-
ZoM s Yt. 2
3 ZoGS 4
... scribed in Chapter 3. Typical relay sensitivity is approxi-
mately 0.75 V A at the maximum torque angle, wherc t2
leads V by 98°. Thus the opera le zone is for 12 leading
2
ib1 Breaker One Open Caus,ng Zero Sequence tsotauoo and lncorrect V from 8° to 188°. Frorn the sequence current and volt-
Drrecnonal Sensmq on L,ne GS 2
age charts of Chapter 2 (Figures 2-46 and 2-47), it can be
Figure 10-63· Mutual Coupled Transmission Unes With One
seen that 132 is 180° from 132, or 132 \eads V
Common Terminating Bus 32 by 90° for
a 90° system. This directional unit torque-controls zero se-
This expression reduces to: quence overcurrent units for ground-fault detection and
coordination. The directional unit is also applicablc: ( 1)
where systern economics do not permit the equipment nec-
essary for zero sequence, and (2) when the systern's opera-
tion reduces or limits the application of zero sequcnce po-
larization.
1oR20R - 1o 1 2oM2 -1022oM
1os = (10-53)
A lypical application of directional ground rclaying wilh
negative sequence polarization is shown in Figure 10-55.
los will reverse and llow down the transformer bank neu- lligh-side voltage transforrners are not available for voltage
tral al slation S if the mutually induced voltages are greater polarization, and the transformcr bunk is delta connected.
than the drop across the bank at R. los, then, will reverse Negative sequence d irectional ground relays protccting the
when: two lines can use the low-side voltage transforrners, together

(10-54) with the phase relays as shown.

Negative sequence relays can he easily and quickly tested

This effect can occur with only one line coupled, but is
using load current flow. The directional unit is checked by
more likely when more than one line is couplcd. lf the z01 simply interchanging B and C currents and voltagcs to pro-
line did not cxist, Equation ( 10-54) would reduce to
vide negative sequence from the balanced load quantities.
ío2ZOM > 'os ZoR· H is not hard to visualize a systern
where a low z0H would result in a large 102, a z0R of the
V.F. Evaluation of Ground Relay Polarizing Methods
same arder of magnitude as z0M, and ,111 'os less than 102.
Both zero sequence ami negative scquence poJarizing meth-
lf z04 were zero, so that busses G and R were identical, the
ods require sorne evaluation to ensure that sufficient operat-
reversa! could not occur. Since the zero sequcnce voltagc is
ing quantities are availablc. Compulerized Iault studies can
always máximum at the fault, it is not possible for curren!
provide thc 310, 3V0, v2, and 12 values that exist for vari-
to reverse in line RS. The only solution to these problems,
ous faults.
other than a system change, is the use of negative sequence
ground directional u nits. For single phase-to-ground faults, 10 equals 12 in the fault,
und also in t hc lines in a radial system. In a loop system, 10
Note that, if thc fault is at ornear 1-1, the signs of 10 l and will only equal 12 in the fault; the difference is dctcrmined
102 in Equation ( 10-53) are positive. Also, the induced by distribution Iactors in the ncgativc and zcro sequcnce
voltage increases the current los in line RS and bank S-in networks. For two-phase-to-ground faults with the se-
10·54

R loMl

(a) A Mutually CoupledTransmission System

loo!
-
loo! Z()R Zoo ZOH Zos
IQI Perfec1 Tronsto,mers
! 'm~
Z()4 Zo1·2-0M1·Zot.12 /"'\

\~
R

-
G u
n
--+ "' ZQM1
; ~Foul, 101 H !los
Zo2·ZOM·loMl Io1+Io2
e
n -
102
ZorZQM-ZOM2 lQM2 loM
s
los 102+ los
(b) Zero SequenoeNetwork

Figure 10-54: Heavy Mutual Can cause Reverse Normal Zero Sequence Current Flow in Line as:

quence networks in parallel, 10 and 12 are not equal, except

where z2 equals z0.

The voltage profiles for negative and zero sequence are

shown in Figure 10-56. For remote faults, where nZoL can
be quite large compared to ZT. 3 VO can be quite low for
the relay at bus G. Since ncgative scquence flows through
the transformer to the source, V 2 can be larger than 3V 0.
The factor of three for both 10 and vO helps, but it is still
not uncommon for V 2 to be larger than 3 V O near a heavy
ground source.

Low Vol1oge Bus

The variation in negative sequcnce energy is considerably
Jcss than for zero sequence. Also, the negative sequence en·
ergy will oftcn be higher than the zero sequence energy for
the remate phase-to-ground faults. The higher zero se·
quence impedance of lines-in conjunction with the remole
ground source-highly attenuates the zero sequence distri-
bution to lhe remate fault.

Figure 10.55: Application of Oirectional Ground Relays With

Negative sequence directional ground relays are widely used
Negative Sequence Polarizing because they are not subject to polarization reversals orto
 10-55

G TABLE 10-IX
nZoL-----..,¡,I Summary of A vailable Directional Ground Relays ( 6 7N)

)(
Faull Sensina Unit Oper1ting Quantilie$
Directlonal Unit Time
Po lamina Overcurrent lnstantaneous lnst1nuneous
Re lay o, Operatina (Jlo> (310> (310)
Type Quantlties (1) (2) (3)
1
BusG :

A<~··~"'""]\
CRC' 'o X X
Reloy Locot1on----: Equol ot Foult fo, Two
1 ("RI) lo ani.1/or v0 X X
1
1 C'RP Vo X X
1
CRQ 12 and v2 X X
1
1 cwc 'o (4)
1
1 CWI' Vo (4)
1
1 CWl'-1 VO (4)
1
X X
1 IRC
'o
IRD 10 und/or v0 X X
Foult IRP Vo X X
IRQ 12 and v2 X X
KRC" 'o X
Orsrcoce KRD.SRGU lo and/or v O X
KRP Vo X
Figure 10-56: Typical Voltage Profiles for Negativa and Zero
KRQ, SRQU 12 and v2 X
Sequence Voltages for Ground Faults

mutual induction. Neither are they subject to switching iso- NOTES: (1) Directionally controlled dísc unil
laüon, which produces mutual reversa]; they require neither (2) Non-directional clapper unit
a transformer bank grounded neutral nor zero sequence (3) Directionally controlled cylinder unit
voltage transformers. (4) Product disc unit

Zero sequen ce gcncrally providcs higher opcrating quanti-

tics (9V 0I0 versus v212), although values can be quite low, fault at F. The equations of the relay currenl and voltage at
as indicated for sorne remole faults. Current polarization is bus G are developed for phase "a". For thc phase "a" re-
prcfcrred al slations wherc there are ground sources, since lay, consider the following combinations for a ground-
v0 can be very small. Where there are severa! power trans- distance relay.
former banks in a station, the current lransformers in ali thc
grounded neutrals should be paralleled. This rnethod will V.G. l. Using Zero Sequen ce Quantities
avoid loss of polarization if onc of lhc banks is removed
from scrvíce. Zero scquence polarizution from autotrans- Using zero sequence quantities 3V0 and 310:
formcrs, if uscd at ali, should be used only after a careful
analysis. 3Voc
Z relay =-3-1-
Dual polarized ground relays offcr flcxibilily. One rclay
0G
type can be uscd in various applications=as current polar-
ized only, polential polarizcd only , or both, depcnding on
system conditions.

A summary of the various directional overcurrent ground ( 10-55)

relays and their polarization is given in Table 10-IX.

V.G. Fundamentals of Ground-Distance Relaying Unf'ortunately, this method is not useful. It measures tite
source impedance and the current distribution factors, both
The general representation of a line section, given in Figure of which are variable, rather than the protected line im-
10-29, is expanded in Figure 10-57 for a line-to-ground pcdance.
10-56

G H This method is satisfactory, but not in common use.

V.G.3. Using Phase-to-Ground Voltage and Modified

Phase Current

This is the current-compensation melhod. Assuming nZ0L

equals qnZ 1 L:
Tbe Lmes ore not Mutuolly Coupled.
Pond K ore The Sequence Net ...ork
D1stribut1on Foctors. Eocn Seeoeoce VaG
Network to F Reduces 10 on Equ,volent Z relay == --
lmpedonce of : 1aG
Z1 • P1 Z1s+ n K Ztl
Zz• PzZ2s + ""272L (K 111 + K2t2) nZ I L + Kolo qnZ ¡ L
Zo • PoZos + n KoZOL =
Kili +K2I2+Kolo
Far o Phose A ro Ground Fouit ar F,
ot The Reloy t.ocouon ot Bus G:
K¡I¡ +K212+qKolo
V1G •V-11 P1 Z1s
V2G •O- 12 P2 Z2s
f == nZ
I L K ¡ I ¡ + K2 l2 + Kolo
(10-58)
PzZzs v2G
VoG •O- J0PoZos

VaG •V-l1p1Z1s-I2p2Z2s-IoPoZ95 v2• l Reloy --->'- l

1+l By modifying the relay current IR to K 111 + K212 + qKolo
12
From Tbe SeQuence Nctv.or ~ instead of l3G ·
V•l1P1 Z1s+I1 nK1Z1L +lzPzZzs+
lz nK2Z1L+loP0ZoL+Io nKoZoL
v-11P1 Z1s-I2P2 Z2s-loPoZos• PoZos
f VQG
Z relay == nZ1 L ( 10-59)

Rt.tov---1l
(K1l1+K2l2l nZ1L+KolonZoL
vor ¡, -'+c..l
Subst11u11ng
lo
nKoZOL
VaG (K1l1+Kzl2l nZ,L+KolonZoL
10• K111 + K2I2+K01o <+.l.~ ,._F:_o __,

Figure 10-67; A Line to Ground F11ulton Line Section "GH" = 'aG + (q - 1) Kolo

2oL
V.G.2. Using Modified Phase-to-Ground Voltage and q---
-zl L
Zero Sequence Current
and
This method depends on voltagc compensation. By using
only VaG and 13G:

vaG
Zrelay = --
1aG Subslituling:

(K¡I¡ +K2l2)nZ1L +Ko'oºZoL

( 10-56) (10-60)
K¡I¡ +K2l2+Kolo

Again, the method is unsatisfactory. If however, V aG is

modified by subtracting the positive and negativc sequcnce This method is the one used in the KDXG ground-distance
drop of (K 111 + K2t2) nz1 L' and the resulting value is used relay. The complete formula, including are resistance and
with lo: the mutual affect of the parallcl line, can be written as:

Zrelay= Vac-(K¡IJ +K2I2)nZIL vaG 310

Zrelay=-- =nZ1L +Rc- ( 10-61)
Koio IR IR
( 10-57)
 10-57

whcre V = Y LG - j XI R and rs shifted in t he circuitry lo he in phase

with Y. Flux <1>1 results from IR und is in phasc with it. The
cylinder reactuncc unit closes its contacts when IR leads the
voltage, Y, wilh maxirnurn torque at 90°.

Yoltage switching in the three single-phasc reactunce rclays

( 10-62) changes the rcach through ali three tones, in order. Switch-
ing is init iated by the Zonc 2 und 3 tirners.

In thesc 'rormulac:
The directional unil, o0, is a cylinder u111l, as prcviously

Re= are plus tower Iooting rcsistance and inc.:ludes dcscribed. Norrnally, it is a dual-polarized tero scqucncc
unit in the KRT.
ground wires, whcn used:

z0M = mutual impedance to a parallel line where IOE

Alternalively, a phasc-to-phase K-DAR unit (KDTG) may

current flows: be uscd. The KDTG is set cithcr for 30 ohms or for three
limes or more !he Zone 3 positivc scqucnce impedance set-
10 = total zero sequence current, of which K010 is ling. This arrangement assures operalion 011 ali single line-
thc portion through the relay. to-ground faults. The unit does nol operat c on three-phase
loador swings. lt is not subject to wrong dircct ional sens-
V.H. The KDXG Reactance Ground-Distance Relay ing from mutual induction. nor does il require poluriz ing
quant it ics. which can sometimes be difficult lo ohlain
Since ground faults involve tower footing and Iault are re- correclly.
sistance, there are theoreticaJ advantages to using the KDXG
reaclance distance relay. The KDXG permits three reac- The ratio discriminator selects the faulted phase by cornpar-
tance zones of protection. It also avoids the problems of ing the three-phase currents 13, lb. and le: no settings are
lhe single-phase mho unit overreaching on two-phase-to- required. Current-derived voltages, obtained through auxil-
ground faults und thc possihle conflict between prot ectíon iary transformers, are rectified and corn parcd on the dc side.
und supervisión. The reactance units rnust he closely super- Thc currcnt in either adjacent phase applies a block ing volt-
viscd by two units: ( 1) a directional sensing unit and (2) a age to the phase-operat ing coi! (R D) of the faullcd pilase
rallo discriminator to determine the faulted phase. Other unit. The Iaultcd phasc currcnt must be at leust 1.43 times
reaclancc types use a mho elcrncnt for lhis supervisión. the maximum of either of lhc lwo unfaulted phases, so lhat
the unit will not operute 011 doublc-phase-to-ground faults.
The K-DAR compensator principie is used. Neglecting (These Iaults are protected against by the K-DA R phasc
fault resistance, the faulted phase-to-ground voltage is tero rclays.)
at lhe fault. For a fault at the balance point, this condition
can be rcproduced at the relay by subtracting the line drop fhe m101murn pickup for thc ratio discriminator is I Amp.,
vía the cornpensator from the line-to-ground voltage, as with zero in lhe other two phases. Both load and fault cur-
measured at the relay. The torque on the cylinder in this ren! flowing in lhe unfaullcd phases on thi: lini:-lo-ground
case is zero, defining the balance point. faults must he considcrcd, hut should pose no problc111 in
most applications. Sevi:r,tl condillons c;1n preven[ operation
Thc phasors for this and ot her Iault locat ions are shown in of thc ratio discriminator: vcry high rcsistance faults, faulls
Figure 10-58. Bccause a single-phasc rcactance unit is pro- remole from thc rclay, and sources lh:it conlrihutc vcry lit-
vided for each phase, Y LG rcprescnts the phasc-to-ground th: positivc sequencc currcnt.
voltage at lhe relay location for the particular faulted
pitase a, b, or c. Correspondíngly, IR is the faulted phase A ternunal consists of thrcc KDXGs (rcaclance and ratio
relay current of Equation (10-60) for a, b, or c. The com- discriminator units) and one KRT or onc KDTG (directional
pensator setting, jX, is the reactance to the balance point, unit and t•vo zone limers) wilh arcar panel-mounled auxil-
which equals the reactance part of nZ 1 L in Equation iary transformer. The hasic trip :ind control circuits are
(10-61). Thc flux </>y in the cylinder unil results from shown in Figure 10-59.
10-58

Compensotor

.{IR•k~'""
Switchong C,rcu,ts VLG
Cyhnder Unot
( One Poir of Poles Recaves V)
IR)
T
(One Poirof Poles Rece.ves Bosoc Reoctonce Un,t Phosor
(Un11 Opeeotes When 0v Logs01
Mo.. rnurn Torque ot 90º)

l Modohed 310 from

AuKohory CT
0¡

~ 01---1~~ ~ Bus G

xoxo
IKDXG Reloy Sel 80% of Lone Sectoonj

Retoy
Locot,on Beong
Cons,dered
I
1
Balance Poon1 /'
-l1
1
Oi---j~o~--~ --
Bus H

T
¡·

Foult Behond Reloy Foull Within Balance Point Foullo1 Balance Po,nt Foull Be~ Balance Poont

4::·
VLG

0v V I

()perote • Owect,on Un11 Prevents Tnp Opero1e Balance Po,nt Res1To1n1

Note:
The Phosors Shown 01 Eoch Locotoon (e.e.O ond El Represen, The Phasors Seen by The Reoc1once Unot of The KDXG Retoy Locoted 01
The Shoded Breoke, foro Smgle lone to G,ound Foult Dccurono ot Eoch Loco1oon(8,C,Oond El

Figure 10.58, Phesor Diagrams for KDXG Relay for Faults at Verloua Locations

------------<-----------------------------------------Positive

Oorec1,ona1 Unl1 C Do o, 00)

1 I 1 1 RDa I RDcl

es
o 0 ....- Phose Torgets
S1or1 $101,c T ,mers TA2 for
Zone2ond TA3forZone3.
TA2 ond TA3 lnuoote Swnch,ng
of The Thtee Reactonce Un,ts
,n Corcu,ts Not Shown
TA2

O Z3 - Zooe Torgers

TA3

To TropC,rcu,ts

------------------------------------------------ .... ---Negatove

Figure 10-59: Basic Trip and Control Circuit for the KDXG Relay System

The relay is set for positivc scquence reactance, nX 1 1 Equa-
tion ( 10-6))] for ali three zones in the lhree KDXG relays;
and for thc proper current factor, z0L - z1 L/3X1L ( Equa-
tion ( 10-62)). Thc factor of 3 is used because of the con·
venicnce of using 31() in thc relay. Thc K D XG ground-
dislance systerns offcr a numher of advantages, including:
a. Jligh security through the use of ratio discrim inators and
a dircclional unit.
\\. Simp\ified trip circuits without interlocking make-and-
break contacts.
c. No tripping on loss of voltage.
d. No susceptibility to tripping on load and systcm swings.
c. Ncgligihle transient overreach.
f. lnherent reach stability and high measuremenl accuracy
lhrough the K-DAR static compensators.
g. Wide ohmic tange: from 0.2 to 11 ohms for Zones l and
2, and from 0.5 to 27.5 ohrns for Zone 3. AH settings
are within 0.5 percent of desired values.
h. High operating torque for close-in faults.
i. Fast Zone I operaling times-usually within I O to 20 ms
except at very low energy levels.
j. Sepárate static timers of 0.1 to 1.0 sec. for Zone 2, and
0.5 to 3.0 sec. for Zone 3.
V.1. The SDG Solid-State Ground-Distance Relays
For a phase-to-ground fault, the magnitude of lhc zero se-
quence voltage drop is equal to the rnagnitudc of thc posi-
tive and negativo sequcncc voltage drops. Frorn Figure
10-57:
So, ( 10-63)
The K-DAR compensator principie perrnits reproducing
Equation (10-63) al the relay for a fault at the balance or
setting poinl of the cornpensators (Figure 10-60). As de-
scribed in Chapter 3, a static amplifier compares the de mag-
10·59
nitudes of the operaling and restraining voltages. Trip out-
put is supplied only when V OP is greater than thc minimum
of V XN• V YN• or V zN· The response of the relay for vari-
ous fault locations is shown in Figure 10-61.
Thc SDG is a zonc rclay packaged as a thrce-phase type.
Onc rclay will provide complete phasc A·, B-, or C-to-
ground Iault protection within its operating zone, as detcr-
mined by Zc, the positive sequence ohms of the protected
line. Thus, one relay will provide Zone I protection,
another rclay with timer will provide Zone 2 protection,
and so on.
Thc reta y includes a detector which operates on two low-
phasc voltages with one higher-phase voltage to reduce the
reach approximately 20 percent for two-phase-to-ground
faults. Otherwise the relay tends to overreach as a result of
the out-of-phase conditions of the two phascs. The relay
also rnay have a frequcncy verifier circuit where there rnust
be more than 4 or 5 ms between "operating voltage" zeros
to trip the relay. This time dela y prevents operation caused
by high frequency line energizing and deenergizing tran-
sients, both of which are particularly evident on EHV lines.
The rclay has negligible transient overreach.
To prevcnt operation 011 a false zero sequence voltage pro-
duced by Ioss of voltage, the relays have a static V unit
010
to prevent operation with V and not 10. Faults will always
O
produce both VO and lo·
The operaling characteristic on the R-X diagram is a rnodi-
fied mho similar to lhe K-DAR phase-to-phase u nit charac-
teristic of Figure 10-34. The characteristic is fixed at the
cornpcnsator anglo and setting but variable at othcr anglos,
dcpending on source and fault currcnl distribution faclors.
The equation for lhe reach al any poinl around the line
anglc, ncglecting mutual and fault impedance, is:
( 10-64)
Whcn 8 = 180°, the two parts of the equation can be added
dircctly, so that Z reach = Zc- As the Jine beco mes smaller
relative lo the source, the circle of Equation ( 10-64) be-

comes larger (Figure 10-62). The characteristic is actually
made up of three circles, one for each phase. Frorn thc
standpoint of relay performance, the importan! circle is the
center one, describcd by Fquation ( 10-64) and shown pass-
mg through thc Zc scttmg. The other two circles are aca-
dernic and occur whcn the operating voltage ( Figures 10-60
and 10-61 ). Vwo· exceeds the unfaulted phase restraínt
voltages. For a phase-Aeto-ground fault, these t wo vouages
would be V YN and V z . The current reversa! also makes
the characteristic in the third and fourth quadrants irnprac-
tical, since the relay rs truly dirccuonal.
Figure 10-62. Ef1ect of Line Length on SDG/SDGU
Relay Characterishc
I quation ( 10-64) is academic, since il is not required for
spphcation or setting the relay. The relay is independent of
load except for a small reuch variation thal can be causcd
hy a tap iníeed.
V.J. Fault Resistance and Ground-Distance Relays
fwo adduionul factors must be consrdered for ground faults
that are not prcscnt wirh phase Iaults: towcr Iooting resist-
anee and ground wires. Towcr footmg rcsistancc can vary
írom lcss than one ohm to more than 200 ohms. This re-
sistance term, mulliplicd by three, rnust be added to the re-
lay reach cquations. As dcscnbed beforc, thc infced to the
fault from the remole tcrminals further magnifies this fault
resistance and can cause the ground-distance relays to over-
reach or underreach. While, in theory, this apparent reac-
10·61
tancc effcct can be quite signif'icant, relatively Iew problerns
havo been encountcred in many years of íield experience.
Overhead ground wircs substantially reduce the line zero se-
quence impedancc and the tower footing resistance cornpo-
nent. To the relay, howcvcr, thc cffcct is anything but a re-
sistance cornponent. For fault calculauons, thc ground wire
is assurncd to be in parallel with thc earth In pracuce, its
irnpedancc is parallel with the cart h through thc tower Ioot-
ing rcsistancc al each tower. This cffcct tcnds to force more
of lhc rcturn current in the ground wire , dccreusing thc
carlh return currcnt. Ficld studies have confirmed this find-
ing and ind icate that the carth rcturn portion of the curren!
becomes cornparatrvely small about a mile from the fault.
Al lhis poínt , ground wire currcnt approaches a constan!
val u e.
The effect is shown in Figure 10-63 for a 15-mílc, 138-kV
line with a source al each end. Calculations were made as-
surning no angle betwcen the two voltage sources and,
hence, no anglo bctween the curren! distribution factors. In
practice, t here is always an angle hetween the curren! dis-
tribution Iactors. Thc single phase-to-ground fault is as-
sumed to at the balance point 90 percent of the line from
bus G. The zero scquence impedances were calculatcd in
the conventional manner, using p = 100 mcter-ohms. For
lhe 5000 feet on either side of !he faull, howevcr, the mu-
tual and self-impcdances of the grountl wires were separated
for cach span, a tower footing resistance of I O ohms addcd,
and a modificd lCro sequence impedance calculated.
Thc apparent impedancc "seen" ís given by Equation
(10-65) anti plollcd on Figure 10-63.
3 <Rs + R rrl
z'L =nZIL + z
'OL
K1+K.,+--K0
- 71 L
=Le+ z's + l'n: ( 10-65)
r:rom thc study, z'TF is 2.8 ~ ohms. Whik thc ground
wircs havc rcdu..:cd thc towcr footmg cffect from I O ohms
to 2.8 ohms, there is a significan! angle wh1ch causes prob·
lcms with all types of distance rclay charJclcristics. A sig-
nifican! number of tree faults on r;HV and IIV hnes have
shown that, when fault resistance is significan!, distancc re-
lays are less sensitive than ground overcurrent relays and
often will not respond pro peri y.
10-62

G H
Polo G.._ ZoL•6.0+ J22.3 ___.
H z,s e o Z¡u
Z1L•2.1+ ]10.8 Zw
Z2s
138 Kv Wolh 2 Ground Wires Zos Zou
-+
Koio Sameas G
K1I1
K2l2 Riull
A ZoL B
Zos•l.5+j5.7 P0z05,0.32+íl.20 Ko•0.25
Z1s•O+j17.1 RrF • 10.0 Ohms K1'K2•0.40

IX
Zi_ • Effec1ive lmpedance

No

G +-+ H
nZoM (l·n)ZoM

-+
Polo -+ Faull _ -
(l·PoHo
SDG Offset•l.02+]5.61
Rodius• 1.18+ ¡5.19 n(Zol."ZoMl !(l·nHZoL-ZoM)
Io
Figure 10-64: A Parellel Line Section and its
Zero Sequence Network

75° the faultcd line voltagc. This phenomenon causes an appar-

Figure 10-63: Example of Effect of Ground Wires on Tower Footing
and Are Res¡stences and on Reach of Distence
Ground Relaya
V.K. Mutual lmpedance and Ground-Distance Relays
ent impcdance grcater than the line impedancc. That is, the
mutual induction causes thc rclay to underrcach, unless
compcnsatcd for by using lhc parallel line currcnt givcn in
Equatio n ( 10-62). This currcnt can be introduccd into thc
auxiliary transformer {IK), with taps set for thc ratio
2oM:Z¡ Lº

Mutual induction from a parallel line will affecl the reach

Ilowcvcr, if thc current in thc parallcl linc flows from D to
of ali ground-distancc rclays but will rarely cause serious
C, thc mutual effect is addcd to the flow of Lhc íaultcd line
problerns. The mutual induction cffecl c:111 be studied from
currcnt. Thc result is a lower apparcnt impcda nce than ac-
parallel lincs busscd at both ends as shown in Figure 10-64.
tual impedancc, causing lhe relay to ovcrreach. The current
Systems with more coupled lines and/or with differenl ter-
flowing in line CD is:
minating stations, while more cornplcx, can be analyzcd on
the sarne basis.
P0+n-l)
( 10 ( 10-66)
Figure 10-64 also shows thc zcro sequence network, includ- 2

ing the mutual effect. An cquivalent zero sequence imped-

anee to lhc fault can be obtaincd by reducing the delta lo
an equivalcnl wye and combining it with the two source irn-
pedances. Working back, the various distribution factors
can be calculated. These factors are shown in Figure 10-64.
Consider the ground relays al breaker A. When the parallel
line current flows in the same direction (C to O) as the faull
current for faull F, the mutual induced voltage is added to
When (P0 + n) is less than one, the current reverscs and
flows frorn O to C, causing ovcrreach. For Zone 1, the crit-
ica! arca is that for Iaults around the balance poinl sct ting
of n = 0.85. For faults close to the relay at !l., thc current
would flow from O to C. The effect, howevcr, is of no im-
portance. For end-line faults at B or on bus H, current will
always flow frorn C to D. Co nseque ntly, Zone I cannot
ovcrrcach the end of the linc because of the mutual cffccl.
 10-63

1.20~----~----~-----~---~
For any overreach lo occur, PO m ust be less than O. 1 5 Operot1119 Llm1tonCurve Oes19noted by Leller
(P0 < 0.85-1 ). In other words, there would be a very weak Breokers Breoker lmpedonce Relohons
ollln BOpen
source behind the relay at bus G. A Zos. lOZou 'lOZoL
B 81 Zos = Zou• ZoL
When breaker B opens for faults at F, the current through
e Cl 2os =0.1Zou•ZOL
o 01 Zou•CO
the parallel line flows from B lo C, causing an overreach of E El Zos•Zou•lOZOL
F1 Zos•Zou•O.lZOL
relay A. 1 n this case, overreach is desirable, sin ce it will of- 1.00
ten cause Zone 1 to opera te sequentially for 100 percent of
thc linc.
:,t
1
The response of ground-distance relays under various system
J 0.90
Nom,nol Reoch
conditions is given in Figure 10-65. The three curves for -2'
differcnl values of K0:K show the rcach of relay A on line &!
1 :§ o.eol-----+------+__J~c----+------,
AB. The mutual induction effect is shown as a function of
P0:K0 current distribuí ion ratio. Curves A to E are super-
!
e
imposed, showing the system constraints for various values
of zero sequen ce source and line im pedancc relationships. 2

The circled points in Figure 10-65 show the sequential reach

after breaker B opens. The region between A and C repre-
sents the practica! area of operation, and corresponds to
Zone l reaches between 70 and 88 percent, when nominally
set for 85 percent of the Iine. lf tbere is no zero sequence
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
source at bus H, lhen curve D shows a reach of 68 percent
Po/Ko
withK0:K1 =0.5.
Figure 10-65: Zone 1 Reach Without Mutual Compensetion for
The System of Figure 10-64.
Since mutual induction can reduce the reach of the ground-
distance relay, Zone 2 should be set to provide a mínimum a. Without mutual compensation, a Zone 1 distance relay
of 100 percent line protection. Figure 10-66 shows the set- set for 85 percent of the line will cover 70 to 88 percent
íing required for a variety of system variables. A setting of if the breakers are ali in, and 85 to 100 percenl of the
150 percent will provide good protection-including an ade- line after the far break er opens,
quate margin-for the majority of systerns.
b. For most applications, a Zone 2 distance relay without
After breaker C opens, mutual induction can extend the mutual cornpcnsation will provide complete end-zonc
reach of Zone 2 at A (Figure 10-64) for faults al ornear C coverage when set for 150 percent of the line.
on line CD. The fault current ílows from A to B and from
D to the fault. This same condition can cause Zone 1 at O c. Compared with an uncompensated relay, mutual corn-
to cxtend its reach up to 100 percent of the line. If Zonc 2 pensation of reactancc-type relays usually increases Zone
is nol set greater than 150 pcrcent of thc line, thc reach of I covcrage with the brcakers ali in, but decreases sequen-
Zone 2 at A will coordina te wilh the reach of Zonc 1 at D. tial coverage.

The abovc discussion applies to SDG, KDXG, and similar- d. Mutual compensation must be uscd with caut ion when
lype reactance relays without mutual compensation. Al- "looking into" a weak source. In these cases, K010 flows
though ground-distance relays can use the parallel line cur- from A toward B, and, for faults near C, the large mu-
rent to cancel the mutual induction effect, thís method is tual compcnsation current from the parallel line can
generally not recommended, particularly for Zone 1. cause misoperation.

In sumrnary, for the parallel line cases shown in Figure To use mutual cornpensation, the parallel line must termí-
10-64: nate in the same station in order to havc its current avail-
10-64

able. This cross connection is cornplex and increases thc same for positive and zero scquencc, but the line zero se-
possibility of a wrong connection or testing mistakc. quence impedance averagcs 3 to 3.5 times t he positive se-
quence impedances. For a ground fault at X, most of the

1.60,~---~---~----,.----,.,.Ko-l""K:-¡---,
fault current will be supplied through ZTH· Depending on
the relativo valúes of the severa) irnpedances, little faull cur-
2
ren! will be supplied through the parallel branches of ZTG
and ZoGII (affecting the relay at 1). and through ZTS and
ZoHS (affectmg the relay at 4).
0.5
G H s
0.25
loGH

ZrG ZrH Zrs

Zero Sequence Network No

0.5 2.0 2.5

Figure 10.66. Required Zone 2 Setting to Provide Complete ZrG ZrH Zrs
Cover19e of The Protect1d Line
loGH Foult X ZoHS Foul! Y
V
{\
-"
lf currcnts flow in thc source direction in ali thc lines, addi- Figure 10.67 The Shunting Effect of Ground Sources
tional parallel lines can cause greater relay underreach for
end-zonc faulls. In this situation, the rclay must be mutu- For a ground fault at Y, most of the fault current will pass
ally compensatcd with ali parallel currents, Howevcr, mu- through ZTS• lcss through breaker 3, and even lcss through
tual compcnsation with thrcc or more hncs is inordinately brcakcr 1. As a rcsult, ovcrcurrcnt instantaneous units can
cornplcx. lf cornpcnsation of a given line is necessary, 11 be uscd except on very short lincs, Al thc sarne time, re-
should thcrcfore be limitcd to the insertion of current from mole backup of thc adjacent ltnc can be difficult or involve
just onc parallel line. While this arrangcment rmnimizcs long opcrating times. In other words, the current through
cornplcxit y, as long as mutual compensation is employed, relay 1 for fault Y may be very small. Since ground rclays
ovcrreach hazards still exist. do nol respond lo loads, however, typical tap settings of 0.5
to 1.0 can protcct against the remole fault.
V.L. Transmission Circuit Protection
Both instantaneous and time-ovcrcurrcnt relays for ground-
Directional overcurrent rclays are most comrnonly used for fault prolection are set and coordinated in the same way as
ground-fault protcction. On múltiple solidly grounded sys- described for pilase relays, except that the tap selection is
terns, the presence of a ground source at the bus produces notdependentonload.
largc currcnts for close-in faults. These fault currents are
rapidly attenuated by the line impcdancc as the fault loca- Phase relays will respond to ground faults, however, coordi-
tion moves toward the remole bus. In general, transformer nation between the phase and ground relays is rarely a prob-
banks are not switched with load changes; ground-fault cur- lem. The primary reason is that pilase relays are set on taps
rent, consequenlly, does not vary as muchas does phase- above load, while ground relays are set on taps arou nd one-
fault current for systern generation changes. As a result, fifth to one-tenth of the pilase tap. Using higher ground
inverse-type overcurrent relays for ground faults can gener- taps or lower phase taps can increase the possibility of mis-
ally be set and coordinatcd with satisfactory operating coordination between thc pilase and ground timc-ovcrcur-
times. rent relays.

This shunting effect of ground-fault sources is shown in Fig- Where transformer banks are part of the line, as shown in
ure 10-67. The impedance of the transformer banks is the Figure 10-40, there can be problems with ground relaying.

lf the bank is wye-delta-connected with the delta on the
line side, the line ground relay at G <loes not receive zero
sequence current for ground faults on the line. Hence, it
cannot respond to these faults. Zero sequence voltage is
available from VH at G, but is not selectíve. lt is impos-
sible, therefore, to determine from V O whether the fault is
on the line or in the systern to the right of bus H. Zero se-
quence voltage from VII can be used with a pilot relaying
system to trip G from H. Alternatively, a transfer-trip chan-
nel is required. The ground relay at H can be a sensitive
non-directional instantaneous overcurrent unit, which will
protect 100 percent of the line for ground faults.
lf thc bank is wye-delta with the wye-grounded on the line
side, the ground relays at G must receive I f-1 or bank-neutral
curren! to operare for line faults. In this case, the relay
need not be directional. At H, an instantaneous overcurrent
ground unit can be set for IOO percent line coverage. Such
a unit must be directional.
VI. SERIES-COMPENSATED TRANSMISSION
LINE PROTECTION
A capacitor bank, connected in series with a long EHV
transmission line, increases power-carrying capability and
improves system stability by reducing total impedance. The
capacitor bank affects distance relays as shown in Figure
10-68. Distance relays for breaker 1, norrnally applied at
bus G to protect the series capacitor and transmission Une
ZLR• will not "see" faults cither in the capacitor or out on
the line for a distance of approximately Xc- However, dis-
lance relays for breaker 3, norninally applied to protect the
line ZLL' will "see" faulls in the capacitor and on the line
ZLR· lncorrect rclay opcrations will therefore result.
Applying relays on the line side of the capacitor (P) does
not resolve the problem. While relay 1 operates for linc
ZLR and capacitor bank faulls, it also operares for faults on
line ZLL· Relay 3 docs not "see" ZLL linc Iaults until they
occur ata distance of approximatcly Xc-
Fortunately, all t hc series capacitors have gaps t hat cause
them to short out when the current leve! exceeds a maxi-
mum value set slightly above their load-carrying abilities.
These gaps will flash in almost ali applications for faults in
the areas of conflict. Consequently, point P and line Z LR
will move up to G in Figure 10-68b, or point G and line
ZLL will move down to Pin Figure 10-68c. Corree! direc-
10-65
tional sensing will result. Note, however, that thc relay
zone will be shortened for line ZLR in Figure 10-68b, or for
linc ZLL in Figure I0-68c.
G Xc
~-..----~~~~~=-~--+-
E
P ZLR
Relo y 3 I• Reloy 1
(a) System
(b) Relay al Bus ""G"' (e) Refay at "P" on Line Side of Capacitor
Figure 1 0.68: Distance Relay and The Series Compensated Line
Assuming the series capacitar gaps will flash within 16 ms,
the electromechanical K-DAR distance relays will not mis-
operate in the intcrval between the fault occurrence and the
gap flash.
There is always the possibility that the gaps will not short
out the capacitor bank and thcrcby cause incorrect opera-
tion of the distan ce relays. Consequently, the primary re-
laying for these lines should be thc phase-comparison pilot
typc, which is not affected by this dircctional scnsing prob-
lcrn. (See Chapter 16.)
VII. PROTECTING DIRECT-CURRENT SYSTEMS
Thcrc are a lim ited nurnber of direct-currcnt distribution
systcms in thc electric utility field. Industrial plants with
cornparat ivcly large de loads normally have their own ac-
to-de convcrsion equipment. Likewise, de power for transit
system lines is obtaincd using conversion equipment owncd
by the operating company, municipal authority, or transit
district. Electric utility de systems are normally limited to
the de distribution system required in power plants and ma-
jor su bstations.
10-66
VU.A. Principie Types of Direct-Current Relays
There are six principie types of de relays:
a. Current magnitude over or under set value
b. Current direction polarity reversa)
c. Voltage magnitude over or under set value
d. Voltage polarity
e. Ground on system (normally ungrounded systems)
f. Temperature machine overload.
These relays consist of two types: ( 1) plunger units (SC,
SV types), or (2) high speed, low energy d' Arsonval units
(03 types).
VII.B. DC Equipment Protection
Usually, de relays protect de generators and large de motors.
Because of the large currents involved and the high cost of
ac transductors, relays are usually operated by means of de
shunts in the de power circuit to the equipment. The out-
put of a de shunt is normally 50-m V at rated current, al-
though 100-m V shunts are also available. In either case, a
relay capa ble of operating on such a low energy source is
required.
The 03 relay with ad' Arsonval-type unit requires only a
few millivolts for operation. Because of the high operating
speed, however, the D3 can only provide short-circuit or
current-reversal protection. A supplemental thermal-type
relay, such as the type DT3, provides overload protection.
The sensing element of the relay operates from a wheat-
stone bridge formed by three resistors (within the relay
case) and a resistance temperature detector (RTD) em-
bedded in the windings of the machine.
This arrangement is shown in Figure 10-69a for a de operat-
ing source, and in Figure l 0-69b for an ac operating source.
In the ac supply scheme (Figure 10-69b), the series resistor
and shunting zener diode in the input to the wheatstone
bridge actas a de voltage regulator, providing constant volt-
age to the bridge. These relays are normally calibrated for
use with I O ohms (at 2sºc) copper, 100 ohms (at oºc)
platinum, or 120 ohms (at oºC) nickel RTDs. The cali-
brated scale allows a winding temperature operating point
between soºc and l 90°C. (Other operating temperature
ranges are also available.) This type of relay may also be
used for ac machine protection.
Pos,tive--------
t....---+---,.Motched
Leods
RTO RTD
Negotive-+-------
a) de Source b) ac Source
Figure 10-69: Over·Temperature Protection of Machines
When de machines are operated in parallel, currcnt in one
or more machine can reverse as a result of excitation failure
or operational error. Reverse-current protection is normally
applied using a de overcurrent relay with more sensitive
pickup, polarized to opera te u pon current reversal.
VU.C. Circuit Protection
Circuits are generally protected by overcurrent devices inte-
grated with the circuit breakers used for the distribution
system. Where necessary, supplernental protection can be
provided by either plunger-type relays (up to the circuit-
rating limit) or by shunts and d' Arsonval-type overcurrent
relays. These high speed relays are set in the same way as
high speed or instantaneous trip units in ac systems.
Voltage relays can be used to detect overvoltage and/or un-
dervoltage. Typical applications include protecting a bat-
tery from too high a charging voltage, or sounding an alarm
when the station battery voltage approaches a value that
might result in a failure to trip on protective relay opera-
tion. D' Arsonval-type voltage relays are the same as current
relays, except that extemal resistors lirnit the current to the
normal values when they are used as a current relay.
Plunger-type relays may also be used.
 10-67

Since de systerns are normally ungrounded, except for the acteristics are not available. lf, for coordination or other
now practically cxtinct three-wire de systerns, ground detec- purposes, time dclays are required, externa! timing relays
tion is important. Although a ground on one wire does not rnust be used. Since such devices have fixed time delays,
prevent operation of the system, it should be detected and coordinating them with fuses or break ers may be difficult.
removed as quickly as possible. A ground on the other wire The sanie type of dc-operated timing relays used in ac pro-
would rcsult in a short circuit. tcctive schcrncs can also be u sed to protect de systems.

A comrnon type of ground detector system is shown in Fig-
ure 10-70. The relay devicc 64 could be either a plunger re-
lay orad' Arsonval-type, which has greater sensitivity. The
resistor valucs limit the current for a fault to ground to very
low values. A re lay such as the type 03 (or DG F) is avail-
able for operation at currents as low as 1 O m A. The de sys-
tem is effectively ungroundcd under normal conditions, al-
though there is a path to ground through the ground detec-
tion systern.
While plunger rclays are less expensive than the d' Arsonval-
type, their use as ovcrcurrent relays is limited to circuits of
low normal currcnt ratings. The d' Arsonval unit is a rnuch
more precise relay with directional sense and repcatability
of performance. D'Arsonval units can be applied to circuits
with very large current capacities.
VII.O. High Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

Until recently, thc normal de circuit voltagcs wcre 125, 250,

-----------------Pos,rive Bus and 600 V: 1200, 1500, and even 3000 V were uscd in spe-
ci fic applications-moslly for transportation systems.

I• Now high voltage de transrnission is being used for bulk

------..-----------
Figure 10.70: Ground Detector Scheme for De Systems
All thc rclays ruentioncd above are high spccd or instanta-
neous rclays. Dircct-current rclays with in verse time char-
power transmission betwccn two arcas. These systcms are
two-wire types with a midpoint ground electrode at each
Negot,ve Bus terminal. The voltages have been increascd from an initial
ISO kV to current rnaximurn levels of ±400 kV (800 kV be-
twccn lines), Protecting thcsc HVDC circuits is a highly
cornplcx problem, which requircs control of the conversión
cquipmcnt firing at both ends, shorting of thc converter
outputs, an<l clearing faults from thc ac side.

Chapter 11
System Grounding and
Protective Relaying
Author: J. L. Blackburn and J. V. Kresser
l. Introduction
Il. Ungrounded Systems
A. Ground Faults on Ungrounded Systems
B. Ground Fault Detection on Ungrounded Systerns
111. Reactance Grounding
A. High-Reactance Grounding
B. Resonant Grounding (Ground Fault Neutralizer)
C. Low-Reactance Grounding
IV. Resistance Grounding
A. Low-Resistance Grounding
B. High-Resistance Grounding
V. Sensitive Ground Relaying
A. Ground Overcurrent Relay With Conventional
Current Transforrners
B. Ground Product Relay With Conventional
Current Transforrners
C. Ground Overcurrent Relay With Zero Sequence
Current Transformers
VI. Ground Fault Protection for Three-Phase Four-Wire
Systems
A. Unigrounded Four-Wire Systerns
B. Multigrounded Four-Wire Systerns
11-1
l. INTRODUCTION
Ground fault protection is dependen! on the power system
grounding, which can vary from solidly grounded (no inten-
tional impedance from the system neutrals to ground) to
ungrounded (essentially infinite impedance from neutrals
to ground). Ground relaying for effectively grounded sys-
terns is discussed in Chapter l O. In these systems, the
X0/X ratio is 3.0 or less, and the R0/X I ratio is ! .O or Iess
I
at ali points and under ali operating conditions. In other
words, the line-to-ground fault current (310) is equal to or
grcater than 0.6 times the three-phase fault current.
Solid grounding is neccssary to meet these standard criteria,
particularly with overhead lines where the X0/X I ratio aver-
ages between 2.5-3.5. In solidly grounded systerns, the neu-
trals of the wye-delta power transformers are directly con-
nected to earth through the station ground mat. Consider-
able design effort is expended to keep the resistance in this
connection to a mínimum: rypical values of ground mat re-
sistance to "earth"* are on the order of 0.1 ohm or less in
areas of low ground resistivity. Typical values are higher in
high ground rcsistivity a reas, resulting in a large station
ground mat risc (voltage gradient) between the station area
and remole grounds during ground faults.
This chapter will cover protective relaying schernes for non-
effectively grounded systerns. These systems fall into one
of t hree categories:
a. ungrounded
b. reactance grounded
c. resistance grounded.
In addition, this chapter will discuss the special problems of
sensitive ground relaying on distribution circuits and ground
fault protection for both unigrounded and multigrounded
three-phase, f'our-wire systems.
*"Earth," "remete ground," and "true ear th " are difficult terms to
define prccisely, sin ce the earth is a very heterogenous mass, The
terms represent a muthemaucal fiction needed to identify the zero
potential earth plane. In practice, they are considered to cxist
within the earth at anv point remate from the influence of the
power system or where current can reasonably flow in the earth
structure.
 11-2

11. UNGROUNDED SYSTEMS

o
o

,r
1 '1
11.A. Ground Faults on Ungrounded Systems .l. ;;,
1
1
1
b
The term "ungrounded" is strictly one of definition, indi- 1

cating no physical connection of any kind between the sys- e-------- b ~r

1

:
tem neutral and ground. Since, however, there is distrib-
:Pe I pb Po
uted capacitance between the three phases of the system Xco ;}: ;¡~ Xco
and ground, the system is effectively grounded through the : :
g
capacitance. On such systems, charging current flows be-
tween each conductor and ground under normal conditions.
In the event of a single line-ground fault , the corresponding
la ---"""---~ Vbc
line to ground capacitance is shunted out. \
\
\ le( 90° Leod,ng Vc0l
~
Vco'Vcg

YC:, G Foull
XL Figure 11-2: Phasor Diagram· of Currents and Voltages During
or >-----f~ft------=----4'-----
Single Line·Ground Fault on an Ungrounded System.
xr
Positive SequenceNetwork
Since the ground fault current returns through the shunt
capacitance, the unfaulted phase currents are not zero (Fig-
X1c ure 11-2). The phase b and e voltages are shown as the pre-
fault line-to-line voltages or -./3 V LG· This relation holds
X1L F

-11 true only for the steady-state condition with zero fault re-
Negotive Sequence Network

Neutral Bus N2 sistance; transient voltages can be considerably higher as

shown in Figure 1 1-3.
X2G
G
Xr

Zero Sequence Network 5

l,
Breoker Conrocts
Zero Porenr ,01 Bus N0
-1
Xoc
G
XoL F
e
-10

Figure 11·1: Sequence Networks for Phase 'ºa'"·to·Ground Fault Equivalent Circuit
on an Ungrounded System.

Une Voltoge
Using symmetrical components, Figure 11-1 shows the net-
~ 1
works and fault representation. Here, XI e equals x2c.
XI C' x2c, and Xoc are the total distributed capacitance of
the system to the fault. While they are shown here lumped
together, equivalent "T" or "Pi" representations could be
shown on more extensive systems. XI e and x2c can be
neglected, since they are very large compared to XI G• X2G,
Voltoge BreokerContocts _,
XT, XI L and x2L For practica! purposes, Xoc predomi-
nates so that approxirnately,
-3
3V
I = 31 = GEN (11-1)
a o X oc Figure 11-3: Over-Voltages Dueto Are lgnitions and Re·Strikes.
 11-3

When the circuit breaker opens and extinguishes the are at

~~~~~~~~~o
or near current zero, the voltage is near its maximum peak ~~~~~~~~~-b
value. This voltage, shown in Figure 11-3 as 1.0 per unit
(../2 times the rms value), remains on the line (or right-hand)
side of the breaker when the generator voltage goes to rnax-
imum negative one half cycle later. At that time, the volt-
age a cross the breaker contacts is essentially 2 .O per unit,
crest value. A voltage of this value can cause the are to re-
strike across the breaker contacts, sending the line voltage CVD(27·59)
from + 1 per unit to a -1 per unit.

3R 1\101 Recommended
The result is a high frequcncy transient voltage, whose first
peak overshoots the -1.0 valu e by -2 .O ( the difference be- Resistor .J3ELL

.I
Vpr'~
tween -1 and +l ), giving a peak voltage value of -3.0. If 3·x¡:
the are is again extinguished, the trapped charge on the line
produces a voltage of -3 .O per unit. If a second restrike oc-
L
(al
3Vo0lo(3Rl
CV·8(59N)

(b)
curs at the next voltage positive maximum, the peak voltage
will overshoot to +5 per unit as it goes from -3 per unit to Zero Sequence Network

+ 1 per unit. Theoretically , further cycles of extinguishing

and restriking the are would build higher and higher voltage
values. In practice, however, flashovers usually occur before
System Copocuonce
ro Grouno l !OC System
Reoctonce
these high values are reached.
Figure 11 ·4: Ground Fault Detection on Ungrounded Systems.
The peak voltage val u es shown in Figure l 1 -3 are maximum
theoretical values based on are extinction at zero current,
no darnping, and are restrike at the crest value of the source agc that will be irnpresscd on the two unfaulted phases dur-
voltage. In fact, circuit resistance will introduce damping of ing a line-ground fault. Under normal conditions, the
the transient, reducing the peak value of the first half cycle voltage across the relay approaches zero. When a single
overshoot. Further, restrikes may occur before the voltage line-ground fault occurs, the voltage is 3V 0, or approxi-
reaches crest value voltage, which will reduce the value of mately 200 volts with 69 volt secondary windings. The
peak overvoltages. Nevertheless, overvoltages can be very Type CV-8 relay shown, which has a l ó-volt pickup anda
high and represent the major disadvantage of ungrounded 199-volt continuous rating, will detect fairly high resistance
systems. faults.

11.B. Ground Fault Detection on Ungrounded Systems lf the relay burden is too small for the system voltage class,
the transformers in this scheme rnay be subjected to ferro-
Since the fault current for single line-ground faults on an resonance. It is preferable to shunt the relay with a resistor.
ungrounded system is very small, overcurrent relays cannot Typical resistor values in use are:
be used for fault detection. Voltage relays will detect the
presence of the voltage unbalance produced by the fault,
but will not selectively determine its location in the system. Voltage Transformer Resistor
Ratio in ohms
The unbalance phase and zero sequence voltages which oc-
cur during ground faults are essentially the same throughout
2400 to 120 250
the system. Since selective isolation of the fault is not pos-
4200 to 120 125
sible, relay schemes are only useful for providing an alarm.
7200 to 120 90
14400 to 120 60
Figure l l-4a shows the preferred ground fault detection
11
system. The voltage transforrners rnust nave a primary volt·
age rating equal to the line-line voltage, since this is the volt-
11-4
While the primary fault current may be low, high secondary
currents can flow. This should be checked with the short
time or continuous rating of the voltage transformer and
resistor.
Applying a grounded-broken-delta transformer without the
shunt resistor is eq uivalent to very high irnpedance ground-
ing, Any shunt resistor, even as high as 20 :\:, is better
than none. It will darnp any high transient voltage oscilla-
tions and will usually hold the peak values to less than
twice normal crest voltage to ground.
The alternate ground fault detection scherne (Figure l l-4b)
is not recommended and should only be applied with cau-
tion. The CVD (27-59) relay in this systern has SPDT con-
tacts for operation on either over- or undervoltage. Line-
to-ground faults on phases a and b produce an overvoltage
on the relay; faults on phase e produce an undervoltage. For
the scheme to work, the capacitance to ground of the lines
must be fairly closely balanced and high enough to keep the
neutral of the system at close to ground potential.
This scherne can also produce ferroresonance or neutral in-
X practice, however, this system actual!y increased the ma-
version. When ___:_ is 3 .O, V PT theoretically would be infi-
XL
nite. Even without faults on the system, the high rnagnetiz-
ing impedance of the voltage transformer can approach res-
onance with the line capacitance to neutral, causing a high
overvoltage a cross the secoridary. Neutral inversion can oc-
cur during a line-ground fault on a phase other than phase c.
Such a fault produces unbalanced impedances to ground ;
the resultant current flows can drive the systern ground
point outsid e the delta. A loading resistor across the relay
or, less desirably , in series with the transformer primary
may prevent these problerns.
III. REACT ANCE GROUNDING
There are three different types of reactance grounding:
a. high-reactance grounding
b. resonant grounding
c. low-reactance grounding.
111.A. High-Reactance Grounding
Up to the early 1940's, sorne utilities operated their unit
system generators with the neutral ungrounded. Their pur-
pose was to keep the interna! line-to-ground fault current in
the generator very low and prevent the iron from being
damaged by arcing. Unfortunately, when these generators
were connected to long, high-voltage transmission lines, the
result was a high insulation failure rate in the machine
windings.
These failures were caused by high voltage transients, simi-
lar to those discussed earlier. This problern was com-
pounded by an inability to detect single line-ground faults
in the generator. As a result, the faults persisted, causing
undue damage.
The initial solution was to connect the generator neutral to
ground through the prirnary of a voltage transformer and
put an overvoltage relay across the secondary. In theory, a
single line-grcund fault would simply cause the generator
neutral voltage to shift with respect to ground, activating
the relay and tripping the machine or sounding an alarrn. In
chine failure rate. The cause was arcing grounds-a phe-
nomenon similar to the restrikes that can occur when
switching a high capacitive reactance.
The arcing ground phenomenon can be e xplained using Fig-
ure 1 1-5. The equivalent single-line diagrarn shown in Fig-
ure l l -5a is for a generator grounded through a high reac-
tance, Xn, with a line-to-ground fault near one terminal.
Xc is the distributed capacitive reactance of the windings to
ground, connected half way between the generator reac-
tance (Xg). If the are is extinguished when the small fault
current passes through zero, the voltage across the are path
must go from nearly zero to normal crest value. In doing
so, it must oscillate around the steady-state normal value.
As shown in Figure l I-Sb, the resultant voltage transient
will reach a peak value of twice normal crest line-neutral
voltage, one-half cycle of the high-frequency transient after
the are is extinguished. If the are restrikes at this point, the
fault voltage is driven back to zero. When the are is initially
extinguished, the reactor voltage has to go from positive
maximum to zero. As a result, it has a transient oscillating
period from positive maxirnum to negative máximum.
 11-5

source voltage is the normal line-line voltage. Toe corre-

Xg/2 Xg/2 sponding theoretical transient peaks are V3, 3y'3, Sy'3,
and so on.
Xn Xc ~A,cing
SLGFoult
For these reasons, high reactance grounding was discon-
tinued many years ago.
(a) Equivalent Circuit

3.0 111.B. Resonant Grounding (Ground Fault Neutralizer)

e f: Foult Vottoge en: Reoctor Vottoge r
Although not widely used in the USA, resonant grounding
has been applied elsewhere. In this scherne, the total system
capacitance to ground is compensated for or cancelled by
-...
1.0
an inductance in the grounded neutral of the power trans-
\
\
\
formers. The grounding reactor, equipped with taps that
\
\ permit it to be tuned to sysrern capacitance, was first called
a "Petersen Coil." It is now more commonly designated a
-1.0 "ground fault neutralizer."
-1.0 -io ~
Are Are
eg :Gene,010, Vottoge Extinguished Restrikes Theoretically, if the reactor perfectly matches the system
(b) Fault Voltage (e) Reactor Voltage
capacitance, a line-to-ground fault will produce zero cur-
rent, the transient fault are will be extinguished, and the are
Figure 11·5: Ovar-vottaqas on Reactance Grounded System Oue path deionized. While perfect neutralization of the entire
to Arcing Fault. system is not possiblc, the reactor will minimize a large pro-
portion of line-ground fault currents. Furthermore, as the
are goes through zero, a close-to-resonant circuit will be re·
The first half-cycle of this oscillation is shown in Figure
established, with a small voltage across the original are path
11-Sc. If the are restrikes at the instant when the fault volt-
that reduces the possibility of restrikes.
age is twice normal crest value, as was assumed in Figure
11-Sb, the reactor voltage has to go from negative mínimum
to positive mínimum. The result is another transient oscilla- Transforme,
Pos,rive,__, _
Neutral
tion, with a peak va!ue of three times normal maximum
line-ground voltage.
50 ~a 50X
o
ü I2
Note that, in high-reactance grounding, the reactor voltage o
& 52N l52N ~
[__:
is applied between the generator neutral and ground. Since alo. ·5
the BIL of the reactor is higher than that of the generator o. ~
¡!? <3
.,.o
<I>
windings, insulation failures are more likely to occur in the
o
generator windings. 2 z
N
t!)

Toe switching surges that result from clearing line-to-ground

faults for ungrounded systems also occur in high reactance
grounded systerns. In the latter case, the resulting transient Negorive-4---4------+--+-
Breoker Glose Control
overvoltages will be even higher. The source voltage for an
Figure 11-6: Resonant Grounding and Protection Scheme for Non
ungrounded system is the normal líne-to-neutral voltage Self-Clearing Faults.
which, theoretically, produces successive line-side voitage
peaks of 1.0, 3 .O, 5 .O ... of normal crest voltage to neutral.
For the high reactance grounded system shown in Figure
11-5-with the reactor between the neutral and ground-the
11-6

In this system, approximately 75 percent of line-ground chine terminals equal to a three-phase fault. (A reactor
faults are self-extinguishing. The remaining faults must be 2X - X -X
value of I o 2 was used.) In general, low-reactance
cleared by a line breaker. A partía! schema tic for one such
grounding was applied to large industrial plant systems with
protective system is shown in Figure 11-6. Ground faults
radial distribution feeders, and ground fault protection con-
of sufficient magnitude are picked up by a sensitive instan-
sisted simply of overcurrent relays. Gradually , this type of
taneous current relay (50), which is connected to a current
generator grounding has been replaced by resistance
transformer in the grounding lead of the neutralizing reac-
grounding.
tor. The relay's contact energizes the opera te coi! of a latch
or toggle-type auxiliary relay (50X-O). Normally closed
Low-reactance grounding is still applied in the neutral of
contacts (50X) open the operate coil, and two normally
autotransformers. A large autotransformer becomes a
open contacts (50X) set up the reset coi) (50X-R) and start
strong zero sequence source and, at its location, the X0/X¡
timer 2. lf, after a preset time, typically JO to 15 seconds,
ratio is often substantially less than unity. A reactor in the
the fault has not cleared, timer 2 contacts close the breaker
neutral connection to ground can make this ratio equal to
5 2N, solidly grounding the neutral so that conventional
unity, limiting the line-ground fault at the terminals to the
ground relays can selectively clear the fault. Breaker 52N
three-phase value. While not used extensively, this scheme
also energizes 50X-R to reset the toggle relay and sound an
is applied by sorne utilities.
alarm. If the fault clears before timer 2 contacts operate,
the normally closed 50 and 52N-b contacts will energize
Another type of low-reactance grounding provides ground
50X-R to reset the toggle relay.
fault relaying for systems supplied from a delta source. The
reactance grounding scherne should:
In theory , resonant grounding should reduce line outages
considerably. This systern does, however, have a number of
a. Supply sufficient ground fault current to operate relays
disadvantages:
for a fault where the line value (X0 + 2X 1) is the highest,

• Transformers connected to the system must have full

b. Limit the transient overvoltages attributable to ground
line-line insulation even when wye-connected.
faults to a value of 2. 5 times normal Iine-to-neutral crest
value, assuming two restrikes.
• The entire system must be fully insulated for line-line
voltage.
In this scheme either a grounded wye-delta or a Zig-Zag
transformer can be used, although the Zig-Zag (Figure 11-7)
• The ground-fault neutralizer must be retuned to accom-
is more common because of its econorny. The windings
modate any changes in system configuration-additions,
extensions, line removals, or switching.

• System effectiveness will be reduced considerably if a

substantial number of the lines are of wood pole con-
struction. The high insulation to ground will result in a
larger portion of line-line faults (conductor swing caused
by wind).

• A high incidence of faults will occur essentially sirnulta-

neously in different parts of the system.

111.C. Low-Reactance Grounding

'
Low-reactance grounding used to be applied to systems fed
at generator voltage, where the generator neutral was
grounded through a reactor. The reactor was sized to keep
the magnitude of a single line-to-ground fault on the ma- Figure 11-7: Reactance Grounding.
 11-7

shown in parallel are on the same core leg. With the polar-
ities shown, the positive sequence impedance of the bank is
very high and equal to the magnetizing impedance. When
zero sequence passes through the bank as shown, the im-
pedance is equal to the leakage reactance.

The rating of the transformer is chosen so that the maxi-

mum X0/X I value is equal to or less than four. When (a) System Fed at Generator Voltage
X0/X1 equals four, the line-ground fault current is half the
three-phase, short-circuit value , assuming x2 = X 1. Thus, if
a ground re lay is used in the cornmon neutral connection of
t he line curre nt trunsf'ormers, t he ground fault current leve!
is a rna ximum of half lhat of a three-phase fault.

IV. RESISTANCE GROUNDING

Resistance grounding is applied in systems with distribution

gerierators and
------------+--------}
at generator voltage, and in unit-connected
transforrners. Feeder
Bus
(b) System Fed Thru Oetta-vvve Tr ansforrner
The two general types of resistan ce groun<ling are low-
resistancc and high-resistance grounding. Figure 11-8: Low Resistance Grounding of Systems Fed Thru
Delta-Wye Transformer.

IV.A. Low-Resistance Groun<ling

ing kV A rcsults frorn the cornbined capacitancc to ground

Whenever low impedancc grounding is dcsired , resistancc of the generator windings, cable connections to thc trans-

groun<ling is generally preferred to the low-reactance sys- former, low-voltagc transformer winding, and station service

tems described above, Specifically, low-resistance ground- transf ormer. This resistor value will lirnit generator iron
ing is used for syste ms fed directly at generator voltage
(Figure l l-8a) or fed through a delta-wyc transformer (Fig-
ure l l-8b). When a line-to-ground fault occurs in the sys-
,:;, ~
tem, the current flowing in the ground resistor results in a
PowerTronsformer
sudden change in generator load, causing severe generator

~ mC,-8<59J
angular swings and high peak shaft torques. To keep the T Sronon Se-vice
gro u nd resistor loss low, t he resistor is generally sized to
limit the single line-to-grou nd bus f'ault to aroun<l 400 am-
peres. Ground relaying using overcurrent relays may be ap-
p!ied but zero-sequence type current transformers will pro- O,s,ribu11on Transforme,
KV/ 120 or 240Volls
vide greater sensitivity.
(a) Unit Connected Generator-Transtormer

IV.B. High-Resistance Grounding Zero Po1en1101 Bus

leo¡
Dismbuted
High-resistance grounding is applied to the generator-
Xco System
transformer unit systems by connecting a resistor across the Gene,010, Copo e, tone e
ond Leods toGround
secoridary of a distribution transformer in the grounded Xo
generator neutral (Figure 11-9). The resistor value is se-
(b/ Zero Sequence Network (e/ Phasor Oiagram
lected so that its KW loss for a solid line-to-grou nd fault at
the machine terminal is equal to or greater than the charg-
Figure 11·9: High Resistance Grounding of The Unit Connected
ing kV A of the low-voltage system. In this case, the charg- Generator-Transformer.
11-8

buming frorn ground faults; darnp out oscillations; and lirnit Thus, using Equation (11-3),·the line-to-ground fault cur-
the peak transient overvoltage to around 2.5 normal line to rent is:
neutral voltage, or less. The ratings of the resistor and trans-
former are: Ig = 0.06613,p (! 1-6)

(11-2) The neutral resistor can be in the neutral of the transformer

Transformer kV A = V3 KW R
where kV A is the total three-phase charging kV A. The
e factor of approximately 0.98; stainless steel types, of ap-
magnitude of prirnary fault currents in these applications is
around 8 to I O amperes.
Sensitive protection is provided by an overvoltage relay
across the resistor. The CV-8 (59) has a pickup of 8 per-
cent of its continuous rating with a third harmonic suppres-
sion filter to prevent operation on normally circulating cur-
rents. This application is detailed under generator protec-
tion (Chapter 6).
For distribution systerns where transient overvoltages are
limited to less than 2.5 times normal crest value to ground,
the following ratios apply:
(Figure 11-8), ora resistor can be inserted in the neutral of
(11-2) the grounded Zig-Zag transforrner (Figure 11 -7). In either
case, the reactance component of the resistor must be con-
sidere d. Cast-iron grid-type grounding resistors have a power
proximately 0.92. The reactance, while srnall in itself, is
tripled in the zero sequence circuit.
V. SENSITIVE GROUND RELA YING
Ground relaying on distribution circuits can be a difficult
problem. The range of fault currents can vary from negli-
gible for a conductor lying on or near the ground with mín-
imum electrical contact, to substantial for a conductor mak-
ing good contact. Unfortunately, there is no practica! way
of distinguishing an intolerable situation from a tolerable
one ata breaker or disconnection location.

or
For a neutral resistor R,
Assurning that Xo
R
xº ~ 2.0 (11-3) Sorne years ago, a utility conducted tests on a l O-Ioot
o length of no. 4 bare copper wire energized at l 2kV and laid
on a variety of surfaces such as dry grass, green vegetation,
dry base soil, and asphalt. Of 1 28 tests, 7 percent showed
Ro= 3R currents of less than one ampere, 7 percent showed currents
of over 1000 amperes, and SS percent had currents in the
= 20X 1, and Ro= 2Xo, then range of ISO to 600 amperes.

Zo = (40 -j20) X¡ Ground fault protection is dictated by the arnoun t of

ground fault current available from the system to operate
For a line-to-ground fault: relays and the ratio of this current to normal system unbal-
anee. Load management may help to reduce normal un·
3V 3.0
lg = 3!o = X + X + z (ji +j l +40-j20)X1
balance in sorne cases. The mínimum ground fault current
1 2 o must balance service continuity with equipment protection.
That is, it must be Jow enough to minirnize equiprnent dam-
3.0 3.0 flll o = age but high enough to be recognizable and to allow the
(40 -j22)X1 45.6SX1
faulted area to be selectively isolated without nuisance
tripping,
0.066 /28.8 ° per
unit (11-4)
For selective and autornatic isolation of ground faults, the
magnitude of the ground fault current is determined by the
The three-phase fault current would be
protective relays. Three cornrnon ground relay schemes, in

1 =~ per unit {11-5)

order of increasing sensitivity, are:
3,P X
1
 11-9

1. Ground relay in the common neutral connection of the Higher burdens, however, may also decrease the relay sensi-
line current transformers and/or grounded source (Fig- tivity on light ground faults, depending on the quality of
ure 11-10). the current transformers. False residual currents do not oc-
2. Ground relay in the common neutral connection of the cur in the scheme shown in Figure 11-1 Ob , or 11-13 and do
line current transforrners, with a product-type relay to not cause relay operations in Figure 11-11.
avoid operation on false residual currents (Figure 11-11 ).
The CWP scheme (Figure 11-1 lb) provides increased sen- With the application of a ground relay set on the 0.5 am-
sitivity which the CWC scheme may not. (See also Fig- pere tap, the fault current in the relay should be not less

ure 11-12.) than twice pick-up, or 1.0 amperes secoridary. Taking Kas

3. Ground relay with a zero sequence (ring) type current the primary current transforrner rating, and using Equation

transformer (Figure 11-13). (11-6):

V.A. Ground Overcurrent Relay With Conventional .066 13<1>

1.0 (11-8)
Current Transforrners K/5

In the scheme shown in Figure 11-1 O, the relays are usu-

ally set on the 0.5 ampere tap. Because of the large bur- That is, 13<1>"' 3.04K. Thus, the mínimum three-phase fault

dens of the ground relays on the mínimum tap, the relay current should be at least three times the primary current

pick-up current multiplied by the current transformer rating of the highest current transformer of all the feeders
ratio will not be the prirnary ampere pick-up when using on the bus. Alternatively, the highest current transformer
lower quality current transformers (see Chapter 5). To primary currcnt rating should be less than one-t hird the
hold the exciting current to a reasonable mínimum, the mínimum thrce-phase fault current. Since K usually is
mínimum CO relay current tap se tting should equal slightly greater than maximum load curre nt , a mínimum
!OVA three-phase fuult of less than three times maximum load
-V--,( 1 1-7) approximatcly, where V A is the volt- will seldom occur except on ver y long, extended fecders.
T
ampere burden of the ground relay at tap setting, and
For increased sensitivity, the ground relays should opera te
VT is the current transformer accuracy classification
on IO percent of the maximum ground fault curre nt, with
voltage.
mínimum source (maximum source irnpedance ). Thus, the
mínimum ground current for a solid ground fault should be
Circuit Power Trcnsforrner
at least ten times the relay sensitivity. This assurnes that
Phose Reloys
Not Shown 6~ the normal load unbalance is less than the relay pick-up
A which is often the limiting criteria. Frorn Equations 11-3 1 ,

50/51 and 114, it can be seen that the system reactance has only
N 1 1
a minor effect on the ground fault current; that is, the max-
50/51 imum and mínimum currents for solid ground Iaults are es-
G
fa) Three CT's ,n ThP. (b) One CT in The Grounded sentially the same.
Protected Circuit Neutral Circuit

Figure 11 · 1 O: Ground Protection With Conventional Current With the 0.5 ampere tap, the maximum ground fault should
Transformers and Protective Relays.
be 5.0 amperes secondary or more. Using Equation 11-6:
Unequal performance of current transformers during heavy
phase faults or the initial asyrnmetrical motor starting cur- .066 I3,i,
o/ :: 5 or 13</> :: l 5.2K (I 1-9)
rents may produce false residual currents with the scheme
K/5
shown in Figure 11-1 Oa. Where these currents cause relay
operation, an instantaneous relay with a higher pickup Here, the mínimum three-phase fault current should be at
should be used, or the time overcurrent relay should have a least 15 times the primary current rating of the current
larger time dial and/or pickup. Increasing the burden on transformer or should approximate the maximum load.
the current transformers in these cases causes them to satu- These values will require more sensitive relaying for most
rate more uniformly, reducing the false residual current. noneffectively grounded systems.
 11-10

=~~=B~us===========~r=~i==~
The greatest ground fault sensitivity is provided by the
CWP-1 (32N) relay. The relay pickup is adjustable and
, , 1 e
1 1 1 equal to 5, 7, 10, 14, 20, 28, or40 milliamperes with 100
: / 1
volts across the potential coi! at maximum torque. Maxi-
: -, !
RorX
: r--,: mum torque occurs when 10 leads -V by 45 degrees
,. ._..,n '
1 ,1 ,, O
(Figure 11-12). For the scheme shown in Figure 11-11 b,
~J Optionol the mínimum pickup is:
---------·~

(+)
-----r----r
~ ......~,, _ _,..,_.......,
:::,
-L
Alternote When System
(11-10)

is Grounded by a where 80 is the ang]e which I leads -V . The phasors for

Z ig Zog Tronsformer o o
a high-resistance grounded system where the CWP-1 relay is
Circun applicable are shown in Figure 11-12. Equation 11-4 gives
(a) Application of The Current Type CWC Relay an angle of 28.8° for the resistance grounded system. An-

~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~----~~~~~~~-o
Bus
~-+-~~--~~~~~~~~~~--1--~--~~~~~-b
g]es approaching the maximum torque angle of the relay
can be obtained by increasing R0 and the fault resistance.

Areo of Groond Foulf Current Max,mum To-coe L,ne

-3Vo
',, / -3Vo(Reference)
310 t
-'
' Va
Conroct
R Clase
Are o
CWP-1(32N)
(+)
3Vo
(+) 1
Allernote W1th R ,nNeu1rol CWP-1 (32N) Relay Cbaracreritrcs
osm (o) This Currem Con
be Connected Across R
Figure 11-12: Phasors for Figure 11-11 (b) for a Phase .. a.. -ro-
(b) Application of The Valtage Type CWP-1 Relay Ground Fault on a High Resistance Grounded Systern.

Figure 11-11: Sensitivity Ground Protection Utilizing Product
Type Relays.
V.B. Ground Product Relay With Conventional
Current Transformers
Increased sensitivity may be provided by the schemes shown
in Figure 11-11. These schemes will not operate on false
residual currents; the relays require current in both wind-
ings to operate. No system ground or zero sequence current
or voltage will exist for phase faults or motor starting
currents.
V.C. Ground Overcurrent Relay With Zero Sequence
Current Transforrners
The scheme shown in Figure 11-13 provides máximum sen-
sitiviry. There are no false residual currents. The zero se-
quence type current transf'ormer has the conductor cables
passed through the center hole. Secondary current is the
system zero sequence current, or 310.
o b e

The CWC (32N) relay pickup is the same as in the scheme

shown in Figure 11-10-0.5 ampere - but with 0.5 ampere 50/51
in both windings, ora product of 0.25. On this tap, the up- G

per coil impedance is 0.42 ohrns, while the lower pole coil
impedance is 3.52 ohms. For maximum sensitivity, there-
fore, the upper coil should be connected to the three par-
allel current transformers orto the lower accuracy class cur-
Figure 11-13: Ground Protectiorr Utilizing The Zero Sequence
rent transforrners. (Ring) Type Current Transforrners.
 11-11

The standard ratio for the zero sequence type transformer

Externa! Foult
(Type BYZ) is 50/5; l 00/5 ratios were originally use d. Var-
¡ Curren! Flow for
Interno! Foult CWC
ious nondirectional relays can be applied, as outlined in
Reloy Operotes Curren! Flow
Table 11-1. Phose
Reloys
{
_._....::====:::::-~ for Externo!
FoulfCWC
(ifUsed)
Relay Blocks
Table 11-1
'-!-..._-1-411>--~~~~~~~~~----A-+~ ~
,1--J.--'"'---- Alfemote Ze,o CWC(87)
Relay Settings and Sensitivities Using the Sequence TypeCT + ~
50/5 BYZ Zero Sequence Current Transformers
Protected
Maximum Primar)' 310 Equrpmenr
Re lay Minimum Senxh ivit y in Amperes for Accurare
Rela y T"pe Se11i11B Primar y J 10 Amperes Timing and Coord inauou

1 ¡J._1/J IIJI I l 7-J/J 11)) 1 14-J/J 11)1 1 1 ~-3/J I m

11'11 O.lS s 1) s.o - -

11.0 10.0 2S 1 1 ~
CO·X or lJ 0.5

('().X or <J !5 ~4.0 24.0 540 121 5

w,1h Pro1ected Equipmenl os Lmesor Fee<fers,
150 Trus Would Not be Groonded ond o Setof 3CT's Used.
('0-1 1 O.~ o.u 7.0 70

('0-11 ~.5 ~4 .O 24.0 700 •100 Figure 11-14: Ground Differential Scheme Using a Type CWC
Relay. (Protected Equipment can be a Generator,
t 4-J/4 JI) and 7-J/-4 ID .ir c t hc mvtdc di.unct cr ol tht.• wmdow in 111dh.'' Transtormer. Reactor, Feeder, Line, etc.)

When the maxirnum Iault current e xceeds the maximum
val u es shown , the ou tpu t wave form is nonsinusoidal. Rela y
timing will tend to becorne variable and longer than indi-
cated in the published literature.
The above schemes are for feeder circuits. For ground pro-
tection of equipment, a ground differential scheme can be
used with a differential type relay ora product type (CWC)
relay as shown in Figure 11-14. This is also applicable to
short run feeders with three conventional CT's ora zero se-
quence type CT at each end of the protected zone. The
CWC relay is recommended as it provided high sensitivity
and is relatively independent of the current transformer
performance.
VI. GROUND FAULT PROTECTION FOR
THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE SYSTEMS
faults frorn phase-to-ground, the current rcturns through
the earth to the substation neutral.
There are three different relay schemes for grou nd fault
protection, as shown in Figure 11-15. Figure 11-1 Sa shows
the conventional scheme used on three-phase , three-wire
systems. For a four-wire system, the load un balance cur-
ren! would flow through the ground relay, requiring a set-
ting above the unbalance value to avoid operation on the
maximum load unbalance. This scheme is generally not rec-
ommended. The four current transformer scheme shown in
Figure 11-1 Sb provides much higher se.nsitivity, since it does
not measure the load unbalance residual current. Even
greater sensitivity is provided by lhe zero sequence type cur-
rent transformer shown in Figure 1 1-1 Sc. Cornparative sen-
sitivities for various relays in this scheme are listed in
Table 11-1.

VI.A. Unigrounded Four-Wire Systems
Unigrounded, four-wire systems have insulated neu trals; the
only ground connection is at the substation. Loads gener-
ally are connected phase-to-neutral, and the net load unbal-
anee retums through the neutral as a residual current. For
If a line-to-neutral fault occurs on the system, only the con-
ventional scheme (Figure I J-15a) will respond. The connec-
tion of the current transformers in the other two schemes
results in cancellation of the fault current, unless it involves
ground. The phase relays will provide protection, however,
since-if the neutral conductor is the sarne as the phase con-
11-12

ductors=phase-to-neutral fault current in one phase will be

To Bus With System Ground of the same order of magnitude as a three-phase fault.

lnsuloted Neutral Groundedot Bus Only

A fault between neutral and ground is possible while the
neutral retum is nearly at ground potential, probably as the
result of a broken neutral conductor. The schemes of Fig-
ure 11-1 Sb and 11-1 Sc will measure the portion of un bal-
(a) Conventional Scheme
ance current retuming through the earth. Because the
ground return may be a high impedance path, causing a low
voltage at the load points, the more sensitive window-type
current transformer scheme is recommended.

lb) Four CT Scheme

VI.B. Multigrounded Four-Wire Systems

Many three-phase, four-wire distribution systems are sol-

idly grounded at the substation, with the neutral wire also
grounded at each distribution transformer location. Such
(e) Zero Sequence CT Scheme
systems are difficult to protect against ground faults.
Phose Reloys Omitted for Simplicity
Feeder

Figure 11 · 15: Methods of Ground Protection on Uni-Grounded

Systems.
 ...
12-1

Chapter 12 l. INTRODUCTION
•
As described in Chapter 1 O, setting and coordinating pro-
Application and Setting by tective devices in a power system is a tedious and time-
Computers
consuming job, particularly for loop networks and cornplex
Authors: V. F. Wilreker and R. A. Wilson systerns. Ensuring acceptable operating times and selectiv-
ity for the various generating levels and for the anticipated
changes in system configuration is usually a trial-and-error
l. lntroduction process. A well-designed computer prograrn, however, can
relieve the relay engineer of much routine, tedious, and
II. Protective Device Coordination Prograrn Structure
time-consurn ing work. In addition, the computer facilitates
A. Application Data Currents/Impedances system-wide studies, encourages consistent relaying prac-
B. Device Coordination tices throughout the system, and provides complete, up-
C. Device Operation Check
dated results of changes in systern pro tection.
III. System Response Map
Pioneere d in 1960, the Protcctive Device Coordination Pro-
A. Desensitized Devices
gram (PDCP) described in this chapter represents the rnost
B. Coordination Mapping
C. lmproving System Performance comprehensive and complete prograrn for applying, setting,
and checking the coordínation of many types of protective
IV. Prograrn Application relays, fuses, and reclosers. The program makes it possible
A. Data Check Study to analyze a wider variety of fault and operating conditions
B. Coordination Study than are normally considered when settings are derived
C. Final Coordination Study manually.

The proce dure for a complete protection study is outlined

in Figure 12-1. As indicated by the shaded blocks, the
major cornponents of this procedure are t he Data Check
Study, the Coordination Study, and the Final Coordination
Study.

In the Data Check Study, the user must specify, as input

data, both device type and settings for each relay, fuse, or
recloser. The program then evaluates thc effectiveness of
these de vices and settings wi thin the existing system and, if
necessary, recommends altemative protective devices.

In the Coordination Study, the user specifies the protective

device with no settings, or allows the program to choose a
device. The program then establíshes settings within the
ranges specified or it chooses a device and settings. The set-
tings and/or devices are selected to optirnize coordination.

The Final Coordination Study shows how the system will

behave with the revised settings which can then be issued
by the relay engineer.

No computer prograrn can replace the relay engineer.

Rather, the program is designed to spotlight problem areas
requiring further study. The engineer uses his talents and
12-2

the program's speed to maintain excellence in system pro- lnitial

Relay Data
tection. Short
Circuit
Program
11. PROTECTIVE DEVICE COORDINATION PROGRAM Table of
Application
STRUCTURE Data

The PDCP prograrn is roughly structured into three parts.

In Part 1, the table of application currents/impedances, is
established. The table is then used for initial device appli-
cation and primary line protection settings. Device coordi·
nation is Part 2. Part 3, device operation check, evaluates
device operation.

11-A. Application Data Currents/lmpedances

The application currents/impedances are derived from the Genera te

results of a separa te short circuit study. The program tab- System
Response Map
ula tes nine critical fault conditions which are essential for
device application and fast time settings. Figure 12-2 is a
Corrected
typical printout for one device location, with a one-line Relay
diagrarn added for clarity. For each listed fault condition, Settings

the current, the line-to-line voltage, and the phasor imped-

ance sensed by the device are recorded. The phasor impe d- Final
Coordination
ance is: Study

· 1000 kV
Z = . ¡;; ohms primary (12-1) Final
v3l Results

The load and eight fault conditions shown are defined in Figure 12· 1: Block Oiagram of The Procedure for a Complete
Table 12-1. Coordination Study.

Stotion L

Stnnon O 0
17

© Legend:
83
t----<8 o
68

Sto1ion N
>-----<
(
t.,___
Generotor
0-BusNumber

Pr otection Device Number

• and Locatton

t.ocanon 3 ,s Located on t.me 18 at Bus Number 7 Stat,on O-Bus Voltage 34 50 kV

The Foflowing are Ouannnes Sensed by This Oevice Location for The t.isted Fault Coodinons
Fault Voltage Promary lmpedance
Number Current (1) (kV) lmpedance {Z) Angle

1. Maximum Glose In Fault 83 10292.1 Amps 00

2. Max,mum Far Bus Fault 39 1958.7 Amps 25.7 7.57 Ohms 75 24 Degrees
3. Min,mum Far Bus Fault 60 1256 7 Amps 26 9 12.35 Ohms 65 76 Oegrees
4. Max,mum Fault 83 10292 1 Amps 00
5. Min,mum Fault 17 103 7 Arnps 19 O 105.88 Ohms 85 16 Degrees
6 Mínimum Back-up End Fault 64 2862 Ar¡,ps 33 4 67 35 Ohms 77 00 Oegrees
7 Max,mum Near Bus Fault 68 -1817 1 Amps 00
8 M,n,murn End Fault 47 1421 6 Amps 29 1 11 81 Ohms 66.22 Oegrees
9 Load Current Out of The Bus 100 OAmps

Figure 12-2: Typical Fault Data Print-out for One location in a Protective Device Coordination Study of a Power System.

Table 12-1
Application Data Currents
Positive current flows out of the bus through the protec-
tive device, and negative current flows into the bus
through the protective device. The following numbers, 1
through 9, correspond to the typical data in Figure 12-2.
1. Maximum Close-in Fault-the maximum current
through device location for a fault on the line termi-
nals of the device.
2. Maximum Far Bus Fault-the maximum fault current
through the device location for faults on the far bus.
3. Mínimum Far Bus Fault-the mínimum curre nt
through the device location for faults on the far bus.
For multi-terminal lines, where severa! buses re pre-
sent the far bus for a relay location, the far bus maxi-
mum fault and far bus mínimum fault m ay not be
from the same bus.
4. Maximum Fault-the maximum symmetrical fault
current that flows through the device location for any
fault condition considered in the short-circuit pro-
gram.
5. Mínimum Fault-in the phase progrum , half the míni-
mum fault current for any fault up to two buses
away (in the positive direct ion) from the dcvice loca-
tion, or the positive load curre nt , whichever is greater.
In the ground-overcurrent prograrn, a quarter of the
mínimum fault current for any fault up to two buses
away (in the positive direction) from the device loca-
tion, or the positive residual current, whichever is
greater. The half and quarter factors approximate the
effect of fault resistance.
6. Mínimum Backup Line-End Fault-the mínimum
fault current through the device for a remote line-
end fault (a fault with the breaker open between the
fault and the bus).
7. Near Bus Fault-the maximum current flowing
through the device location for a fault on the near
bus.
8. Mínimum Line-End Fault-the mínimum current
through the device location for a fault at the far end
of the line, with the far breaker open.
9. Load out of the Bus-the maximum current through
the device location, as given by input information.
II.B. Device Coordination
The application data outlined above allows the program
select device settings that ensure fast operating times for
12-3
faults within the primary protection area. These settings
may not provide selectivity in clearing faults outside the de-
vice's primary protection area. Adjustments must be made
to provide the required backup protection. (This adjust-
ment process is discussed in Chapter 10.)
The prograrn uses branch topology to establish a list of the
overreaching and associated overreached device pairs. In
Figure 12-3, for e xam ple, there are three device pairs for
device 5 ut station D. The overreaching device is number 5;
the overrcached devices are 7, 20, and 16.
o
Sta11on D Stonon L
00 Stotion J
0 0 Unit Generoror
Stolion G
Figure 12-3· A Part of a Power System lllustrating The Oevice
Coordination Pairs eg. 5-7. 5-20 and 5-16.
To coor dinate euch device pair, six data pairs are developed
from thc voltagcs and currents of the short circuit results.
A data puir is eithcr the current through or the impedance
seen by both the back-up device (overreaching device) and
the primary device (overreached device) for a specific fault
condition. For exarnple, in Figure 3 there are six data pairs
for device pair 5-7, six for 5-20, and six for 5-16. Tables
12-11 and 12-111 define these six data pairs for phase and
ground protection, respectively. Two examples of the data
pairs are shown in Figures l 2-4a and l 2-4b.
The six data pairs are used to coordinate the pair of devices.
For each of the six data pairs, the device's operation time
is determined. The operating time is a function of the cur-
rent through (e.g. overcurrent relay) or the impedance seen
by the device (e.g. distance relay). When allowed, adjust-
ments of settings are made as discusse d in Chapter 1 O. Fig-
ure 12-5 is a typical printout showing the coordination of
two overcurrent relays and two distance relays of Figure
12-4.
11-C. Device Operation Check
The Device Operation Check prints the operating time of
every de vice within a t wo-bus radius of every fault in the
to short circuit program. The fault numbers refere nced by the
application currents and coordination sections are specified
 1.l-4
in this section of the program. Figure 12-6 shows a sample
printout of the device operation check. This is for a fault
on bus 2, Station L, with the transformer breaker (9) out
of service (FaultNo. 26). For the relays at Station L, the
Table 12-11
The Six Data Pairs for the Phase Protective
Device Coordination Program*
CP # 1-The largest current through the overreaching de-
vice for a fault one bus removed from the over-
reached device, including line-end faults. For im-
pedance relays, the coordination pair consists of
the impedances for this condition, as measured
at the overreaching and overreached locations.
CP #2-Half the mínimum fault current through the
overreached device for any fault where the
overreaching-overreached relationship exists.
The impedance pair for this fault condition is
the voltage at the overreached and overreaching
locations d ivided by half the mínimum current.
CP #3-The largest fault current through the overreach-
ing device for a close-in fault on the overreached
device. Where two currents of the same rnagni-
tude fit this criterion, the one with the larger
ratio of overreaching-to-overreached current is
used. The impedance pair is the impedance
measured for this condition.
CP #4-An overreached current 1 Amp less than its instan-
taneous trip setting. The overreaching current is
the overreached current times the overreaching-
overreached ratio of CP #6. For an impedance
relay, the overreached relay current is cornputed
as the maximum voltage for a far bus fault, di·
vided by the Zone I impedance setting.
CP ft-5-The average of CP #2 and CP ft-4. If CP #4 is
z ero, CP ft-5 is the average of CP tl-2 and CP ft-3.
If CP #3 is zero , it is the average of CP tl-2 and
CP ft-1. The im pedance pair for the overreached
relay is the maximum voltage for a bus fault, di-
vided by the Zone 2 impedance setting. For the
overreaching re lay, this im pe dance pair is the
overreached relay current times the ratio of
overreaching-t o-overreached current of CP ft-6.
CP ft-6-Maximum current through the overreaching de-
vice for the maximum ratio of overreaching-to-
overreached current. The impedance pair is the
impedance measured for this condition.
*If a particular current pair does not exist within the above definí·
tions, it is shown as a zero current on the curren! pair printout.
For exarnple, CP #4 will be zero for a device ovcrreaching an-
other device that lacks an instantaneous unit.
fault must be moved to the line side of the local breakers
to check the operation of relays 6, 7, 16, and 20. The re-
lays on breaker 20 are the transforrner differential which
operates instantaneously.
The fault is then moved back to the bus to check the opera-
tion of ali the remete devices that respond to the fault. Lo-
cations 3, 13, and 14 are not listed in the printout since they
do not trip under these fault conditions.
III. SYSTEM RESPONSE MAP
The development of the System Response Map is an inte-
gral part of a complete PDCP study. The map shows t he
Table 12-III
The Six Data Pairs for the
Ground Protective Device Coordination Program*
CP ti 1 -The largest current through the overreaching de-
vice for a fault one bus removed from the over-
reached device, including line-end faults.
CP ft-2-A quarter of the mínimum fault current through
the overreached device for any fault where the
overreaching-overreached relationship exists.
Product pair #2 is one sixteenth t he minimum
fault product through the overreache d device for
any fault when an overreaching-overreached re-
lationship exists. The product value is expressed
in secondary relay amperes or voltamperes.
CP ft-3-The largest fault current through the overreach-
ing device for a close-in fault on an overreached
device. Where two currents of the same rnagni-
tude fit this criterion, the one with the largest
overreaching-to-overreached current ratio is used.
CP #4-An overreached current 1 Amp less than its instan-
taneous trip setting. The overreaching current is
the overreached current times the overreaching-
to-overreached current ratio of CP #6. Product
pair #4 is an overreached current I Amp less than
the instantaneous trip setting times the maxi-
mum zero sequence vo!tage for a far bus fault.
The overreaching product is this product times
the overreached-overreaching product ratio of
product pair fil.
CP #5-The average of CP #2 and CP 114. If the average
of CP #2 and CP ft-4 is zero, the average of CP ft-2
and CP 113 is used. If CP tf3 is zero, the average
of CP ft-2 and CP #1 is used.
CP ft-6-Maximum current through the overreaching de·
vice for the maximum ratio of overreaching-
overreached current.
 12-5
-
StotionW Stotlon O StorionB StotionW

©/is' 000j 0 @
L-..>< :f CP1,CP2,CP6 1---------. CP1,CP2,CP6
1 \ O l ~1----1oc~-3-e~-~ T CP3 CP4
Overreoch,ngOevice Overreoched Oevice

.
CP2
1

CPl
CP2 CP6 CP4
1
1

¡-,.- Locotoan 9

"'E E
..=
CP3
..= 1
1
1

.....- Lccetoo 11

l
1
1
1
1
1

Currenr lmpedonce
1·
a) Overcurrent Relay Coordination with an Overcurrent Relay b) Distance Relay Coordinatoon With a Distance Relay.
1
Figure 12-4: Location of Data Pairs for Two General Cases.

Table 12-IV III-A. Desensitized Devices

Development of System Response Map

1. List ali the desensitized devices.
2. Select a device from the list
3. Check ali devíce coordination pairs for which this de·
vice is the overreaching (backup) device. Determine
the device pair (or pairs) for which the difference in
operating time is smallest. This mínimum difference
will be close to the coordinating time interval (CTI).
The pair of devices identified form a link in the co-
ordination chain.
4. Use the overreached device in the previously formed
link asan overreaching device. Repeat to Step 3 as
necessary until the coordination links form a loop or
termínate on a radial line, completing a coordination
chain.
The first step in developing the System Response Map is to
list ali desensitized protective devices; that is, all devices
that operate much more slowly than is normal or desirable
because of coordination requirements. The following guide-
lines help identify such devices:
a) Overcurrent relays-high time dial settings or tap settings
much higher than required to prevent tripping by load
curren t.
b) Distance relays-high timer settings.
e) Fuses and reclosers=ratings higher than those required
by load current.
Ill-B. Coordination Mapping.

S. Se!ect a device not included in any previous chain. Coordination mapping traces the coordination paths in the
Repeat Steps 3 and 4 as necessary until the list of de· system using critica! coordination pairs. A critica! coordi- ¡ 1

sensitized devices is exhausted. The system response

map is now complete.
critica! coordination path in the system, helps to identify
seríous coordination problerns, and indicates to the relay
engineer the effects of these problems on overall system
performance. The map is developed from the results of the
Coordination Study using the procedure outline d in Table
12-IV. These results are applied in two steps, the desensi-
tized device list and the coordination rnapping.
nation pair is the back-up and primary device pair with the
smallest difference between each device's operating char-
acteristics.
Figure 12- 7a illustrates this concept. Location I is a desen-
sitized device, i.e. it has high time dial and high tap settings.
There are two device pairs associated with device I, I-J and
I-K. From the Coordination Study results, device pair I-K
is a critica! coordination paír. This pair represents a link in
 12-6

CT Overreaching Location 15 Station W Overreached Location 3 Station O (Figure 12-4a)

Pairs Re lay IRV-7 Relay IRV-7
1 Amps 1239. (FN 431 MT 1.72. OT 414 Amps 1527 (FBN 4) MT 8.48. OT 1.13
2 Amps 442 (FN 59) MT 61. OT 999.99 Amps 633. (FBN 5) MT 3 51. OT 1 81 { Not
3 Amps 4356 (FN 80) MT 6 05. OT 000 Amps 7933 (FBN 7) MT 44 07. OT O~ Coordinated
4 Amps 2065 (F!"-1 MT 2 87. OT 214 Amps 2545 (FBN 4) MT 14 14. OT
5 Amps 1254. {FN -1 MT 1.74. OT 4 05 Amps 1545 {FBN -) MT 8.58. OT 1 12
6 Amps 1239 (FN 43) MT 1 72. OT 4 14 Amps 1527 (FSN 4) MT 8 48. OT 13

CP Overreaching Loeation 9 Station W Overreached Loeation 11 Station S (Figure 12-46)

Pairs Relay KD-10 Relay KD-10
1 Amps 756 (FN 168) z 1 37. OT 1 00 Amps 1324 (FBN 22) z 51, OT 40
2 Amps 378 (FN 168) z 2 73. OT 1 00 Amps 662 (FBN 22) z 1 02. OT 40
3 Amps 953 (FN 167) z 78. OT 40 Amps 953 (FBN 21) z 000. OT 000
4 Amps 833 (FN 0) z 1 27. OT 1 00 Amps 1458 {F8N 22) z 47. OT 40
5 Amps 605 {FN O) z 99 99. OT 999 99 Amps 1060 {FBN O) z 99 99. OT 999 99
6 Amps 756 (FN 168) z 1 37. OT 1 00 Amps 1324 (FBN 22) z 51. OT 40

Legend:
1 Amps • Amperes operatong tome of 99 99 seeonds means the device
2 FN • The fault number appearmg in the devoee operauon w,11 not tnp An operat,ng lime of 777 77 seconds
check secnon mdicates a current ,n the devrce ,n the range of 1
3 MT - The multiple of tap for the relays. for fuses and to 1 3 tomes the tap current {for a relav). or 1 00 to
reciosers: thrs ,s mean,ngless and is set to zero about 2 50 for a fuse The deviee may operate. but
4 FBN · The fault bus number that produced this current the operatmg tome cannot be aeeurately g,ven
paor 6. Z lmpedance as sensed by the relay 999 99 ,ndieates
5 OT - The operat,ng tome of the device Note than an ,nton,te ,mpedance

Figure 12-5: Typical Device Coordination Printout.

Sronon J

0@
Stouon W Stonon O

@ 00 0
0 0 f--+-~
,___ 'v

Fault on Sus 2 Stanon L Fault Number 26

Not a L,ne End Fault
Lrne Number 9 rs Out
Move Fault to Lme Side of Prorecnve Oevice No 6
Loe. 6 Dor OC Relay Current 4760 Amp ( 2 8442 PU) Operating Time O 00 Sec
Move Fault to L,ne Srde of Protecuve Oevice No 7
Loe. 7 Dor OC Relay Current 7698 Amp ( 4 6002 PU l Oper aunq T,me 000 Sec
Move Fault to Line Side of Protective Oevice No 16
Loe 16 Dor OC Relay Current 6590 Amp. ( 3 9375 PU) Operatmg Time 0.00 Sec
(Fault rs Moved Back to Bus 2)·
Loe 5 Dor OC Relay Current 2946 Amp ( 1 7603 PU I Operatmg Time 0.00 Sec
Loe 15 Oir OC Relay Current 1547 Amp ( 9244 PU) Operatong Time 2.92 See.
Loe 15 Dir OC Relay Current 1547 Amp ( 9244 PU J Operatong Time 7 08 See.
Loe 17 OC Relay Current -245. Amp. ¡- 1461 PU.) Oper arinq Time 2 50 See
Loe 18 OC Relay Current 338 Amp ( 2018PU) Operating Tome 78 See
Loe 2 OC Relay Current 1112 Amp 1 6647 PU) Operating Time O 00 Sec

Figure 12,6: Example of Oeviee Operation Check for One Fault Condition.

the systern response map. Device K, in turn, forms a device
pair with L and M. K·L is the critica! device pair and also
forms a link. Device L forms only one device coordination
pair, link L-N. This sequence of links forms an uninter-
rupted path connecting all devices to the slow operating
time of device l. The three-link chain (I-K, K-L, L-N) is
shown in Figure 12- 7b. Note that the System Response
Map includes ali devices in the desensitized device list (de·
vice I) plus additional devices that may not from their set·
tings appear to be causes of coordination problems (devices
K, L, and N).
111-C. lmproving System Performance
System protection is measured by the operating speed of
thc back-up devices while maintaining coordination. Once
 12-7

areas or compromise coordination in non-critica! areas.

The purpose of any device change is to influence the op-
erating time of as many devices in the critica! coordination
path as possible.

Stonon S
Tie to System

StotionW

-
a) The Critica! Coordination Path:
Links IK. KL. and LN to Form Chain l·K·L·N.
<l i Srcuon L
~f.--0-+-1::}-~~~~~~---~~~~~-{;....-0f--~~__J

bJ The System ResponseMap. S1011on 8

Figure 12-7: The Critical Coordination Path and The System

Response Map.
C,ty Pork Top
the critical coordination path has been determined, the relay T,eto System
engineer can improve system protection with the specific
changes indicated by the map.
The relay engineer has two alternatives for improving sys- Figure 12·8: A Single Line System Diagram in Which The Dotted
tem protection. He may upgrade the systcm in critica! Changes are Being Made.

Stonon S

@ @
m OD "-..,

S1011onW @
12
00 Equ,volent
Generotor

m @)
® Stouon J @
20

Grr:i m ® [TI m@m

0 0 02:J 0
® CID
m Stcnon E G
Stonon L

©
Stcnon O
[fil
© [E] ® @]
0
[D 'v

0
'v
Generotor
Generotor [fil

C,ty Pork Top 0

Legend:

O- Bus Number

LJ - BranchNumber
Generotor O_ Protection Device Number
and Location

Figure 12·9: Topology and ldentification for The System of Figure 1 2-8.
 -- __ ..,..._ ~

12-8

In the example of section III-B, the chain represented by
devices 1, K, L, and Nis eliminated by reducing the operat-
ing time of device N. This can be achieved by replacing de-
vice N with a more sophisticated protection scheme. This
change reduces the settings of 1, K, and L.
The point(s) at which a chain is broken must be chosen
carefully. Where limited miscoordination may be tolerated,
the breakpoint is chosen to minimize disruption of customer
service. If miscoordination cannot be tolerated, a more so-
phisticated protection scheme must be applied.

Table 12-V

Input Data for the Existing Protective Devices and Their Settings for the System
Shown in Figure 12-8, before the Addition of the Generator and Line Tap

Tap
Current Inst. Trip Setting Time Dial Tap Range
Transf. Trip Direction or or or or
Location Near Ratio and lmpedance lmpedance Step Time Impedance
Number Bus (X/1) Device Type Impedance Zone Angle Setting in Sec. Range

2 4 30.0 C0-7 Relay 35.0 3.5 4.75 1-12

5 7 100.0 IRV-7 Relay + 29.0 6.0 3.00 1-12
6 2 160.0 IRV-7 Relay + 16.0 5.0 3.75 1-12
7 2 120.0 CR-7 Relay + 40.0 2.5 3.25 1-12
13 20 120.0 CR-7 Re lay + 40.0 6.0 4.50 1-12
14 7 240.0 IRV-7 Relay + Non e 4.0 5.25 1-12
CR-8 Re lay + Non e 4.0 4.75 1-12
15 13 240.0 IRV-7 Relay + 18.0 3.0 4.50 1-12
CR-8 Relay + Non e 3.0 4.00 1-12
16 2 30.0 IRV-7 Relay + so.o 5.0 1.75 1-12
17 4 30.0 C0-7 Re lay 60.0 4.5 3.00 1-12
18 5 30.0 C0-7 Relay 18.0 3.0 2.00 1-12
19 7 350.0 IRV-7 Relay + 11.5 4.0 5.00 1-12
20 2 240.0 IRV-7 Re lay + 14.0 2.5 2.0 1-12
8 17 100.0 KD-10 Relay + Zone I 75.0 .82 o.o .20
KD-10 Re lay + Zone 2 75.0 1.40 .40 .75
KD-11 Re lay + Zone 3 75.0 2.50 1.00 . 75
9 15 100.0 KD-10 Relay + Zone 1 75.0 .71 O.O .20
KD-10 Relay + Zone 2 75.0 1.1 O .40 .75
KD-11 Relay + Zone 3 75.0 9.00 1.00 . 75
10 21 200.0 KD-10 Relay + Zone I 75.0 1.42 o.o .20
KD-10 Re lay + Zone 2 75.0 2.33 .40 . 75
KD-11 Relay + Zone 3 60 5.40 1.00 . 75
11 21 200.0 KD-10 Re lay + Zone I 75.0 .46 o.o .20
KD-10 + Zone 2 75.0 1.1 O .40 . 75
21 5 30.0 + 26.6 2.0 .50 1-12
3 7 120.0 + 21.2 1.5 4.50 .5-2.5

IV. PROGRAM APPLICATION
The application of the PDCP program is illustrated for the
system shown in Figure 12-8. The addition of a generator
at Station N and a line tap into Station D requires new re·
lays at these two stations. Furthermore, the protection
schernes in the surrounding system must be investigated.
performed to obtain a magnetic tape listing the fault cur-
rents and voltages in the short circuit solutions. As shown
in Figure 12-1, this tape is accessed for the Data Check
Study, the Coordination Study, and the Final Coordina-
tion Study.
IV-A. Data Check Study

The system topology and identification as shown in.Fig-
ure 12-9 are prograrnmed into the computer. Note that ali
lines, buses, and device locations have been numbered.
Fault buses are established at severa! points for the pur-
poses of fault calculations. A digital short circuit study is
The Data Check Study establishes the appiication currents
and checks the settings and coordination of the existing re·
lays. Typically for the Data Check Study no changes in de·
vice settings are made. Discrepancies between the existing
settings (shown in Table 12-V) and the computer-determined
 12·9

Table 12-VI settings for the modified system are printed in the format
Computer Cornmentary on Existing Protection and shown in Table 12· VI. As indicated in Table 12-VI, the re-
Settings for the Modified Systern Shown lays most severely affected by the changes in system con-
in Figure 12-8 figuration are those at locations 2, 16, 17, and 18. None of
these protective devices will operate properly in the new sys-
Loe. 2 tem.

A directional-overcurrent relay would be preferred.

The instantaneous trip setting of 35.00 is too low. Since no changes are made during the Data Check Study ,
This relay should have a directional instantaneous relay miscoordinations may occur. Table 12-VII illustrates
unit set at 49 .3. one miscoordinated pair of relays. This table shows clearly
The tap setting of 3.50 is too low.
Maximum fault produces 159 .99 amps in secondary that the relay at location J 8 does not coordina te with the
of C.T. relay at location 5 for any of the six current pairs. In this
system, nearly 50% of the relay coordination pairs have
Loe. 16 serious coordination problems. There are many cases, how-
ever, where only minor miscoordination exists and informa·
The instantaneous trip setting of 50.00 is too low.
Maximum fault produces 318.82 amps in secondary tion from the Data Check Study will be sufficient to cor-
of C.T. rect the problems quickly and easily. When major coord i-
nation problems exist , as in this exarnple, the Coordination
Study is warranted.

Loe. 17
IV-B. Coordination Study
A directional-overcurrent relay would be preferred.
The instantaneous trip setting of 60.00 is too low.
The Coordination Study determines settings for optimum
This relay should have a directional instantaneous
unit set at 71.2. device coordination. The comment section of the Data
The tap setting of 4.50 is too low. Check Study (Table 12- VI) indicates that changes in device
Maximum fault produces 129.03 amps in secondary types are necessary at locations 2, 16, 17, and 18. From this
of C.T.
An impedance relay set at .55, (Zone one), might be cornmentary, directional instancaneous and time-overcurrent 1

a better choice for line protection than the instan· IRV-7 relays are selected. The Coordination Study is then
taneous trip unit.

~ - -34.5:llSkV
Loe. 18

A directional-overcurrent relay would be preferred.

- ~kv
The instantaneous trip settirig of 18.00 is too low.
This relay should have a directional instantaneous ~ 34.5/liSkV
unit set at 35.9. 16 17 14 ~
The tap setting of 3.00 is too low.
Pilot protection should be used.
Figure 12-1 O: The System Response Map for The System of
Figure 12-8.

Table 12- VII

A Device Pair that does not Coordinate for the Six Data Pairs
when the Modifications are made to the Systern Shown in Figure 12-8

Overreaching Location 18 Station N Overreached Location 5 Station O

Relay C0-7 Relay IRV-7

Amps, 507. (FN 17) MT 5.64, OT .61 Amps 2534. (FBN2) MT 4.22, OT 1.06 Not Coordinated
Arnps, 219. (FN 23) MT 2.44, OT 1.13 Arnps 1030. (FBN 2) MT 1.72, OT 2.76 Not Coordinated
Amps, 809. (FN 83) MT 8.99, OT 0.00 Arnps 8500. (FBN 7) MT 14.17, OT 0.00 Not Coordinated
Amps, 618. (FN O) MT 6.86, OT 0.00 Amps 2899. (FBN 2) MT 4.83, OT .98 Not Coordinated
Amps, 419. (FN O) MT 4.65, OT .68 Amps 2091. (FBN O) MT 3.48, OT 1.21 Not Coordinated
Amps, 439. (FN 23) MT 4.88, OT .66 Amps 2060. (FBN 2) MT 3.43, OT 1.23 Not Coordinated
 -··· ······--···· -··········· .

12-10

run to observe the effects of the changes and establish new ternatively, the devices at the same locations could be re·
settings for these devices. Study results are given in Table placed with two-zone impedance relays, such as the type
12-VIII.
KD· l O. In this case, the relay's reach is effectively con·
trolled by the second zone impedance unit.
Table 12-IX lists the desensitized protective devices for the
system shown in Figure 12-8, and Figure 12-10 shows the
IV-C. The Final Coordination Study
System Response Map. The System Response Map shows
that coordination through the 34.5/ 115-kV transformers
For the example system, it was decided to replace the re·
is the major remaining coordination problem. Devices 8
lays at locations 7 and 14 by two-zone K D-1 O relays. A
and 9 are located on the 115-kV side of their respective
Final Coordination Study provides the settings listed in
transformers. To coordinate through the transformers, lo·
Table 12-X; these settings are quite low and ensure fast op-
cations 7 and 14 as well as the remainder of the devices in
erations for faults. A comparison of the settings listed in
the chains shown must be set high. Severa! solu tions are
Tables 12-VllI and 12-X indicates improvements in tap
possible. First, the devices at location 7 a nd 14 could be
and time dial settings.
replaced with impedance-controlled overcurrent relays,
such as KD/CO types. This solution eliminates the problern
of coordination through the transformer by controlling the A detailed explanation of all three studies is beyond the
reach of the overcurrent relay with the impedance unit. Al· scope of this book.

Table 12-VIII
Revised Settings Determined by the Coordination Study for the System of Figure 12-8

Tap
Curren! Inst. Trip Setting Time Dial Tap Range
Transf Trip Direction or or or or
Location Near Ratio and lmpedance lmpedance Step Time Impedance
Number Bus (X/ 1) Device Type lmpedance Zone Angle Setting in Sec. Range

2 4 30.0 IRV-7 Relay + None 5.0 5.50 2-6

5 7 100.0 IRV-7 Re lay + 61.4 8.0 2.50 4-12
6 2 160.0 IRV-7 Re lay + 20.7 7.0 1.75 4-12
7 2 120.0 CR-7 Relay + Non e 3.5 3.00 2-6
13 20 120.0 CR-7 Re lay + Non e 6.0 3.75 2-6
14 7 240.0 IRV-7 Re lay + Non e 4.0 2.00 2-6
CR-8 Re lay + Non e 4.0 1.25 2-6
15 13 240.0 IRV-7 Relay + 21.8 2.5 4.25 2-6
CR-8 Relay + Non e 4.0 1.50 2-6
16 2 30.0 IRV-7 Relay + 59.0 5.0 5.75 2-6
17 4 30.0 IRV-7 Relay + 71.2 5.0 4.50 2-6
18 5 30.0 IRV-7 Re lay + 35.9 5.0 5.75 2-6
19 7 350.0 !RV-7 Re lay + 14.2 2.0 .50 2-6
20 2 240.0 IRV-7 Relay + 17.3 2.0 .50 2-6
8 17 100.0 KD-10 Relay + Zone 1 75.0 .82 O.O .20
KD-10 Relay + Zone 2 75.0 1.40 .40 .75
KD-11 Re lay + Zone 3 75.0 2.50 1.00 .75
9 15 100.0 KD-10 Re lay + Zone 1 75.0 .71 o.o .20
KD-10 Re lay + Zone 2 75.0 1.10 .40 .75
KD-11 Relay + Zone 3 75.0 9.00 1.00 .75
10 21 200.0 KD-10 Re lay + Zone l 75.0 1.42 o.o .20
KD-10 Re lay + Zone 2 75.0 2.33 .40 .75
KD-11 Relay + Zone 3 60.0 5.40 1.00 .75
11 21 200.0 KD-10 Re lay + Zone I 75.0 .46 o.o .20
KD-10 Re lay ' + Zone 2 75.0 1.10 .40 .75
21 5 30.0 IRV-7 Re lay + 26.6 2.0 .50 2-6
3 7 120.0 CR-6 Re lay + 21.2 1.5 6.50 .5·2.5
 12-11

Table 12-IX
· Desensitized Protective Devices for the
Systern Shown in Figure 12-8

Final Final Initial lnitial

Loe Type Tap Time Dial Tap Time Dial

2 IRV-7 5.0 5.50 5.0 0.5

16 IRV-7 5.0 5.75 5.0 0.5
17 IRV-7 5.0 4.50 5.0 0.5
18 IRV-7 5.0 5.75 2.5 0.5
3 CR-6 1.5 6.50 1.5 0.5

Table 12-X

Final Choice of Devices and Settings for the System Shown in Figure 12-8

Tap
Current lnst. Trip Setting Time Dial Tap Range
Transf. Trip Direction or or or or
Location Near Ratio and lmpedance lmpedance Step Time Impedance
Number Bus (X/1) Device Type Impedance Zone Angle Setting in Sec. Range

2 4 30.0 IRV-7 Re lay + Non e 5.0 4.25 2-6

5 7 100.0 IRV-7 Relay + 61.4 8.0 1.50 4-12
6 2 160.0 IRV-7 Rday + 20.7 7.0 1.25 4-12
7 2 300.0 KD-10 Re lay + Zone I 60.0 1.38 O.O .20
KD-10 Re lay + Zone 2 75.0 .75 .40 .75
13 20 120.0 CR-7 Re lay + Non e 6.0 2.75 2-6
14 7 800.0 KD-10 Relay + Zone I 60.0 .64 O.O .20
KD-10 Re lay + Zone 2 75.0 .75 .40 .75
15 13 240.0 IRV-7 Re lay + 21.8 2.5 3.75 2-6
CR-8 Re lay + Non e 4.0 1.00 2-6
16 2 30.0 IRV-7 Re lay + 59.0 5.0 4.50 2-6
17 4 30.0 IRV-7 Relay + 71.2 5.0 3.25 2-6
18 5 30.0 IRV-7 Relay + 35.9 5.0 4.75 2-6
19 7 350.0 IRV-7 Relay + 14.2 2.0 .50 2-6
20 2 240.0 IRV-7 Relay + 17.3 2.0 .50 2-6
8 17 100.0 KD-10 Relay + Zone 1 75.0 .82 O.O .20
KD-10 Re lay + Zone 2 75.0 1.40 .40 .75
KD-11 Re lay + Zone 3 75.0 2.50 1.00 .75
9 15 100.0 KD-10 Relay + Zone 1 75.0 .71 O.O .20
KD-10 Relay + Zone 2 75.0 1.10 .40 .75
KD-11 Relay + Zone 3 75.0 9.00 1.00 .75
10 21 200.0 KD-10 Relay + Zone l 75.0 1.42 O.O .20
KD-10 Relay + Zone 2 75.0 2.33 .40 .75
KD-11 Relay + Zone 3 60.0 5.40 I.00 . 75
11 21 200.0 KD-10 Re lay + Zone I 75.0 .46 O.O .20
KD-10 Relay + Zone 2 75.0 1.1 O .40 .75
21 5 30.0 IRV-7 Relay + 26.6 2.0 .50 2-6
3 7 120.0 CR-6 Re lay + 21.2 1.5 5.50 .5-2.5

Chapter 13
Protection of Network Systems,
Utility/lndustrial Plant Ties,
and Automatic Transfer Schemes
Author: J. V. Kresser
l. Introduction
11. Protection of Network Systems
A. Grid-Type Networks
1. Secondary Network Relaying
2. Network Relay Characterrstics and Operation
B. Spot Networks
1. Spot Network Relaying
'.!. Effect of Non-dedicated Feeders
III. Protection of Utility/lndustrial Plant Ties
A. Single Line Terminating or Tapped into Trans-
formers
B. Single Line Terrninating or Tapped into a High-side
Breaker
C. Industrial Plants Served from Loop Systems
D. Double Lines Terminating or Tapped mto Trans-
formers
E. Plant Substation Termination
F. Plant Protection
1. Plant Systern Protection with No Local Genera-
tion and No Automatic Reclosing
2. Plant System Protection with No Local Genera-
tion but with Automatic Reclosing
3. Plant System Protection with Local Generation
but No Automatic Reclosing
4. Plant Systern Protection with both Local Gen-
eration and Automatic Reclosing
5. Single-Phase Protection
IV. Automatic Transfer Schernes
A. Automatic Transfer of Bulk Loads
B. Autornatrc Transfer at Utilization Voltage
C. Optional Features for Automatic Transfer Schemes
1. Automatic Return to the Normal Source
2. Transfer Switch in Control Circuitry
3. Lockout Devices
4. Autornatic Load Interruption
D. High Speed Automatic Transfer of Critica! Loads
13-1
l. INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers severa! areas not included in previous
chapters but importan! in the distribution of electrical en-
ergy to consumers:
a. Protecting low voltage network systems.
b. Protecting the connection between the electric unlíty
and an industrial plant.
c. Autornatrc transfer of load from one source to another.
H. PROTECTION OF NETWORK SYSTEMS
Low voltage networks co nsist of interlaced loops or grid
syst erns. They are always supplied by two or more power
sources so that the loss of any one source will not result in
an interruption of power. These systems provide the highest
leve! of reliability possible with conventional power distribu-
tion and are normally used to serve high-densit y load áreas.
Primary applications are in central or downtown city áreas:
large buildings (using vertical networks or spot networks);
in shopping centers; and m sorne industrial plants. 1 etwork
systems are either grid type or spot: service is three-phase,
three-wire or three-phase, Iour-wire at 208 Y/ 1 20 V or
480Y/277 V.
11.A. Grid-Type Networks
A schematic of a typical grid or secondary network system
with four sources of supply is shown in Figure 13-1. Each
source is a dedicated feeder supplying the network unit,
which consists of a hígh voltage switch, a network trans-
former, anda network protector. The transformer, usually
a three-phase core-type unit, is designed for underground
service. The primary winding is rated in the nominal distri-
bution voltage range of 4.16 to 34.5 kV and is usually delta
connected. An oil-filled high voltage switch on the trans-
former tank provídes for no-load interruption. This switch,
which can be equipped to interrupt magnetiz ing current, has
three positions: open, close, and ground. The transformer
secondary is 1 20/208 or 267 /460 V, wye connected for
three-phase, four-wire servíce to the network through the
network protector. The protector consists of an air circuit
breaker, fuses, and relays.
The secondary grid consists of single-conductor cables inter-
connecting the vaults and manholes. For the 120/208-volt
 13-2
Source ¡ ~H~~ Network
Transforme, /
Network
Protector
Loods
Network Un,t
Network Network
~H!=:~.
Transforme, /Protector
To Orner Un,ts
To Otner Porrs of Networ k
Figure 13- 1: Typical Secondary Network System.
systems, as well as for the grid tie points, the connection
from the protector to the grid is often direct, with no over-
current protective devices. Direct connection is possible be-
cause any fault will be single line-to-ground and, at 120·
volts-t o-ground , will burn itself clear in the cable when the
fault current exceeds a certain mínimum. Where there is
sorne doubt as to whether the fault will burn clear= and for
ali 267 /460-volt networks-connections are made through
limiters installed in ea ch secondary main junction. *
The function of the network protector is: ( 1) to open the
circuit to the network automaticalty when the primary cable
is deenergized from the substation end, (2) to close auto·
matically when the prirnary cable is energized and the sys-
tern and network voltages are within prescribed limits, and
(3) to trip automatically for pr irnary cable and/or trans-
former faults. Protector fuses, connected between the cir-
cuit breaker load terminals and the network protector ter·
minals, provide back-up protection for the protector circuit
breaker during prirnary feeder or network transformer faults.
Fuses are sized to coordinate with the circuit breaker trip-
ping for transformer or primary cable faults and with the
secondary cables or limiters, when used, for secondary cable
faults.
11.A.1. Secondary Network Relaying
A fault on a primary cable that feeds a number of network
units will be cleared at the substation end by the protectíve
*Conventional limiters are a special type of fuses consistjng of cop-
per sections sizcd to protect particular cables. Silver-sand limiters,
which have current·limitingcapability, are also used in some net-
work systems.
Loods Network
::rr":',._.
Protecroe'\----.
¡
Network
sou_,c_e
l
Network Unit
Network Nerwork
h~M~
Protector Tronstorrner
Network Unit
To Otner Un,ts
relays and the feeder breaker. At the network end the fault
will be cleared by opening ali the network protectors of the
units fed by the cable. The remaining cables and network
units have sufficient capacity to pick up the load normalty
carried by the faulted cable and its network units. After the
cable has been repaired , it is restored to service by closing
the substation breaker. If the system and network voltages
are in correct relationship, closing the substation breaker
causes ali the protectors on the associated network units to
close automatically.
11.A.2. Network Relay Characteristics and Operation
To obtain the operations described above, the network pro·
tector incorporates a master relay , a phasing relay , and , op-
tionally, a desensitizing relay.
The master relay , a three-phase directional relay, is specially
designed to provide highly sensitive directional tripping and
to close the protector if the network voltage is favorable.
The type CN-33 network master relay consists of three elec-
tromagnets acting on a single induction drum. Each elec-
tromagnet has a current coi! and two potential coils, one of
which is energized by the network line-to-ground voltage
and the other by the phasing voltage ( voltage a cross the
open breaker).
The network line-to-ground voltage and the reverse current
through the protector provide the idealized trip character-
istic (shown in Figure 13-2) for balanced three-phase condi-
tions. The protector will trip when the current into the net-
work lags the network line-to-ground voltage by from
 13-3

Oº Watts into Network Network vouoqe

Watts into Nerwork
Vars Out of Network Vars into Network (Reference)
Network
0-GVoltoge

250% Of
~..::::::::::::===.-~~-1-~--""r'-';::;:~Fu~IIL.ood

Tnp Contoct
Ctoses

Un,ty PF Curren!~
mro Network O 8 Logg,ng PF Current
into Network Figure 13-3: Master Relay Trip Characteristic.

Supply Network vouoqe

( Reference)

t) '"'"'
F~
Un,ty PF Curren!
Pumory Feeder
30 Foult Correot
Out of Net work
¡
Currem o.,ec11on
tor Moxomum Torqu e

Wot ts Out ot Network Watts Out of Network

Vors Out of Network Vors inro Nerwork
To Network
Network
Tronsfoémer J
Network Protector
Figure 13-4: Master Relay Close Characteristic.

Source ~ ~ b---'v- ( Network }

seeming!y large leading angle actually represents a small

angle between the network and transformer secondary line-
Figure 13-2: Network Master Retay ldealized Trip Characteristic.
to-ground voltages. For example, if the network line-to-
ground voltage is 120 volts and the 90 degree lea ding phas-
slightly more than 90° to slightly less than 270º. The cur-
ing voltage is I O volts, the transformer line-to-gr ound volt-
rent required to trip the protector at rated voltage is ad-
age leads the network line-to-ground voltage by 4.76º. lf
justable from 0.1 to I O percent of the protector continuous
the network line-to-ground vo!tage is 277 volts, the trans-
current rating at the maximum torque angle of 180º. Thus,
former line-to-ground voltage leads by 2.07 degrees for a I O
the protector can be set to trip when the phasor values
volt 90 degree leading phasing voltage. Figure 13-S shows
equal the magnetizing current of the associated transformer. 1
the combined close-trip characteristics of the type CN-33
This setting ensures a network protector trip when the net-
work transformer is energized from the network. The ideal
relay. ,1
characteristics deviate from a straight line for high reverse
current values during primary fault conditions, because the
network protector current transforrners and the relay elec-
trornagnets saturare, as shown in Figure 13-3.

The network line-to-ground voltage and the phasing voltage

provide the master relay close characteristics shown in Fig-
ure 13-4. In this figure, the phasing-volt scale is consider-
ably _Iarger than the network voltage scale. For exarnple, a
phasing voltage of on!y 0.5 V, in phase with the network
voltage, will allow the protector to close. When the phasing
voltage leads the network voltage by 750 a voltage from
1 . ,
.2 to 4.7 V is required to allow the protector to close. This Figure 13-6: Master Relay Complete Characteristic.
 13-4

Under certain system and network conditions, starting with
the protector breaker open can result in protector breaker
pumping if only the master relay is used to control reclosing.
That is, when the breaker closes it immediately trips out and
then recloses setting upa pumping action. Such a condition
is shown in Figure 13-6. The network voltage and the phas-
ing voltage phasors are in an angular relationship that closes
the protector breaker. When the breaker doses, the result-
ing load current is at an angular relationship with the net-
work voltage shown by the current phasor. As a result, the
load current will cause the breaker to trip with resultant
purnping.
protector, at which time the current through the protector,
lx, will lag the original phasing voltage by an angle approxi-
mately equal to the system impedance angle. The theoret-
ical limiting value of this angle is 90°, but even in this case,
the protector would stay closed , as Ix is within the CN-33
master relay close area. A lagging phasing voltage, VY' on
the other hand , would cause a resultant current, !Y' provid-
ing protector purnping conditions except it is outside the
phasing relay's operating zone.
Network vottoqe
Network
Vollage ( Reference)
CNJ

Supply S<Jpply
.i, Ne1work ,. voncqe CN·33

'T
VOl1oge,,.. »> .,.

Phos1ng vcnoce

(a) Phasing Retay (b) Comb,ned Charactensrics

f
Lood Curren! otter Characteristics
BteakerCloses
Figure 13-7: Combined Master and Phasing Relays Characteristics.
To Ne1work

Figure 13-6: Condition Which Causes Protector Breaker Pumping.

(Master Relay Characteristic per Figure 1 3·51

CNJ Close-- .........__

To prevent purnping, the network master relay is supple- CNJ Open

mented by a CNJ network phasing relay similar to the

master relay, but consisting of a single electromagnet acting Nelwork
Volloge
on induction drum. The electromagnet has two potential
coils, one energized by the network voltage and the other CN-33+CNJ
by the phasing voltage. The characteristic of the network Ctose

phasing relay is a straight line through the origin of polar

coordinares, with the network voltage as the reference axis
(Figure l 3-7a). The characteristic angle can be adjusted to
four different positions spanning a 30° angle, and the close
curve can be moved parallel to the position shown in Fig-
ure l 3-7a. The phasing relay contacts are in series with the
master relay close contacts, providing a closing area shown
Figure 13-8: Exampfe of Operation of Network Protector With
in Figure 13-7b. In this way, breaker closing is permitted CN-33 and CNJ Relays. (Vx is a Leading Phasing
only when the phasing voltage lags the network voltage by Voltage. Vy a Lagging Phasing Voltage).
up to about 25° or leads it by zero to about I ooº.
In sorne cases, such regenerative loads as elevator drives can
Figure l 3-8 shows the operation of the two relays in closing cause a network protector to open briefly. Starting a large
the protector breaker and preventing pumping action. The induction motor during light load periods can also cause the
phasing voltage V X is assurned to be leading the network network protectors to open mornentarily. In both cases,
voltage by 75°. This phasor is in a position to close the the protectors will reclose after a short interval.
 13-5

Frequent protector operation increases maintenance and

should be avoided. A desensitizing relay will reduce protec-
tor operation by introducing a time delay in tripping the
Overheod Circuit
protector for low values of reverse current. This relay con-
sists of a therrnal tirning unit and three instantaneous trip
units, set for about 1-1 /2 to 2 times the protector rating.
The timing unit contacts and the overcurrent unit are in
parallel; the combination is in series with the master relay
250Mvo
trip contacts. The therrnal timing unit is energized when
30Foult
the master relay trip contacts close on small reverse current.

~ ífi:.
If the master relay trip contacts are still closed after a time
delay of one to f'ive minutes, the timing contacts will close ,
tripping the protector. lf', on the other hand , the master
relay contacts open during the timing cycle, the thermal
unit will be deenergized and will reset. Thus, the protector
,P~ ~ ,P Tronsformers

f f "'~"
will override low reverse current flow of short duration but
will trip for low values of sustained reverse flow. If the re-
verse current flow in any phase exceeds the corresponding
instantaneous overcurrent unit setting, the protector will ~'"'""
trip immediately. In this way , tripping is assurcd for pri-
mary fault conditions. L.ood

11.B. Spot Networks Figure 13-9: Typical Spot Network.

Large concentrated load areas, such as commercial buildings A blown prirnary fuse can also cause problems. A fault in
and shopping centers, are frequently served by spot net- t he primary cable or transformer should cause the associ-
works-two or more network units fed by two or more pri- ated protector to open. However, in installations with fuses
rnary feeders. A typical two-unit spot network is dia- or single-pole interrupters in the primary circuit, the stand-
grarnmed in Figure 13-9. The network units may be in- ard network master relay may not trip. A "Wa tt-Var " relay
stalled in vaults, like the secondary network units, or on can solve these problems. With this modified master relay ,
surface pads. In either case, they are fed through under- the máximum torque occurs when the current leads the net-
ground cables. Typically, the spot network prirnary cables work line-to-ground voltage by 120° instead of 180°. The
are tapped from non-dedicated feeders, either overhead or characteristics for balanced three-phase conditions are
underground. The cable taps are made through fused cut- shown in Figure 13-10. (Note that the maximum torque
outs or other overcurrent devices, so that prirnary cable or line is shifted 60° from that in Figure 1 3-2.)
transformer faults will not cause outages to other loads fed
by the feeder. Complex calculations are required to analyze a fault fol-
lowed by one or more open phases as a result of the fuses
ll.B.l. Spot Network Relaying blowing. Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks are
set up for the system in a conventional manner. The net-
Generally, the spot network protector has the same type of works are interconnected to represent one of the unbal-
relays as those used for secondary network protectors. How- anees using isolating ideal (no-leakage/no-loss) transformers
ever, other loads tapped from the feeders between the sub- to interconnect the sequence networks for the second un-
station and the spot network may cause a circulating cur- balance. Frorn this complex network, simultaneous equa-
rent in the network units. As a result, one protector can tions can be written and sol ved.*
open and may then be subjected to continuous pumping if
the phasing relay is not set properly.
*The technique for calculating simultaneous unbalances is presented
in Chapter 2, Section IV.F.

I l
 13-6

O" N1 Posilive Seq,ence Network

Watts into Netwark Worts intoNetwork
Vors Out of Network NetW\lrk Vors into Network 1
121-GVoltage 1.0[Qº Netwark 1
Source Load .8lj.6

r
1
30° .00040 + j 00398 1

1< \
q, \
13 2Kv Bus .00234tj.00373 1/1 Ideal
lsolot,ng i
i\ .00234 + j.00373 Tronsformers
t
1
I

\\
~ \ r------------ 1
? \
Un,ty P F Current
r----------
Open Fus~ 1
1
1 001214+ 100035 001214+ J 00035
\ i nto Nelwork
J ...J
1

\ 1
\ 0.6 Lagg,ng PF Current 1 0107 +¡ 0487 .0107 • ¡0487
\ i nto Netwark 1 Nz Neqonve Sequence Network Load Bus
\ 1 ( All l,\Jtues Sorne Sorne os Pos,1,ve Sequence l
- - - - - - - - -270° 1
1 13 2KvBus
\ Network
Load

_
1

._,
\ 1
1
\
\
\
,- Open Fuse t1 ~1
\ t I
't\ _J I
":.,- \ 1
~\ 1
~ \ 1
'\ \ N0 Zero Sequence Network
.-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Load Bus
.......,__....
I
1
210°
0004 • j 00398 Network 1

t r.
Load l 6i, 1 2 1
Watts Out of Network Watts Out of Network 13 2Kv Bus
Vors Out of Network Vars into Network 00942+ j.0174

00942•¡ 0174 1
1

.... ¡_---------- Open Fuse

Figure 1 3- 1 O: Watt-Var Re lay ldealized Trip Characteristic.
J
1
1
Using the system of Figure 13-9, an example will indicate ~ians .00255 + j 00211 00255 • J 00211 1
far The Open
...J
the quantities involved for a phase "a" line-to-ground fault
Fuse on Phase a .0107 + j.0487 0107+¡0487 Cconecnons
at the primary terminal of the network transformer, fol- far Phose o
Load Bus ta Ground Faull
lowed by the phase "a" fuse opening on the same circuit at
Per Unit lmpedonces ona 1000 KVA, 13.2 Kv Bose
the other end of the cable. The network and interconnec-
tions shown in Figure 13-11 are based on the following as-
Figure 13-11: Sequence Networks and Connections for a Phase
surnptions: "a" -to-Ground Fault on The Network Transformer
Primary and a Phase "a" Fuse Open on The Other
End of The Cable tor The Spot Network of Figure 13-9.
a. Source 3</> short circuit capacity = 250 MVA
b. So urce z0 = Souree Z I
aneed three-phase conditions. The torque equation for de-
c. Source R/X ratio = 0.1
termining the performance of the Watt relay is:
d. Transformers: Z = 5%, R/X ratio= 0.22
e. Network load: 1000 KVA at 0.80 pF, balanced with
T = K (V ala Cos Oa + Vblb Cos Ob +
zero seq uence representation of 1 .6 + j 1 .2 per unit to
account for assumed total unbalanced load Ve Ic Cos Oc) (13-1)

Simultaneous equations can determine the currents through Where O a- Ob, and O e are the anglcs by which the respective
the two network protectors and the network line-to-ground eurrents lead the eorresponding line-to-ground voltage. For
voltages. The results are shown in Figure 13-12. Sinee the the Watt-Var relay:
currents are unbalaneed, relay operation cannot be fully
determined from the phasor diagrarns, which apply to bal- T = -K (V a\ Cos Oba + Vble Cos O cb
+ Vcla Cos O ac) (13-2)
 13·7

Substituting the vaiues of the exam ple from Figure 13-12

Open
1
into Equations ( 13-1) and (13-2), respectively, the relay
Fuse torque for the Watt relay is

rp p rpp
Faulted transformer: T = -0.0868 K (Trip)
Nelwork Unfaulted transformer: T = 1.7533 K (Non-t rip)
l~ransformers 11,
and for the Watt-Var relay

) ) ) Network Prolectors ) ) )
Faulted transformer: T = -7 .8637 K l Trip)
lb [~ ¡~ la lb le Unfaulted transformer: T = 9.5805 K (Non-r r ip)
L L i) Seeondory Fuses L ¡) ¡)
Thus, although either relay type will respond correctly , t he
o
1
b operating torque for the Watt-Var relay is over 90 times
1 1 e
that of the Watt relay. Clearly, it will operare rnuch Iaster.
1 1 1
Similar calculat ions for line-to-line and double line-to-
Nelwork Load
ground faults, wit h two Iuses opening , also show greater
16' 8.584~0 Ve '.9934 lEQ.º
torque for the Watr-Var relay=approximately 12 and 9
times greater, respectively.

Ext ensive invest igat ions on spot network syst crns cornpar-
ing Watt and Watt-Var master relay response under unbal-
anced fault conditions have led to t h e following co nclu-
sions:

a. The Watt-Var rclay will a lways develop a much great er

tripping torque for unsymmetr ical prirnar y faults, with
or without blown primary Iuses.

vb, .98411-122.5• b. For unbalanced primary faults on sorne spot networks-

la ,a.995!-74.8º
part icularly single line-to-ground faults-with or without
v0, Vb,Vc voucces an Ne1work Load Bus (Phosors Not To Sco1e)
blown primary fuses, the Watt relay may not develop
tripping torque until the primary feeder breaker ahead
Figure 13-12: Ouantities in The Network Protectors for The
Simultaneous Unbalance of Figure 13-11.
of the fuses opens. On t he other hand , t he Watt-Yar re-
lay will always develop tripping torque ar the instant of
fault inception.
Where 8ba• 8 cb ' and 8 acare the angles by which the respec-
tive currents lead the indicated voltages. In other words, c. Watt-Var relays will always trip the protector much
8ba is the angle by which lb Ieads Va. faster on ali unbalanced f'aults, with or without blown
primary fuses.
Under balanced conditions, Equation (13-1) reduces to
There are, however , severa! limitations to applying Watt-
Var relays as spot network unit prot ectors:
T = K (3Vl Cos 8) ( 13-3)
a. Under the condition shown in Figure 13-13, there is a
and Equation ( 13-2) to possibility of a false non-trip operation, instead of a tri p.
lf the top primary feeder breaker is opened, it should
T = K (3VI Cos (60 + 8)0) ( 13-4) cause the associated network protector to open. If,
however, the cable charging curre nt Oc) is greater than
A negative value of torque corresponds to a relay trip ac- the transformer magnetizing current (IM), the protector
tion; for the Watt relay, maximum tripping torque occurs will not open. (See Figure 13-14.) That is, the vector
at 180° (Figure 13-2) and for the Watt-Var relay, at 120° sum IM + le of the two currents will be in the non-trip
(Figure 13-10). region if le is sufficiently greater than IM. Conversely ,
 13-8

the Watt relay will always trip under this condition, re- 11.B.2. Effect of Non-dedicated Feeders
gardless of the relative values of le and IM.
Unlike a dedicated network feeder, which supplies only net-
b. A false trip operation is possible when too many un-
work transforrners, a non-dedicated feeder supplies other
switched capacitors are left on the network bus during
non-network load, as well as network transformers. When
light load periods. As shown by Figure 13-1 O, the Watt-
a spot network is supplied from non-dedicated feeders, un-
Var relay will trip if the power factor angle of the net-
equal loading and unequal impedances in the primary feed-
work load is greater than 30° lead. Again, the Watt re-
ers may cause one network unit to experience a reverse cur-
lay will opérate correctly.
rent. For exarnple, in Figure 13-13, a heavy load tapped
c. The Watt-Var relay cannot replace the Watt relay in ex- from the upper overhead feeder may cause a reverse current
isting installations. The relay connections differ, and, in network unit 1. This is illustrated in Figure 13-15. A
more importantly, special interference mounting studs reversa! such as shown for unit 1 will occur when source
on the protector prevent the insertion of a Watt-Var re- breaker 1 is opened or may be caused by circulating cur-
lay on a protector originally equipped with a Watt relay, rents.
and vice versa, on Type CM-22 network protectors. The
new Type CMD drawout network protectors are pro-
vided with a Type CN-33 relay that wil! exhibit either a
V9
Watt or Watt-Var tripping characteristic depending upon
how the protector is wired. This Type CN-33 relay is 2
used exclusive!y on the Type CMD protectors and can-
Zt
not be used on the Type CM-22 protectors".
z,

u 1!ly
¡L
O H Feeder Cobre Ze
Unit Unit

1x¡1y
2 Zr Zr 1
Un,11
Ctosed
VN
f
Un,1 2 l
IN
Figure 13-13: Spor Network With One Breaker Open.

Figure 13-15: Spot Network With One Non-Dedicated Feeder.

Nelwork
Voltoge
When source 1 opens, the associated protector for unit 1
0.8 Logg,ng PF Nelwork will open and interrupt the tapped load. Network unit 2
l.DOd Curren! would then carry the total network load, which crea tes no
serious problern if network unit 2 is properly size d and the
protector relays are properly calibrated.

Circulating current le, Figure 13-15, results from unequal

voltage drops in the two feeders, primarily because of the
tapped load IL, and flows to equalize the drops in the two
paths between the substation and network busses. As a re-
sult, one of the network protectors will have a net result-
ant current, Iy - le, the phasor difference between its load
current and the circulating current.

If this net current is in the reverse direction, the network

protector will open, stopping the flow of circulating cur-
Figure 13-14: Condition of Figure 13-13 Rasulting in Non-Trip of
Unit Number 1 Protector With The Watt-Ver Natwork rent. The protector will reclose if the resultant phasing
Relays. voltage is within the close región, restoring the condition
 13-9

of circulating current. The protector will again open. Con- Assuming the Watt relay is used, the protector will trip
tinuous protector pumping is thus theoretically possible un- when the real component of ly - le given by Equation
til the load changes to a point where the net current through ( 13-11) is negative in sign. Since the impedances in
the protector is in the forward direction or the phasing volt- Eq uation ( 13-1 1) are complex numbers, it is difficult to
age prevents the protector from closing. However, it is usu- develop a simple expression showing when the real part
ally possible to adjust the phasing relay ro prevent pumping. of Iy - le is negative. A simple expression can, however ,
Having the protector trip and stay open is pref'erable to be written if the resistive components of the impedances
pumping, but the advantage of the spot network is lost . lf, are assurned to be zero. Under this assurnptiori, the real
however, the other feeder trips out. the initially open pro- componen! of IY - le is negative whenever
tector will close, thus restoring service to the load after a
mornentary outage. (13-12)

The major advantage of the spot network, service continuity ,

or:
is nullified if one of the source or one of the two protectors
is open during normal conditions. Clearly then, it is impor-
tan! that both network protectors in a two-unit spot net-
( 13-13)
work be closed at ali times.

The ne t resultan! curren! ly - le can be rletermined by Where <R symbolizes "the real component of, "ÍL and iN
equating the voltage drops of the t wo paths in Figure 13-15. are the scalar values of the currents, and 8L and 8N are their
angles with respect to the network voltage (negative for cur-
rent lagging voltage).
(Ix + le) (Zd + ZT) =
(!y - 1cJ (Zf + z, + ZT) + I L 2r {13-5 J
Equation ( 13-13) permits a quick check of the Watt master
Rearranging. relay performance under various load and imped ance condi-
tions. lf the inequality given by Equation ( 13-1 3) is satisfied,

(!Y - 1 c> (Zf + z, + 2T) =

rhe relay will trip the protector. Examination of this inequal-
ity reveals three important points. First, increasing the load
(IX+ 1c) (Zd + 2T) - IL 2r ( 13-6)
on the network (scalar value of ÍN) with ali other quantities
fixed, except for ÍL in Equation ( 1 3-13), allows a higher load
and or
(scalar value of iL) to be placed on the tapped feeder, with-
out having reverse current flow and protector tripping. Sec-
1X = IN-1 y ( 1 3- 7)
ond , with the network load and feeder load (ÍL and iN) fixed,
increasing the impedance of the network transformer (XT) or
Subst ituting,
untapped feeder (Xd) may prevent reverse current flow in
the protector associated with the tapped feeder. Third, re-
([Y - le) (Zf + z, + ZT) =
ducing the impedance (Xf of the tapped feeder between the
(IN - 1y + 1c) (Zd + 2T) - (L 2f ( 13-8) substation and tapped load also reduces the chance of reverse
current flow and protector tripping.
= - (!y - le) (Zd + ZT)

+ IN (Zd + ZT) -IL Zr (13-9) Similarly, the criterion for a trip operation of the Watt-Var
re lay f or the system of Figure 13-1 5 is

(Iy - 1c) (Zd + z, + 2r + 2ZT) =

IN(Zd+ZT)-ILZf (13-1 O)
(13-14)

IN (Zd + Zr) - 1 L Zr
I -I =~~~~~~~
y e zd + z, + Zr + 2ZT ( 13-1 1)
 13-10

A comparison of Equations ( 13-13) and ( 1 3-14) leads to the III. PROTECTION OF UTILITY/INDUSTRIAL PLANT
following general conclusions for the system in Figure 1 3-1 5: TIES

a. The Watt-Var relay is a better choice if the tapped load The electrieal interconneetion bet ween utility and indus-
angle is algebraically greater than the network load angle trial plant is importanl bot h lo the utility and to the eco-
(a lag ang]e of lower magnitude is the algebraically nomic operation of the industrial eompany. Early and
greater). careful planning, with close mutual coordination, is the
key to protecting the tie between utility and plant.
b. Both types of relays have the same response if the
tapped load angle and the network load angle are equal. Arrangernents used to serve an industrial plant depend on
the size and type of the plant load and the importance of
c. The Watt relay is a better application if the tapped load service continuity. No n-int errup tablc power is not possi-
angle is algebraically smaller (greater in magnitude) ble without stand by facilities, although utilities do pro·
than the net work load angle. vide e xtrernely high service continuity. Factors which af-
fect protection includc the presence of local generation;
A balancing transformer can be used, as shown in Figure high inertia loads that can contribute significant fault cur-
J 3-16. * in cases where each type of r elay can present a rcnt; connections an d grounding of the supply u ansf'orrn-
proble m. The cross cormection adds only a small irnped- ers, whcther or not thc feeders or supply lines are dedi-
anee for the t hrough curr ents lx and ly, and the leakage cated: and reclosing requiremcnts.
impedance is only about 0.5 percent on the net work trans-
formcr rat ing base. On the other hand, the impedance to Severa! typical three-phase supply systerns will be dis-
t hc crrculat ing currcnt , IC' is very large. lls value is t wice cussed, emphasizing thc protcction of the plan! or syst e m ,
thc magnctiz ing impedancc of one of the balancing trans- rather than of the apparatus and the lincs or f'eeders. Thc
formcrs. which is approx irnat cly 1.5 per unit on the sa m e protection of apparatus and Icedcrs is covercd in Chapters
base. The ef'Iect i~ to reduce t hc circulaling curre nt to 6 t hrough 10.
very Jow valucs, pract ically eliminating the possibility of
t ripping. Severa! systcrns are in general use lo suppJy powcr toan
industrial plant.

J, J, 111.A. Single Line Terminating or Tapped

Ic
•'
1 1;
'1 into Transformers
'
''
:
1
'
''' .... __ ... , ,
' The simplcst service toan industrial plant is a single line

[><TI) ¡ry
' i

lx ¡ from t he substation terminating or tapped into one or

more transformcrs (Figure 13-17). With only onc plant
connect cd, thc feeder is "dcdicated ," but often other
plants are tappcd on the ut ilit y feeder. The transformers
and associatcd switchgear may be owned eithcr by t he
Figure 13- 16: Balancing Transformers for Spot Networks With utility or the industrial cornpany. Since , in this scheme,
Non-Dedicated Feeders.
there are no high-side brcakcrs at the industrial terminal or
tap, the utility substation breaker must he opencd for trans-
1 former faults, or, at the least , provisions rnust he madc for
such opening where transformcr high-side fuses are used.
1 •The solid arrows shown in thc balancing transforrner secondaries
represent the load current components. They ílow around the Transformers should be equipped with fault protect ion such
secondary loop with the same polarity in thc secondarics and hence
as sud den pressure relays and/or differential relays. This
encounter a low series irnpcdancc, The dotted arrows are the circu-
lating current componcnts, which are of opposite polarity in thc sec- fault protection must transfer-trip the suhstation breaker by
ondary loop and hence encounter a high series impedance. one of the severa! mcthods described in Chapter 1 5. With.

~~-~
'~~1
( (
Utility
Substohon
Industrial Ptcm
Figure 13-17: Plant Fed by Single Line Terminating
into Transformers.
high-side fuses, transfer-trip is still desirable to provide
back up, should the fuses fail to clear the fault.
If the transformers have no protection except for the high-
side fuses, the substation line relays must then provide
back up. Generally , these relays will not be sensitive enough
to operate Ior light interna! faults.
With two plant transformers, as shown in Figure 13-17,
the low voltage bus is usually split into two sections con·
nected through a bus tie breakcr, normally operated open.
This arrangement reduces the low voltage feeder breaker
short-circuit duty and results in only a partial plant outage
if one transformer fails and its high-side fuses open. The
darnaged transformer can then be isolated by its high volt·
age switches and the low voltage main breaker.
By closing the bus tie breaker, the load on the bus can be
transferred to the other transformer and bus. This bus tie
breaker can be closed automatically if three conditions are
met: (1) one bus voltage is normal, (2) the other bus volt-
age is zero, and (3) the transformer breaker on the dead
bus is open.
111.B. Single Line Terminating or Tapped into a
High-Side Breaker
Shown in Figure 13-18, this system provides the transform-
ers with separate protection, so that transformer faults can
be cleared without tripping the utility substation breaker.
Toe low-side bus tie breaker may be operated either nor-
mally open or normally closed, depending on the equipment
capacity and operating requirements. If normally open, thís
breaker should be equipped with a high speed automatic
transfer scheme to close as soon as the corresponding trans-
former secondary breaker opens upon loss of voltage on one
bus section. To avoid damage to motors operating under
13-11
~~
~1
Util,ty
SubSIOhon
Industrial Plont
Figure 13-18: Plant Fed by Single Line With Transformer
HV Breakers.
heavy loads, it may be necessary to delay the closing with a
type SVF-1 relay set to drop out at 25 percent of normal
voltage. At this voltage level, automatic reenergization of
the motor is acceptable.
111.C. Industrial Plants Served from Loop Systems
Used to provide the plant with an alterna te supply, a typical
system of this type is shown in Figure 13-19. The two lines,
supplied from different utility substations, improve plant
service continuity. These circuits are usually non-dedicated,
with severa! other loads sirnilarly connected or tapped by a
single connection terminating at the plant, as in Figures
13-1 7 and 13-1 8. The loop may be open at one of the
plants, normally operating with one of the high-side break·
ers open. This arrangernent limits the short circuit kVA at
the plant bus and avoids undesirable power exchange, with
its inherent losses, between the two utility substations.
(Note that these lines are distribution circuits and are not
intended nor required for transmission.)
lf the loop is opened at the plant, it provides stand by serv-
ice rapidly available by automatic transfer, or by supervisory
control or local transfer control after a short outage.
11
T, T,
__ t.. __ro--1-
Figure 13-19: Pl11nt Fed by Loop System.
 J 3-12

111.D. Double Lines Terminating or Tapped
into Transformers
As illustrated in Figure 13-20, the high-side paralleling dis-
connect switch in this system is normally open except when
one line is out of service. It is then !limilar to the systern
shown in Figure 13-17. If the load cannot be balanced con·
cated, as shown, or there may be other taps. To justify this
arrangernent, plant power requirernents generally involve
lines from 69 kV up. The plant would have local genera-
tion, and lines would be protected by one of the many
schemes described in Chapters I O or 16.

~---+--_:~ ~
veniently on the two bus sections, the low-side bus tie
breaker, if present, is normally closed, as long as the switch-
gear has adequate interrupting capability.

itt:~(
Closed Open

u1,111y
1------~~-J - 1
Suos1011on lnduslriol Plon1 Figure 13-21: Modification of System of Figure 13-20.

Figure 13-20: Plant Fed by Two Lines Terminating into

Transformers.

Generally, relaying can be applied as for the system in Fig-

ure 13-17. The following considerations should be observed:

,! a. With thc high-side bus tie breaker operated normally

open, each line and its transformer is a separate system
and should be prot.ected as such. Ullllty
Substouon Piont Subs101,on

b. The normally open bus tie breaker can be closed auto·

matically when one bus section voltage is zero with the
corresponding transformer secondary breaker open.
c. A u toma tic transfer should be coordinated with the sub·
station breakers.
In a modification of this systern, shown in Figure 13-21,
the plant is tapped on a double line serving other custorn-
ers. Each plant is connected to one of the two lines through
a normally closed disconnect switch, with the other discon-
nect switch normally open. While only one transformer is
shown, two may be used in an arrangement similar to the
one in Figure 13-20.
Figure 13-22: System With Substation at Industrial Plant.
JII.F. Plant Protection
When a service interruption occurs, the protection at the
plant depends principally on four factors: ( 1) the supply
arrangement, (2) whether the plant has local generaticn
and/or synchronous rnotors, (3) the nature of the loads,
and (4) the reclosing requirements of the substation breaker.
Severa! cases are considered below.
III.F. l. Plant System Protection with No Local
Generation and No Automatic Reclosing

111.E. Plant Substation Termination The recommended protection for this system consists of an
undervoltage and reverse-phase type CP relay (device 27/47),
A substation is used for large industrial plants, as shown with a multi-contact auxiliary type WL (device 94). Since
typically in Figure J 3-22. The supply feeders may be dedi- this type CP is a three-phase relay, only one is required.

On loss of utility supply at a plant bus, the type CP oper-
ates through the WL relay to trip the transformer
breaker(s) and/or ali the motor feeder breakers.
operation prevents ali the motors from re-starting
ously on restoration or on automatic transfer of service.
Motor feeder protection is not necessary if the utilíty's
ating instructions require the utility operator to obtain a
clearance from the plant before restoring service, either by
closing the substation breaker or by transferring
nate source. Even in this case, however, automatic
of the transformer main breaker(s) is desirable.
phase reversa] of the supply occur on restoration
will prevent breaker reclosing on supply-side voltage or
retrip on plant-side voltage.
lf the plant's line breakers are equipped for automatic trans-
fer, service should not be restored to running motors unless
they are disconnected or unless the voltage has decayed to
around 25 percent of normal.
III.F.2. Plant System Protection with No Local
Generation but with Automatic Reclosing
Since many supply faults are transient, automatic reclosing
of the substation breaker can provide fast service restoration
and minirnize plant outage. To avoid out-of-phase reclosing
and possible damage, synchronous or large induction motors
should be disconnected before restoration, These motors
can have induced voltage resulting from the residual flux or
shunt capacitor excitation at the time of supply restoration.
If the reclosing is delayed around 5 to I O seconds, the auto-
rnatic trip and lockout scheme of the CP and W L relays can
be applied to the plant feeders involved.
The type KP (27) three-phase voltage (and phase sequence)
relay is recommended for higher speed reclosing. lt consists
of a cylinder unit with its two windings energized by three
phase voltage in an open delta type connection. The pick-up
or drop-out is adjustable between 30 to l 20 volts. If motors
represent a large part of the plant load, the voltage decay
rate may be too slow to opera te the high speed KP relay be-
fore reclosing takes place. In such cases, reclosing rnust be
delayed or the critica! motor load disconnected by such
means as a transfer trip.
At the plant substation, the supply transformer breaker can
be automatically reclosed on restoration of the supply for
all loads and motors that can be restarted automatically.
For example, the main breaker and those feeders that are
13-13
not to be restarted automatically are tripped on loss of sup-
rnain ply. Ali the other feeder breakers would remain closed.
The latter Upon restoration, the main plant breaker would close auto-
sirnultane- matically if the source-side voltage is normal and the plant-
side voltage is low.
oper-
The circuit for this arrangement is shown in Figure 13-23.
Typical setting for the SV-1 (59S) overvoltage relay would
toan alter- be 95 percent of normal voltage. Its drop-out at 40 to 80
tripping percent of rated voltage should avoid opening the contacts
Should a when the source voltage drops because of inrush. The
, the CP SVF-1 (29L) undervoltage relay is typically set for a drop-
out of approximately 25 percent of rated voltage which is
constant over 20 to 60 Hz. Thus, the transformer main
breaker will reclose automatically only when the source
voltage is close to normal and where automatic reenergiza-
tion of the motors is acceptable; that is, when the plant
voltage from the running motors has decayed to about 25
percent of normal. This scheme maximizes service restora-
tion in the mínimum feasible time.
-----t: f------;!f---
59$ 27L
Reclose Circu,t
Type SV-1 (59$): sooree $1deOver-VollogeReloy
Type SVF-1(27U: Lood Side Under-Voltoge Reloy
Figure 13-23: Supervision of Automatic Reclosing of Transformer
Main Breaker.
111.F.3. Plant System Protection with Local Generation
but No Automatic Reclosing
Generation within the plant requires fast opening of the
utility tíe, both to clear faults on the interconnection and
to avoid back feed to the utility or other loads on non-
dedicated feeders. Protective relays are thus required to
trip the main tie breaker. Directional phase overcurrent
relays-either type IRV or CR (67)-are recommended.
They are connected Jooking into the tie and must be co-
ordinated with the utility's substation protection scheme.
The instantaneous unit will provide high speed tripping
for transformer faults but, depending on the relative values
of the transformer and line impedances, may provide very
little to no line fault protection. *
*The principies of setting and coordinating these relays are covered
in Chapter 10.
 13-14
Jt is assumed that the local generation can supply sufficient
current to operare these relays for faults on the intercon-
nection. For greater sensitivity , the phase overcurrent unit
can be set below load, since normal power only flows frorn
the u tility to the plan t.
With a single line supply and a plant supply transformer
wye-grounded on the high side, a type CO (51G) relay con-
nected to a current transformer in the grounded neutral
will provide protection for ground faults on the tie. Where
the transformer is grounded delta on the high side, high
side voltage transformers connected in broken delta to a
type CV (59G) ground relay are recommended. Either ty pe
rnust be coordinated with the utilíty's relays to avoid pri-
rnary operation for ground faults not on the industrial plant
tie.
With the transformer high side delta connected, opening the
utility substation breaker changes the interconnection toan
ungrounded system. In this case, the fault power is consider-
ably reduced. However, the local generation may supply
positive sequence cnergy sufficient to maintain the ground
fault ares indefinitely while contributing to possible reso-
nance between the transformer magnetizing inductance and
the feeder shunt capacitance.
A sensitive power relay, such as the type H-3 (3 2), or KH-1
(32) can be applied to opérate on reverse power from the
plant into the utility tie. On non-dedicatcd Ieeders, such a
relay is required to prevent the plant's feeding other loads
when the utility breaker is open. Both types should be used
with a timer to avoid operations on momentary or transient
reversals. Naturally, the phase angle and magnitude of the
reverse currents are important criteria for these applications.
The H3 is a three-phase directional relay with a three phase
minimum pick-up of 0.08 amps at 120 volts at maximum
torque. One style uses the 90-45° connection with maxi-
mum torque when I lags by 45°. Another style provides
a watt characteristic with rnaxirnum torque when I is in
phase with the applied voltage. The KH-1 is a single phase
cylinder type directional relay with a mínimum pick-up of
0.020 amperes at 120 volts at maximum torque which oc-
curs when I leads the app!ied voltage by 30°. To provide
a watt characteristic for reverse power detection, the delta
voltage lagging the unity power factor phase current is used.
On closed-loop systems (Figure 13-19) or systems with dual
supply and high-side breakers (Figure 13-22), ground relay-
-
ing is not subject to the problerns outlined above if there is
a ground source at the utility end of each source. For these
systerns, conventional directional ground relays should be
applied.
Voltage polarization can be used where the plant transform-
ers are connected delta on the high side, as long as three
high-side voltage transformers are available to provide 3Eo.
lf these voltage transformers are not available or cannot be
used, a negative sequence directional ground relay =such as
the type CRQ or IRQ (67N) can be connected to the voltage
transformers on the low voltage bus. This secondary poten-
tial must always be connected to the primary system.
In most cases, the local generation is not capable of supply-
ing the entire plant when the tie to the utility systern is Jost.
Under frequency relays should therefore be applied to open
preselected feeders, automatically shedding load until it
matches the existing generation. The purpose of automatic
load-shedding is to retain the most critica! loads and avoid
a complete plant or process shut down. Systern load-saving
is discussed in Chapter 21.
After the tie is opened, it is necessary to resynchronize the
local generation with the utility system. Resynchroniza-
tion can be performed rnanually, serni-automatically by
using the type CVE or CVE-1 synchroriism verifier relay
(25), or automatically by an XASV automatic synchronizer.
Ill.F.4. Plant System Protection with Both Local
Generation and Automatic Reclosing
With this systern, both the industrial plant and utility sub-
station breakers must be tripped simultaneously at high
speed, providing a dead time on the line that allows the
transient fault to deionize before any reclosing takes place.
In practice, sorne type of pilot relaying is required for the
interconnection. Two common schemes are the HCB pilot
wire or the K-DAR directional comparison blocking systerns,
described in Chapters 14 and 16. Assurning a good source
at the utility end, the HCB pilot wire is the only system
that can provide simultaneous high speed tripping at both
ends even when the local generation is very light or out of
service. Ali other relaying schemes require sufficient fault
energy to operate relays at the light generation terminal.
Weak-feed pilot systems can be applied and described in
Chapter 17.
 13-15

With high speed simultaneous tripping of both ends of the Bus

S1011c Lood= ZL
tie, high speed, single-shot reclosing can be used for both
breakers, with only a momentary interruption for transient t
Open Mo1or(s)
line faults. A study should be made to ensure that the local x, Phose Xs,Xm,Xr, Rs,Rr
generation ang]e will not be significantly different from the Xz s,s1,p
utility's during the 15- to 20-cycle open time. Jf the genera-
(a) Schematic of an Industrial Plant
tion angles differ, the utility will reclose instantly, and the
plant can resynchronize either rnanually, semi-automatically, Pos,11ve secoeoceNeu1rol Bus Nl
or automatically , as described above.
l
jXm Jl;S(Rr) ZL
Since a transient line fault does not always clear on the first rs
z, Bus As jXs jXr
attempt at reclosing, the utility frequently will use reclosing
1
relays to make two additional time-delayed attempts to re-
close before locking out. Plant resynchronizing will occur NL Negotive Sequence Neulrol Bus NL
after a successful reclosure or, in case of a permanent fault,
jXm Ll(Rr)
upon manual restoration of service. 2-S ZL

Z2 Bus Rs jXs jXr

lll.F.S. Single-Phase Protection (See also Chapter 7)
Wherever the transformers have high-side fuses rather than
a circuit breaker, single-phasing will result when one fuse
blows. All industrial plant loads include induction rnotors,
which will attempt to maintain voltage on the open phase.
Therefore, unless the induction motors stall, voltage relays
such as type CP (27 /4 7) or type KP (27) may not opera te
for the single-phasing condition.
Figure 13-24 shows the equivalent circuit of a systern with
induction motors and static loads in parallel during single-
phase conditions. The zero sequence network is not in-
volved, since either the loads or source are ungrounded
(or at least no zero sequence path exists from the source
to the loads). The motors will have a largeshare of the neg-
ative sequence current; at speeds about pullout, their neg-
ative sequence impedance is much less than their positive.
sequence impedance. When the motors pull out and stall,
the two impedances are equal, with s = 1.
¡
lb) Sequence Networks and rmerconoecnons for Phase "a .. Open on The
Supply Source.
Figure 13-24: Equivalent Diagram of Static and lnduction Motor
Loads During a Single Phase Ooaration.
lf the induction motors continue to run, the voltage un-
balance will probably not be sufficient to operate current-
type phase un balance relays. The CVQ (27 /4 7) negative se-
quence voltage relay is therefore recommended for single-
phase protection of the plant supply. This relay will op-
erate when the negative sequence component of the volt-
ages is O.OS per unit, even for a l Oü-percent motor load,
provided the initial load is at least 25 percent of the motors'
total rated load. The relay, energized from the low voltage
bus, should trip the associated transformer secondary
breaker.
IV. AUTOMATIC TRANSFER SCHEMES

The induction motors supply the static loads connected to
the open phase and, above a critica] ratio of static load to
initial motor load, the motors will stall. For example, as-
suming a single motor and a static load equal to 3 per unit
on the rated motor input kV A base, the motor will stall
upon single phasing if its initial load were about 0.2 per
unit. lf the static load is equal to one per unit, pullout
will result if the initial motor load is about 0.5 per unit.
The induction rnotors will generally continue to run upon
single phasing if they constitute 80 percent or more of total
plant load, even if they were fully loaded initially.
Major applications for automatic transfer schemes include
the transfer of power plant auxiliaries, the transfer of large
loads from one source to another, and the transfer of dis-
tribution feeders from one bus section to another. Ali
these schemes have one common objective: the transfer of
loads from a normal or preferred source of power to a
stand by or ernergency source, with maximum service con-
tinuity and without equipment damage.
 13-16
IV .A. Au toma tic Transfer of Bulk Loads
Automatic transfer for large, important loads can be used
wherever an alternate supply is available but not normally
connected-whether for economic reasons, to limit short
circuit capability, or for any other reason. The load may
be a distribution substation, a large commercial load, oran
industrial plant. Among a number of practicable schemes,
two examples will illustrate the principies.
The first, shown schematically in Figure 13-25, in vol ves
a number of loads fed by individual transformers from a
double feeder. The taps are connected alternately, so that
the two lines are either the normal or the stand by source,
depending on the position of the disconnect switches.
(Note that one tap station in Figure 13-25 is shown in de-
tail.) This example does not use high voltage breakers; the
disconnect switches are power operated.
For faults on the supply lines, the substation breaker will
trip, with or without reclosures, in an attempt to restore
service. The transfer scherne, as shown in Figure 13-25, is
initiated when the type CV relay (278) operates on loss of
Sobsronon (s)
Í"'59L2
T,onsfer Schernotic
to, Loss of
Normol Supply
59LI
89N
b f;,
89N
LS5 Legend:
N.O.
N.C.
L.S.O.
Open 89N Glose 89A L.S.C.
Figure 13-25: Automatic Transfer of Bulk Loads Served by Single Transformer Bank.
supply voltage. lts contacts close, after a time delay to pre-
vent unnecessary transfer, either during brief voltage dips
resulting from faults elsewhere or during the substation re-
closing cycle. Where there is either no reclosing or single-
shot reclosing of the substation breaker, the time delay be-
fore contact closure should be approximately O. 7 5 second
for zero volts. With severa! timed reclosures of the substa-
tion breaker, the time delay of the CV must, of course, be
increased to coordinate with the reclosing cycle. An auxi l-
iary timing relay may be required. The time delays of the
relays at other load locations on the same source should be
unequal, providing sequential rather than simultaneous
transfer.
In Figure 13-25, devices 59Ll and 59L2 are instantaneous
overvoltage relays, such as type SV, connected to the
sources as shown. When the normal source fails, contacts
59LI and 278 close on loss of voltage. lf normal voltage is
available on the alternate source, 59L2 contacts will be
closed, thus energizing the open 89N circuit. The 89N dis-
connect switch, upon opening, closes 89N(b) to complete
the close 89A circuit provided 89A (LSC) is closed. Relay
59Ll prevents transfer if breaker 52 or the transformer
high-side fuse opens.
To Other
t.oods
52
b
~
o
Manual Tronsfer
8ock to
Prefered Suppty
t
89A
LSO
= Normally Open
= Normally Closed
= Limit Switch Open
= Limit Switch Closed Clase 89N Open 89A

The power-operated disconnects have limit switches to cut
off the control power on full open (LSO) and full closed
(LSC) positions. Hence, the LSC contact is closed when
the disconnect switch is open, while the LSO contact is
j
closed when the disconnect switch is closed. These LSC
and LSO contacts are shown in Figure 13-25 with the dis-
connect switch closed.
After service is restored, return to the normal supply may
be either manual or automatic. Manual return, shown in
1 Figure 13-25, is generally preferred. With manual return,
the transformer secondary breaker 52 must be tripped, since
the disconnect switches cannot interrupt load curren t. Aux-
iliary switch 89A(b), shown in the 89N close circuit, is re-
quired when the two sources cannot be paralleled even
¡
mornentarily during the transfcr. To close 89N, the control
switch CS(c) is manually operated, first energizing the open-
ing circuit of 89A by closing CS(o). When 89A is open, as
indicated by the closure of 89A(b), 89N is closed. During
' this proccss, the control switch rnust be held in the close
position, and breaker 52 must be open.
J This action completes the circuit shown at the lower left of
1 lf automatic return is requíred, a CY relay designated 27 L,
energized from the source side of 89N can be used to open
89A and close 89N with 52 open. This requires autornatic
tripping and reclosing of the transformer secondary breaker.
For economic reasons, single-phase or line-to-line rneasure-
ment of the voltages for transfer in the a bove schemes are
generally considered satisfactory. The probability of the
supply source operating single phase is normally very low;
however, three-phase measurernent of the voltages may
possibly be required. In this case, the type CP relay (47)
can replace the type CY (27). The CP will detect and op-
erate on undervoltage phase failure and phase reversa!.
However, its operation on phase failure requires an induc-
tion motor load on the bus of less than 80 percent of the
total load. The induction motors will act as phase bal-
ancers and attempt to hold up three-phase voltage. Where
induction motor load exceeds 80 percent of the total, a
type CVQ (27 /47) negative sequence voltage relay should
be used to detect phase failure.
As shown in Figure 13-26, important substations are al-
most always served by two or more transformers to mini-
mize an extended outage resulting from a transformer
failure. The Jow voltage bus is normally operated split,
with the bus tie (52-3) open to reduce the interrupting
requirement of the low-side breakers. Similarly, for nor-
13-17
mal operation, the transformers are not paralleled on the
high voltage side.
Type CV undervoltage relays (27-1 and 27-2) indicate
voltage on their respective low voltage busses. These relays
are set so their normally closed contacts close after about
O. 7 5 second del ay on loss of voltage; their normally open
contacts close approximately 2.0 seconds after restoration
of normal voltage.
This scheme assumes high speed single-shot rcclosing of the
source breakers. Devices 27- 1 X and 27-2X are type MG-6
auxiliary relays; devices 86Tl and 86T2 are type W L lockout
relays, operated by the transformer protective relays. Nor-
rnally, with voltage, both bus No. 1 and No. 2 back contacts
27-1 and 27-2 are open, with 27-1 X and 27-2X deenergized.
If an unsuccessful reclosure causes an outage on Iine No. 1,
the 27-1 normally open contact opens and thc 27-1 normally
closed contact closes to energize and sea) in auxiliary 27-1 X.
Figure 13-26 to open the 89-1 disconnect siwtch, and in
turn close 89-1 (b). This completes the circuit to close the
89-3 disconnect switch. Service is then restored by connect·
ing TI and bus I to the line No. 2 supply.
If, for any reusen, bus No. 2 voltage is not normal, relay 27-2
will operate to energize and seal in auxiliary 27-2X. lts back
contact 27-2X in the 89-1 open and 89-3 close circuit pre-
vents the transfer.
The return of voltage on bus No. 1 energizes relay 27-1, clos-
ing the norrnally open 27-1 contact and opening the 27-1
back contact, thereby resetting auxiliary 27-1 X. For an
outage on line No. 2, a similar circuit exists to transfer
transformer T2 and bus No. 2 to line No. 1.
The transfer circuits for faults in transformer T l are shown
on the lower right side of Figure 13-26. The transformer
protective devices will opera te lockout relay 86T 1, tripping
and locking out breaker 52-1, and transfer-tripping and
locking out line No. 1 source breaker. (Note that this cir-
cuitry is not shown in the figure.) The resulting Iine No. 1
outage operates relay 27-1 to pickup 27-1 X, as described
above. The opening of 86Tl normal closed contacts
(shown on the left-hand schematic) prevents disconnect
switch 89-1 from opening and 89-3 from closing. When
27-1 X picks up, however, the circuit at the right side is com-
plete, opening disconnect breaker 89-1 and isolating the
13-18
.,

Linel Line2 IV.B. Automatic Transfer at Utilization Voltage

Arnong the schemes used for automatic transfer at utiliza-

N.C8189·1
H.C.189-2
N.O. tion voltage, a typical example is shown in Figure 13-27.
89·3 Devices 27-1 and 27-2 are either type CV relays, which give
TI T2

± ~- ±
single-phase indication, or type CP relays for three-phase
152·1 152·2 voltage measurement. Type MG-6 electrical reset relays are
Busl Bus2 used for 27-1 X and 27-2X, along with an operatc coi! (O)

® ®
52·3
27-2
anda reset coi! (R). Devices 86-1 and 86-2, type WL lock-
out auxiliary relays, are operated by their respective bus
...______.1¡;
© ©
differential relays. Their zone may include the transforrner.

27-1 U pon loss of voltage on the transformer No. 1 secoridary,

~
relay 27-1 closes its normally closed contact; which pickup
27-1 X. Operate coi! (O) latches in and opens its own "oper-
ate" coi! circuit. One set of normally open 27-1 X contacts

f
closes to trip breaker 52-1 through the normally closed con-
86 186

I tacts of 27-2X, indicating voltage on transformer No. 2.

T2 Tl

27 27 Sin ce 27-1 X is close d, breaker 5 2T is closed automatically

IX lX

27 27 after breaker 52-1 trips by closing its 52-1 (b) contact.

2X 2X
Thus, bus No. 1 load is connected to bus No. 2.

89·1 52-1 Relay 27-1 will be energiz ed when transformer No. 1 voltage
b b
returns to normal. Closing the normally open 27-1 contact
Open 89-1 ciese 89·3 Open 89·1 Close 52 · 3 energizes the 27-1 X reset coi!. A norrnally closed contact
Une 1 Outage Transformer 1 Fault of 27-IX then doses to trip break-r 52-T. Breaker 52-1 will
Tnp 52-1 Transfer TripUne 1
reclose automatically after breaker 52T opens to close
Figure 13-26: Automatic Transfer of Bulk Loads Served by Two 52-T(b).
Transformer Banks.
A similar operation occurs on loss of secondary voltage to
transformer No. 2, resulting in t he transfer of toad by con-
faulted transformer TI. Since 52-1 has been tripped open, nection of bus No. 2 to bus No. 1. This operation includes
auxiliary relay 27-1 X also completes the close circuit to dís- the return of the load to bus No. 2 when voltage is restored
connect switch 52-3. Service to bus No. 1 is then restored on the transformer No. 2 secondary.
and, after a short time delay, 27-1 and 27-IX are back to
normal, as shown. lf there is no bus tie breaker, only one transformer second-
ary breaker would be closed. The entire load would thus
be fed frorn one transformer. Loss of one transformer's
This scheme transfers the total load to transformer T2.
secondary voltage will cause its breaker to open and the
Sorne less critica! load-dropping must be arranged if its
other transformer breaker to close. This scheme is used for
size or forced cooling capacity is inadequate.
a preferred/emergency source systern, where the emergency
source is used only when the preferred source fails. Return
In applications where the low voltage bus is solid or 52-3 to the preferred souce upon its restoration is accomplíshed
is operated normally closed, line voltage íailures must be
in a manner similar to that shown in Figure 13- 2 7.
detected by the voltage relays connected to voltage trans-
formers on the line side of disconnect switches 8 9-1 and
IV.C. Optional Features for Automatic Transfer Schemes
89-2. The operation for a line voltage loss is the same as
for a transformer failure, except that there is no bus tie Ali automatic transfer schemes can be provided with any
' or ali of the optional features described:
breaker circuit.
 13-19

e +TOM,-,1 +Tao,1:•~•2
®-~~- )52·1
~KD--®
) 52 ·2
Bus 1 l
~~~~~~~--o--~~~~~o ~o~~~~--<-,__~~~~~~-
52 · T l Bus 2
NO

27 27 27
IX IX 2X

52 2 52·T 27 :>2-1 :,2 2 27 52-1 52-T 2,

b e 2X D b 2X b b IX

86
1
86
2
Close Tr,p Cose fr,p Cose Tnp
52·1 52-1 52 T 52 T 52·2 52-2

Figure 13-27: Automatic Transfer at Load Voltage.

IV.C. l. Automatic Return to the Normal Source be performed from a remote control station under super-
visory control.
As previously discussed, the choice between manual an d
automatic return is dependent upon severa! íactors: IV.C.3. Lockout Devices

a. Estímate of possible length of outage These devices prevent transfer during undesirable conditions,
including locking out on bus and transformer faults, except
b. Overload capability of the alterna te source line and under automatic sectionalizing of the faulted transformer
equiprnent (as in the systern of Figure 13-26). The time delay on the
undervoltage relay will normally prevent transfer during
c. Time and expense required for manual restoration of feeder faults. This delay is sufficient to allow the feeder
all loads for systems such as the one shown in breaker to clear the fault and the bus voltage to return to
\\
·, Figure 13-25. normal.

IV.C.2. Transfer Switch in Control Circuitry
This feature provides a selection between manual and
automatic transfer. In addition to providing for manual
transfer of load from one source to the other, it can also
prevent automatic transfer during undesirable system con-
ditions. Although one transfer switch may be common to
ali control circuits involved, it is preferable to have a sepa·
rate switch for each breaker and/or power-operated dis-
connect switch. In this way, the control circuits can be
isolated as far as possible, Latched-in relays may replace
or supplement the transfer switches, so that selection may
Norrnally, transfer is also locked out unless the alterna te
source voltage is normal, preventing an unnecessary transfer
upon simultaneous failure of both source voltages. This
feature is incorporated in the schemes used as typical ex-
amples.
IY.C.4. Automatic Load Interruption
As discussed in Section II, it is sometimes necessary to drop
part of the load when there is a momentary or very brief
voltage interruption. Autornatic transfer schemes can in-
elude this feature when required.
 13-20
IV.O. High Speed Automatic Transfer of Critical Loads
Power sources to motors supplying critica! load, such as
power plant auxiliaries and critica! processes cannot be
interrupted for more than a very short time. For these
cases, transfer must be made at high speed. An instantane-
ous voltage relay such as the SY or the KP is reco rnrnended ,
so that the load can be transferred as soon as the normal
source breaker opens. With high speed transfer, the "dead
time" of the motor drive is 1 5 to 20 cycles, l O cycles míni-
mum.
For other drives, or where spare capacity is available and
running, transfer is delayed until interna! motor voltage has
decayed to about 25 percent of normal. In these cases, the
transfer is supervise d by a type SYF-1 instantaneous voltage
relay with a low adjustable drop-out which is constant over
a :20-to-60-llertz range. This prcvents excessive inrush and
high transient shaft torque peuks, Since these rnot ors are
ccntrollcd by circu it breakers, they will aut omat ically re-
turn to normal speed whcn transferred to the alternare
source.
Figure 13-28 illustrates un altérnate high speed trunsfer
scheme for motors. This scherne uses the type HV--4 high
speed, t hree-phuse voltage angle relay as the transfer control
unit. Consisting of three inductor-loop units acting on a
cornrnon shaft , the HV-4 opera tes each inductor loop by an
electrornagnet with two coils. One coi! is energized by the
normal source , the othcr by the alternate or stand by source.
Normal C.1terno1e
Source Mo1or teoo Sus Scerce
!) ! IL !)525 ¿)
¿¿
) 52N
? 9 ? 9
v[__s
c'lcc
Voltage Phasors for
Closing Torque
I
VL
Operanon of 78 (HV·4) Trrps 54N and Clases 52S
l'igure 13-28: High Speed Motor Tr:ansfer With Voltage
Relay .
...............------~~
When the normal source fails, its bus voltage , V L' will start
to decay and drop back in a phase angle relative to the alter-
nate source voltage, V s: The relay will close its contacts in
less than 35 milliseconds when the voltages on the set of
coils for the alternare source bus are at rated value, and the
voltages on the other set of coils are at two-thirds rated
valué and lag by the maximum torque angle of 55°. Torque
will therefore be developed the instant the source voltage
fails and the load bus voltage starts to decay , lagging t he al-
ternate source voltage. The transfer signa! is initiated within
two cycles of voltage f'ailure : tr ansfer is completed ata favor-
able phase angle bct ween motor residual voltage and altérnate
source volt age. This schernc can also be used to t ranster a
power plant auxiliary bus to ihe st a ndby source.
Anot hcr cr itical load is clect ronic equipment for which
power cannot be intcrrupt ed. Transt'er schernes Ior this
equiprnent are of the "rio-break " t ypc: power to the load is
not interrupted when the normal source tuils an d the load is
transferred to t he alternare source. Of the severa! trunsf'er
schcmcs, one type uses a tly wheel motor-genera cor set that
rnaintains generator voltagc upen motor Iailure long enough
to allow t he motor to be connect ed to a stand by source.
Ano t her sche me uses an ordinary motor-gencr at or set with
its generator driven by a de motor. Thc de motor. fed by a
rectificr supplied from the normal source, is also connected
to a battery floating on the sour1.:e. The battery has suffi-
cient capacity to keep the mocor-generator set running while
the reetifier is transferred to a standby source. Other
schemes, normally provided by the user, use a battery and
solid state dcvices to make the no-break transfer.
Is
®
Angle
 14-1

Chapter 14 l. INTRODUCTION

In pilot relaying, a communications circuit is used to com-

Pilot Wire Protection pare the system conditions at the terrninals of a power
Author: R. E. Ray
transmission linc. This method provides selectíve high
speed clearing of ali faults on the transmission line.

l. lntroduction
High speed simultaneous clearing of all line tcrminals has
ll. IICB and HCB-1 Pilot Wire Systems severa! advantagcs. First, it limits thc possibilities of con-
ductor damage from overloading and, in general, rninimizes
lll. Criteria for Setting HCB and HCB-1 Relays
damage to the line. Quick removal of faults also improves
IV. Example of HCB-1 Relay Setting the system's transient stability. Finally, high spced clearing
permits high speed reclosing, which, if successful, both im-
A. Phase-Fault Settings
preves transient stability and minimizes outage time or poor
B. Ground-Fault Settings
C. Restraint Tap Setting voltage conditions on portions of the system load.

V. Relay System Testing

Pilot relaying with a pilot wire requires an end-to-end metal-
VI. Pilot Wirc Rcquirements Lic circuit over which 50-60-Hz and de voltagc may be trans-
mitted. Since the system involvcs transmission of a 50 or
A. Series Resistance and Shunt Capacitance 60-Hz wave replica in both magnitude and phase, pilot wire
B. Extraneous Voltages
protection is analogous to differential protection of busses,
VII. Protectivc Devices for Pílot Wires transformers, and machines.

A. Recommcnded Protection for 60-Hz lnduction

The appLication of a 50-60-Hz pilot wire relay systern is a
B. Protection Against Station Ground Risc
simple, straightforward method for providing high speed
VII l. Pilot Wirc Supervision protection on short lines. This system is also more econorn-
ical than most pilot systems. lt is a current-only systern; no
A. Short Circuits
B. Open Circuits potential transformers are necessary. Self-contained in onc
C. Reverscd Wires relay case, the system requires no auxiliary communication
D. Grounds equipment to transmit and receive information.
E. Transf'er-Tripping

11. HCB ANO HCB-1 PILOT WJRE SYSTEMS

Both the HCB and HCB-1 pilot wirc systems use a compos-
ite filter to convert the three-phase currents at each terrni-
nal of a two- or three-tcrminal line into a single phase volt·
age. The single phase voltage at each line terminal is corn-
pared to the remote terminals via a pilot wire (pair of wires)
to determine whether thc fault is inside the protccted line.
Figure 14-1 illustrates a simplified circuit for a two-terrninal
line. Three terminal applications are also discussed in Chap-
ter 17.

For through-current condit ions, the filter output voltages

(V G and V H) have the polarity shown. The polarity of V G
and V H allows them to support a circulating current flow
through the restraínt coils and the pilot wire. Vcry little
current will flow in the operating coils at the two terminals.
l4-2

Since there is considerably more restraint current than op-

-
t
310~--~
Soturoting Troosklrmer
erating current, the relay does not operate. º'
j
N 4/1 6/1
Top\Tl losulohng Tronsformer
When an interna! fault occurs, one of the sequence filter's \
voltages will reverse. For the arrangement shown in Figure
-
lo Composile

.__.___~e
o Sequence >-------.-r-i
14-1, VH will reverse its polarity. With voltages VG and VH Filler
in opposition, most of the current will flow through the op- +
erating coils. Since the operating torque is now greater than
e
the restraint torque, the relays at both line terminaJs will
tri p.
\
o-b-c
Rotohoo To P,lot Wire
Tnrough Correo!
Figure 14-2: The ac Connections to The HCB or HCB·1 Relay.
Protected
Une l-----4'0A'~-- o
Breoker Breol<er
b -+----ffiA--1---. G H l---li-l=A'~--1- b
energy impressed on the pilot wire. The maximum Jimits
1--~-f'l='Y'~-++ e
Restro,nt Coil
are 60 V during an interna! fault and 100 mA for an exter-
na! fault. For the HCB relay, the filter voltage V F is:

Sequeoce Sequence ( 14-3)

Filler Filler

+ '---~ where
()peroting Coil

Figure 14· 1: Simplified Schematic of The HCB and HCB-1

Relay System. R1 and R0 = filter resistor tap values

The operating and restraint coils, both wound on the center I a 1 = phase a positive seq uence current
leg of a de polar unit, are energized through separa te sets of
full-wave rectifiers. In the maximum restraint tap, the op- 10 = zero sequence current
erating coil (I0p) current required for operating is
For the HCB-1 relay, the filter voltage V F is:
Iop = (0.16 IR+ 8)mA (HCB) (14-1)
lop =(0.16 IR +7)mA (HCB-1) ( 14-4)

ln the mínimum restraint tap, where

Iop = (0.12 IR+ 8)mA (HCB) (14-2) c1, c2, and c0 = filter constants controlled by taps on
the relay
lop = (0.12 IR+ 7)mA (HCB-1)
la 1 = phase a positive sequence current
where IR is the restraint current in milliarnperes.

The 8-mA constant in Equations (14-1) and (14-2) repre-
sents the restraint bias produced by the permanent magnet,
which bridges the two outer legs of the polar unit. Note
that one unit of operating current has the sarne effect as
8.3 units of restraint current in the mínimum restraint
tap and 6.25 units of restraint in the maximum tap. (See
Chapter 3 for a more detailed discussion of the polar unit.)
Figure 14-2 shows the ac connections to the HCB or HCB-1
relay for the pilot wire system of Figure 14-1. With either
relay , the fil ter voltage V F is impressed on the saturating
transformer which, along with the zener diodes, limits the
Ia2 = phase a negative sequence current
10 = zero sequence current
These filters and the derivation of the output voltages are
detailed in Chapter 3.
As Equations ( 14-3) and ( 14-4) make clear, the major dif-
ference between the HCB and HCB-1 relays is the design of
the composite sequence filter. The HCB filter does not re-
spond to a negative sequence current; sensitivity to phase-
to-phase faults is based on positive sequence current only.
 14-3

The HCB-1 sequence filter, which does respond to negative to only one relay. This feature allows the relays to simulta-
sequence current, makes the HCB-1 system more sensitive neously trip all terminals, even if one terminal has a very
to phase-to-phase faults for a given setting to three-phase small source or, ternporarily, no source at all. The ability
faults. Beca use of this düference in sensitivity, HCB and to trip with a very weak source is a unique feature of the
HCB-1 relays cannot be mixed at different line terminals to HCB/HCB-1 relay system.
protect the same line.
The HCB and HCB-1 operating characteristic will change as
A comparison of HCB and HCB-1 relay sensitivity is shown a function of the pilot wire shunt capacitance and series re-
in Table 14-l. sistance. The shape of the curves, however, will remain sub-
stantially the same.
Table 14-1
HCB and HCB-1 relays permit simultaneous or sequentlal
HCB and HCB-1 Single Relay Pickup Cor high speed tripping of three-terminal lines under severe in-
Comparable Settings
feed conditions. For example, high speed tripping is pos·
sible even when a small amount of power flows out one ter-
Pickup (in amperes) Pickup (in amperes)
minal for an interna! fault near another terminal-wíth
for HCB Set for HCB-1 Set
Type of Fault at 4:0.1: 1.6 at 4:C:H heavy infeed from the other terminals. (See discussion in
Chapter 17).
3</> 4.00 4.00
q,G 0.47 0.47 Both the HCB and HCB-1 relays have Iour tap settings:
</> b - </> e 6.93 2.12
</> a - </) e 6.93 3.47 Tap T - The saturating transformer tap adjusts overall
</> a - </) b 6.93 3.47 relay system sensitivity. For the HCB, T
equals 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 15. For the
HCB-1, T equals 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 1 O, or 12.

~~~~~~~-~30oorN_Fr1"""--..:-r--..--,,--,..---.--,
¡;:- j X Tap R 1 - This filter resistor tap provides fine adjust-
l--+--1-----,1-+--+-¡ ~ 2500N-l'k---"l,,-->'i,- ......-*--"!.--->k--"I ment for phase-fault sensitivity. For the HCB,
1---1--+-l--l---1- ~ 2 2000,lt-Plc--'l,:,--''1:-"*"-°'l,-''k--'t---'i R1 equals 0.075, 0.1, and 0.15 ohm (relay
TrlpAreo ¡, ~
l---1--1--l--l---1-~ z 1500, lt-ji-'t--"1,---i_-'l,-_,--'_-'I,-_ taps are actually marked 0.07, 0.1, and 0.15).
l--+--1--1-+--+- ~ e
Eo 1000,H->k-~'-''{--->k-~:,--''k--"lc--->j For the HCB-1, R1 equals A, B, or C.

~~~~~~~~i~i~~s~~~i.l50:0~~~~~~;:~~;¡~N
F ~Current lnNeorReloy( N)

N~X...J-..J=:st:=:s±:::st:s:t:~~
Tap Ro - A second filter resistor tap adjusts for ground-
fault sensitivity, independent of thc phase-
W1th Motched Tronsformers / ,.,.
Normal Load ond Thru 1--*i--*-+-ff !l -+---+-+--+---+-+--+----1
fault setting. For the HCB, Ro equals 0.39,
Rlult Curren! Fol l '' &! Trip Areo 0.51, 0.68, 0.9, 1.2, and 1.6 ohms. For the
Along This Llne if.5 · 4-- ' ' -
.._ HCB-1, Ro equals Cor H.
k-'+-'+-~~->j.---->\:,-->,H-+t-·~·
t.-.>t.-4-~~>l.--"k---'1.,.......,>Y-~ a~~.
1
+ + Restraint
Tap - This tap adjusts the relay restraint. lt is set
F N
Legend: on the maximum tap for two-terrninal lines
++ Currents • Thru Foull X• lf Plotted Curren! Fol ts in These and on the mínimum tap for three-terminal
+-- Currents • lnternol Foult Areos Only One RetoyTrips
lines.
Figure 14-3: Typical HCB and HCB-1 Operating Characteristic
Currents in Percent of Nominal System Pick-up.

DI. CRITERIA FOR SETTING HCB ANO

Figure 14-3 shows the operating characteristic of the HCB HCB-1 RELA YS
and HCB-1 systems, assuming that the near and far relay
filter voltages are either in phase or 180º out of phase. As The following three quantities must be known in order to
the curve shows, both relays can opérate with current input set the relays properly:
14-4

I3p - Total minimum interna! three-phase secondary fault To assure operation on the mínimum three-phase and phase-
current fed from all terrninals, divided by the nurn- to-phase faults, taps T and R 1 must be set as follows.
ber of terminals (either two or three).
HCB:
IL - Maximum secondary load current flowing through
T
the protected line. R ~ 5 I3p ( 14-9)
1

lg - Total minirnum interna! line-to-ground (310) sec- HCB-1:

ondary fault current fed frorn all terminals, divided
by the number of terminals (either two or three). T ~ I3p (Tap C)

or
Settings that provide operation for minimum interna! fault
conditions are based on the total fault current flowing into )
T <E(Tap B) (14-10)
the protected line from all terminals. The relays are usually - 2
set to avoid operation on balanced load current if the pilot
For the system to operate on the mínimum líne-to-ground
wires should become open circuited. With the pilot wires
fault current, the Ro tap is set as follows.
open, ali the restraint coi! current flows through the operat-
ing coil, and the relays then opera te as overcurrent devices.
HCB:

Por phase-fault sensitivity, a mínimum relay setting must R >0.2T (14-11)

meet the following criteria for taps T and R1. 0- 1g

HCB-1 with tap R1 set on A or B:

HCB:
Ig > 0.2 T (Tap G)
T
R2: 10 )L (14-5)
1
or
HCB-1:
Ig > o.i T (Tap H) (14-12)
T ~ IL (Tap C)
HCB-1 with tap R1 set on C:
or (
T > .J::.2 (Tap B) ( 14-6) lg > 0.25 T (Tap G)
-

or
lf sufficient fault current is available, it is recommended
that the above criteria for the mínimum setting be modified
lg > 0.12 T (Tap H) (14-13)

as follows.
The above criteria refer to the single relay pickup, with the
relay not connected to a pilot wire circuit, For the HCB-1
HCB:
relay, these values are summarized in Table 14-11 (phase
T faults) and Table 14-111 (ground faults).
R?12.5IL (14-7)
1
When the relays are connected together in a system, the
HCB-1:
nominal, or system, pickup is:

T 2: 1.25 IL (Tap C)
(14-14)

or where

T 2:0.62 IL (Tap B) (14-8) n = the number of terminals,

 14·5

and

Is = the single relay pickup.

Where the infeed from ali terminals is equal, all terrninals

will trip when the total fault current adds up to lnom· lf
infeed is unequal, the relay with the lowest fault current
will tend to be more sensitive than the other relays, A
single-end feed with ali breakers closed represents the ex-
treme case of unbalanced infeed.

Variance in sensitivity also depends on the pilot wire resist-

ance and capacitance. Figure 14-4 shows the effect of pilot
wire resistance on relay sensitivity for a two-terrninal line 0o 500 1000 1!500 2000 2:100
with a single infeed. The near relay is the terminal at which R2 Pilo! Wire Res,s1once ,n Ohms, M,c,ofo,ods O,s1r1buted COl)Qc11y, 001 R

fault current is flowing ; the far relay is the terminal with Figure 14-4: Typical Effect of Pilot Wire Resistance on The
Mínimum Trip Current of a Two Terminal Line.
zero fault current. The optimum pilot wire resistance is be- (Maximum Res1ra,n1 Tap and 4/ 1 lnsulat,ng Transformersl
tween 625 and 1000 ohms.

IV. EXAMPLE OF HCB-1 RELA Y SETTING

Table 14-11
The following procedure for setting the HCB-1 relay also
HCB-1 Relay Pickup for Phase Faults applies to the HCB relay. With either relay, the taps must
(Single relay without pilot wire) be identical at ali terminals. lf the line current transformers
are not the same ratio, auxiliary current transformers should
Sequence Components Taps Pickup be used to match the secondary relay currents to within 5
in Sequence Multiples of T
percent.
Filter Output 3q, AB BC
CA
In the example below, the HCB-1 relay is to be set for a
Pos., Neg., Zero e 1 0.86 0.53 two-terminal line with 600: 5 current transformers al each
Pos., Neg., Zero B 2 0.90 0.65 end. The maximum load current is 400 A, and the mini·
Neg., Zero A - 1.00 1.00 mum interna) fault currents are as follows:

Fault Amperes through Amperes through

Station G Station H
Table 14-Ill
Three phase 1500 2500
RCB-1 Relay Pickup for Ground Faults Phase to Ground 400 285
(Single relay without pilot wire)

Comb. Lower Left Ground-Fault Pickup

Tap Multiples of T Tap From the definitions given in Section III above,
TapG TapH
_ 1 500 + 2500
1 3p- 2
1 e 0.25 0.12
2 B 0.20 0.10 = 2000 amperes primary
3 A 0.20 0.10
= 16. 7 amperes secondary
 I L = 400 amperes primary IV .C. Restraint Tap Setting

= 3.33 amperes secondary Thc máximum rcstraint tap should be used for a two-rer-
minal line, as in the example above. The mirurnum restraint
I = 400 + 285
tap should be used only for three terminal lincs.
g 1

= 342.4 amperes primary V. RELA Y SYSTEM TESTING

= 2.85 amperes secondary Load currcnt in the protected line can be uscd for an instal-
lation or maintenance test of thc complete relay systern.
IV.A. Phase-Fault Settings During thcse tests, each pilot wire relay terminal can be sup-
plied with a milliamrneter and test switch. allowing mcasure-
In this examplc, thc maxirnurn load and minimum three- ment oí local pilot wire current, remete pilot wire current,
phase fault currcnt are sufficiently differenl to allow sctting anú circulating curren t. A series of six tests is made lo ver-
the relays to avoid operation on an open pilot wire. The ap- ify the system connections and to check the relay system
propriate tap can be determined from Equations ( 14-8) and for proper operation:
( 14-10):
Test 1 - Applies positivc sequence currcnt to the relay.
T 2: 4.17 (Tap C) or 2.07 (Tap B) (14-8)
Test 2 - Applies negative sequence current to the relay.
T ~ 16.7 (Tap C) or 8.35 (Tap B) (14-10)
Test 3 - Simulares an internul phasc-a-to-ground faulr.
Either tap B or C may be used. Tap C is preferred since, as with single-cnd feed.
shown in Table 14-ll, it is more scnsitive. Tap 5 should be
selccted to keep tap C between 4. 17 and 16. 7. With tap 5 Test 4 - Reversos the terminals uscd in Test 3.
tite relay pickup (as given in Table 14-ll) will be:
Test 5 - Simulates an externa! phase-a-to-ground fault.

Test 6 - Simulates an interna! phase-a-to-ground fauh

Fault Single Relay Pickup Nominal Pickup with equal Ieed frorn both tcrminals.
(amperes secondary) Equation (14-14)
(amperes secondary)
Tests I and 2 indicare whet her the relays nave been wired
with correct phasc rotation. Tests 3 and 4 determine
Three Phasc 5.00 10.00
whethcr both relays will trip for single-end feed faults,
Phase AB or
CA 4.30 8.60 while Test 6 checks the systern Ior proper opcration during
Phase BC 2.65 5.30 normal interna! faults. Combining the results of Tests 1, S
and 6 will determine whet her the pilot is reverse d. Test S
is also used for detect ing rolled phases al onc end of the
line. Careful interpretation of the test results can also help
to isolate problem arcas, should a combination of errors
IV.B. Ground-FauJt Settings occur.

Equation ( 14-13) indicares that, with taps C and 5 selccted

previously, lg rnust be greater than 0.25 x 5 = 1.25 A for VI. PILOT WIRE REQUIREMENTS
tap G, or 0.12 x 5 = 0.60 A for tap H. Since lg is 2.85 A,
either tap may be used, Tap H, however, provides the max- VI.A. Series Resistance and Shunt Capacitance
imum sensitivity and is thus prefcrred. From Table 14-111,
the single rclay pickup without pilot wirc is 0.12 x S = The piJot wirc for thc relays should comprise a shiclded
0.60 A (310). From Equation (14-14), the nominal pickup twisted pair, preferably of #19 AWG or largcr. Pilot wires
is 0.60 x 2 = l. 2 A secondary. should not have a series rcsistancc or shunt capacitance
 14-7

above the values listed in Table 14-IV. If the shunt capaci-
tance exceeds perrnissible values, shunt reactors may be
used for cornpensation. However, only a limited amount of
capacitance can be cornpensated for, depending on the rnag-
nitude of the pilot wire distributed effect.
Table 14-IV
Maximum Series Resistance and
Shunt Capacitance for Pilot Wires
lnduction can be effectively limited by shielding the pilot
wire pairs with a metallic sheath and grounding the sheath
along the circuit length. During a ground fault on the power
system, a portion of the fault current will then return to the
sheath. The current in the sheath will flow in a direction
that reduces the rnagnetic field produced by the fault cur-
rent. Good shielding can reduce the induced voltage by ap-
proximately 50 percent or more. Note that, since the
sheath is connected to remote ground, it must be isolated
from station ground.

Extraneous voltages are at a maximum during system

lnsulating Transformer Ratio
ground faults. For these faults, the zero sequence currents
Number of 4: 1 6:1
Relays in the power system retum in the earth or ground, placing
RL* Cs** RL* Cs** pilot wire circuits near the power line directly in the field
(Figure 14-5). Consequently, a mutual impedance, ZM,
2 2000 1.5 - - exists between the three-phase power line and the pilot wire
3 500/leg 1.8 1000/leg 0.75
pair. The fault current rnultiplied by this mutual impedance
will result in an induced voltage on the pilot wires. Figure
*R1 = series loop resistance in ohrns, which must include 14-6 shows the induced voltage on both wires of a t wisted
leakage reactance of neutralizing reactors. pair that is not grounded at either end. Tbe value cannot
exceed the voltage drop in the transmission line, since the
ºCs = total wire-to-wire shunt capacitance in microfarads.
mutual impedance is always less than the self-impedance of
the line.
For three-terminal line applications, variable resistors are
used to balance the loop resistance of all legs to within 5
percent. Balancing resistors are located on the relay side of
the insulating transformer. Consequently, the pilot wire re-
sistance to be balanced is divided by 16 for the 4: 1 insular-
ing transformer and by 36 for the 6: 1 transformer.

VI.B. Extraneous Voltages

Pilot wires must be protected from extraneous voltages. lf

there are more than 7 .5 V across the insulating transformer-
Flux Generoled b'f Rlut Currenl
on either the Une or pilot wire side-the relay will trip in the
absence of load current restraint. Extraneous voltages are
+--
caused by a rise in station ground potential or by induction Foult -=
Curre ni
from power circuits. lnherently, a rise in station ground po-
Figure 14-5: Oiagram of Faulted Transmission Line and Pílot Wire
tential will affect both wires of the pair in the sarne way, as Relay Circuits.
long as their impedances and their paths to ground are bal-
anced. By twisting the pilot wire pair, a power circuit will
induce effectively the same voltage in both wires of the pair.
These "longitudinal" voltages will not produce a wire-to-
wire voltage to opérate the relays.

Since the irnpedance-to-ground of the two wires cannot be

True Eorlh o- Remole Ground
perfectly balanced , it is desirable to minimize the induced (Averoge Eorth A:i4entioll

voltage-and thus minimize the resulting wire-to-wire volt-

age. Figure 14-6: lnduced Voltage along a Pilot Wire Pair.
14-8

As noted above, this induced voltage can be reduced by • Drainage reactors

grounding the pilot wire shield to rernote ground at both
ends and along its length, perrnitting current to flow over • Neutralizing reactors or transformers
the pilot wire shield and through ground. Open and un-
shielded pilot wires are not recommended. • lnsulating transformers.

Another extraneous voltage is the rise in station ground mat VII.A. Recommended Protection for S0-60-Hz lnduction
potential during a ground fault out on the line. Depending
on the fault location, a portion of the ground return cur- The induced voltage from a neighboring power curren! can,
rent flows through the resistance between the station ground as previously noted, be reduced by permitting a circulating
mat and earth, producing a voltage difference. For example, current flow. Figure 14-7 shows how a KX-642 gas tube
a 50,000-A fault current through 0.2-ohm mat resistance and a mutual drainage reactor are connected to the pilot
would cause a 10,000 V rise. wire to reduce the 50-60-Hz induced voltage on the pilot
pair. This example assurnes no station ground rise; all
The pilot wires are referenced to true earth, vía distributed grounds shown are connected to station ground.
capacitance along the pair and its shield , which is normally
directly connected to ground along its length. As a result, The mutual drainage reactor serves t wo functions. Onc is to
the rise of station mat voltage wouJd appear between the force simultaneous firing of both gaps in the gas tube, as
pilot pair and the shield and ground. This heavy ground re- demonstrated by the voltages shown in Figure 14· 7. The
turn curren! occurs only at stations with a grounded trans- voltages are shown at the instan! the gap fires from point 3
former for zero sequence flow. If the shield is connected to to ground. V gl and V g2. which are assumed to be equal,
both remote ground and the station mat, the Jarge currents are the induced voltages to ground of wire 1 and wire 2 at
that can flow during the rise wiU probably melt the shield. the terminal. When the gap from 3 to ground fires, Vgl is
To avoid this circulating path, the shield or sheath should impressed on the 1-3 winding of the reactor. This voltage
be opened outsíde the station. A breakdown will occur un· also appears across winding 2-4 in the direction shown. The
less the pilot wire insulation to shield or ground is greater voltage across gap 4 to ground-Vgl plus vg2, or twice the
than the rise. induced voltagc-forces it to Iire at the same time as thc
first gap.
Protection against these t wo types of extraneous voltages is
covered in the next section. The second reason for using the drainage reactor is to pre-
vent the gas tube from shorting the pilo! wire to the circu-
lating 50 or 60-Hz current used for relaying. The drainage
reactor presents a 24,000-to-48 ,000-ohm impedance to cir-
VII. PROTECTIVE DEVICES FOR PILOT WIRES
culating curren! and about a l O-ohrn impedance for each
winding-to-ground current.
In addition to ensuring the safety of personnel and terminal
equipment, the protective devices used on the pilot wire
Using the mutual drainage reactor for protection against
should protect the pilot wire and maintain an operative re·
station ground rise is not recommended. This reactor has
laying circuit during operation of protective devices. The
low leakage impedance designed for the drainage function.
protective devices must function in the event of extraneous
The neutralizing reactor described below has a much higher
voltages caused by 50 or 60-Hz induction, whether from
exciting impedance, which is desirable for station ground
power circuits ora rise in station ground potential. Protec-
rise applications.
tion rnay also be required for direct contact with power cir-
cuits and for lightning strikes. In the latter cases, however,
lf a mutual drainage reactor is connecred to station ground,
it is not considered feasible to maintain an operative relay-
the gas tu be will fire during a station ground voltage rise and
ing circuit.
cause 50-60-Hz drainage current to flow. This current will
raise the pilot wire terminals to station ground pote ntial,
Four classes of devices are employed for protection: thus protecting terminal equipment and personnel. The
drainage current Ilow reduces station ground potential rise
• Gaps/arrestors, carbon blocks, and protector tubes along the length of the pilot wire. On the other hand, the
 14-9

lílSulOhnQ
Trons.fo<me,
,------"-,. + +

Vgl
HCB

Droinoqe
/ 3~ Dro,noge
CI Reactor CI

\
~Reoc1or

Vg1

X2
+ 2
PM M:in, I0<1 ng PM Monolorong

Figure 14-7: Application of Mutual Drainage Reactors to limit lnduced Voltage ar Station With Negligible Station Ground Rise.

shield is connected to rernote grounds along its length and VII.B. Protection Against Station Ground Rise
isolated frorn station ground. Co nsequent ly, the pilot wirc
voltage mercases along the length of thc shield up to station As sho wn in Figure 14-9, the neutralizing reactor is con·
ground potential, creating a stress on the wire-to-shield in- nectcd in series with the pilot wires, The two srnall CI ca-
sulation, which may cause a breakdown. This effect is pacitors provide a path Ior magnetizing currenr to f'low
shown in Figure l4-8. from station ground to remole ground, via the pilut wirc
distributed capacity. Most of thc statiun risc dro p will thus
$101,on Grouno 11,1c,1 be across the ueutralízlng reactor. The pilot wires will con-
scquently remain at essentially remete grounJ potcntial: the
insulating transformer side will rernain at statíon mat poten-
tial. Neutralizing transforrners are not required if the insu-
lation to ground of the insularing transformer and the pilot
wire is greater than the starion mal ground rise. Whe n de
monitoring relays are applied, howcver, use of t he neutral-
Vsq, Sloloofl Ground R se iz ing reactor is recomrnended to cnsure that bo t h the relays
Figure 14-8: Typical Pilot Wire Potential Plot When The Drainage and the pcrsonnel servicing thern will be at station ground
Reactor is Connected to Station Ground. potential.

1nsu10111,q
-,onsto, ,ne, l'Jeu1m 1Drq Remo te Neurrollzing
,.----, Hcrn.:~or 0round Reacror
.---------V"Y',---....------~
HI l(

·~·ot•on
HCB ~~(Q ..Jf'ld Ple• w .«
HC8

C? ''
( ,(

H3 *KX-642 *KX-642
N~lJlrúh11no Neulfohz,ng
Reocior · Reocto,
Re mote

-~ // Ptv1 Mü1111ur
RelO'{S
¡;~'
3~-.
L1ql"''n1n9
t~ «ester
..; \/ "'·,'tn ·01 -
Re!oys
\!nllon \;rOuí·,d-----=-

(•J-To Min,miie Wire-to-Wrrt! Vottnqe if One ,s Gr oundeo ancla Oisturbance Occurs. or One Lightn,ng Arrester Operares

Figure 14-9: Applicatíon of Neutralizing Reactors for Protection Against High Voftages on The Pilot Pair from The Rise in Station Ground at
Stations With Negligible 50-60 Hz lnduction.
14·10

The neutralizing reactor, as previously explained, should

not be applied to protect against 60-Hz induction. Figure
14-11 shows a complete protection scherne for both 50 or
, To Oc 60-Hz induced voltage and station grou nd rise.

l ------ _~·, - - - - - _ _J_

I S<Jpervisory Wire

To obtain a rernote ground, an insulated conductor can be

run 200 to 300 feet out from the station and grounded at
the remote end.

Areo of H,gh Volloge 10 SlohonMo! !Amng Ground Foult (W1thin Dotred Areo)

Figure 14·1 O: Alternate Neutralizing Reactor Connections.

The neutralizing reactor windings are designed to provide a
low impedance path (220 ohms each unit) to the HCB or
HCB-1 circulating current. If this impedance in the pílot
wire loop cannot be tolerated, the alternate connection
shown in Figure 14-1 O may be used. The pilot wires, insu-
lating transformer, and 10-µF capacitor far this application
must be capable of withstanding the rise in station ground
orbe isolated from ground by special insulation. In all ap-
plications, every connection to the pilot wire side of the
neutralizing reactor must be isolated from personnel. Dur-
Vlll. PILOT WIRE SUPERVISION
To detect pilot wire faults, such as open circuits, shorts, and
grounds, a continuous de supervisión current is applied to
the pílot wire. A typical arrangement, shown in Figure
14-12, uses the PM line of monitoring relays. A de voltage
of about 20 V is applied across the 10-µF capacitor at the
source terminal. Depending on the type of source relay
used, this de vo ltage may be derived from the station bat-
tery or from the station service alternating current. The
10-µF capacitor, connected to the insulating transformer's

ing ground faults, voltages to the station mat in this part of
the circuit will be the station rise voltage.
When a neutralizing reactor is used, as shown in Figures
14-9 and 14-10, the pilot wire capacitance to ground must
be at least l µF from each wire to ground. If necessary to
meet this requirement, capacitors must be added on the
pilot wire side of the neutralizing reactor.
center tap, provides a low impedance path for 50-60-Hz cur-
rent anda high impedance to direct current. This irnped-
anee scheme forces the monitoring current to flow as shown,
(Figure 14-12). The adjustable resistor (RS) at the receiving
terminal is used to adjust the monitoring current to a value
of I mA. lf a three-terminal pilot wire is monitored, the cur-
rent is adjusted for 1 mA at each of the two receiving ter-
minals and 2 mA at the source terminal.

!~!
lnsulOhng
Troosformer
,.....-,-..
Neutroliiing
Reoctor
.--~~~~~...r,'Y"l._..... ~~~e-~~~· Remole
Ground

OoNol Stohon-"-.::.
Pilot W,re
Ground G<ound c,I HCB
H2
C2
*KX-642

Remole
Ground _3Kv

.V ~
PM Moolor ~ . L,ghtning PM M:ntor
Retoys Retoys
Arreste,
- -
Areo of lDw Volloge to Slolion Ground, ---------- Areo of Low Vol10ge to Remete Ground ~.--------A,eo ol lDw Voltoge to S101,ot1G<ound,
High Volloge to Remate Ground H1gh Vottoge to Stohon Ground High Voltoge to Remole Ground
~ring Ground Fwlt Ouring Ground Foull Ounng Ground Fwlt

(•)-To Minimize Wire-to-Wire Voltage if One is Grounded and a Oisturbance Occurs, or One Lightning Arrester Operares.

Figure 14-11: Complete Pilot Wire Protection for Both lnduction and Rise in Station Ground Voltages.
 14-11

Source Term1no1
4B0r 125 VOC Rece,v,ng Term,nol

ln!>úlo1,ng
Transforme r ¡.- Ptlol W1res BerweenTerm,nols ---+j
-186 1n~ulo1>ng
Transforme,

~ +

LLJ
10¡,f
2

Superv"->t0n Curren, _
L_~__.:::.::.~:..._~..:...::..::.=-==-=-=-=::.:¡:...-F-....::.-~-~--==~---~-::...::.-_-~-..;.;..-------------~-4-.::...-_-~-----~~-t-~~~~

Note
Un11s Number I and 5 are Polar U1111s ,n PMD or PMG-1 3
Un,1 Number 2 rs a Polar Un,1 ,n PM 2 or PM-23
U1111 Number 3 tS a Polar U1111 ,n PM 13, PMG· 13 or PM 23
86 Contacts ln,1,a1e 1 ransler Tnp

Figure 14-12: Typicel Pilot Wire Monitor Circuit.

vm.A. Short Circuits two coils cancels out the arnpere-turns of each coil. The
voltage divider circuit (R2, R3, and R4) has us cenrcr point
A complete or partial short circuir on the pilot wire will
grounded through a lirniting resistor, R A pilot wirc
1.
cause a current increase in the source terminal relay. The ground will thus cause an increase of current in onc of thc
high currcnt contact of polar unit I will then close and coils anda corresponding dccrease of currcnt in the other
alarrn at 1.3 mA of monitoring current. Short circuits of coil. This un balance of current flow in the two coils will
5000 ohms or lcss will be detected. The short circuit will cause one of the contacts on unit 5 to close (depcnding on
also cause a decrcase in current at the receiving terminal,
which wire of thc pilot circuit rs groundcd). These contacts
dro pping out polar unit 2 and causing an alarm at O. 7 mA
will close with a± 0.3-mA unbalancc in thc two coils, de·
or less.
tecting grounds of 10,000 ohrns or less,

VIII.B. Open Circuíts

VIII.E. Transfer-Tripping

Whcn the pilot wire opens, the monitor current is rcduccd

to zero. The low curren t co ntacts on polar unit I at the Polar unit 3, as shown in Figure 14-12, may be uscd for

sourcc terminal and polar unit 2 at the receiving terminal transfer-tripping. Transfer-tripping may be performed from
will then close at O. 7 mA or less. any location by applying 48 Vdc to tite pilot wire, through
dropping resistors, in a polarity opposite to that of the mon-
Vlll.C. Reversed Wires itoring voltage. Contacts 86 are the protective relay that in·
itiate a transfer trip. Polar unit 3 will close its contacts and
lf the pilot wire is opened and then reconnected in reverse trip the breaker when current is increased to 2 mA in the
polarity, polar unir 2 ar the receiving terminal will not pick reverse direction. A polar unir 3 is applied at all terminals
up, causing an alarm. to be transfer-tripped.

VIII.O. Grounds Table 14· V shows the various types of PM rclays and the
functions they perform. Only one source relay should be
Polar unit 5 (Figure 14-12) is used for ground-fault detec- applied per pilot wire system.
tion. The normal monitoring current ílowing through the
14-lL

Table 14-V

Functions of PM Relays for Source and Receivíng Terminals

Source Terminal Relays Receiving Terminal Relays

Function PMA PMD PMA-1 PMD-1 PM-13 PMG-13 PM-23 PM-2 PM-3 PM-4 PM-S

Monitoring
Current
So urce X X X X X X
Receives
Monitoring
Current X X X
Trouble
Alarm X X X X X X X X X
Transrnits
Trip Signa! xt xt xt xt X X xt xt xt xt
Receives
Trip Signa! X X X X
Sensitive
Ground
Detection X X X X
Mea sures
Monitoring
Current X X
Actual
Current
Source X X x• x•
Direct
Current
Source X X x• x•

1with externa! resistor

•specified by order
 l;)-1

Chapter 15 l. JNTRODUCTION

To provide hig.h speed clearing of end-zone faults on a trans-

Pilot Channels for Protective mission line section, there must be sorne form of communi-
Relaying cation channel between the line section terminals. This
Author: H. W. Lensner communication or pilot channel compares fault conditions
at the line terminals to determine whether the fault is inter-
na! or external. In this respect, pilot protection is an exten-
l. lntroduction
sion of differentiaJ protection.
11. Power-line Carrier Channels
There are severa! advantages to high speed simultaneous
A. Frequency Range
B. Modes of Operation clearing of faults at all line terminals:
C. Line Coupling
D. lnsulated Ground Wires a. lmproved transient stability of the system.
E. Major Carrier Components
l. Line Trap
a. Single-Irequency Traps b. Reduced line damage and the possibility of conductor
b. Double-frequency Traps bum-down.
c. Broad-band Traps
2. Coupling Capacitor
3. Drain Coil c. Availability of high speed reclosing, for improved tran-
4. Line Tuner sient stability , minirnum outage times, or low voltage
S. Coaxial Cable conditions on portions of the system load.
F. Power-line Characteristics
1. Line Attenuation
2. Characteristic lmpedance The pilot channel provides either a blocking signa! or a
3. Power-line Noise tripping signa! from one line terminal to another. The block-
4. Exarnple
S. Fault-generated Noise ing signa! blocks tripping for externa! faults only, using
G. Tapped Lines either directional or phase comparison relaying (see Chapter
1. A Quarter-wavelength Line 16). Toe tripping signa! trips the remote line terminal for
2. A Half-wavelength Line
interna! line faults or, transformer, reactor, etc. faults on
3. Rules for Short Overhead Lines or Line Taps
4. Calculation of Wavelength systems protected by transfer-trip relay ing.
H. Carrier on Power Cables
l. Combined Cable-Overhead Line The types of pilot channels available for protective relay-
J. Power Transformers at Carrier Frequencies
K. Modal Analysis ing include:
1. Modal Quantities on an EHV Three-phase Line
2. SirnpliJied Graphic Representation of Modes a. Power-line carrier, which uses low radio-frequency
3. Mode 3 Coupling Efficiency
4. Rankings of Carrier Couplings energy transmitted via the power line itself.
S. Transposition Loss
L. Systern Losses
l. RF Hybrid Loss F. Parallel Operation of Transmitters without RF
2. Coupling Loss Hybrids
3. S.hunt Loss G. Other Applications
M. Example of Power-line Application H. Voice Channel over Frequency-shift Carrier

líl. Carrier Transmitters and Receivers IV. Audio Tone Channels

A. Type T A3 Tones for Transfer-Trip Application
A. On-off Carrier B. Type DIT-1 Tones for Transfer-Trip Applications
B. Application for On-off Carrier C. Type TA2.2 Tones for Phase Comparison Relaying
l. One-Watt Carrier D. Required Channel Delay Characteristics
2. Ten-Watt Carrier E. Type DIT-4 Digitone System for Segregated Phase
3. Other Uses of On-off Carrier Channel Comparison Relaying
C. Frequency-shift Carrier F. Wire-line Channel for Audio Tones
D. Three-frequency Operation
E. Use of RF Hybrids V. Microwave Channels
 15-2

b. Wire-line (pilot-wire), which uses de, 50 to 60 Hz, or atively srnall losses, Below 30 kHz, line coupling becomes
audio-frequency tones applied via a leased or privately impractical; above 300 kHz, the line losses are higher and
owned telephone line. radiation into space may interfere with licensed space
c. Microwave radio, which uses bearned radio signals, usu- radio services.
ally in the range of 2 to 12 GHz, over line-of-sight paths
between terminals. The relaying signal may be either a 11.B. Modes of Operation
sub-carrier or an audio tone.
The power-line carrier signa! may use on-off, frequency-
Table 1 S-1 shift, or single-sideband (ssb) operation. The on-off signa!
is used to block tripping in an unfaulted line section;
Comparison of Communication Channels frequency-shift operation is used either for blocking or
Type of transfer-tripping. When functions are combined on an ssb
Channel AdYantaaes Disad"'anra~s
channel, audio tones are used to modulate the carrier, thus
Power-hne
Carrier
• Rehable. since channel is
powcr line uself',
• available
Lrmued trequency spectrum
in sorne áreas. providing the relaying (and other) intelligence.
• Much less suscepuble 10
natural or man-made
• Susceptible to power-line
in sorne cases.
noise

hazards.
ll.C. Line Coupling

• Econormcal for power hnes • Lme-voltage couplin¡ and

too long for wire-linc chan- current-Ievel traps required. The power-line phase conductor itself, a reliable physical
nel.
circuit, is used to transmit the carrier signal between power
• Convenient maintenance at
hne rerrninals, stations. Most protective relaying carrier channels use
single-phase-to-ground coupling, which has low attenuation
• Economical far a small num-
ber of channels over J mod-
erately long disrance
(loss) and requires only one set of coupling equipment ata
line terminal. Phase-to-phase coupling may be used to im-
• (ltannd can cxtend through
several tine sectjons for con- prove dependability. lt offers a better chance of getting a
trol funcrions
signa! through an interna] fault when the channel is used
• ReJaying carrier may indude
maintenance voice channe]. for a transfer-trip relay ing system. For long EHV lines,
three-phase coupling (mode 3) has been used to minimize
W1re·line • b.:onom1,al Ior shou tmes. • Subject to rnany natural and
man-made hazards. channel loss.
• Can be used íor magmtude
comparisons,
• Requires exrenswe protec-
tive cquipment.
11.D. lnsulated Static Wires
Mrcrowave • Not affectcd b)• power-üne
001$4.!'
• Irut tal rnstallat ron e xpensive ,

• Can h andle a large number
of voice and conrrot sub·
channels over one micro-
wave channel.
• Power hne does not havc
to be taken out oi servrce
for terminal equipment
mamtenance.
11. POWER-LINE CARRIER CHANNELS
• Requires tme-of-sigtu path,
which m ay rcquire addi-
uonal l,rnd.
• Palh ,11cnuJtion affected by
wearher. which may cause
severe fading.
• Hot s1andby S<:I often supplied .
since many tuncuons are depend-
ent on comrnon equipmcnt.
Also applied as carrier channels, static wires have been
used successfully for both voice communications and con·
trol functions. When static wires are used for carrier chan-
neis, the insulation level is usually around 7.5 to 15.0 kV.
These insulation levels give rise to the possibility of insula-
tor flash-over during a fault, which would greatly attenuate
the carrier signal and prevent correct relay operation. At
least one utility has successfully operated conventional
frequency-shift carrier at 1 O watts for both guard and trip
by using an insulated static-wire channel between stations.

11.A. Frequency Range 11.E. Major Carrier Components

Power-line carrier generally opera tes over the band of fre- The major carrier components at one terminal of a line sec-
quencies between 30 and 300 kHz. These frequencies tion equipped with a power-line carrier are shown in Figure
can be coupled to and transmitted over power lines with rel- 15-1.
 l~-j

Stotion G Siouon H
Bus Bus
Une Trap Une Trap

I}
c==º~c~~
Coupling
Protect,ve Tronsmitter Tronsmitter Prolect,ve
Copocitor Ce
Reloys Receiver Receiver Reloys

~'="'~="'

Figure 15-1: Basic Oiagram ol One Líne Sectíon Showing Main Carrlar Components lor Protective Relaying Channel.

11.E.1. Line Trap Three types of line traps are available: single írequency ,
double frequcncy , and bread band. Typical carrier-
The line trap consists essentially of a parallel-tuned resonant frequency irnpedance charucteristics of the three types of
circuit that prescnts a high irnpedance to the operating car- traps are shown in Figure 15-2.
rier frequency but a negligible impedance at sysrem Ire-
queney. TJ1e /ine trap serves two fu nctions: 11.E. l .u. Single-frequency Traps

a. Prevcnts carrier cnergy from flowing into the station bus. The MS single-Irequcncy line trap (Figure J 5-2a) covers
Such a situation would reduce the signal in the desired the 30-to-300-kHz rango in four divisions: 30-90, 50-150,
dircction and possibly cause interfcrcnce in neighboring 70-200, and 90-300 kllz. This trap has a mínimum irnpcd-
carricr cha nnels. anee of 400 ohms ovcr a bandwidth of ±5% of the center
trequency (±2% for the 30-to-90-kll?. range). Both low- and
b. Prevenís an externa! ground fault (F 1) behind the pro- high-Q tuning are available; the high-Q trap is used for a
tective relays from short circuiting the carrier signal on single-frequency relaying channel, The low-Q trap, which
the unfaulted linc. has a lower bu t relatively constant impedancc ovcr a mod-
erate frequency band, is u sed for a group of closely spaccd
A linc trap rnust he able to carry the specified steady-load freq uencíes.
current and fault currcnt withour overhcating or suf'fering
mechanical darnagc. Typical current ratings for t hese con- 11. E.1.b. Double-frequency Traps
ditions are listed in Table 1 5-11.
The MD double-Ircquency line trap (Figure 15-2b) covers
Table 15-11 the 30-to-300-kHz range in tlie sume four ranges as thc
singlc-frequency trap. lt may be tuned to any two fre-
Line Trap Thermal and Mechanical Currenl Ratings quencies bet ween 30 and 300 kllz. but both the uppcr and
lower frequencies must be in the sarne tuning range. Thc
Continuous-current Two-second Thermal Mechanical
Rating. Current Rating, Current Ratiug. impeclance will be greater than 400 ohms ovcr a bandwidth
Rms Symmetrical Rms Symmetrical Rms Symmetrical of ±5% of thc center frequency (±2% for the 30-lo-90-kl-17..
(Amp.) (Amp.) (Amp.)
range), providcd the upper and lower frequencies are sepa-
rated by 25 k Hz or 25 percent of the upper frequency,
400 15,000 15,000
whichever is great er. Both low- and high-Q tuning are avail-
800 20,000 20,000
able and are applied as for single-frequency traps.
1 ,200 36,000 36,000
1,600 44,000 44,000
2,000 63,000 63.000 11.E.1.c. Broad-band Traps
3,000 63,000 63,000
The broad-band trap presents a moderate but fairly con-
4,000 80,000 80,000
stant impedance overa wide frequency range and is used to
 700

600
l 1\
, IZI

-~ _ _ ....)
I
\

15,000
10,000
RHonont F,equency lOOkHz

ÉA•H,ohQT,op
15,000
l0,000
7000
Resooont Frequency 112ond l50kHz __
500

4100
I

I
1
j
"'
...../.
/
'~;
' 1
1
1
'
1000
soco I= B• Low O Trop sooo /R
I '\ I' \
I I
3000 3000 1
2000 2000
I \ A A- ,_

1000
,V \ k/ 1000
./, ~~ '/r\ ~ 200
11
'
•, \
\
ldl!t= B

--
700 B
700
....,
~·
500 B 500 100
300 A• HtQh ' O Trop
1
,
300 B•Low O Trop
200 1 1 1 1 1 1
20080
85 90 95 100 ice 110 115120
150100
108 116 1241 140 150 160 170 o 100 120 l'IO 160 180 200
kHz kHz kHz
1) Typic1l lmped1nce V1luH 100 kH1 Single Frequency b] Typical lmpedance Values 112 1nd 1 50 kHr Oouble el Typ,c1I lmped1nce V•lues IZI and Res1t1,ve
Type MS Tr1p1 Frequency Type MO Traps Componen! R for F1•ed Type MW Traps 10 265 mHI

280~~-~-~~-~~-~-~~

2601---+-+----,l---+-+---t~-+-~,I----,
24()1---+-+----,~
320,~~-~-~~-~-~~-~~

300•1--t--i--r--t--i--t--t-r--t----l

28011---1----11---+--600.n==:b;;;::il'IJ~t--~
260
,_
- Upper BondWtdlh
Lom11s(Ro)
400n- ,.........
600ll
) ) ,J
1 'f J
J
"
,,
'I 1/

2201---+-+----,l---+-+-~L-,¡L+.--+----, 260 750.n_---b'-:+j¡,--+--1 750.n

1000.n 220 iooon 1 L

2001---+-+---,1---+-~ ......'--.....-+----, 240 Geometric Me~n =l:;J!~é+:a.;71,-.-, 1 '1 VJ 1000.n

180 220 Frequency, F0
180
f'ul98kHz
J~ IA
1 V~ ~750ll
1601---+-+--l--.,.,.Y'-+---t,---+ 200 Upper
Bondwidth
l'IO
J,r I L. ~ ..-600n
!JI! e-
1401---+-+--4~'i---4--l--,,"1F- 180 um,ts (R0) t-~i"-7'f--~....,'7"'9--

"
FLl18 kHz
406.n+
1201---+-+.-.VJ:...._+---4.,-C"""::,..+ 160l---+-t-,ii~~-ñ~r.::~
100 11 ~ v.' I"' Lower1 Boodw1dth
1

lOOl---+--:,j ..... -f-----,.,,,-s!C......j---,l---+-- ~

801--..i~1-,,,.s5;,,c:....1-
60
j
11".,..i ....
... 1
, Umits(R0)
1 1 i I
1
60l-=-b.,,.==--+-+ ~
rr-GMFl54kHz
41040 8080 2020
60 80 100 120 l40 160180 200220 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 2'10 260 100 60
14!0 180 220 ~
Center Frequency, F0(kHz) Geometric Meon Frequency, kHz Geometr,c Mean Frequency, kHz
d) 81ndw>dth Ch1rocter,11a ol The O 265 mH F,eld e) 81ndwidlh Char&cterislics of The O 265 mH Field 1) Upper 1nd Lower Frequenc,es •• Geometr,c Meon
Ad¡u111ble W,de B1nd L,ne Trep 5(}205 kHz Adiustable Wide Band Line Trap 100-300 kHz Frequencv 10 265 M~hhenry Fectory AdJusted
Type MWA Trep)

I J Upper Bond...,dl h
L1mils(Rol -
260
I I
soon
Fu238
1-'" --
kHz
l: - iooon
...
750n

,,1,¡/11/
220 I J

1000
900 r_<Zl -.
,.. :\
180

JIII
1600
1400
1200 -
(Z)_

/1, \
~..,,
~· ... '\-
800 1410
'\ \.

--
-Ro¡
700 soon1
~·' 1/ \ fil GMF120kHz 1000
I I',,,,

800 µ T'ooon
~
'~
I
'
1 \ / Ro 1\
1 1 1
,
600 J. '/
500
J 1 100 Lower Bondw,dth- 1 ¡GMF 120 kHz 1
(R) 1 1 ,__ _ umlls (Rol _ 600
'IOO 1GMFl54kHz 11
FL 60 kHz
1000.n 1
(R) ',
1.i 60 1 1 4100
300 ) J-.-'.!:._
750ll 1
200 _._ ~FLne
" 1 1 l"'
kHz
1

.... ~
GOon 200
FL60 kHz
'
1 Ful98kHz j 1 1 Fu 238 kHz1
100 I
I
100 116 132
Frequency, kHz
1418 180 196 212
20
20 60 100 140 180
Geomeirtc Meon FreQuency, kHz
220 260 º"°Frequency,
80
kHz
120 160 200 241()

g) Typ,col lmped1nce •• Frequency t0 265 M,11,henry h] Upper 1nd Lower Frequenc,es vs Geometrtc Mun •1 Typic1I lmped1nce •• Frequencv 11 590 M,lhhenry
F1c1orv Ad1ulled Type MWA Trap) Frequency (1 690 Mill,henry Factory Ad1usted F1ctorv Ad1usted Type MWA Trep)
Type MWA Trap)

Figure 1 ~2: Typical Llne Trap Characteríuica.

 15-5

isolate a group of widely spaced carrier frequencies from a Table 15-lll

station bus. There are three varieties of broad-band traps:
Coupling Capacitor Ratings
fixed, field adjustable, and factory adjusted. These cover
a wide range of applications:
Sysrem Capacitance {µF)
Alternative Current Voltage (kV)
l. Fixed 90-200 kHz Type MW Trap - for applications in (line-line ) PCA-5 PCA·7
the 90-200 kliz range where a 400-ohm trap impedance
(0.265 mH) is adequate. The characteristics are shown ó9 0.01 -
in Figure 15-2c. Th is trap is not adjustable. 115 O.OOó 0.025
138 0.005 0.021
2. Field-adjustable Type MWA Traps - for applications in 161 0.0043 0.018
the 50-205 and 100-300 kHz frequency bands with im- 230 0.003 0.012
pedance levels of 600, 750 or 1000 ohms at modera te 345 0.002 0.008
bandwidths. Typical characteristics are shown in Fig- 500 0.0015 0.006
ures 1 S-2d and 15-2e. This trap has a 0.265-mH main 765 - 0.00376
coil.

3. Factory - adjusted Type MWA Traps - for applications
involving wider frequency bands and higher trap imped-
anee levels than are available with the field adjustable
traps. Typical characteristics of two of these traps are
shown in Figures 15-2f through l 5-2i. These curves
show that, for a given geometrical mean frequency
(GM F), the bandwidth at a desired impedance leve!
increases with the increase in main oil inductance.
The inductance range is from 0.265 to l.590 mH.
A typical example of the tuning of a Type MWA trap is
shown in Figure 15-2f, where a GMF of 154 kHz is chosen
for a 0.265-mH line trap. A minimum impedance (Ro) of
600 ohms gives an upper frequency (Fu) of 198 kllz and
a lower frequency (F L) of 1 18 kHz. The corresponding
curve of impedance versus frequency (Figure 15-2g) shows
both the impedance and resístive components, Z and R,
respectively. The bandwidth, Fu-FL or 198-118 kHz, is
80 kHz.
11.E.2. Coupling Capacitor
The carrier signals are coupled to the power line by the
coupling capacitor, Ce. This unit, a series of stacked capac-
itors mounted inside porcelain insulators, has a capacitance
on the order of 0.002 to 0.02 µF, depending on system ac
voltage and potential burden requirements. Standard cou-
pling capacitor ratings are listed in Table 1 5-111.
U.E.3. Drain Coil
The drain coil, mounted in the base of the coupling capac-
itor, pro vides a low-irnpedance path for the flow of power-
frequency current through the capacitor to ground, thus
minimizing the systern-frequency voltage developed from
point X to ground (Figure 15-1 ). At carrier frequencies, on
the other hand, the drain coil has a high impedance, mini-
mizing r-f losses to ground al this point. The carrier loss
introduced by the drain coil does not exceed 0.5 dB.
11.E.4. Line Tuner
Applied in conjunction with the coupling capacitors, the
line tuners (Figure 1 5-1) provide an impedance match with
low losses between the coaxial cable and the transmission
line. Both resonant and broad-band line tuners are used,
Two types of resonant tuners are available: single fre-
quency and double frequency (Figure 15-3). In the single-
frequency tuner (Figure 15-3a), the inductive reactance of
Ll cancels the capacitive reactance of the coupling capaci-
tor Ce and isolating capacitor Csat one frequency , thus
providing a low-loss coupling circuit for the carrier-
frequency energy. The transformer (T 1) matches the im-
pedance of the coaxial cable to the surge impedance (Z0)
of the power line.
The two-frequency resonant tuner (Figure l 5-3b) provides
low-loss coupling at two separare frequencies from a single
coaxial cable to the power line. The two-frequency tuner
shown in Figure 15-3c is used for isolating two different
sets of carrier equipment. Tite path from each coaxial
cable includes a matching transformer, (T 1 or T2) tuning
inductance, and a trap circuit tuned to the other carrier
frequency. In both cases, the isolating capacitor , C5, pre-
vents the system-frequency current (SO or 60 Hz) from the
coupling capacitor from flowing through the tuning coil
15-6

Power L,ne Freouency ,n k HZ

Coox,ol r T1- - -L~ ¡-e;--;

Tun,ng C0tl I
(Ccl
(Z0l-+ 025

·5
30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100

-9,
Coupting Copoc,tor
1 dB
Cable 11 • 15 f--1---+--+-'~,!-
¡, __-Drom Co,I , Gap, ond

/ii¡ ¿---- Grounding Switch

Mounted in Base of
· 20 '---'---'--'---'~'----'~-'---'-'-------'---'---'~----'-~

F rcquencv Response

:
l
Protecllve Un,t '-1 :
.J
Coupllng Copootor TypeJZ
Curve
71 6Tuner
Tuned To
1 30 kHZ
a) Single Frequency Tuner 2 100 kHZ Couphng Capacttor 1870 MMF
3 200 kHZ load Res,s1ance 300 OHMS
Power L,ne
o) Response Curves ot JZ 71 6 S,ngle Frequencv luner
(Ccl Coopnnq Copocllor

Dro,n Coll, Etc

-51---1-'<fl--1-,1-\-1---1-4--4--.¡.,_~\-1-l-~-~---"---~1-,~~

·10
·151----11-V'-l--+E-+--l---l---+---lll~t--F"~--+

dB
bl Oouble FreQuency Tuner for Onc Coa.,al Cable

Power L,ne

Ce Coupllng cocccncr Tuned to runed 10 Tuned IO

30 ond 37 5 kHZ 80 ond 100 kHZ 160 ond 200 kHZ

F reqvencv Res1>onse
Type JZ 72 6 L,ne Tuner
Couplonu Cap 1870 MMF
Load Res 300·0HMS

b) Res1,onse Curves of JZ 72 6 Two Frequencv luner

Trap C,rCJ•IS

... _ Figure 15·4: Typical Frequency Responso Curves of Single and Double
Frequency Resonant line Tunera .

el Ooubh:o Fre,quef'\Cv Tur,("( for Two Con,ual Cables

Figure 1 S-3 Schematic Diagram of Single and Oouble Froquency of thc coupling capacitor should be 0.002 µF or higher.
Resonant ltne Tuners
Figure l 5-5c shows the I li-Coupler insertion loss character-
istics.
and matching transformer. Such a current llow rnight rnask
the relat ively small carricr-frcquency current. 11.E.S. Coaxial Cable

For the two-frequency tuners, the minimum frequency
separation is 25 percent of the lower frequency. Freque ncy
response curves of the single- and double-frequency linc
tuners are shown in Figure 154.
Wherc more than two Irequencies are couplcd to a power
line, a wide-band coupling device known as a Hi-Coupler is
used in place of a resonant tuner. The Hi-Coupler is a high-
pass filter (Figure 15-5) in which the coupling capacitar
(Ce) serves as part of the filler. The filler is terminated by
the line impedance z0. Radio-frequency hybrids or series
L·C circuits, which are part of the associated transmitter
output filters (Figure l 5-5a), are used to isolate channel
equipment connected to the coaxial cable. The frequency
range of the Hi-Coupler is 40 to 300 kHz. The capacitance
Low-loss concentric cable is used to connect t he line tuner
and the carrier transrnitter-receiver assemblies. Type
RG21 3/U coaxial, recommended for this purpose, has a char-
acteristic impedance of 52 ohms andan attenuation of
about 0.4 to 0.9 dB/1000 ft. increasing gradually over the
30-to-300-kl-17. frcquency range (Figure 15-6). The coaxial
cable is gcncrally grounded at the terminal equiprnent end
only to prevent systcrn-frcquency 50 or 60 llz current
from flowing over the coaxial cable shield during a ground
fault. lf both ends of the coaxial cable shield must be
grounded to irnprovc the shielding effect, a 4/0 copper
cable should be run in the samc duct to interconnect the
ground points at the two ends of the coaxial cable. This ar-
rangement will eliminate the possibility of curre nt burning
the coaxial cable shield open in the cvent of a ground faull.
 I
Lrne Trap
Power l me 11.f. Power-line Characteristics
Series L,C Units ore
Por: al Outpui Filler -----Q
-=t:
of Corrier Trcnsmitter s
Ce Carrier frequencies exceed power frequencies by a factor of
1000 or more. As a result, a transmission line's response to
--""""--1
carrier frequencies will be appreciably different from its re-
--""""--1 sponse to power frequencies. At 50 or 60 Hz, ali power
--""""--1 1
1
i1 lines are elect rically short. At carrier frequencies, however,
most lines are severa! wavelengths long beca use of the much
______ J L J1 Dro,n Coil
shorter wavelength of the higher frequencies.
al Wide Band. H,gh Pass F,11er (Hi-Couplar}

The relative efficiency of power- and carrier-Irequency

transmission also differs significantly. Although the con-
ductor size is relatively large on transmission lines, the
Frequency
Source Zo carrier-frequency energy flows mainly on the surface of the
conductors. This skin effect increases with higher frequen-
cies. Ot her factors influencing the carrier losses include
b} Equrvalent Cucuu or Hr-Coupler , shunt leakage losses, conductor spacing, radiation, and
ground resistance.

-
Couph ng Copocuor

or-Y
.01
MFq
t-;p kf ~ r-- In carrier application work, the transm ission characteristic
-5

-10
.006
MFP
11 /
of a system (or channel) can be conveniently considered in
terms of attenuation-the decrease in power level along a

oof/
transmission line. The ratio between the voltages, currents,
-15 or power at any two points is a measure of the attenuation
MFOV
between these two points. Losses expressed in these ratios,
.0(?2 MFO
-200 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 so 90 100 125 ieo t75 200 300 however, cannot be added to give the total loss but rnust be
Frequency in kHZ multiplied. lt is more convenient to express losses in dec-
e) Hr-Coupler lnsertion Loss for a 500 Ohm Load ibels (dB), which can be added directly. Decibels are de-
Fi9ure 16-5: Schemetic Oiegram. Equivalent Circuit Typical Response fined as follows:
Curve far a Hi·Coupler Unit.

1.0
( 15-1)

~ ~
.8
~

./
V ( 15-2)
.6

V
V

.'l
/ ( 15-3)
(
1

1
.2 1
Equations ( 15-2) and ( 15-3) are vali.d only if the impedance
1 levels of the circuits are identical where the two voltages or
1 currents are measured.
1
0o
30 50 ioo 150 200 250 300
Frequency , k HZ
Various power and voltage or current ratios, with the corre-
Figura 15·6: Attanuation of RG-213/U Coaxial Cable at Carrier Frequencíes. spondi.ng dB values, are listed in Table 15-IV.
15-8

Table 15-IV giving +40 dBm. To avoid confusion, actual scale readings
should be recorded, and the values converted to true dBm
Power, Voltage or Current Ratios, and
Decibel Equivalents later.

Voltage or Decibels ll.F.l. Line Attenuation

Power Ratio Current Ratio (dB)

As indicated above, line attenuation depends on a number

1.26 1.12 1.0
of factors. Higher voltage Unes usually have a lower loss,
1.58 1.26 2.0
since the longer insulator strings reduce carrier leakage and
2.00 1.41 3.0
dielectric losses in the insulation. The use of bundled con-
4.00 2.00 6.0
ductors on EHV and UHV lines also reduces the series re-
10.00 3.16 JO.O
sistance loss.
100.00 10.00 20.0
1000.00 31.60 30.0
Typical fair-weather losses for transmission Lines from 34.5
104 100.00 40.0
kV to 765 kV are shown in Figure 15-7. As indicated in
105 316.20 so.o Table 15-V(a), Ioul-weather losses are estimated by adding 25
106 1000.00 60.0
percent to the values shown for lines 230 kV or higher, and
108 104 80.0
50 percent for lines less than 230 kV. The corrections for
transpositions are shown in Figure 15-V(b). OveraII system
Another term widely used in the field of communications losses, discussed later in this chapter, can be determined
is dBm, a leve! of dB relative to one milliwatt. Thus, a using these tables.
power leve! of one milliwatt is zero dBm. Other power
levels in watts and dBm are: Table 15-V(a) Table 15-VI
Attenuation
Correction for Foul Weather Coupling Correction for
Watts dBm Two Terminals - in dB
34-138 kV Add 50 percent
Type of Coupling" >SO-mi
JO.O +40 Line
LO +30 230-765 kV Add 25 percent
Mode 1 -2
0.1 +20 Table 15-V(b) Center-to-Outer
0.01 +10
Transposition Correction
Phase o
Center-to-Ground
0.001 (1 mW) o in dB for 345 kV & higher Al or Cu gnd Wire +l
0.0001 -JO Number K 10 mi. l>IOO mi Steel gnd Wire +4
0.00001 -20 1 O 6 Outer-to-Outer
2 •4 O 8 Phase (Push-
5 or more O 10 Push Op.) +3
Most electronic voltmeters are calibrated in dB relative to a
zero-voltage reference leve! that would produce one rnilli- Use linear interpolation *Unused pilases assumed to
watt of power with a 600-ohm load. Most carrier signal to determine loss be at r-f ground potential.
levels, however, are measured across a coaxial cable of 50- between limits.
to-70-ohm impedance level. Assuming a 60-ohm coaxial
cable impedance, 1 O dB must be added to the scale dB value U.F.2. Characteristic lmpedance
to give a true dBm reading. Assuming a 50-ohm coaxial
cable impedance, 10.8 dB ( 11 dB is usually close enough) Another important line characteristic for carrier is charac-
would have to be added. Similarly , for a 70-ohm imped- teristic impedance, or input impedance of an infinitely
anee, 9.34 dB would have to be added. long line for a given design. If a line of finite length is terrni-
nated in its characteristic impedance, there will be no energy
Por example, a 10-W (+40-dBm) transmitter will develop reflected from the termination when an ac signa! is applied
24.5 V rms across 60 ohms. A voltmeter calibrated in dB to the line. That is, the characteristic impedance, designated
for a 600-ohm impedance will read +30 dB. To obtain a z0, is the ratio of the applied voltage to the resulting cur-
true dBm value, 1 O dB must be added to the scale reading, rent, flowing into the line. Carrier terminals and line coup-
 15·9

.35r----r----,----..----.---..-----,

.3t-----+----~-----i:~---r----

.251----t----1----1----t-

.21----1----1·---

!' .10 .1
i"'
i
~ ~
a)
-e a)
,:,
.05 .05
e ~
oº
:, ºa
e: e
:,
!' !'
<1 a
ºokHZ ºokHZ 30 50 100 150 200 250 300

a) Typ1cal Auenuanon Curves fo, Power lones at 34.5. 115. 345 and 765 KV. bl Typ,cat Attenuo11on Curves for Power Lones al 69 138 230 and 500 KV

Note.
Fa< Reta1ed Cond.t,ons Aflechng Attenuauon Set> Tibies 15-V (11 fbl and Table l 5·VI

Figure 15·7· Line At1enuation vs Carr,er Frequency lor Different System Voltoges.

ling equipment must be matched to z0 for besr power 11.F.3. Power-line Noise
tra ns fer.
The main factor limiting tite allowablc attenuauon on a
Table 15-Vll indicates the range of characterisuc imped- power-line carrier channel is tite noise levcl of tite hne itself,
anee values for a variety of lines. Rcceiver filters will acccpt a Iracuon of tite total noisc volt·
age, yielding a certain signal-to-noise ratio (rms-signal-to-
Table 1 5-Vll average noise), The channel becornes unsausfactory when
this ratio drops below a designatcd value, about 20 dB for
Range of Characteristic lmpedances of on-off carrier relaying andas low as I O dB for frequency-
Power-line Carrier Circuits
sltift carrier.
Transmission-line Characteristic lmpedance ( ohms)
Conductor, Each Most power-line noisc consists of a mixture of impulse and
Phase Phase-to-Ground Phase-ro-Phase random noisc, in which impulse noise predommates and
random noise occupies the spaces between thc pulses. (lrn-
Single 350-500 650-800 pulse noise consists of sharp, well-separated pulses causcd
Bundled (two wires) 250-400 500-600 by spccific electrical discharges , random noise has a conun-
Bundled (four wires) 200-350 420-500 uous spectrum.) The average value of line noise is the meas-
15-10

ure of its interfering properties with a funct ion such as pro- Table 15-VIII
tective relaying. Noise Leve!
Correction Factor for Other Line Voltages

Figure 15-8 shows typical fair- and Ioul-wcather average

Voltages Correction Factor
noise levels at 230 kY in a 3-kl-lz bandwidth. The dBm Iig- (kV) (dB)
ures are based on a reference leve! (zero dBm) of one milli-
watt. For convenience, a millivolt scale is also included. 66-115 -8
These curves, based on ficld data and calculated valúes from 138-161 -4
severa! sources, show that noise decreascs with increasing
230 o
frequency. This phenomenon partially compensa tes for the
345* +2
increase in line attcnuation al the higher frequencies. 500* +5
765* +12

o *bundled conductors
200
Table 15-IX
100
Noise Leve(
·10
Correction Factor for Other Receiver Bandwidths
Fou1 Weoine, No se 50

~ Bandwidths Correction Factor

E
CD 20 Receiver (Hz) (dB)
" E
1
..J
1
-10 o"
5( Standard TC 1500 -3
~
i., Foir weolher No,se
5 .,,
V> Narrow-Band TC 500 -8
[., ~ €
Wide·Band TCF 500 -8
:J
J .qo30 50
> Narrow-Band TCF 220 -11
100 150 200 250 E
K,lohe<IZ 3002

Frorn Figure 15-8:

Figure 16-8: Typical Average Noise i.evets on 11 230 kV Lino in a 3 kH1
Bandwidth. jFor Other Conditions. Retor 10 Tables 1 S·VIII Average noíse leve) at 100 kllz. =-17dBm
and 16-IX.)
Frorn Table 15-YIII:

To determine linc-noise levels at othcr systern voltagcs, the

Correction factor for 500-k V line voltage = +5 dB

appropriate correction factor (Table 15-YIII) must be Frorn Table 15-IX:

added to the value read from the curve in Figure 15-8. In
Corrcclion factor for reccivcr bandw idth = -8 dB
this way , the line noise in a 3-kl-lz band at any carrier Ire-
quency and line voltage can be estimat ed. Therefore,

The average noise power acccptcd by a carrier receiver is
proportional to its bandwidth. For a receiver in the stand·
ard type TC carrier set, for exarnple, the noise response will
be 3 dB less than the values given in Figure 15-8. since the
TC receiver has a 1500-I-lz bandwidth. The correction Iac-
tors for receivers of different bandwidths are given in Table
15-IX.
For exam ple, the cxpected Ioul-weathcr noise level at 100
kl+z on a 500-k V line is calculated as follows fer a type
TCF wide-band receiver.
Total noise leve! acccpted by receiver =-20d8m
The attenuation and noise leve! values given here, although
typical of field values, are intended only as a guide. Spe-
cific line values may show sorne deviation for any nurnber
of reasons: the age of the line, typc of line construction,
conductor size , transpositions, insulator leakage, ground
wircs, ground conductivity , weather cond it ions, and the test
setup. The accuracy of the attenuation and noise level Iig-
ures is sufficient to determine the type and rating of carrier
terminal equipmcnt rcquired for a given application.
 15-11

11.F.S. Fnult-generated Noise
lt is highly improbable that electrical "noise" generatcd
during an arcmg fault on a transrrussion line will produce
spurious reccivcr output to preven! correct relay operation
in a blocking system. A large, bigh frequency, narrow-band
noise voltage is generated at tbe inception of a line fault and
lasts from 1.5 to 4 ms. Also, there is usually a low-level
noisc burst , lusting a cycle or so, just as a faull is bcing
cleared by a circuir breaker. The fault are causes no appre-
ciable noise if the fault current is more than 200 Amp.
Rather, the line noise during a fault may be less than pre-
fault line noisc because of the reduced line voltage. As
many years of field expenence have demonstrated, there is
negligible dangcr of fault are noise causing an incorrect op-
cration in blocking systcms.
11.G. Tapped Lines
load impedance (60 x 3.5 = 210 ohms). With this termina-
tion on the far end of the tap, tite input impedance of the
tap where it joins tite main line will be very low.
From Equation ( 15-4 ), Zin equals (60)2 divided by 21 O, or
17 ohms, rcferred to the 60-ohm coaxial cable irnpcdance
leve! or base. This low 17-ohrn irnpcdance, which effec-
tively shunts the normal 60-ohm line impedance at the tap
point, will introduce excessive attenuation. The longer thc
resonanr tap line, the higher its own attenuatron will be,
and the lcss severe its shunting effect on the camer signa l.
This relalionship is shown in Figure 15-9. lf the tap is long
enough to have an appreciable attenuation 5 dB or more
its added reílection loss will be moderate. A different car-
rier frcquency should be used, however, if the rcsonant tap
line has a low loss and must be part of the carricr path. Tito
above comments also apply to short, t wo-terrrunal Iine sec-
tions that are an odd quarter-wavelength long.

Tapping a two-terminal line to supply a load center is corn- ,

40
mon practice, as is designing a transmission line wit h three 1
tcrminals. 1 he tap presents no transmission problem at 50
or 60 111.. A long tap will present no particular problem, 36

provided 1t is not an integral multiplc of one-fourth the

wavelength (">../4) at thc carrier frequency being uscd. There 32
will be an unpedance discontinuity and a division of the
carrier energy at the tap, resulting in a loss of about 3.5 dB
in signa! levcl, A tap that is an odd-quarter wavelength 28

long and has low attenuation may, however, cause severe

carrier attenuation.

11.G. I. A Quarter-wavelength Line

20

A quarter-wavclcngth line acts asan impedance transformer.

lf the linc has negligible loss, the relationship between input \
\\
16

and terminating impedance is:

Ql
'O
~ 12
(Zo)2 .::¡
z. =-- ( 15-4) <>
in Zy {2
-,

--
1, 8

where, ZT is the terrninating impedance, and z0 is the char- i. <,

acteristic impedance of the line. 3
:,
'-.......
::: 4
.9
Thus, if the tap is not terminated (Z-y- = 00), the input irn- ..
'O
'O
'O
pedance will be zero. <f 0o 10 14
2 4 6 8 12
Normal Top une Loss,dB

Most 10-W carrier transmitters present a "reverse imped- Figure 16-9: Added Reflection loss CeuHd by Tep Une Which is Odd
Ouerter W•v• Length Long. u • Function of The Normal
anee" of at least three and one-half times the rated output Tap line lou.
15·12

11.G.2. A Half-wavelength Line Using Equation (15-5), the ">../4 and X/2 distances for a few
representative frequencies are:
A half-wavelength line, or any integral multiple of A/2,
which also has low loss, will have an input impedance equal f(kl lz) X/4 (mi) ">../2 (mi)
to the terminating impedance. Thus, if such a line tap or
section is terminated with a 10-W carrier set, its input im- 30 1.52 3.04
pedance wW be around 200 ohms. This impedancc mis- 60 0.76 1.52
match (from 60 ohms) will limit the amount of power that 100 0.456 0.913
can be fed into the linc and will gencrally cause a substan- 200 0.228 0.456
lial rnismatch loss. 300 0.152 0.304

11.G.3. Rules for Short Overhead Lines or Line Taps Figure 15-10 shows resonant overhead linc lcngths in the
carricr band for resonant lengths from l /4 to 21 /4 wavc-
a. Avoid frequcncies for whích the electrical lengths are lengths.
low multiples of ">../2 or ">../4 and have a normal attenua-
I} 17 19 21
lion o f less tha n 5 d B, or 3 d B if other channel losses
300
4 4 4 a
' .'\ ~ ~ ~ VV
'
are moderatc.

-
i I'\ .. ~
V

~ "
,/
200
"
b. lf possible, use frequencies that correspond toan odd
1;
.2°
e:
150

100
,__ ~ K. . .
"'
t--
-, "
~~ ~ L""
K N,...
~
N
~~
~~~~
- ,-- --
eighth-wavelength on lines with low attenuation. Whilc ->-

~,,
--''<"""
J: ._ u
70
:::s; ""- "
the input impedance to such a linc will be reactive, its
''" ~-
1
t--r,..~
~ ....
'"'
-o,
,--

"'
-~
50
absolute magnitude will be equal to the characteristic - - ""-.:~
40 ~ ~ '."\.."~ ~
impcdance (Z0) of the linc. Suilable llne-tuning equlp- ce 30.1 "-
.2 .3 .5 .7 1.0 2 3 5 7 10 20 30
ment can cancel thc reactive component. Ler,glh ot Stub L,ne, Moles
Fl9ure 16·10: Resonant Frequencv vs Length in Mltea for Open Ended T1p
on Overheed Llne.
c. In extreme cases, a short line or tap may be partially
tcrm inatcd with a resistive load in order to prcsent a
11.H. Carrier on Power Cables
rcasonable load impedance to the carrier equipment.
Whilc this arrungcmcnt will cause sorne encrgy loss, such
Power cables are oftcn uscd for transmission circuits in
a procedurc is needed only on lincs of very low normal
large metropolitan areas and ncar airports, where overhead
carricr losscs, lcaving amplc margin for other losses.
linos are undcsirable. The application of carrier to power
cables presents two major problems: low surge impedance
11.G.4. Calculation of Wavelength
(Zo) and high attenuation to carricr frequencies. Typical
values for thesc two quantities are shown in Figure 15-11.
The wavelength of a given carrier frcquency on an ovcrhead
Cable rnanuf'acturcrs should be a ble to supply information
transmission line may be calculated as follows:
on carrier losscs, surge impedance, and vclocity of propaga·
tion (VP) for their cables.
A= ( 186.3) (VP)
( 15-5) Bccause of the relatively high attcnuation, cable applica-
f kllz
tions of carrier are usually restrictcd to the low frequcncy
whcre, end (30 to 70 kJlz) of the carrier spectrum and to relatively
short lines. Also, since the surge impedance of a power ca-
A: wavelcngth (mi) ble is on the order of 25 ohrns (Figure 15· l l ). special line
tuners with step-down matching transformers are needed to
fkllz = carrier frequency (kHz) match the 50-to-70-ohm impedance of the coaxial cable to
the lower írnpedance, z0, of the power cable. Large capaci-
VP = correction factor where propagation is tancc values in the coupling capacitor are recorn mcndcd to
less than the speed of light. (For over- minirnize coupling losses and tuning inductance. Even with
head lines, a VP of 0.98 may be used.) these coupling capacitors, however, coupling losses into
 15-13

power cables may be on the order of 3 to 5 dB for single- overhead section anda VP factor supplied by the rnanufac-
frequency tuners; double-frequency tuners would have still turer for the cable section. lf the manufacturer cannot sup-
higher losses. The low surge irnpedance of power cables ply a VP factor, 0.45 rnay be used. (For power cables, the
rnakes broad-band tuners impractical for such applications. VP factor is usually in the range of 0.4 to 0.55 .) Input irn-
pedance for an overhead section with low attenuation will
vary significantly with frequency, since the electrical length
corresponds to odd or even multiples of a quurtcr-
wavelength. Because of the higher attenuation, input im-
pedance of the power cable will vary less significantly with
frequency ,

Typical valúes for quarter- and half-wavelengths in power

cable are listed below for scveral carrier frequcncles. These
valúes are based on a VP factor of 0.45.

40
1/) f(kHz) A./4 (mi) >../2 (mi)
30:::E
-l--f-+-of-+--++--t-5
20 o 30 0.7 1.4
N
10 60 0.35 0.7
90 0.233 0.466
50 60 70 80 90
Frequency, kHZ
Figure 1 !>-11: Phue-to-Ground Attenuetion and Surge lmpedance of 138 In applying carrier on power cable, the following rules
to 345 KV Pipe Type Power Cable.
should be observed:

IJ.l. Combined Cable-Overhead Line

a. Avoid frequencies for which the electrical length is A./4.
For higher mult iples, the cable attenuation will usually
One of the most difficult carrier applications is for a line
minimize reflected waves.
section that is part power cable and part overhead line (Fig-
ure 15-12). The major problem is resonance of the over-
b. Frequencies around A/2 are desirable for more efficicnt
head line section; resonance of the cable section is a lesser
coupling, since the retlected impedancc will usuatly be
problem because of its higher attenuation. The reílected
higher lhan 20 to 30 ohms.
waves will not present a problern if the attenuation of each
section is 4 to 5 dB or more. lf the attenuation is lower,
c. Frequency select ion is not critica! if the cable loss is al
frequencies should be selected so that line sections are not
least 4 to 5 dB.
resonant lengths (low multiples of odd or even quarter-
wavelengths ).
Assurning that the input impedance of each scction=cable
and ovcrhead-differs only slightly from its characteristic

~~~:
G L,ne
H irnpedancc, the mismatch loss at the junction may be deter-
Power Coble Irnp mined from the following equation:
Overheod Line

Copoc,10,r

i
Coupltng
Z1 + Z2)
To Line
Tune,
To L,ne
Tuner
dB (Joss) = 20Log
( 2 vz1z2
¡;:;-;:;- ( 1 5-6)

O.o,n Col O,om Co,I

where ,
Figure 15· 12: Llne Seetíon Wíth Part Cable and Per1 Overheed Line.
Z
1
= im pedance of overhead line
The electrical lengths of the two sections can be deterrnined
from Equation ( 15-5), using a VP factor of 0.98 for the z2 = impedance of power cable
15-14

Assurning z..1 and z..2 equal 500 ohms and 25 ohms, respec- 10

-
9
tively , then from Equation (15-6), the mismatch loss at the
-
8 Copocrtonce,MMF -

·- -
-
6000 ,_

,,,,
cable-overhead junction in Figure 15-12 is: 7
6 ....
1 1 /' 1 / ./ ~
5 /1 1 ~ ./
500 25 ¡
1/ / /
dB (loss) = 20Lo ( + ) 4
Á
4000/
g 2-/500 X 25 / / /'
1/ V / 17 L./
J ¡~.,v )7 ,,.V
== 7.41 dB
/ V ~V t>
V
J

1/ / /
2
I V [7 V...-
liad thc cable section been located near the mid dle of the /
vv /

/I V V
Line instead of at one end, there would have been a loss of
7.4 dB at each of the two junction points.
1
J / /
.9 -1

Rcrnoving U1e junction from the carrier path of a combined .8 15001 ,

,
cable-overhcad line eliminares both the mismatch and re-
.7
I ..,
.6
1
,
Ilection losses. The choice of frequency is no longer criti- .5
I I I I /
I I I I
cal. In this arrangement. a line trap is inserted at the junc- .4
I I /
I J 1/
tion point and a carrier bypass provided around the trap.
.3
I J I / "000 /
The carrier by pass consists of two coupling capacitors and , I I 1/ 1/
two line tuncrs with suitable impedance matching trans- I I /
formers for both the overhead line and the cable. .2
IJ / J
V

11.J. Power Transformers at Carrier Frequencies

Step-down transformers are often connected al tap points

Y.'
FreQuency, kHZ
J
60
V
100 140 180 220 260 300

along a power line to supply loads at lower voltages. A
series of tests by Specht and Cheek showcd that , in rnost
cases, the impedance of a power transformer is gencrally
capacitive in the carrier band, with values in the range of
500 to 2500 pF and with an average Q of 18.7. A trans-
former bank tapped onto a power line thus presents an irn-
pcdance discontinuity at carrier frequencies, which causes
rcflcction losses,
Figure 15-13 shows the reílection losses introduced by vari-
ous shunt capacitanccs into a transmissio n circuit with 800-
ohm characteristic impedance. A characteristic impedance
of 800 ohms represents the highest character istic impedance
usually encountered 011 transmission lines. The curves can
be used for any application by altering the capacitance in
ínverse proportion to the characteristic impedance of the
line. For ex ample, the loss ata given frequency from a
2,000-µµF shunt capacitance in a circuit with a 400-ohm
characteristic impedance is the same as that shown for a
1,000-µµF shunt capacitance with an 800-ohm characteris-
tic impedance.
The shunt capacitances of sorne power transformers rnay
present serious discontinuities in otherwise clean carrier
Figure 15 -13: Reflection Losses Resulting from Shunt Capacitive
Oiscontinuities in Transmission Circuit With 800 Ohms
Characteristic lmpedance.
circuits. part icularly those circuits operat ing al the higher
carrier frequcncics. lligh voltage autotransformcrs may ex-
hibit resonancc at frequencies within the carrier spectrurn,
particularly al the lower end, In other words, autotrans-
formers may present shunt induct ive or capacitive reactance
at low carrier frequencies.
Between high and low voltage circuits of power transform-
ers, the attenuation lo carrier frequencies is generally very
high. At specific frequencies, however , it may be insuffi-
cient to permit a power transformer to be used as a block-
ing device over the en tire carrier band. Autotransformers,
in particular, are generally unsuited for broad-band block-
ing.
In ali situations, the characteristics of power transformers
in a carrier transmission circuit must be considered very
carefully , especially when higher frequencies are used. 1 n
extreme cases, particularly where more than a single bank
of transformers is present at a given location, it may be ad-
visable to install a line trap to isolate the low resultan!

shunt reactance from the carrier path. For such an applica-
tion, a low-Q trap setting is recommended. This setting
will guard against the series resonance to ground that may
occur between the inductive reactance component of a res-
onant line trap, jusi below its tuned frequency, and the
transformer capacit ive reactance it is intended to isolate.
Toe resistive componen! of the low-Q trap will prevent se-
rious loss of carrier energy at the series-resonant frequency
of the transformer-trap combination.
A similar situation exists when a transmission line is terrni-
nated in a transformer bank without a line-side circuit
breaker. llere, again, series resonance may occur between
the line trap and the transformer capacitance, jusi a few
kHz below the channel frequency. The low-Q connection
of the line trap is again recommended, for the sarne reason
as given above.
11.K. Modal AnaJysis
For many years, the application of power-Iine carrier was
empirical. Lines were relatively short, and attenuation was
usually well within the dB rating of the transrnitter and re-
ceiver. Line attenuation was measured after the equipment
was installed, if at ali. Occasionally , inexplicable anornalies
were noted. Often, utilities discovered that a carrier chan-
nel was coupled to two different phases at opposite ends of
the line, and that this combination gave the best received
signa! level. Jt was aJso noted that the rate of attenuation
(dB/mi) on a short line was apparently higher than on a
long line. At the time, these observations were simply ac-
cepted and used.
With the introduction of long EHV lines, however, it be-
came necessary to predict carrier performance accurately,
even before the line was built , ModaJ analysis provides such
an approach. lt is a mathematical too! similar to the sym-
metrical components technique used for analyzing unbal-
anced faults on three-phase power systerns at 50 or 60 Hz.
Like its power counterpart, modal analysis is a practica!
system whose cornponents or "rnodes" can be electrically
generated and measured separately.
lf a given carrier-frequency power were applied to a single-
conductor line, the power leve) would decrease exponen-
tially with distance. Al a distance of about I O miles, ap-
proximately 1 percent of the input power would be pres-
ent. Such a system would obviously be irnpractical for a
power-line carrier channel. Jf the same input power were
15-15
fed into only one phase conductor of a three-phase hori-
zontal line, however, the l-percent signa! can be obtained
from any of the phase conductors at a distance of about
250 mi. Thus, it is apparent that. even though only one
conductor is energized, the two other phase wires play an
importan! part in the propagation of the carrier energy. ln-
deed, modal theory is based on the premise that there are
as many independent "rnodes" of propagation on a rnulti-
conductor line as there are conductors involved in the prop-
agation oí energy.
There are ñve characteristics of natural modes:
a. Any set of phase-conductor currents or voltages existing
at any point on a lossy, reflection-free three-phase Iine
can be resolved into three sets of natural-rnode cornpo-
nents,
b. At any point on a Iine, the mode components rnust add
up to the actual phase quantities. Also, the total power
derived from phase currents and voltages rnust be equal
to the sum of mode powers.
c. The ratio of mode voltage to mode current (the .. mode
characterisric impedance") is constant on each phase
conductor.
d. Each mode propagates with a specific attenuation per
unit length and a specific velocity of propagation.
e. A set of phase components corresponding to one mode
only cannot be resolved into other modes. The modes
are independent. and there is no inter-mode coupling on
a uniform line,
There are three modes of propagation. Mode 3 is a high-
attenuation mode which is propagated on ali three phases
with ground return. Because of its high attenuat íon, rnode
3 can be neglected beyond about 1 O miles from the trans-
mitter.
Mode 2 is a medium-attenuation mode that is propagated
on one outside phase and returns on the other outside
phase. There is no mode 2 current in the center phase.
Mode 2 losses are higher znd more frequency-dependenl
than mode I Iosses.
Mode 1 is the least attenuated of the three modes, and
makes carrier channels possible on long EH V lines. The en-
ergy is propagated on the two outer phases and returns on
 f 5-Jó

t he ce nt cr pilase. Mode I au enuatio n is t hc Jowest. and Table 15-XI

the Ieast Ireq uency dcpcudcnt , *
Mode Atteuuation and Pitase Velocity

11.K. I. Modal Quantities on an EIIV Three-phase Line A t tenuation Phase Velocity

Mode (dB/mil Relative lo Mude I

Modal anulysis has becn most gcncrally applied to a hon-
/ontallv spuccd , xingle-rircuit, three-phase CJI V line wit h
JO kllz 300 kHz
t wo ovcrheud xt at ic w ircs I Figure 15-14). Groundcd al each
tower. the st a t ic wircs do not generate any transmissron
modes. 1 he I hrce modes present un xuch a systcrn are
1 o.o 1-0.03 0.07-0.04 1.0
2 0.09-0.1 0.4-0.5 U.9~-0.1N'i
<ho wn m 1:i¡.:nrc 15-l 5. ( 'ocfficients p anti q are the center-
3 1 .5 to 3.0 at 100 "11, ()_<1
ph:1SL' mndc cocl Iicie nt s for mudes I anti J. respect ivelv .
and d cpcnd o n th e line u nd er st udy , The vuluc of q w1II
va ry lrom about 1.1 to 1.3. p can range írom about -1.& to

-
-1.') Modal calcula t io ns and Iicld tests 011 a 40-mile.

-- -
Phue Mode 3 Mode 2 Mode 1
'iOO-k V line , providcd wrth rcflection-free terminat ion as in
ligurc 15-l ú. gavc thc p u nd q values and mode impedance t 1 1
a
vulue s lixtcd in I ablc 15-X. Q p
b ~
Vulucs of uttcnunr ion coef'Iicients anti rclutivc phasc vcloc- e ~ ~ ~
ir y l'o r tlw t hrce mudes are shown in Table 15-X l. Daru
Figure 15 15, Mode Oi5tribution for Modnl Analysis.
shown are Ior lines Iro m 345 lo 765 k V.

9 9
o o
Z1.1
o e
o o
o ~ b ~ e

Figure 1~14: EHV Line Conuruction to Which Modal An•ly1í1 Hu Been

Mo1t Gener•lly Applied. ] 1,0 ]I :u / \(\

Table 15-X
l!
-
-:
Rcsults of Modal Aualysis
figuro 16· 16 Goneral Aeflcctton Free Term,nat,on for Three-Phase
Molle 3 Mode 2 Mode t Transmission Lme
Phnse la(]J or Va(3) la(2) or V a(2) 1a(l)orVa(I)
11.K.2. Simplified Graphic Represeu ta tion of Modes
a 1.0 1.0 1.0
h 1.206141 o -1.66 (p) Modal analysis is ¡1 mat hcm arical procedure in w h ich 111:11rix
e 1.0 -1.0 1.0 ulgebra is uscd ro determine modal qu.mt u rcs. Culculut ions
Modc I m- are very complex and are. usually mude w it h t he a1d of :i

pcda nccs digital cornputer.

(oh ms) 379.0 274.ü 232.0
A sim pler , but reaxonably accura te, ~ra ph 1,· represe nta non
"In ,1llll<' lir craturc , t he lowest-loss mude has hccn idcnt i- of mode-, and thc rcsulting phase quantitit•s can bt' üblainell
lied as ruod e 3. Tlie de íinir io n )!.iven. which ident if'ies rnode if lhe following ::issumpt1ons are: made:
I as l he lowe st-loss mode, is in agrcerne nt with nH)SI earlier
11·1:L pub licat io ns and w it h currc nt practice in most part s a. Thc surgl' irnpc<lanccs for ali phasc:s and mudes are lile
1lf ( he World, samL'.
 15-11

h. Effect of frequency will not be considered. by definition. In any case, the relat ively high mode-2 line
attenuation makes this type of coupling undesirable.
c. lnstantaneous currents (phase or modal quantities) in
the three phases are either in phase or 180° out of phase.
Phue Type of Mode 3 Mode 2 Mode 1

-~
Coupling
Under these assumptions, tbe basic modes are as shown in
-l
Figure 15-17. Mode 3 consists of equal currents, with ali a -!3 No -3
three phases in phase, and ground return. Mode 2 Ilows out b ~ _1
3 Mode 3
vía phase a and returns vía phase c. Mode I has equal cur- e -!3 Two --i
rents flowing out vía phases a and e, and has two units of
•I Cent.,. Phase-t<>Ground Coupltng
curren! returning via phase b. The x, y, and z notations are
arbitrary.
_1 l _1
a
3 z 6

Phue Mode 3 Mode 2 Mocle 1

b
I
3 --!
(Hlgh Loul (Medlum Lout (Low Loul e ! 1
2
_1
6

bl Outer Phtst 10-Grouncl Couplong

a ____.!._. X _!._. y ~z
b -L.x -2 -2Z
e -L.x --Y
-1
~z o No 1
2
1
2
Ground Relum b Mode --r
-I l
e Three 2 ~
l•elc Modee (S1mpltf1edl

e) Center to Outer Push Pull Coupl,ng (!)

10=X +Y +Z

-~
lb=X -22
Ic=X-Y +Z o --1...- -!!3 Na !
1

The Above 3 Equ11,ons ,n 3 Un~nows e1n be Solved lo, The V1lueJ of X Y b Mode -21
3
-ª
end Z ,n Term1 ol The Aciuel Phese Currents G,v,ng The Fonow,ng Resu11s
e --1...- 3 Two -!
di Outer to Ouler Push Push Coupl,ng@ (Ground Re1urnJ
Thut 3 Equ111ons can be Used 10 Oeterm,ne The Mocle Ou1n1111es X Y
1nd Z 11 The Transm,n,ng L,ne Term,n1I lor 1ny Type of Coupl,ng u C!)COllductors are Oroven Out of Phue
Shown ,n Figure 1 !> 18
®conductors ore Or,ven ,n Phue

Figuro 15-17· S,mplified Presentation of Bas,c Modes

Figure 1~18' Mode Components for V1rious Types of Couphng
Condi1ion1 at Tr•n1m111er Term,n1I

The model quanlilies at the transmitting terminal can now

be determined for severa! types of coupling. The equations
for x, Y, and z (modes 3, 2, and 1, respectively) are devel-
oped in Figure 1 5-1 7. Thc values of 13, 1 b- and Je for each
type of coupling are taken from Figure 15-18.
For example, with center phase-to-ground coupling, la=
le= O, and lb= l. Substituting these values into the equa-
tions for x , y, and z (Figure 15-17) gives the modal quan-
tities shown in Figure 15-1 Ba. The modal currents for
other types of coupling can be determined similarly and are
shown in Figures l 5-18b, e, and d. Note that there is no
mode-2 component for "syrnrnetrical" coupling (Figures
15-18a and d). Furt hermore , there is no mode 3 (high-loss)
cornponent for cenrer-to-outer phase coupling. Outer-to-
outer push-pull coupling is not shown, since it is ali mode 2
11.K.3. Modc 1 Coupling Efficiency
Since mode 1 has the lowest line attenuation (Table 15-Xl},
the optirnurn couphng arrangement will produce the larg-
est mode 1 cornponent in the power line at the transmitting
point. A factor called the mode 1 coupling efficiency is
used to compare various kinds of coupling. This factor is
defined as the ratio (expressed in dB} of the rnode 1 power
in the line to the total output power supplied by the trans-
rnitter.
The rnode-I coupling efficiency values listed in Table
15-X lI represent the measured and calculated values for a
properly terminated (Figure 15-16), 40-mi, 500-kV line
section.
15-18

Table l s-xn
lf only mode I were present at the input, for exarnple, all
three modes would be present at the output. Most of the
Mode l Coupling Efficiencies
output energy will be rnodes I and 2. As shown in Figure
Calculated Measured 1 5-19, the mode I quantity at the output will be 6 d B be-
Mode-1 Coupling Efficiencies low its input valué. lf all the mode 2 energy is attenuated
Coupled Phases* Efficiency (dB) (dB) before reaching the remote receiver or the next transposí-
tion, then 6 dB is tite loss introduced by the transposition.
Center-to-outer -1.1 -1.6 The 6-dB figure is a worst-case condition and is seldom en-
Center-to-ground -1.6 -2.5 cou ntered in practice. Modes other t han mode I are usu-
Outer-to-ou ter ally present at the transposition, and the generared mode 2
(push-push) -2.66 is not cornpletely attenuated by the time the signa! reaches
Outer-to-ground -5.8 -7.3 the remote receiver. Multiple transposition (2 to 4) on a
transmission Jine will usually cause only 2 d B or so added
*Unuscd pilases grounded.
loss per transposit ion , ora total of 8 dB. See Table
15-V(b).
Il.K.4. Rankings of Carrier Couplings

Based on the coupling losses derived from Figure 1 5-18 and

Table 15-XII, the type of carrier coupling can be rank ed in
order of preference:
....___:==::::::~-o
a. Mode-1 coupling, for lowest losses -21
b. Center-to-outer phase (push-pull) 1 e
Conditiona After Tr•nsposition
c. Center-to-ground
d. Outer-to-outer (push-push)2 Phese Mode 3 Mode 2 Mode 1
Currenta
e. Outer-to-ground , for short lines only 1
----1.-. __ .9_ --
1!
2 ¿
Mode-I coupling requires line traps, coupling capacitors, __ .9___
~
and line tuners in all three phases, Even so, mode-1 cou- -2 __ Q __ -~
pling has been justified on important, long EH V lines with
multiple usage of the carrier channel.

11.K.S. Transposition Loss 1

= 2(1+2) = l¿I1
Transpositions are made on three-phase power lines to im-
preve the balance between phases and to minimize unbal-
anee currents at SO or 60 Hz. Horizontally spaced EHV Notes:
Note That The Mode 1 Curren• AFTER The Transpos,uon ,s One Hall of The
lines are less frequently transposed, While a 500-kV line Mode 1 Currenl 90,ng !!!!9 The Transpc,s1t10n
rnay have one transposition at its center, a 765-kV line is Thus lhe Mode 1 Convers,on Loss of The Tr ansoosrnonrs 6 dB

generally not transposed for practica! reasons. Since these

transpositions affect carrier frequencies although they do Figure 15-19: Mode·1 Transposition Loss.

not reflect any of tite carrier energy, they are considered to

be "transparent." They do, however, actas mode convert-
ers. Thus, the value of the modal quantities at the output
of a transposition will differ from the modal quantities at
the input of the transposition.
1conductors are driven out of phasc.
2conduclors are driven in phase.
11.L. Systern Losses
Terminal equipment contributes materially to the overall
systern loss. Such losses include RF hybrid losses; coupling
losses, including those from the line tuner and coupling
capacitor: and shunt loss caused by carrier power flowing
back through the Jine trap and the station bus to ground, or
to other lines connected to the bus.
 15-19

11.L.I. RF Hybrid Loss z8, ZT, and ZL are the impedances of the station bus, the
line trap, and the transmission line, respectively.
The conventional RF hybrid inherently dissipates one-half',
or 3 dB, of thc power of any carrier transmitter connected
to it. There is also a small transformer loss, plus a mismatch
loss if the hybrid is not matched exactly to the coaxial
cable input impedance. In essence, then, the overall RF hy-
brid insertion loss can be taken as 3.5 d B. The same figure -zL
applies lo a receivcd signa] passing through the hybrid in
the opposite direction.
Notes:
Za= Bus lmpedancc lnclud,ng
11.L.2. Coupling Loss Adjacenl l,nes
Zr Line Trap lmpedance
ZL = Line Surge lrnpedance

Coupling loss is caused by the resistive cornponent of the

a) Camer Terminnl
line tuner and coupling capacitar impedances. The Iollow-

ª~-'- - .
ing figures are typical for ovcrhead fines with a surge im-
pedance of 500 ohms or more. For bundled-conductor
lines, the coupling loss may be as muchas I dB more."
Ze
Load Poth
Typical Tronsm,ller
Tuner l nscrtion Loss ( d B)

Single-Frequency 0.5-1 b) Equ1valer11 Circu•t of Carricr Torn·unol

Dou ble-Freq ucncy 1.0-2

Figure 16,20: Carrier Shunt Losa.
Hl-Coupler (Wide-Band) 1.0-3

The above values will vary according to the capacitance of lf bus impedance is unknown, assurne 500 ohms for each
the coupling capacitor, t he surge irnpedance of the line, the additional fine connected to the bus. An impedancc valuc
impedance match, the length or coaxial cable, the distan ce of 1 ,000 ohms below l 00 kllz and 500 ohms above 100
between tuner and coupling capacitor, and the support of kl lz is suggested for the bus. The bus and other fine impcd-
the carrier lead-ín cable between the tuner and coupling anees are effectively in parallel,
capacitar. To cover ali contingencies, a total coupling loss
figure of 3 dB is recommended as a general rule for Typical values for shunt loss are listed in Table 15-Xlll.
channel-loss calculations. Values are relatively independent of the number of externa)
lines on the bus. To cover ali contingencies, a shunt loss
figure of 3 dB is recommended as a general rule for channel-
11.L.3. Shunt Loss
loss calculations.

Shunt Ioss is the carrier loss through the linc trap imped- Table 15-XIII
ance and any shunt path to ground , as shown in Figure
15-20. Loss depends on the surge impedance of the line, Typical Shunt Losses
the trap irnpedance, and the impedance of the local station Trap lmpedance
bus. Lme Trap ZT in ohms Shunt Loss in dB

Shunt loss can be determined from the following equation: Single frequency over 1500 I*
Double frequency over 1500 ¡•
( 1 5-7) Wide Band 600-800 2
Wide Band 400 3

*Sec also the line tuner and 1-li-Coupler characteristic curves shown * Add 0.5 dB if a low-Q trap is used and the trap impedance is less
in Figures 15-4 and 15-5. than 1000 ohms.
U.M. Example of Power-line Carrier Application Channel Loss Calculations starting at Station G

For the typical application shown in Figure 15-21, carrier Hybrid Losses: hybrid losses are 2 x 3.5 dB:: 7 dB.
channel attenuation and signal-to-noise ratio can be calcu-
lated as Iollows: Coupling Loss: allow 3 dB, per Sec. 11.L.2.

Conditions
Shunt Loss: allow 3 d 8, per Sec. 11. L.3.
Line: 100-mi, 345-kV line with one transposition at center,
Shield wire - ACSR cable.
Coupling Correction: +l dB, per Table 15-VI
Carrier Frequencies: grouped near 100 kHz.
Attenuation of Line: from Figure 15-7, for 345 kV, 100
Line Relay ing: application requires wide-band I W / 1 OW k Hz , attenuation is 0.07 dB/rni. That is, line attenua-
type TCF frequency-shift carrier, with 2-kHz spacing. tion :: 0.07 x J 00 mi= 7 dB. Add a 25 percent corree·
tion factor for foul weather (Table 15-V(a).
Breaker Failure Relaying: uses narrow-band I W / I OW
type TCF, with I-k l !z spacing. Foul-Weather Attenuation: foul-weather attenuation =
1.25 x 7 = 8.75 dB. Round off to 9 dB.
R-F Hybrids: used as shown in Figure 15-21 for isolation
between transmitters as well as between transmitters and Transposition Loss: from modal analysis, transposition
receivers, Frequencies used satisfy 6 percent maximum loss = 6 dB rnaxírnum , per Table 15-V(b).
bandwidth for hybrids.
System Loss: system losses from station G to far end of
Line Coupling: center-phase-to-ground, single-frequency line (point B I in Figure 15-21) are:
tuner.
hybrid losses = 7 dB
Line Trap: single-Irequency , low-Q connection, tuned to coupling loss = 3 dB
102 .5 kl tz to cover 100-to- l 05-kHz signals. shunt loss = 3 dB

Stetlon G Stelion H

Line Trap
100 Mile 345 KV Line
One TranspoS1hon al Cenler

}--

Frequency Frequency
in kH3 in kH3

une Reloy,ng Transfer Tri p L,ne Relay,ng Tronsfer T11p

Figure 15-21: Typicel Cerrler Chennel for STU Unbfock Aeleylng Wlth Wide Bend TCF. Plua Nerrow Bend TCF for Bre•k•r Fellure Tranafer Trlp.
 15-21

coupling correction = 1 dB (from Table J 5-VI) Total Channel Loss

line Joss = 9 dB
transposition loss = 6 dB To determine the total channel attenuation to the carrier
receivers at station H, the coupling and hybrid losses at H
The total system loss is 29 dB to point B 1 (foul weather). must be added.

foul-Weather Line Noise Attenuation to 81 = 27 dB (fair-weather)

Coupling loss 3 dB
From Figure 15-8, at 100 kHz, foul-weather noise level at Shunt loss = 3 dB
230kV =-17dBm Hybrids (2) = 7 dB
Therefore, total channel loss = 40 dB (fair-weather loss)
From Table 15-VIII, correction for 345 k V = + 2 dB
These losses are plotted in Figure 15-22. The total channel-
From Table 15-IX, correction for wide-band loss calculation is made to be sure that the carrier receiver
TCF receiver 8 dB has adequate sensitivity for the application. For this pur-
pose, the fair-weather loss figure (for the power line) is used.
Therefore, noise level in wide-band TCF rcvr. =-23 dBm

The receiver sensitivity is normally adjusted so that its alarm

For narrow-band TCF, the correction factor is -11 dB.
relay operates for a l 0-dB increase in channel loss beyond the
Therefore, the narrow-band TCF receiver noise leve! is
fair-weather figure, plus an additional 5-dB margin for relia-
-26 dBm.
bility. Thus, the receiver sensitivity must be adequate to in-
elude this 15-dB added channel loss.
Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratio

Stetion G
Since the terminal equipment at station H will attenuate the
signa! and noise by the same amount, the sígnal-to-noise +30dBm

ratio is deterrníned at the receiving end of the line (point 35dB }

Hybnd Losses
81 in Figure 15-21). 3 5 dB

Received signa! leve! at B 1 :

Transmitted signa! (1 W) = +30 dBm Y, L,ne Loss

Attenuation to point B 1 = -29 dB \

7 dB Totlll Stetion H
Therefore, received signal at B 1 = + J dBm
\
Y, Line Loss

Signal-to-noise ratio at 81:

3 5 dB } Hybnd
3. 5 dB Loues
For wide-band TCF, +I dBm signa! - (-23 dBm) noise Total Attenuetion to TCF Receiver= 40 dB- }
a, ~
= 24 dB S/N ratio 'O ;¡
2 :1
Low·Sognel Alarm ~
For narrow-band TCF, +l dBm signal (-26 dBm) noise
>

Rece,ver Min,mum Pickup ..._ _ _, ~

= 27 dB S/N ratio
Signa! Lavala (Fair Weatherl
These signal-to-noise ratios are for foul-weather noise and Transm,tter at Stat,on G +30 dBm 11 ·Watt)
Total Attenuation to Stat,on H Recelver 40 dB
attenuatíon-the worst case. They are significantly above Lt1vel at Stetion H Receiver -10 dBm
Level at Statoon H Receiver for Low·Sognal Alarm -20 dBm
the mínimum 1 O dB signal-to-noise ratio considered satis-
Figure 15-22: Cerr;.r Louee for Th• System of Figura 16-21.
factory for frequency shift operation.
15-22

Since the wide-band TCF receiver has a 55-dB channel at-
tenuation rating, there is arnple margin for a 10-dB signa!
deterioration during adverse weather. For irnproved de-
pendability, the transmitter power is increased to 1 O W dur-
ing an unblock or transfer-trip operation, giving a J 0-dB in-
crease in S/N ratio.
111. CARRIER TRANSMITTERS ANO RECEIVERS
In protective relaying, carrier transmitters and receívers are
used for on-off operation or for frequency-shift (FSK) op-
eration (Table 15-XlV).
diate amplifier stages, a power amplifier, andan output fil·
ter to keep harrnonics suitably low. Voltage reguJators keep
the transmitter output and receiver sensitivity constant over
expected ranges of station-battery voltage variation. Super-
heterodyne receivers are associated with both the 1-W (KR)
and l 0-W (TC) transmitters. These receivers have fixed fil.
ters that provide a constan! bandwidth over the carrier
band , Typical selectivity curves for both the K R and TC
receivers are shown in Figure 15-23. Receiver bandwidths
and attenuation ratings are given in Table 15-XV.
Table IS-XV
Receiver Bandwidths and Atlenuation Ratings

Table 15-XJV Standard Narrow-Band

KR TC TC
Carrier Terminal Equipment
Receiver Bandwidth
(at • 3 dB points) 500 Hz 1500 Hz 500 Hz
Trans- Receiver
Type Operalion mírrer Bandwidth* Main Applica1ion** Channel Attenutation
KR on-off IW 500 llz l·.M direct ional Rating 40 dB 40 dB 50 dB
comparison
block ing

lC on-off IOW 1500 Hztstd > l·M and SS dlrcc-

tional and phase
cornparison
hlocking
ff on-off 10\\ 500 H1 H,1 dircctional
comparison re-
lay ing on h igh-
loss or high-noise
lines
TCF FSK IW{IOW B Ali direct transf er-
trip and l~M
transf'cr-rnp
linc rclaying
syst erns

TCF FSK IWflOW WB SS directional com-

parison unhlock

T,F FSK IOW/IOW WB Dual phase cornpari-

son linc rclaying

=
•NB narrow-band (220 Hz) and WB = wide-band (500 Hz) for
TCF rcceivers,
**l::M = electrorncchanical-type relays aod SS= solid-state typc
relays.

lll.A. On-Off Carrier

On-off operation, used only for relay blocking systems,

prevents tripping of the breakers in an unfaulted Line sec-
tion during an externa! fault. Power levels of l W (type ce
1)

K R) or 1 O W (type TC) are used. In both cases, the trans-

mitter consists of a crystal oscilJator, one or more interrne- Figure 15--23: C1rrier Receiver Selectivity Cun,es.

Ill.B. Application for On-Off Carrier
111.B.1. One-Watt (Type KR) Carrier
This carrier set is used for directional comparison blocking
using electromechan.ical relays (K-DAR), low speed tele-
metering, and supervisory control at pulse rates up to IS
pps. The KR carrier set can generally be used on lines of
220 kV or below and up to 100 mi in length.
Hl.B.2. Ten-Watt (Type TC) Carrier
The standard TC set is suitable for both electromechanical
and solid-state directional or phase cornparison carrier re-
laying systems. For phase comparison relaying, the tran-
sient response of the receiver input filter requires that a
mínimum carrier frequency of SO kHz be used for on-off
keying.
Toe narrow-band TC set is used for electro-mechanical di·
rectional comparison relaying on lines of relatively high at-
tenuation or noise Level. The narrower receiver bandwidth
gives a L 0-dB reduction in noise response, thus allowing a
10-dB higher attenuation rating with a l 0-W transmitter.
The on-off carrier for protective relaying is usually operated
at a single frequency, since only one station is normally
transrnitting at a time. Single-frequency operation allows
the use of single-frequency line traps and line tuners. For
an externa! fault on a three-terminal line, however, power
may flow in one terminal and out the other two. Under
these conditions, a carrier signal will be transmitted from
both line terrn.inals. If the line attenuation to the third ter·
minal is the same from both transmitters, equal-strength sig-
nals will be received, probably a few cycles apart. Cancella-
tion will occur as the two sígnals swing out of phase, and
the carrier relay will allow incorrect tripping. To prevent
this condition, the transmitter frequencies at the three line
terminals are spaced 100 Hz apart. This arrangement ensures
that any beat frequency during an external fault will be fast
enough to prevent tripping. The receiver bandwidth (KR or
TC) is adequate to accommodate thís spread of received fre-
quencies.
111.B.3. Other Uses oí On-Off Carrier Channel
Since a carrier signa! is transmitted only during a Iault, the
relaying carrier channel is usually available for other func-
15-23
tions. An elementary modulator and amplitude-modulated
(AM) receiver can be added to the carrier set to provide a
voice channel for maintenance comrnun.ication between the
terrninals of a line section. On both KR and TC carrier sets,
plug-in handsets with a "push-to-talk" button are used with
these voice adapters. The remote station is called by start-
ing carrier transmission to ring the alarm bell at that station
(manual code-bell calling). Plugging in the handset or re-
moving it from a key cradle cuts off the alarrn bell.
A single keyed function can also be added, such as tele-
rnetering a single quantity or supervisory control between
the two terminals of a line section. By ternporarily ínter-
rupting the keyed function, maintenance voice commun.ica-
tion can be used. In the event of a fault, however, the pro·
tective relays will take precedence over any other function.
With the development of narrow-band frequency-shift car-
rier, functions such as telemetering and supervisory control
have been separated from the relaying carrier. Frequency-
shif't channels in the same direction can be spaced as close
as 0.5 kHz and are generally preferable for carrying the sin·
gle keyed function.
III.C. Frequency-shift Carrier (Type TCF)
One of the most critical applications for power-line carrier
is protecting transformers with no high voltage (line-side)
breaker. In such cases, the tripping signa! for a transformer
fault is transmitted over the power line to the remote
breaker. The receiver output relay (oran equivalent solid-
state device) directly trips the breaker; there is no supervis-
ing protective relay in series with the receiver output. For
this reason, no spurious output from the receiver can be
tolerated.
A frequency-shift (FSK) carrier is used where such security
against incorrect operation is required. In this mode of op-
eration, a carrier signa! is transmitted continuously at a
guard or space frequency l 00 Hz. above the nominal (30-to·
300-kHz range) channel frequency (Figure 15-24a). The re·
ceiver at the remote terminal, like an FM receiver, has lirn-
iter stages and a discriminator (Figure 1 5-24b). Reception
of the guard frequency satura tes the receiver, making it in·
sensitive to most noise voltages on the power line. The
arnplitude-limited guard signa! is then applied to a discrimí-
nator, which produces a non-operating (logic "zero ") de
output of one polarity.
15-24

2 MHz
Crystol
Osc,llolor

Millet R: AMP
Driver
~r
AMP
Oulput
Filler 1---- 1,-------• To Coo,iol

Guord: Fe+ IOOHz

2MHz+Fc
Crystol
1 Tnp = Fe -100Hz
1
Osc,lloto, 1
Fe =Nominal Ch1nnel Frequency ;-,..-lW-lOW Only
____________________ J1

T Contra Contoct °' Vottoge

•) Transmitter
e Loss of S19no1 Alorm

,. ~
1 ~
{ .r+ Telemetryor
i:._ 5'.opervisory Control
1
1
n__._
Ac Volloge
20 kHz ----...;;::J to, Telemetry
Cryslol F1l1e< limite, D,sc11m,no1or ~-~-Bolloge
AMP
Filler
AMP ...__ -~
...., 1 ~ Alorm

~-a
1
Notea:
1
G) Om,tted ,n W,de Band IW B I Recerver --Trip

@ L·C F,her m Wtde Band Recetve.r cu lnd,cohon -- Low S.gnol

(Dplionol) ond Alorm
{ -No,se
- Checkbock

b] Rece,ver (Narrow Band)

Figure 1 li-24: Type TCF Frequency Shitt Cerr~r Block Oiegrema.

To transmita trip signal, the transmitter frequency is -70

shifted down 200 Hz, producing a receiver discriminator
output of the opposite polarity (Figure 15-25). This operat- -GOL--~--------------~-----1
ing output (or logic "one") trips a circuit breaker at, for
Norrow Bond Rece,ver
example, the receiving line terminal. At the same time, the -50 (Crys101 F,llerl
transmitter power output is increased from 1 W to l O W to
ensure dependa ble tripping.
-40

The input filter of this narrow-band frequency-shift receíver

need only be wide enough to include both the guard and
trip frequencies, plus a small safety margin. As shown in
Figure 15-25, a typical filter is 220 Hz wide (±11 O Hz).
To obtain these characteristics, it is necessary to use a crys-
tal filter where most of the reactive elements are provided
by quartz crystals rather than by L·C circuits. The narrow
bandwidth of this filter, combined with its steep skirt selec- CD
'O
tivity, permits channels in the sarne direction to be spaced
as closely as 0.5 kHz on the same line section. te
Trip Guord
-500Hz -100 Hz +100Hz +500Hz

Toe mínimum spacing for channels in opposite directions is

Fígure 15-26: Typicel Filter •nd Discrimin•tor Curves o·f N•rrow •nd
1.0 kHz. For such applications, RF hybrids must be used Wide Bend Frequency Shift Carrier Receivers. lTCFl
 15-25

to prevent interaction between transmitters, as explained relaying down to 30 kHz. The carrier transmitter for this
later in this chapter. With frequency-shift operation, a car- type of relaying is operated at a l O-Watt leve! continuously.
rier channel in both directions between two stations re-
quires a duplex (two-frequency) channel: each receiver Ill.D. Three-frequency Operation
must continuously receive the signal from the remote trans-
mitter only. When the protection requires duplex frequency-shift chan-
nels, a considerable saving in channel spectrum can be ef-
For transf'er-trip applications, the receiver discriminator fre- fected by using a double-shift transmitter and two separa te
quency characteristic is shifted a small amount (25 Hz) in receivers. For example, directional comparison unblock
the trip direction, as shown in Figure 15-25. This shift puts relaying ( wide-bank FSK receiver) can be used for line pro-
a larger segment of the crystal filter pass-band on the guard tection, and a transfer-trip channel (narrow-band FSK re-
side of the discriminator, and a smaller amount on the trip ceiver) can be used for breaker failure or transformer bank
side. In addition, the discriminator is 3 or 4 dB less sensi- protection.
tive at the trip frequency than it is at the guard frequency.
The net effect is to reduce the likelihood of a high noise The transmitter (Figure l 5-26a) normally opera tes at 100 Hz
leve! on the power line producing a spurious trip output above the nominal channel frequency, with a l-Watt output.
from the discriminator. The fe + 100 Hz frequency serves as the block frequency for
the unblock system and the guard frequency for the transfer-
Logic circuitry is placed after the discriminator to further trip system. Each receiver uses the signa! as required for its
increase the security of a narrow-band FSK receiver against own relaying function.
undesired tripping. The logic requires the following condi-
tions to be met before tripping is allowed: As shown in Figure l 5-26a, operation of an unblock system
protective relay supplies #1 input to the AND logic. Ab-
a. A guard signa! must be received immediately before the sence of transfer-trip #2 input allows the AND circuit to de-
trip signal. liver an output that shifts oscillator fil down in frequency
by 200 Hz and boosts the transmitter output to I O Watts.
b. There must be no sustained high leve! noise on the As oscillator # 1 shifts down in freq uency, it moves farther
channel. aways from the frequency of oscillator #2. Since the trans-
mitter output is the difference frequency between oscilla-
c. Toe received signa! must shift from guard to trip with no tors fil and #2, the output frequency is actually increased
intentional delay. by 200 Hz (from an initial value of fe+ 100 Hz to fe+
300 Hz). This fe+ 300 Hz is tne un block frequency
d. The trip signa! must be received long enough (on the or- (Figure l 5-26b).
der of 2 to 20 ms) to time out an adjustable time delay.
If the local breaker does not trip, the breaker failure relay
With different receiver logic, a frequency-shift carrier is also ealls for a transfer-trip operation. Sueh an operation shifts
used for severa! types of line relaying, such as the unblock the frequeney of oseillator fl2 down 200 Hz, bringing it
and phase comparison carrier relaying systems described in closer to the frequency of oscillator fil and reducing the
Chapter 16. To irnprove the channel speed while retaining transmitter output frequency to fe - 100 Hz. This fe -
the advantages of FSK operation, a wider bandwidth re- 100 Hz is the trip frequency shown in Figure 1 S-26b.
ceíver input filter ernploying tuned L-C circuits, rather than
crystals, is used for these applications. This wide-band FSK Negation of the transfer-trip input to the AND block (Fig-
receiver has a bandwidth of ±250 Hz at the-3-dB points ure 15-26a) permits the transfer-trip funetion to take pre-
and responds fast enough to be suitable for phase compari- cedence over unbloeking in controlling the TCF transmitter
son carrier relaying, ln these systerns, tripping is always frequency. Circuit interlocks between the two reeeivers pre-
supervised by line-frequency (50 or 60 Hz) protective re- vent a loss-of-signal alarm from occurring when the incom-
lays. Thus, in spite of the greater receiver bandwidth, noise ing carrier signa! is shifted in frequency for an operation of
is very unlikely to cause incorrect tripping. Wide-band either receiver. Transmitter output is switched to 1 O W for
frequency-shift carrier can be used for phase comparison a frequency shift in either direction.
15-26

IF. Filler Unblock Reeeiver (Centered obout fe+ 100)

Unblock Reloy
#l lnpu1

01 MHz (fe) to
Tronsm,ller
Amplif,er
-750Ht

Oscillota<
Tronsfer-Trip
Reloy #2
#21nput 2.1 MHz

Note:
Guord ond Block - fe+ lOOHz
Un block - fe + 200 Hz Unblock Receowr
TransferTrip - te -100 Hz fc+lOO O,sc,,m,notor

le: Ro1ed ChOnnel Frequency

a• Ir ansmuter Oaeranoo bt Rece.ver ChMactenst•cs

Figure 15-26: TCF 3-Frequencv Operation.

The minimum frequency spacing and receiver sensitivity rat-
ings for type TCF frequency-shift carrier are given in Tables
IS-XVI and IS-XVII, respectively ,
m.s. Use of RF Hybrids
With a blocking on-off carrier (type K R or TC), there is usu-
ally only a single transmitter-receiver ata line terminal.
With frequency-shift carrier, however , there are usually two
or more transmitters and receivers connected through a sin-
gle tuner and coupling capacitor. Ali transmitters and re-
ceivers cannot be connected directly to the same coaxial ca-
ble for two major reasons:
a. The transmitter outputs would overload the receiver in-
put circuits and irnpair their ability to receive the remote
signal.
b. Parallel operation of two or more transmitters with
closely spaced frequencies would give rise to intermodu-
lation distortion. Each transmitter, in other words,
would irnpose non-linear loading on the others in paral-
lel with in. For example, if 99-kHz and 100-kHz trans-
mitters are connected in parallel, there will be spurious
frequencies at 1-kHz intervals above and below the trans-
mitter frequencies. The amplitude of these intermodula-
tion products will decrease rapidly at frequencies farther
away from 99 and 100 kHz. Even so, the intermodula-
tion products may interfere with other channels.
Such problems can be avoided by using RF hybrids to iso-
late transmitters from each other and transmitter outputs
from receiver inputs. An RF hybrid , in its sirnplest form,
consists of an accurately mid-tapped transformer T and a
balance resistor R (Figure l S-27a). It is designed so a signa!
applied to either input terminal (IN-1 or IN-2) will, in the-
ory, produce no signa! voltage at the opposite input termi-
nal. In practice, the sígnal attenuation between one trans-
mitter and the opposite input is about 30 dB. This attentua-
tion figure is known as the "return loss" of the hybrid.
The 30-ohm balance resistor R causes a 3-dB loss between
each input and the output. There is also a transformer loss
of 0.5 dB, maximum. This total 3.5-dB loss is the "inser-
tion loss" of the hybrid. Approximately the same loss ap-
plies to incorning signals. Thus, two transmitters can be
connected to a hybrid with negligible interaction between
them. Alternatively, a transmitter and a receiver can be
connected to the two hybrid inputs, with negligible signal
from the transmitter appearing at the receiver input. For
reasons explained this hybrid arrangement, or its equivalent,
is always necessary where a transmitter and one or more
FSK receivers are coupled to the same carrier channel.
For carrier applícations, the output load on a hybrid is not
apure resistance. Rather, it is a combination of coaxial ca-
ble, line tuner, coupling capacitor, and the surge irnpedance
( z0) of the transmission line. To obtain a satisfactory bal-
ance overa reasonably wide frequency range, the hybrid cír-
 l5-27

Table l S-XVI cuit shown in Figure l 5-27b is used. A tunable series-

resonant L-C circuit is added to the balance resistor R. This
Minimum Frequency Spacing for Type TCF
Frequency-Shift Carrier scheme produces an acceptable balance over a 6-percent
bandwidth through most of the carrier spectrum.
Mínimum
Type of Spacing with
Channel RF Hybrids T

R mC;:n~
IN-1 o------,
Equípment Mode Direction (kHz)
[N-1 ~T F,~ed.
To
Narrow-band receiver FSK One way ~ o.s 30 :60:RL [
Coouct
Cob'e
( crystal fil ter) ±100-Hz L -'

shift
IN-2 [N·2o----~

al Res,stance Type Hybrid bl Reac1ance Tvpe Hyb,,d

Narrow-band receiver FSK Two way ~ 1.0 (Single Unot · Type H I A) (Tvpe H3Xt
( crystal fil ter) ±100-Hz (Doubfe Uni1 T ype H 2RI

shift Figure 15-27: R·F Hybrids.

Wide-band receiver FSK One way -+

-+ 1.0-1.S *-2.04> The reactance-type hybrid shown in Figure 15-27b must be
( L-C fil ter) ±100-Hz used if only a single hybrid unit is required to separate two
sh.ift transmitters (ora transrnitter anda receiver) ata line termi-
nal. lf more than one hybrid is needed, however , as in the
Wide-band receiver FSK Two way ~ 2.0-3 .0*-4.0<P example shown in Figure 15-21, only the hybrid connected
(L-C fil ter) ±100-Hz to the coaxial cable need be of the reactance type (H3X).
shift Others can be of the resistance type (HI R) shown in Figure
15-27a.
Wide-band receiver on-off One way ->
-+ 1.5
keying For transmitters connected to a common load (coaxial ca-
ble) using hybrids, the frequency bandwidth should be kept
Wíde-band receiver on-off Two way ~ 3.0 within 6 percent of the highest frequency for a center fre-
keying quency in the 50-to-300-kHz range. In the 30-to-50-k Hz
range, the acceptable bandwidth is 4 percent. Within these
Three-freq uency TCF FSK One way :! 1.5 lirnits, a mínimum return loss of 15 d B will be prod uced un-
±200-Hz der various line-switching and weather conditions.
Two way t 2.5
shift
* · SKBU Relaying Only the transmitter frequencies for a hybrid chain involv-
<P • SPCU Relaying ing both transrnitters and receivers must be kept within the
Table l S-XVII 4- or 6-percent lirnits. Receivers are not subject to
frequency-band limitations. Also , a hybrid need not be
TCF Receiver Sensitivity Ratings used between two receivers; since no signa! is transmitted,
Receiver Sensitivity no isolation is required.
Equipment Mode for Limiting (mV)
Several typical hybrid arrangements, shown in Figure l 5-28a
Narrow-band FSK 5 (65 dB below I W)
receiver through l5-28f, are listed below:

Wide-band FSK J S (55 dB below I W)

receiver Two transmitters (a): This arrangement uses an X-type hybrid.
Frequencies of transmitters should be within the 4- or
Wide-band On-off 44 (55 dB below 10 W}
receiver keying 6-percent limits. There is an approximate 3.5-dB Joss for
each signal,
 15-28
Coaxial
a) Two Tr ansmuters b) Single Br-direcnonal Channel
e) Dual Bi·dorec11onal Channel dl Foor Tr ansmurers (Equal Hybnd
t.osses)
100
kHz
101
kHz
150
fr7L.';.5_
kHz
(TC) ~._:;2,
"-.j ~Po-1 º'
Transm,ner
e) Four Transm,tters [Favonnq l 1 f)F·S Duplex Channel plus TC On-Ofl
and T2) Carrier
Figure 15-28: Typical Application of R·F Hybrids.
Single bi-directional channel (b): This arrangement uses
either an X-type hybrid balanced for Tl frequency, with
no restriction on T 1 and R 1 frequency spacing, ora
"skewed" hybrid for closely spaced frequencies. With a
skewed hybrid, two transformers are used to obtain the
balancing action. The resulting insertion loss in the
transmitter path is Jess than 1 .O dB which helps overcorne
line noise (compared to 3.5 dB in a conventional hybrid).
This reduced transmitter insertion loss is accompanied by
as much as a 1 2-dB loss in the path of the received signal.
Since the signa) and noise are attenuated together, how-
ever, the signal-to-noise ratio is not reduced. On high-loss
channels, the 12-dB loss may be a sígnificant factor in
overall path attenuation.
Dual bi-directional channel (e): The TI and T2 transmitter
outputs are fed into an R-type hybrid which, in turn,
feeds the X-type hybrid. Receivers Rl and R2 are con-
nected in parallel to the second input of the X-type hy-
brid. The 4- and 6-percent limits apply to the two trans-
mitters, but not to their spacing from the two receivers.
As previously stated, hybrids are never required between
Coai,al two receivers.
Four transmitters/one-way channel (d): In this convén-
tional arrangernent of R and X hybrids, each signa) is
subject to a 7-dB loss (2 x 3.5 dB).
Modified four-transmitter/one-way channel (e): The rnodi-
fication consists of a reconnection to favor T 1 and T2
losses, which are 3.5 and 7 dB, respectively. Losses for
T3 and T4 will be 10.5 dB each (3 x 3.5 dB).
FSK bi-directional channel plus on-off carrier (f): In this ar-
rangernent , the closely spaced ( 1 .O kHz) FSK transmitter
and receiver are connected to an X-type hybrid. Since
the line-relaying set is far outside the 6-percent frequency
bandwidth limít at 150 kHz, however, it cannot be con-
nected in a hybrid chain through the same X-type hybrid.
lnstead, it is connected to the coaxial cable in parallel
with the hybrid output.
Each transmitter has a series L-C unit in its output filter,
so there is negligible interaction between the two trans-
mitters. The 150-kHz signa) is, however , attenuated only
3.5 dB by the X hybrid on its way to the FSK receiver in-
put, which is not enough to prevent conduction of the re-
ceiver input zener-diode clippers. To eliminate such con-
duction, an L-C circuit and load resistor are cormected, as
shown, ahead of the FSK receiver input. This resonant cir-
cuit, tuned to the desired 101-kHz signal, adequately re-
jects the local 150-kHz signal. lf the interfering signal is
not 150 kHz, but 1 1 O kHz for exarnple, a single L-C circuit
may not be adequate. Rather, a more elaborate type-RPS
receiver preselector fil ter must be used, since the 110-kHz
signal is still outside the 6-percent bandwidth hybrid limit.
ill.F. Parallel Operation of Transmitters without RF
Hybrids
When the frequency spacing is beyond the 4- or 6-percent
limit of RF hybrids, 10-W transmitters (TC or TCF) can be
operated in parallel without RF hybrids, and their output
fed into a single coaxial cable (and wide-band tuner). This
arrangement requires a certain mínimum frequency spacing,
where the selectivity of the transmitter output filters will
prevent the transmitters from loading into each other or gen-
erating intermodulation products. This mínimum frequency
spacing is shown in Figure 15-29.
 15-29

nel. Also, sorne rneans must be provided for preventing

over-rnodulation, which would cause brief interruptions of
the carrier signal. The major components of the TCF-voice
system shown in Figure 15-30 are:
1
0o so 50 100 200 300 a. TCF relaying transmitter (1 W to 10 W) with a built-in
Cenltr Frequencyof Higher Tronsmiller,kHz
AM modulation circuit.
Figure 16-29: Mínimum Frequency Spacing for Two 10 Watt TC or TCF
Transmitters Opareted in Perellel Without R·F Hybrida.
ffrom Conslderat,on of Transmitter loading Only)
b. Speech amplifier with automatic leve! control (ALC) to
prevent over-modulation.
m.G. Other Applications

c. A completely separate AM voice receiver with automatic

Frequency-shift equipment is widely used for telemetering
volume control (A VC).
and supervisory control channels because of its narrow
bandwidth and high reliability. For telemetry and supervi-
d. A 370-Hz calling-tone transmitter and receiver ( calling
sory applications, the transmitter is usually operated at a
alarm).
l-Watt Jevel for both mark and space frequencies. Jt may
be keyed either by a contact or by the ac output voltage of
e. Provision for a second voice receiver for three-terminal
frequency-type telemetering equipment. As indicated in
line applications.
Figure 15-24b, the FSK receiver output may be either a
rnercury-wetted relay or an ac voltage. No logic circuitry is
f. An audio mixer to combine the signals from the two re-
used in the receiver for these applications.
mote stations for three-terminal Jines.

For multi-station supervisory control, conventional FSK

g. Telephone handset and calling pushbutton.
equipment is impractical, since each station must receive
the signal transrnitted by all other stations. lnstead,
The TCF relaying receiver and RF hybrid, which are not ac-
frequency-shift equipment is operated in an on-off mode.
tually a part of the TCF-voice system, are also shown in
A 1 O-Watt transmitter is used at each station, together with
Figure 15-30.
a wide-band TCF receiver (±250-Hz bandwidth at -3 dB)
operating at the same frequency.
Guord-lWott
Out pul Vo,ce-3.25 Wott
[ Trip·IOWott
The higher sensitivity and relatively narrower bandwídth of
Port of TCF
Cooxrot
L,ne Tune,
'º
the TCF receiver make it more suitable for this application Tronsm,tter Protective
---- Reloyong
than the standard type-TC equipment (±750 Hz at -3 dB). TCF Output
Retoy,ng
The receiver's higher sensitivity compensates for the divi- Rece,-er
sion of the transmitter output power among severa] Unes.
Along with the discriminator, the narrower bandwidth helps
rnaintain an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio. This receiver
Colling
,-----------
370Hz
---"-~
----, 1

cannot use a crystal filter with a 220-Hz bandwidth Pushbutton Colling Tooe A·MVooce 1
Receiver 1
(±110 Hz ar- 3dB); íts time response is too long to follow Hondset
MicrOl)hone
Speech Arnphf,er WithA.V.C 1
Wíth A.L.C.*
the carrier on-off supervisory-control pulses. 1
voee S,gnol I
1
Hondse1 í2nd v;c;¡,
111.H. Voice Channel over Frequency-shift Carrier Receover 1-4....--1-1Recelver
1 for i1
1 3 Terminal : 1
(Type TCF) I Llne ,1
L-----JI
.l. Colhng 1
To AlormBell J; Alarm
A voice channel is also available for frequency-shift carrier 1'0etector 1
1
equipment. However, a guard or blocking signal is trans-
1
mitted continuously with frequency-shift carrier. Stopping L J TCF Vooce Adopte~
1

carrier transrnission, even momentarily, to signal the remote ( i.. )- Automatic Level Control

terminal would disrupt the proper functioning of the chan- Figure 15-30: Block Oiagram ol The TCF Voice System.
15-30

At its guard or block frequency, the TCF transmitter oper- c. Where the pilot-wire resistance and capacitance exceed
ates ata 1-Watt output level. When the telephone handset the limits for ac pilot-wire relaying.
is lifted from the hookswitch (not shown), the transmitter
output power increases to 3.25 Watts. The remete station is d. Where metallic pairs cannot be leased for ac pilot-wire
called by manually transmitting the 370-Hz tone. When relaying.
volee modulation is applied, the carrier lcvel can vary from
JO Watts to I Watt. e. In a reas where the power-line carrier spectrum is crowded.

The instantaneous leve! can never drop below 1 Watt. In Three types of conventional FSK audio tone equipment are
this way, an adequate guard signa! is maintained. If a pro· used for protective relaying. Types TA3 and D!T-1 are used
tective relay operates during volee communication, the voice for transfcr-trip systems and type TA2.2 for dual phase-
modulation circuit is immediately blocked, the carrier fre- cornparison relaying.
quency shifts to trip (or equivale nt), and the power output is
boosted to 1 O W. Thus, the integrity of the protective rclay- IV .A. Type T A3 Tones for Transfer-Trip Application
ing channel is not affected by adding voice communication.
Type T A3 tones opera te in the ra nge of 1 200 to 3000 l lz
The duplex TCF voice communication system described and have a bandwidth of 170 Hz or 340 Hz (Table 15-XVlll).
above can be used with director permissive transf'er-trip re· They can be used with either electromechanical or solid-state
laying, and unblocking or phase comparison relaying. The transf'er-trip relaying. A direct transfer-trip systcm-one
systcrn uses a 1 W · 1 O W type-T'Cf" transmitter with provi- which has no supervising protective relay should use the
sion for amplitude modulation. System characteristics are: 170-Hz bandwidth tone. A permissive relaying system pro·
tecting a line with high speed breakers should use the
Channel attenuation rating 40 dB 340-Hz bandwidth tone, which opera tes 4 ms faster. Since
the TA3 tone equipment is used for dírect transf'er-trip, it
Voice receiver dynamic range 25 dB, minimum must be secure against false operation on noise. Security is
provided by:
Minimum frequency spacing for
duplex channel • 4Hlz a. The inherent noise-rejection characteristlc of a frequency-
shift receiver.
The TCF voice adapter components, shown inside the
dotted box in Figure 15-30, are mounted on a 19-inch rack b. A broad-band filter (300 to 1000 Hz) and AM receiver

chassis. to sample the random noise leve! of the pilot channel and
prevent it from causing false tripping.

IV. AUDIO TONE CHANNELS c. A second noise circuit that samples the entirc frequency
spectrurn of the channel and operates for an ovcrall
Audio tones transmitted over wire-Line or microwave corn- energy increase on the channel. This monitoring feature
munication circuits provide a second type of channel for protects against false trip caused by impulse noise outside
protective relaying systems. Audio tone channels are used the 300-to- l 000-Hz noise-Iilter freq uency.
to transmit relay "intelligence" from one line terminal to
another in the following cases: A block diagram of the TA3 tone equipment for the 170-Hz
a. On relatively short lines, where they may have an eco- bandwidth is shown in Figure 15-31. The transmitter con·
norníc advantage over power-line carrier. tains an isolated keying circuit, a frequency-shift oscíllator,
anda buffer amplifíer. The amplifier can be provided with
b. In metropolitan areas using underground transmission ca- either an output fílter ora transformer to couple the FSK
bles that present excessive carrier-frequency attenuation. transmitter to the externa! cornmunícation circuit.

The output filter presents a high out-of-band impedance

*Greater spacing may be requíred, depending on line loss and leve! of
adjacent frequencies. that prevents adjacent channel loading and allows paralleling
 Table 1 S-XVIII
Ampand
Keyong Keyong F·S Tome
C0<1toc1 C1rcu,I Oscolla:or
Op1,onal 0..,1 Type T A3 Audio Tones Frequencies (Hz)
F,ller

nJ rra,,sm,11er Block O,agram ( 170 Hz Sh•fl) A. Standard channels ( 170-Hz bandwidth and 340-Hz
spacing)
Rece,ve, L1miler and LowS,gnol
Channel
Signo Superv,so,y Module Block Ou I pu,
1275 1190 1360
- Low • S,gnal 1615 1530 1700
Trop Block
1955 1830 2040
Telephone F • S O,scri m, noror ond Tr,p Outpul 2295 2210 2380
Line D·C Ampl1f1er Module
(Tone In) 2635 2550 2720
Tr,p Block 2975 2890 3060
340-Hz
---Level
Lne} _L: _ Nmse Block
B. Channel Time 170-Hz Bandwidth
With With
Bandwidth
With
Superv,so,y Oulpul Transformer Filler Filter
~-~ No,se Module (ms) (ms) (ms)

300 1000 Hz Channel Time,

Fl:Jss Bond
Exluding
bl Recoov61 Block Ooownm Telephone Une 7.5 9.0 5.0
Relay Time:
Figure 16-31 ·Type TA·l Tone Tren,mitter and Recelver Block Olegrem1.
2-A Mercury-
Wettcd Relay or
the outputs of several tone transmitters, without using hy- Mercury-Wetted
brids. The filter also reduces any harmonic distortion in lhe Relayand 10-W
tone output to less than 0.2 percont , This feature is dosir- AR Relay 3.0 3.0 3.0
able where a large number of tones are connected to onc
Total 10.5 12.0 8.0
communications channel. The output filter, however, adds
1.5 rns to the channel time. C. Required Channel Characteristics
170-Hz Bandwidlh Tones
Transformer coupling is used where speed of operation is Channel Center
important. In such applications, only one or two tones are Frequency (Hz) Specification
involved. With two tones, a resistance-balanced hybrid must 1275
1615 3002 unconditioned " data line or
be used to prevent loading and intermodulation distortion. cquivalent
1955
For two-wire, dúplex operation applicatíons, a more elabo-
2295 3002 C I conditioned" data line or
ratc balanccd hybrid is required to isolate transmitter out- equivalen!
puts from receiver inputs. 2635 3002 C2 conditioned"' data linc or
equívalent
For 340-t-lz bandwidth tones, the outputs of two high fre- 2975 3002 C4 conditioned • data linc or
quency oscillators are applied to a mixer stage: the differ- equivalent
ence frequency, or "beat frequency," is the desircd audio 340-Hz Bandwidth Tones
tone. A bandpass filter in the arnplifier stage separa tes the Channel Center
Frequency Specification
deslred tone from the other frequencies, A frequency shift
in one of the high frequency oscillators, when keyed, will 1360 3002 unconditioned " dala lino or
produce the sarne amount of shift (340 Hz) in the audio 2040 equivalcnt
tone output. 2720 3002 C2 condltloned " data Line or
equivalcnt

The various receiver modules, diagrarnrned in Figure 15-31b,

*Specifications dircctly related lo conditioning are covercd by
include the receiver proper, as well as line-level and noise- lnterstatc Tariff FCC No. 260 ( l/1 /69). /\ summary er thc spcc-
supervisory modules. ifications is tabulatcd in Table 15-XIX ami thc associated notes.
15·32

-¡;
2
.e:"'
u OI
"'
'.í .5 "' :s
o N•g= .,
o
---.,o u.~-o e
's
>., 8=
s"'§
-~ "2o =
"'
o
"'e e:
~ ..."' \OMN
<-e o"' ., *ce + + -+
...o ...
e :s ~ 323~
"'
-¡;
!! .2
...o
~ s:::: N-M
1 1 1

2 e"'., .,
».2
o-
=-~
u
"'
.e: -~o -~
:3:
~~
o->,-...r-'<tO
000
000

co > o
O.> NNNM
.5>, :3: U: C,666
000
¡..... MOM
"'
-¡;
=: .,
>
.:::()

~
o
c..
.. N
o~
o"'
V e-,
"':3:
.,
.s-o M ..C:
u e:
o
-o
5.,
·¡; o
-o o.
=
~"'.,
"'
()

's
>..
....o
N
::r::
V)

+I
"'=o >, e
.,
-o
.::: "':3:
.,e: -E"'., u:
"'
()
... .,o.
·c3 e
;.;:
ºü o o
"'
...
"'
.e:
t E
o .,"'
"'
z
ti)
....¡
.,
"' oe:
zst
()
e.,
... -...~"'
~
"'
o ... ., "'·-
......
..J -~ .,......., ·- o
Ez
~~
B>"'
0-
~·2
·= -o
>,,.-,.
ON,-,. "' ::>
.e: .,
u2 C '-'
., ., ::r:: N
u
., "'~
Cj)

"' o.,
-
·.:: o.
:s "'
O' e: ,;t .~
., o o o.,
·-e UJ
>< ,_
~~ e.e>
"'- z~ .-..,....
+1
._,._,
¡:¡j
*
 ,..,-..,J

Notes for Table 1 S-XIX

Receiver Oynamic Operating Range

N umber of Oul·Ol·Band Tone Level

( 1) A + 16-<lBm signa! is classified asan enhanced signa! and Channels Above Normal Chanel
is limited lo seven occurrences per week for test pur- 1 3 S dB
2 B 6 dB
poses. An occurrence is defined asan enhanced signa! 3 10.5 dB Mex1mum level or a Single
4 l 1 8 dB Oul·Of·Band Tone (Above
transmission within a 3-sec. interval. 5 12 4 dB 1000 Hz) lo Cause a h19h
6 12 9 dB L,ne-Level Tnp Block

(2) Direct current continuity (rnetallic circuits) is not pro- Hogh L,ne level Tnp Block
vided on any of these channels. +4.5 dB - ------
+ 3 dB ffl; Backlash Block Retease }
o Nominal S,gnal Level ~;;.~~~
(3) (Zero 08 Relerencel Range
Noise at receiver 10.Sea
Facility Length not to exceed 3 dB
6dB
~
~
Blacklash Block Retease
==============~
(mi) (dBrnc)** low S,gnal-level Tr,p Block
M,n,mum SIN Rat,o 9 dB
for Secure Oper anon
O-SO 28
-15 dB
51-100 31

1
_ 1 dB 3 dB Marg,n
8 No,se T r,p Btock
101-400 34 No,se Sampled ,n Reg,on or
401-1000 38 300 10 l 000 Her1,. Btockong
,s lnde1erm,na1e due 10
Randorn Cha•acter ol No,se

(4) Impulse noise -28 dB =='---- Bloc~ Release

Threshold with respect to Maximum counts above

received 1004-Hz test threshold allowed in
Figure 115-32: Type TA·3 end TA·2.2 Tone Receiver, Oynemíc Opereting
tone power (dB) IS minutes Renge.

-6 15
-2 9 A signal-to-noise ration of 9 dB is requircd for secure opera-
+2 5 tion. The filtered noise supervisory circuit is set for a posi-
tive trip-block at a n in-band (300-to-l 000-1 Iz) noise levcl
**dl)rnc = dB abovc a refcrence lcvcl of 10-12 W (onc pW), with 18 d B below the normal signal level. This setting provides a
Csmcssagc wcighting (shown below. 3-dB margin beyond the required 9-<lB S/N ratio.

,co. . . o _,,,~ - <,

Since the noise is random, a 10-<lB region exists between

-:
3-IO complete blocking and unblocking. This phenomenon will
..,
~-20
\ 1
cause irregular output for a trip signal with in-band noise
1/
o /
level of -18 to -28 dB.
..,~ -30
~ -40 / A high line-level block will occur when the combined signals
100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Frequency (Hz) on the Line exceed by 4.5 dB their normal level (zero d B, or
C-Message Frequcncy Weighting an actual-20 dBm per channel). This blocking circuir, which
can aiso be actuated by the filtered noise channel, contains
Figure 15-32 indica tes the dynamic operating tange of the about 1.5 dB of hysteresis. Noise-frequency components on
tone receiver, as well as typical settings for the va rious units. the linc and outside the noise filler pass-band , when added
The normal signal level of zero dB can be assumed to be an to the cornbined signal level, wiU operate the noise trip
actual -20 dBm - per - channel level on the incoming tele- block.
phone line (or equivalent circuit).
IV.B. Type DIT-1 Tones for Transfer-Trip Applications
The signa! supervisory module is set to clamp the trip arnpli-
fier to a non-conducting state for a 6-dB drop in signal level. The DIT-1 Tones consist of two closely spaced, narrow-band,
The signa! level must then rise 3 dB to unblock the trip am- frequency-shift, voice-band tone sub-channels for transmis-
plifier. This difference is caused by hysteresis or "backlash" sion over telephone-line, rnicrowave, or single side-band
in the trigger-action block.ing circuit. power-line carrier circuits. This system has high dependa-
l.)·.>'*
bility with good security under ali conditions of channel dis-
turbances. lmportant relaying application features are:
1. High protection against continuous and impulse noise,
frequency translation, interfering tones, and arnplitude
and phase h.it transients. This is obtained by the keying
voltage shifting one transmitter up in frequency and the
other transmitter down through optical isolators.
2. Excellent frequency stability through crystal-controlled
oscillators. Each sub-channel has two high-frequency
oscillators, one for guard and one for trip. Either oscil-
lator can be switched to a digital frequency divider
which drivcs a tracking active bandpass filter. A trip
command switches lhe oscillators and the tracking band-
pass filters from guard to trip frequency. Thus the tone
lransmitter output is essentially a sine wave of constant
amplitude and phase with crystal frequency stability.
Trip boost of 0-l 2 dB for O to 200 rns is provided.
3. No single component failure will cause an incorrect trip
output. The lransrnitter has separate circuils to generate
the two sub-channel tones. The two sub-channel receiv-
ers are independent including separa le logic circuits.
Each drives an output transistor through an optical isola-
tor.
4. ln-band monitoring for high noise levels. Envelope leve!
detectors with fast response to changes in the input quan-
tity provide blocking when the in-ba nd signal-to-noise
ratio deteriorares toan unsatisfactory leve!. ln-band
noise or interfering tones on the channel appear as arn-
plitude variations in the sígnal-level envelope. These are
recognizcd by the envelope-level detector to block the re-
ceiver before an incorrect output can be developed. Out·
of-band noise does not affect the operation of the chan-
nel as this is not recognized in the DIT-1 system.
Dual channels are recommended for transfer-trip applica-
tions to provide high security in tripping the remote
breaker(s) where supervising fault detectors can not be
used. The two tone channels may use the sarne transmission
channel or separate channels can be used for additional se-
curity. The highest security and dependability is obtained
using two dual-tone DIT-1 systems with the transmitters
keyed in parallel and ali receiver trip outputs connected in
series. Each of the two systems is transmitted over separate
channels. ln effect, this is a four sub-channel system.
With a transmission impairment on one of the dual-channel
circuits, that system is blocked and the channel by-passed
to take the failed channel out of service. The protection
now relies on the other dual-channel system. Complete se-
curity of dual-channel operation is maintained in the throw-
over condition and the dependability is increased overa sin·
gle transmission path using a single duel-channel system.
This "dual-dual-channel" application allows complete testing
without taking the transfer-trip relaying out of service and
without reducing the security below that of a normal dual-
channel relaying system.
The DIT-1 system operating time is 12 ms for 340 Hz chan-
nel spacing and 8 ms for 680 Hz channel spacing. This is
with the transmitter and receiver chassis connectcd back-to-
back for zero channel time.
The 340-Hz spaced channels are recommended for transfer-
trip relay applications where security is more important than
speed. The 680-Hz spaced channels are preferred for permís-
sive transfer-trip line relay applícations.
Recommended tone-channel Irequencies for DIT-1 tones are
listed in Table 15-XX.
IV.e. Type TA2.2 Tones for Phase-Comparison Relaying
A high-speed tone channel is required for dual phase-
comparison relaying. The transmitter frequency is shifted
between mark and space (rather than between trip and
guard) ata 60-Hz rate, and the receiver must follow this
keying rate accurately. These tones opera te in the range of
about 1500 to 2800 Hz, with available bandwidths of 340
and 600 Hz. The 600-Hz bandwidth is used in ali cases ex-
cept where a three-terminal power line is protected with a
two-wire audio channel. In such a case, a 340-Hz band-
width tone is required for the additional frequencies.
The TA2.2 equipment may be applied directly to a tele-
phone line or similar pilot-wire pair; it may also be multi-
plexed on a microwave or a suitable carrier channel. When
using the 600-Hz bandwidth tones, the máximum permissi-
ble channel delay (exclusive of the T A2.2 delay) is 3.5 ms.
For the 340-Hz bandwidth tones, the máximum channel de-
 15-35

Table 15-XX lay is 2 ms. The actual frequencies used , the shift in Ire-
Recommended Tone-Channel Frequencíes quency, and the operating times are:
340 Hz Channel Spacing
for Type DIT-1 Tones Opernting
Bandwidth (Hz.) Frequencies (Hz) Shift (Hz) Time (ms)
Transmitter
Frequency Receiver Channel 600 1500, 2700 ±300 2.0-2.5
Group Channel & Mode Center Frequency 340 1500, 2180, 2860 ±170 3.5-4.0
1 A 860 Trip 935 Hz
1010 Guard The speed and accuracy of tone cquipment for phasc-
B l 200 Guard 1275 Hz cornparison relaying is obtained by keying and filtcring al
1350 Trip frequencics on thc ordcr of 13 to 16 k lz , and translating
í

2 A 1200 Trip the tones to the lowcr frcqucncics uscd in the communica-
1275 Hz
1350 Guard tions circuit (Figure 15-33). For the transrnittcr portian,
B 1540 Guard 1615 Hz shown at the bottom of the diagrarn, the 16.2-kl-lz. output
1690 Trip of a high-frequency oscillator is heterodyned with thc
3* A 1540 Trip 1615 Hz 13.5-kllz output of a lower frequcncy master oscíllator.
1690 Guard The resulting 2700-Hz bcat frcquency is filtcred and applied
B 1880 Guard 1955 Hz to the telephone line or other type of channel. Actual
2030 Trip
frequency-shift keying is done at 16.2 kl lz. Similarly , the
4* A 1880 Trip 1955 Hz 1500-Hz incorning tone is mixed with the J 3.5-kHz master
2030 Guard oscillator , and the J 5-k Hz sum freq uency is filtcred. This
B 2220 Cuard 2295 Hz
2370 Trip filtered frequency is then applied to the FSK receiver mod-
ule, which includes a limiter and discriminator. Tite receiver
5• A 2220 Trip 2295 Hz module also contains a low-signal squelch that permits a
2370 Guard
B 2560 Guard mark and space output only if the signal level will produce
2635 Hz
2710Trip a receiver output wíth very little distortion.

6 A 2560 Trip 2635 Hz No,se Block

''"'}
271 O Guard Oulpul lo
level
B 2900 Guard 2975 Hz SKBU
3050 Trip Supv
No,se MOd.
7 A 2900 Trip 2975 Hz
3050 Cuard 300~1000Hz
B 3240 Guard 3315 Hz Poss Bond
Out pul lo DB Meter
3490 Trip S1gno1 ond Alorm Reloy
Delerioro1,on
Tone In Oerecio- Module
600 Hz 1500 Hl
Channel Spacing t300 Hz Low S,gnol Block
FreQuency Shlfl
8 A 785 Trip 935 Hz Rece,ve, Mork
1085 Guard ond low S,gnol Spoce
8 1465 Guard 1615 Hz Squetcn Module
1765 Trip

9"' A 1465 Trip 1615 Hz 15kHZ

Dernodulolor Rece,ver
1765 Guard Filler
B 2145 Guard 2295 llz
2445 Trip
Mosler Osci1101or
10 A 2145 Trip 2295 llz 13.5kHZ
Tone Oul
2445 Guard 2700 ±300Hl
B 2825 Guard 2975 Hz
3125 Trip F-S Ieonsrnuter
Key Osc,11010, Modulotor 2700 Hz
16.2kHZ Fller
*Preferred groups for minimum noise and to avo id roll-off at
lower or upper cnd of communication channct.
Figure 16-33: Type TA·2.2 Tone Transmitter and Receíver Block D,ograms.
 J.)·.)()
The signa! deterioration detector module, shown directly
above the FSK receiver, drives a dB meter and alarrn relay
to indicate the signal level received from the remote trans-
mitter. The assembly also includes a line-level and noise
module, shown at the top of Figure 15-33, which monitors
both the ambient noise in the 300-to-l 000-Hz band and the
entire channel frequency spectrum. Since this unit is the
same as that used in the type TA3 tone receiver , Figure
J 5-32 also applies to the type TA2.2 receiver.
IV.O. Required Channel Delay Characteristics
In applying type TA2.2 tones for phase-cornparison relaying
over any channel Iacility, two channel characteristics must
be considered: ( 1) the absolute delay of the channel and
(2) the envelope delay distortion of the channel. Absolute,
or channel, delay is the propagation time of a signa] over the
channel. Envelope delay distortion is the variation in chan-
nel delay overa given band of frequencies.
As stated previously, the maximum permissible absolute de-
lay for the 600-Hz bandwidth tone (exclusive of the T A2.2
delay) is 3.5 ms. The maximum delay is 2 ms for the 340-Hz
bandwidth tone. The envelope delay distortion between the
mark and space frequencies of any one T A2.2 channel
should be equal to or less than 500 µs. The larger the enve-
lope delay distortion between mark and space , the less total
phase comparison system margin will be available to corn-
pensate for misalignment of the power system 60-Hz quan-
tities.
IV.E. Type DIT-4 Digitone System for Segregated Phase
Comparison Relaying
An entirely different type of tone system is used for the
segregated phase comparison relaying system described in
Chapter 16. The DIT-4 Digjtone system is basically a rnulti-
channel frequency-shift tone system. Each system (or chan-
nel) is composed of four sub-channels, each of which is a
basic frequency-shift tone channel. The sub-channels trans-
mit information as four parallel bits, transmitted simultane-
ously. The bits are coded to represent the information to
be sent: guard , trip positive, or trip negative. In addition
to the security of separate monitoring circuits, the coding
technique itself enhances the security of the relaying sys-
tem.
ParaUel transrnission of data requires less complicated hard-
ware. Sin ce there is no need for sarnpling at the transmitter,
there is no tirning requirement at the transmitter. Also,
there is no parallel-to-serial data conversion at the trans-
mitter or receiver. Decoding the data words is on a contin-
uous basis and requires only simple combinational logic.
In terms of total reliability, parallel transmission of each bit
through a narrow-band sub-channel is superior to serial (i.e.,
sequential) transmission through a wide-band channel. Both
systems are roughly equal on a tíme-bandwidth comparison.
White noise on the 3002 data channel (Table 15-XIX) will
have an improved S/N ratio. Since the sub-channels are
widely spaced across the frequency spectrurn , concentrated
impulse noise ora single interfering tone can affect only one
bit of the four-bít code word. With serial transmission, the
interfering energy may, beca use of its d uration, encompass
severa! bits of the same word. The probability of more than
one bit being in error would then increase. The use of
parallel-coded tones, then, provides a high degree of noise
immunity as welJ as proper relaying in the presence of an in-
terfering tone.
The basic block diagram of a D IT-4 Digitone system is
shown in Figure 15-34. A single transmitter module con-
tains the four frequency-shift transmitters, coupled to a
single output. The transmitter module also contains logic
to key each transrnitter according to the code desired for
the particular input. From the line termination module al
the receiving location, the signals are fed to the four re-
ceiver filter and automatic gain control (AGC) modules
shown. Each filtered-out tone is then fed to its associated
discriminator, which converts the signa! to a. de voltage.
The outputs of the four discriminators energize the logic
module which, in turn, decodes the information into the
proper trip and guard outputs.
FSK
une L,ne
Tronsm,tter
SCl Term,not,on Terminohon
SC2 Chonnel Bet ..-een
L,ne Te,mmols
SC3
SC4
SC =Sub-Channel
Figure 15-34: Block Oi1gr1m of OIT-4 Oigitone System.

Figure 15-35 shows the channel and sub-channel frequency
allocation on a CI conditioned 3002 data line. The fre-
quenices shown are for two channels (x and y) of DIT-4
equipment and cover a frequency band from approxirnately
700 to 2700 Hz. The actual grouping of sub-channel tones
depends on the available wíre-líne facilities, whether two
wire or four wire.
0101010101010101
¡¡ ¡¡ i : ¡¡ ¡¡ ¡¡ ¡¡
x,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
700 900 1100 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700
Notes:
X1. x2. X3. and X4 -Sub·Channols for Channel X Transm,1 er Rece,ve
Y 1. Y 2· Y3 ano Y 4=Sub·Channels for Channel Y Transm,1 or Rece,ve
Each Svb·Channol Con1ains One 811 or Four Bu Word. Each B,1 Has Two Stotes
Log,c O or Log,c 1 The Four B,ts ot Channel X or Channel Y ,s The To1al Transm,1
or Rece,ve Channel Ior One Phase of The SPCU
+ Log,c O or 1 Frec¡uencv for Sub·Channel
c=Sub·Channel Cenler
Figure 16-36: Tvpe 01T·4 Audio Tone Channel and Sub-Channel Fraquency
Allocation on e C1 Conditíoned 3002 Data Lina. (Allocauon
Shown ,s for a Two·W,re Ltne or 4~W,re Tunsm,t or 4-W,re
Rece,ve Channell
The above description covers the basic DIT-4 channel equip-
ment. To protect against generation of erroneous informa-
tion from excessive noise or low level, the following addi-
tional protective measures are used in each sub-channel:
a. Low-level detection
b. High-level detection
c. Signal-to-noise ratio
d. Average leve! comparison
In addition, an error-correcting code is required for the over-
all system.
IV.F. Wire-line Channel for Audio Tones
In applying an audio tone system to a protective relaying
channel, the physical rnakeup and protection of the pilot-
wire channel must be considered , lf the circuit is a leased
pair, the user and cooperating telephone company must rec-
ognize the severe requirements of the tone channel. For ex-
ample, a burst of noise that causes only a click in a tele-
phone receiver might incorrectly tripa circuit breaker. For
this reason, operation of protective gaps must not introduce
any appreciable noise onto the telephone line or privately
owned pair. The recommended pilot-wire protection
schemes shown in Figures 15-36 and 15-37 were developed
with the above considerations in mind.
15-37
When installing a wire-line channel for an audio tone systern,
the following protective measures are recommended:
a. A drainage reactor or equivalent should be used in ali
paths to ground.
b. Where carbon blocks are used with a drainage reactor,
they should be connected as shown in Figure l 5-36b.
Any noise generated when the carbon blocks flash over
is then applied in common mode to both pilot wires.
Failure to follow this recommendation, particularly
¡¡ when using a noise receiver, may result in sq uelch disa-
bling the channel when the gap flashes over.
c. The pilot-wire pair must be twisted separately from any
other wires in the cable.
d. Open-wire lines should not be used for any tone applica-
tions.
e. Any substantial length of wire between the pilot wirc and
the tone equipment should be shielded, and both ends of
the shield grounded to the station ground mat.
f. Surge protection should be used at the conneclion be-
tween the wire line and the tone equipment.
g. An isolating transformer, which also serves the purposc
of impedance matching, should be includecl to protect
personnel.
The recommended connections and pílot-wire design for pri-
vately owned two-terminal lines are shown in Figure 15-37.
The preferred approach is to make the cable self-protecting,
since the difference in installation cost for better cable insu-
lation is relatively srnall. Cood cable and rnesscnger shield-
ing will keep induced potentials to a reasonable level. The
shielding factor should be 50 percent or less (actual induced
voltage of 50 percent of calculated value, ignoring shielding
effort.
V. MICROWAVE CHANNELS
Microwave space radio offers a communicalion channel for
protective relaying systems with severa! inherent advantages:
a. It provides a channel that is independent of the power
line. Signals are thus unaffected by such disturbances as
fault ares or switching surges.
b. Once the RF path is established, the incremental cost of
adding channels is low.
c. Because of the large modulation bandwidth al micro-
wave frequencies, many wide-band channels are available
for high speed solid-state protective relaying systems.
15·38

Power S101oonA,eo Telephone Central Off,ce

tsolcnon Transforme, See Note 2) (See Nale 3)

ISee Note 4)
(SeeNotell
l 4 1
~~~-<I,__~~~~~~--<> o-~~~~~~~~

T~ . ._ _
Cor bon
Block (SeeNoteG)
5

._____ • .-6 _:-----'

6. • Sh,elded Cable ·\ Tw,sted Polyethylene
Srcnoo Ground Mot ~~.-J...~~ L,ghln,ng Arreste, ( lnsuloted Poir'" Sh,elded Cable
e) For Une•posed L,ne Telephone Central Office
Power Station Areo

lsolatoan Transforme, (SeeNote3l

(SeeNote3) (SeeNote2)
(SeeNotel l
1 l 4 l
7 ~~-o~~~~~~--~-<> o-~~~~~~~~

t:.• Sh,elded Cable

b) Far Ewposed L,ne

NotH:
1t Primarily Used tor lmpedance Match,ng PurPOse St E•posedL,ne W1th E•teuor 01s1ance O"er 75 Fee1 and Exposed to L1ghtn1ng,
2t Western Elec1r1c Translormer Type 2239A or Equ1valen1 Power Sy11em Contact and Power lnductoon (Uoe Sh•elded Cable)
31 Western E1ec1ric Ora,nage Reactor Type 2232A o, Eou,valen1 6) lsollle Sh,eld from Ground Unhl Out of S,gn,t,cant tntluence al Statoon
4t Une•posed L,ne tMax1mumExter,or O,stal\Ce abo1.,11 75 Feet) Ground Poten1t1I
Use Sh,etded Cable

Figure 15·38: Aecommended Prolection of Termine! Equipmenl end LHHd Ceble Circuiu for Tone Aeleying Applicellon1.

lsoloting Transforme, In general, any of the pilot rclayíng systems using power-
(Notell
línc carrier or audio tone channels can also be applied to a
microwave channel. The relayíng information may be trans-
mítted over the channel in one of two ways. First, a tone
or sub-carrier can dírectly moduJate thc microwave fre-
quency (baseband modulation). The sub-carrier may oper-
1
1 ate at a frequency anywhere from audio up to severa! hun-
1
drcd kilohertz. Second, where more channels are needed,
UMounting
audio tones in the range of 400 to 3000 Hz may be appliecl
IStud
directly to a voice channel. A voice channel is a sub-carricr
StohOn arranged for volee or tone rnodulation, with frequencies up
6.• Sh,elded Cable GroundMot
to about 3500 Hz. Using audio tones on a voice channel in-
volves more eq uiprnent , but makes more telegraphic-type
Notes:
11 These Connect,ons Assume a Prlot Wire Zo~600 Ohms
channels available overa given microwave path for rclaying
2) Completed Cable F,eld Test Voltage of I O KV De for I O Minutes From e;,ch and control.
Conductor to AII Other Conductors and Sheath Sh,eld,ng Factor of 50% ar
Less. each Pair Twisted Separately Ground Sheath to Statóon Mal al Both
Ends and to Remote Ground at Each Splice.
Both types of microwave transrnission are widely used for
protective relaying. The microwave frequencies in use fo-
Figure 15·37; Recommended Connections and Pilot Wire Oesign for
Privately Owned Two-Terminal Lines. elude bands in the regio ns of 2, 6, and L 2 GHz.
Chaptcr 16 l. INTRODUCTION

Transmission Line Rclaying: The protective relay systerns used with the pilot channels
Pilot Relaying and Tripping discussed in Chapter 1 5 are designed to provide high speed
Systems for Circuit Breakers simultancous tripping of ali line terrninals for aU interna!
Author: R. E. Ray faults. Non-pilot relaying, as previously noted, usually pro-
vides high speed simultaneous protection for only 70 to 80
l. lntroduction percent of the faults in the middle section of the line. For
faults occurring in the end zone, the terminal nearest the
11. Classification of Pilot Systerns
fault will clear the Lineal high speed. The terminal remole
A. By Channel Use
B. By Fault Detection Principie from the fault, however, will clear lhe line with time delay
unless system conditions provide high speed sequential trip-
111. Dircctional Comparison Pilot Rclaying Systems ping. Pilot protection, on the other hand, provides high
A. OirectionalComparison Blocking Systerns speed protection for 100 percent of the protected line in-
B.
Directional Comparison Unblocking Systems dependent of system conditions.
C. Overrcaching Transfer-Trip Systerns
D. Perrnissive and Non-Perrnissive Underreaching
Tra nsfer-Trip Systerns There are severa! advantages to high speed simultaneous
E. Summary of Directional Comparison Pilot clearing at ali Line terminals for ali line faults:
Relaying Systerns
a. Reduced possibility of line damage and conductor
IV. Phase Comparison Pilot Relaying Systerns burndown.
A. Single Phase Comparison Blocking System b. lmproved transient stability of the power systern.
1. Current-Only Comparison
2. Distance-Supervised Comparison c. Permits high speed reclosing, which, if successful, irn-
B. Dual Phase Comparison Unblocking System
preves transient stability , minimizes outage ti me, and
1. Current-Only Comparison
2. Distance-Supervised Comparison improves voltage conditions on portions of the systern
C. Dual Phase Comparison Transfer-Trip System load.
D. Segregated Phase Comparison Systern
1. Audio Tone Channels
2. Power Line Carrier Channels The following discussion covers two-terminal lines only , al-
E. Surnrnary of thc Phase Comparison Pilot though the basic principies apply to multi-terminal lines as
Relaying Systerns weU. (See Chapter 17 .) Pilot wire protection is covered in
Chapter 14.
V. Additional Security and Protection Techniques
A. Transient Blocking
B. Loss of Voltagc 11. CLASSIFICATION OF PILOT SYSTEMS
C. Open Breaker Logic for the Unblock and
Transfer-Trip Pilot Systerns Pilot relaying systems can be classified according to channel
usage or the fault detection principie used.
VI. Selecting a Pilot Transmission Line Relaying System
A. Channel Selection 11.A. By Channel Use
B. Relaying Systerns with Microwave or Tone
In terms of channel use, ali pilot systcms are cither block ing
Channels
C. Relaying Systems with Frequency-Shift Carríer systems or transfer-trip systerns.
Channels
D. Relaying Systerns with On-Off Carrier Channels Vlll. Breaker Pole Disagreemcnt Protection
E. Additional System Options
F. Choice of Reclosing Systern IX. Direct Transfer-Trip Systems

VII. Tripping Systerns for Circuir Breakers

A. Transforrner Protection
B. Shunt Reactor Protection
A. lndependent Pote Tripping C. Remole Breaker-Failure Proteclion
B. Single-Pele Tripping D. Direct Trip Channel Considerations
1. KQS-KDAR Single-Pele Tripping System E. Application of Frequency Shift (FSK) for
2. Segregated Phase Comparison Single-Pole Direct Trip
Relaying 1. Channel Bandwidth
3. Reclosing for Single-Pele Tripping 2. Dual Channel System
C. Selective Pole Tripping 3. Channel Protection
 16-2
In the blocking systems, the channel is used only to prevent
one or more terminals from tripping on externa! faults. A
channel signa! is not required for interna! faults; that is, trip-
ping occurs in the absence of a channel signa!.
In the transfer-trip systems, a channel signa! must be trans-
mitted and received before tripping occurs on interna! faults.
No channel signa! is required for externa! faults.
11.B. By Fault Detection Principie
In general, faults are detected using either directional com-
parison systems or pilase comparison systems. Either type
of system can use any of the communication channels corn-
monly available-power line carrier, microwave baseband ,
audio tones on microwave, single side band carrier, or
leased lines.
In the directional comparison systems, fault detecting re-
lays compare the direction of power Ilow at the two Jine
terminals. Power flow into the line at both terminals indi-
cates an interna! fault, and the line is tripped , lf the power
flow is into the line at one end and out of the line at the
other end, the fault is considered to be externa!, and the
line is not tripped.
Tite phase comparison systems generally use overcurrent
fault detecting relays to compare, via the channel, the rel-
ative phase of the currents at the terminals. lf the currents
al the terminals are relatively in phase, an interna! fault is
indicated, and the line is tripped. lf the currents at the
terminals are relatively 180° out of phase, an externa! fault
or through-load current is indicated, and the line is not
tripped.
lll. DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON PILOT
RELA YING SYSTEMS
Directional comparison schemes normally use directional-
distance fault detectors for phase faults with directional-
overcurrent or directional-distance fault detectors for
ground faults. These relay schernes can be divided into
four categories:
a. Directional cornparison blocking systerns
b. Directional comparison unblocking systems
c. Overreaching transfer-trip systerns
d. Permissive or non-permissive underreaching transfer-
trip systems.
The fundamentals of each system wiU be described in terms
of the most commonly used channel. Systerns are not
lirnited to a single type of channel, and in fact, are often
adapted to other channel types.
111.A. Directional Comparison Blocking Systems
The basic elements and sirnplified logic diagrarn for direc-
tional comparison blocking systerns are shown in Figure
16-1. At each terminal, the phase and ground trip units
(P) rnust be directional and set to overreach the remete
terminal; that is, they must be set to operate for ali ínter-
nal faults. Nominal settings of the distance units are 120 lo
150 percent of the line. The start units (S) must reach far-
ther, orbe set more sensitively, !han the remete trip units.
Thus s1 must be set more sensitively than P2 or reach far-
ther behind bus G. Likewise, s2 must be set more sensitively
than PI or rea ch farther behind bus H. In any case, the
S and P relays should be similar in type. lf the trip unit (P)
is a directional overcurrent ground relay, the start (S)
ground relay should be a similar non-directional overcurrent
unit. The same principie applies for the phase relays.
The on-off power line carrier is the channel almos! always
used with these schernes. Except for possible auxiliary func-
tions, no signal is normally transmitted, since the S unils op-
erare only during fault conditions. Without auxiliary func-
tions, a single-frequency channel may be used; or with other
channel usage , a separate channel can be provided in each
direction.
Operation of the directional cornparison scherne shown in
Figure 16-1 is given in Table 16-1 for both externa! or inter-
na! faults. (Subscript I indica tes relays at station G for
breaker 1; subscript 2, relays at station H for breaker 2.)
The scheme shown in Figure 16-1 is still widely used for its
flexibility and reliability. Since the communication chan-
nel is not required for tripping, interna! faults that might
short and interrupt the channel are not a problern. Over-
tripping will occur, however, if the channel fails or is not
established for external faults within the reach of the trip
fault detectors. Since the carrier transmitter is normally
OFF, or non-transmltting, channel failure cannot be de-
tected until the systern is tested or until an external fault
occurs, This lirnitatíon has led to the development of a
nurnber of check-back schernes. In practice, the reliability
of modern power line carrier equipment and channels
makes the cost of added check-back and maintenance a
questionable investment.
 16-3

Table 16-1 B,eoker I Chonnet Bred.et I Trio

Stort Foutt Oeteclo<s (S1 l Fwt ~1ec10< lP,)
Operation of Directional Comparison Schemes
for External and Interna) FauJts
J.~~..-~~~~~~~--cl-
G
(See Figure 16-1)
Protected Lone

Events at Events at
Type of Fault Stalion G Station H ']:_ Power LoneCome,
Chomel
-:J'
P1 operates; s1 s2 operates
Externa! (FE)• to ~
Breoker 2 Trop Fi:lult Detec1or(Rz)
1 1
Breol<er 2 Chonnel Storl
does not see key transmitter.
Rluh Oe1ecto<s ( Si )
fault. Blocking Blocking signa!
Contect Logíc (per Terminal)
signal received sent to station G.
from station H. P2 does not see
RR back contacts fault. No trip. SlopChomet
------- Sogno1,1
open (or 1 signaJ IMooled ln1!1ote
Locolly
negates AND). No Chonnel Chonnd
Sognol Stgnol
tri p. Rece,ver
Pic•-ut>App,ox,marely
P2 operares. s2
13-IGMs
lnternal (F 1) P1 operates. s,
may or may not may or may not
opérate, but PI operare, but P2
operation pre- operation prevents
vents transrnission transmission of Solid Stete Logic (per Term,nall
of a blocking a blocking signa!. Stop Chonnel Sognol if
sígnal. Breaker I Breaker 2 tripped. lnohoted Locolly
T,mer
tripped.
P------t
Trop
S F,om ----<11
Remate Term,nol
•For externa! faults, the CS unit or tirncr x/o assurc that a blocking V,o Chonnet Note:
signa! is established. (PI Operatoon or (S) S,gnal
s- lnihOte Chonnel Stgnol Prov,des an Input 1
X- Nom,nolly Between 6·16 Ms on Circuit.
lll.B. Directional Comparison Unblocking Systems Figure 16-1: Besic Elements end Simplífied Logic Oiegrem for The
Oirectionel Comperison Blocking Systems.
Directional comparison unblocking systerns transmit a con-
tinuous blocking sígnal, except during interna) faults. That Lockout
is, the S channel start-fault detectors are not requíred. The
channel is generally a frequency-shift (FSK) power line
Block
carrier. A blocking (guard) frequency is transmitted contin- Frequency To AR 01
uously during normal conditions. For an interna) fault, the ANDof
F,gure
FSK transmitter is shifted to the "unblock" (trip) frequency. Unblock (Trip) ---------------! 16·3
Frequency
The transmitted power in many applications is normally
Figure 16-2: Simplified Unblock Receiver Logic.
1 W, boosted to I O W during unblock operation.

The Irequency-shift channel is monitored continuously to
prevent tripping when a loss of channel occurs. The carrier
receiver logic is shown in Figure 16-2. Under normal con-
ditions, a block frequency is transmitted and OR-1 has no
input. Since AND-1 and AND-2 are not satisfied, OR-2 is
not energized. For an internal fault , the block frequency is
removed. Assunúng that the un block signa) is shorted out
by the fault, OR-1 provides a direct input to A D-2 to sat-
isfy its input requirernents for 150 rns. A N 0-2 inputs to
OR-2 to operare RR orto provide input to the AND shown
in Figure 16-3. Without an unblock signal, 150 ms is al-
lowed for tripping. After this period, lock out is initiated
as one of the inputs to AND-2 is removed. This resets RR
or rernoves the input to AN D in Figure 16-3.
11)•4

Breoker I Trip Foult Detectors (P1) Table l6-II

,-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~------+
G H Operation of the Oirectional Comparison Unblocking
Scheme for Externa! and Interna! Faults
F¡ {Figure 16-3)
l-<t-P_ro_te_ct_ed~Un_e~-¡1;-~.--,2f-"<r'o"~

~Power LmeCorrier .....:r1 Events at Events at

¡._
Chonnel ft (GtoH)
Type of Fault Station G Station H
Power L,ne Corrier -1
Chonnel 12 (H to G)
+---,-~~~~~~~~---=-~~~~~~ Externa! (FE) P 1 opera tes; r 1 P2 does not see
Breoker 2 Trip Foult Detector (P2) channel shifts to fault. Loss of
Contact Logic (per Terminal)
unblock. r2 chan- block and/or
nel continues to receipt of un-
lp block. No trip. block (f 1) oper-
~
~~ Key Tronsm,lter ates RR or inputs

1
to Unblock ANO. No trip.

~~ ~~i;:·(é}·:.,:
Chonnel
Signol
Rece,ver
(F¡otH, Interna! (F 1) r1 opera tes; f 1 P opera tes; r2
F2otG) 2
channel to un- channel shifts to
block. Loss of unblock. Loss of
block and/or re- block and/or
520 Note: ceipt of un block receipt of unblock
1
_ (X) Normally 4 Ms.
(f 2) operares RR (f 1) operares RR
figure 16-3: BHlc Elementa and Slmpllfied Loglc Diagrama for The or inputs ANO. or inputs ANO.
Dlrectlonel Comperl1on Unblocklng Syatema.
Trip. Tri p.

Jf the unblock signa! is received, it inputs directly to OR-2

to energize RR orto provide input to AN Din Ftgure 16·3.
The scheme is most appropriate for two-terminal lincs but
The unblock signa! also removes an input to AN D· l to stop
is applicable to multi-terminal lines. Separa te channels are
the timer.
required between each terminal and the remete terminal(s).
With a narrow-band frequency-shíft carrier , significant chan-
A channel failure (no block or un block signal) provides in-
nel spectri .. ,n is not required on two terminal lines. The
put to AND-1 and, after 1 SO ms, locks out the relaying and
channel from a terminal with an open brcaker must be in
triggers an alarm.
the unblock mode as long as the breaker is open.

The operation of the scheme shown in Figure 16-3 is given

Directional comparison unblocking schernes f'or rnulti-
in Table 16-11 for externa! and interna! faults. The phase
terminal lines with weak feed are discussed in Chapter 17.
and ground trip fault detectors at both stations must oper-
ate for ali interna! faults; that is, they must overreach the
111.C. Overreaching* Transfer-Trip Systerns
remote bus.
Transfer-trip systerns, which require a channel signa! to trip,
The reliability and security of directional cornparison un·
generally are not used with power line carrier in the U.S.A.
blocking systems make them the most attractive of the pro-
lt is possible for an interna! fault to inhibit or short out the
tective schemes for transmission lines usíng power line car-
trip signal. Use of power line carrier channels on adjacent
rier channels. Overtripping is avoided by continuous block·
lines, while possible, is not practiced. In general, overreach-
ing and continuous channel monitoring. Only the failure
ing transíer-trip systems are used with a frequency-shift
of a channel within J SO ms of an externa! fault can result
audio tone, modulated on a communication channel such
in overtripping.
as prívate or public telephone lines or microwave.

"Ali overreaching transfer-trip systerns are perrnlssive.

 16·5

Transfer-tr ip receíver logic is shown in Figure 16-4.
mally , the audio tone operates in the guard state, with no
output from the trip state. In other words, there is no
AND-1 output. When the tone is shifted to trip, the ab-
sence of a guard signal and the presence of a trip signal op-
erare AND-1, energizing either RR or the AND shown in
Figures 16-5 and 16-6.
Guord Stote-----------<1
Tnp Stote--------------i
Nor- Loss of the channel which results in no output from both
the guard and the trip states operates the 150/ l 50 tirner
through OR-1 and OR-2, locking out the relay ing ami ener-
gizing an alarm after 150 ms. An output from eit her the
guard or the rrip to OR-1 will not input a signa! to OR-2.
As long as there is no guard signal, the lockout signa! is
maintained through AND-2. When the guard signa! returns,
the timer is deenergized and resets itself after 150 ms. This
feature is known as guard return.
l:>ANO or
RR Reloyol
Figure 16·5
Operation of the overreaching transfer-trip system shown in
or 16·6 Figure 16-5 is given in Table 16-111 for both external and in-
ternal faults. The phase and ground trip fault detectors at
lockout
both terminals must be directional (looking into the line),
and must operate for ali interna! faults, as indicated by the
P arrows,

Overreaching transfer-tr ip systerns provide highly secure

transrníssion line protection. Both a trip signal from the re-
mote terminal and the local fault detector operation are re-
Figure 16-4: Simplified Transfer Trip Receiver Logic.
quired for tripping. Dependability tends to be less than that
of the blocking systern, however, because transmission of a
signa! is required for tripping.
Breoker 1 Trip Foull Oetectors (f>i)
~
G Table 16-lll
F¡
Operation of tbe Overreaching Transfer-Trip
System for External and lnternal Faults
(Figure 16-S)

1
Breoker 2 Tflp Foull Detectors (P2l
Events at Events at
Type of Fault Station G Station H
Audio Tone Audio Tone
Receiver f 2 ChonneJ Tronsm11ter f2 External (FE) P 1 operares. Trans- P does not see
except Powerhne Comer 2
Audio Tone Audio Tone fer-trip signal (f 1) fault. Transfer-
Tronsm1tter t1 Rece1ver t,
keyed to station H. trip (f 1) from
Contact Logic (per Terminal) Transfer-trip signa! station G operates

lp (f
2) not received
RR or inputs AND.

L
frorn Station H. No trip.
Key Audio Tone Tronsm111er
to Remole Stouoo No trip,

Audio Solid State Logic (per Terminal)

Tone Internal (F 1) P opera tes. Trans- P 2 opera tes. Trans-
Rece,ver
RR ky Aud,o Tone Trcnsm,ner 1
Tr,p to Remo1e 5101,on fer-trip signa! (f 1) fer-trip signal (f 2)
keyed to station H. keyed to station G.
Co,1 P- ........-~ Tnp Transfer-trip from «
Transfer-trip 1)
station H (f 2) from station G
J 520
.Aud,o Tone
Rece,ver
operares RR or operates RR or
Note: (X) Normally 4 Ms.
inputs to AND. inputs to AND.
Figure 16-5: Basic Elements and Simplified Logic Diagrams for The Trip. Tri p.
Over-Reeching Transfer Trip Systems.
16-6

111.D. Permissive and Non-Perrnissive Underreaching Though it is the least cornplex, the non-perrnissive system
Transfer-Trip Systems is rarely used because of the high potential for false outputs
from the channel, which would causé incorrect tripping. lf
The same type of channels are used for the underreaching a non-permissive systern is used, the channel considerations
systerns as for thc ovcrreaching systerns described above. should be as described Latcr for direct trip systems. The
For the underreaching systems, however, the directional systern is rnade perrnissive by the additional set of phasc and
phase and ground trip fault detectors (P) must be set to ground overreaching fault detectors ( FO), which must oper-
overlap within the line and not overreach any terminals ate for ali interna! faults (Figure 16-6).
(Figure 16-6). That is, ar least one trip fault detector (P)
must operare for ali internal faults, and none should operare Operanon of the underreaching transfer-trip schcme shown
for any cxternal fault. ln practice, distanee relays are nor- in Figure 16·6 is given in Table 16-lV for externa! and ínter-
mally rcquired for both ground faults and phase faults, al· nal faults.
though directional instantaneous ground-overcurrent relays
might mcct these requirements in sorne cases. Table 16-IV

Operation oí Underreaching Transfer-Trip

B,eohr 1 Trip Foull Detectces (P1) B,eoker I Pe,m,ssi...e Fou11 Dc1ee1or \F01 I Schemes for Externa! and Interna! Faults
1-------'~- [Figure l 6-6)
G ..--~--~~---. H

Events at Events at

,
Breoker 2 Tr,p Foult Oe1ec1or (~ 1
Type of fault

Externa! (FE)
Station G

P does not oper-

Station H

P does not oper-

1 2
ate. No channel ate. No channel
Breoke, 2 Pe,m,ss,ve Rlull Detecto, (F02l signal sent to H. signal sent to G.

Audio Tone Audio lene No trip. o tr ip.

Rece,ver t2 Chonnel r,onsm11ter 12
exceol ~wer une Comer
Audio Tone Audio Tone
Interna! (F PI does not oper- P2 operates and
T,onsm,uer t1 Rece .. er t1 1)
(FauJt near ate. No channel trips d irectly ,
Contect logic (per Terminal)
station H) signal sent to H. Transfer-trip sig-
Om,1 ond By Pass 1 1 *(FO
I
operates.) nal keyed to sta-
lor Non·Pe,m1ss1ve_..IFD P
Schemes Transfer-trip (f tion G. *(F02
2)
from station H operates.) Trip.
Aud,o operares RR or in-
lone RR puts to ANO (or
Rece,ver
----- Key Aud,olone Tronsm111er OR if non-perrnis-
to Remole Stot,on
Tr,p
sive). Trip.
Co,t

*Omitted in non-permlssive systems.

Solid Stete loglc (per Terminal)

Since the trip fault dctectors (P) do not opcrate for externa!
faults, underreaching transfer-trip systems do not rcquire
Key Audio Tone Tronsm111er Key Aud,o Tone T,onsm111er
lo Remole S101tor1 IO Remole SIOIIOl'I externa! Iault-clearing coordination circuits (transient
blocking), and are, therefore, inherently simpler than any
p~ Tr,p
Aud,olone~
F0-----1 Tr¡p Rece1ver
Audio Tone
Receiver
Permiasive Schemea Non·Permiuive Schemea

Figure 16-6: BHlc Elementa end Simplified Logic Diagrama for

The Permiuive end Non·Permlaaive Under·Reaching
Trenefer Trip Syatems.

of the other schernes. Max.imum security is obtained
ditional permissive fault detectors are used. These schemes
also provide mínimum operating times for many faults that
are tripped directly, without using the channel.
111.E. Summary of Directional Comparison Pilot
Relaying Systems
The four systems described above are by far the most corn-
monly used. The channels described are those around
which the systern was designed and represent the most corn-
mon usage. Other channels may be used, however.
Ali four systems are currently used and have good reliability.
Blocking systems tend to be more dependable, while
transfer-trip systerns are more secure. The unblocking sys-
tem combines the depcndability of blocking systems with
the security of transf'er-trip systerns, providing a highly reli-
able direclional pilot relaying systern for transmission Lines.
IV. PHASE COMPARlSON PlLOT
RELA YING SYSTEMS
The basic elements of the phase comparison systerns are
shown in Figure 16-7. Except for the segregated phase sys-
tem, ali systerns use a composite sequence current network
to provide a single phase voltage output proport ional to the
positive, negative, and zero sequence current input. As de-
scribed in Chapter 3, sensitivity to different types of faults
depends on the weighting factors or constants designed into
the sequence current network , or filter. Adjustments to the
filter are provided.
A squaring amplifier converts the single phase voltage out-
put to a square wave. The positive voltage portion corre-
sponds to the positive half-cycle of the filter valtage wave,
and the z ero portian corresponds to the negative half-cyclc,
The square wave is used to key the channel to the remete
terminal. The square wave from the remate terminal is com-
pared to the local square wave, which has been delayed by
an amount equal to the absolute dela y time of the channel.
This comparison of the local and remote square waves at
each terminal determines whether a fault is interna! ar
externa!.
Fault detectors are used to determine whether a fault has
occurred and to supervise trippíng. The systems, in other
words, are permissive. The fault detectors must be over-
16-7
if ad-
G H
Protected 1..11e
Three P,,ose
ond Neutral
S,ngte P!,ose
..-~'----, 0.,1pu1""',:r
ChOnnel
Comporison Compo,,son
Corcu,1 c..cul
T,op Breol<er 1 T11p Breo~er 2
Figure 16· 7: Basic Elements of The Phese Comparison Pilot Relaying
Systems.
reaching that is, set sensitively enough to opera te for ali
interna! phase and ground faults.
Sin ce avercurrent fault detectors are normally u sed, voltage
transformers are not required. Such a scheme is curre nt-
only. Fault detectors should be set abovc maximum load,
yet opera te for ali interna! faults. On heavily loaded or long
lines, it may not be possible to meet this criterion. Distancc
fault detectors, which require voltage transformers, are used
in such cases.
Phase comparison systerns fall into the following four cate-
gories, with major differences relating to charme l equipment
and the sequence filter output mix:
a) Single phase comparison blocking
b) Dual phase cornparison unblocking
c) Dual phase comparison transf'er-trip
d) Segregated phase comparison.
With the exception of segregated phase comparisan systerns,
which are always current-only, aJI of the above schemes can
use either currerit-only or distance-supervised cornparison.
Again, the systems will be discussed according to the chan-
nel facilities most often used; other channels can be and are
sometimes used.
16-8

IV.A. Single Phase Comparison Blocking Systern the through currents toan external fault are essentially in
phase. The currents can, however, be out of phase by up
IV.A.l. Current-Only Comparison to 90° on a 60-Hz base and still block.

Current-only comparison is generally used with an on-off G

power line carrier channel. In the current-only systern, two
-F¡SFE F¡
overcurrent fault detectors, FO 1 and FD2, are used , FD 1, .__;:::,,:.~ll-.....:.~~o~te~c~te~d~L~,n~e~-4i--__.j

the carrier start unit, is set more sensitively than FD2 and
permits the local square wave signal to key the on-off car-
rier transmitter. FD2, set with a higher pickup than FD1,
is used to arm the system for tripping. For transmission Foult Detect,ng Log,c Foult Detec11ng L.og,c
(Figure 16·7) (Figure 16· 7)
lines less than 100 miles long, the FD2 pickup is set at 125
percent of FD Fer lines Ionger than 100 miles, the FD2 Tronsm,ner Tronsm,tter
1.
pickup is set at 200 percent of FD1. On a three-terrninal Chonnel
line, FD2 is set at 250 percent of FD1, provided che Line Re<:eiver Rece,ver
length between any two breakers is less than 100 miles.

r;
Rece,ver Rece,ver
Phase comparison cannot occur until FD2 operates. The Outpu1
purpose of the two fault detectors is to coordina te the key- Local ____.._
Compor,son Circu,t
Locol
Bosc Log,c Input
ing of the carrier square wave with the cornparison of the Input

local and remote square waves. To ensure that the carrier

system has received the remete square wave, the carrier Arm,ng Arm,ng
must be started befo re the comparison is allowed. T11p Breoker I Trip Breoker 2

The basic operation of the systern is shown in Figure 16-8. Interna! Feult (F1) Externa! Feult (FE)
(al Terminal G*) (at Terminal G*)
FD and FD2 at both terminals operate for an interna!
I
fault (F1). The square wave inputs to the AND from the
Local Input
to ANO .rt.rt.rt,. o r-u--i__r-u t

local currents are essentially in phase with those transmitted

via che channel from the re mote terminal. The local square
Receiver
Output
, LfLfLfl., o r-u--i__r-u I

wave turns the carrier on and off to provide the square wave
receiver output for the remete terminal.
Receiver Input 11
to ANO oJ LJ
11
LJ
11 F 1
LJ 'LíLn..J1o
ANO Output
O
rt.rt.rt.r O _JLJ_J__JLJUO
A flip tlop is energized if the inputs to the ANO continue
for 4 ms, providing a continuous trip output supervised by Trip Output
O
J
FD2 operation. The 4 ms correspcnd to a phase angle d if- (•)- Equivalent Operation and Same Trip Output at Station H
Ierence of 90°, on a 60-Hz base, between the currents at
Figure 16-8: Basic Operation of The Single Compare, PhaseComparison
the two terminals. Thus, the system will trip if the currents Pilot Relaying System.
at the two terminals are out of phase by up to 90°. Since
the receipt of a signal from the channel prevents tripping, IV.A.2. Distance-Supervised Comparison
this is a blocking systern. The carrier signal, therefore, does
not have to be transmitted through the interna! fault. No A distance-supervised scherne should be used if the míni-
received signal puts a 1 on the ANO input. With the remote mum interna! three-phase fault current is less than twice
terminals open, this systern provides sensitive instantaneous the maximum load current. • This systern uses the same
overcurrent protection for the entire line. As is characteris- on-off channel and operates in the sarne way as the current-
tic of blocking systerns, the channel is not required for trip- only scheme, except for the fault detection and arming tech-
ping on interna] faults. niques.

*Twice maximum load currcnt allows FD1 to opérate positively on

For an externa) fault, such as FE in Figure 16-8, blocking is the mínimum interna! three-phase fault, yet reset when an externa!
essentially continuous, since the remote wave input to the fault is followed by maximum load current flowing through the
ANO is out of phase with the local square wave. Norrnally, line.
 16-9

Two sequence current networks (filters) and two distance

relays supplement the two overcurrent fault detectors. X
One sequence current network responds only to negative
and zero sequence currents, detecting ali phase-to-phase and /
ground faults (but not three-phase faults). The output of /
this adjustable network opera tes the conventional overcur- I \~21s 01 Brnol<er 2
rent FD
I
and FD2 fault detectors. The two distance relays
1 .~---,-1- 21 P 01 Breoker
\
I
opérate only for three-phase faults. Thus, F02 provides the
arming function for all unbalanced phase and ground faults
through the adjustable fiJter, and one of the distance relays \
(21 P) provides arming for ali three-phase faults.

The second and non-adjustable sequence current network

X
operares through lhe squaring amplifier, providing the local
square wave and the carrier-keyed square wave required for
phase comparison. This signa! is keyed by FD1 and the sec-
ond distance relay (21 S) to provide the carrier start func-
tions, This second network responds to positive , negative ,
and zcro sequence currents, Separate networks prevido
greater sensitivity: with phase-to-phase faults, for exarnple,
more lhan twice the sensitivity is gained.

The setting coordination of FD1 and FD2 overcurrent units

is lhe sarne as for the current-only system. Settings for the
Note: Solid Corcles are Settongs tor Breaker t
two three-phase distance units are shown in Figure 16-9. at Bus G. Ootted. for Breaker 2 at Bus H
Both 21 S and 21 P distance relays must be set to overreach
both the local and rernote terminal buses; 21 S must be set Figure 16-9: Oist•nce Rel•y Settings for The Oiat•nce Supervised
PhHe Compulaon Blocking Systems. (ZA ,s The
further than 21 P, as shown. Forward Ohm,c Reach and ZC The Reverse Ohmlc Reachl

IV.8. Dual Phase Comparison Unblocking System

mark frequency when the square wave from the íilter goes
positive, and is keyed to its space frequency when the
IV.8.1. Current-Only Comparison
square wave is at zero. There are two outputs at the re-
Phase comparison on both half-cycles of the power system ceiver: the "rnark" output is a square wave that goes posi-
current wave can provide faster tripping and narrower oper- tive when a mark frequency is received; the "space" output
ating time rnargins than can the single comparison types. goes positive when a space frequency is received ,
For exarnple, if an interna! fault occurs a half-cycle la ter
than shown in the block diagrams in Figure 16-8, tripping The basic operation of the dual phase cornpariso n system
cannot occur for 4 ms after that half-cycle-or for 12 ms is shown in Figure 16-10. For interna! faults, the single
in a 60-Hz system. phase outputs of the sequence current networks are essen-
tially in phase, although such output represents currents
Dual comparison systems require a duplex channel, one 180° apart in the power system. The network output goes
frequency for each line terminal. Frequency-shift channel th.rough a squaring a rnplifier that keys the frequency shift
equipment is available for this purpose; frequency-shift transmitter. An adjustable delay circuit delays the local
power line carrier is normally used in an unblocking system. square wave by a time equal to the channel delay time.
Continuous channel monitoring is also provided , since either
a mark or space carrier signa! should always be transmitted. The network output is then used to develop two cornple-
mentary square waves, One wave, which has positive state
Continuous signa! transmission eliminates the need for car- during the positive half-cycle of the sequence current net-
rier start-fault detection. The transmitter is keyed to its work, is compared with the receiver's mark output. The
16-10

other wave, which has positive output during the negative put exists for 4 ms, an input to the trip flip flop initiates
half-cycle of the sequence current network, is compared breaker tripping. The same operation occurs at both ter-
to the receiver's space output in a second comparison rninals, tripping breakers I and 2 simultaneously on either
circuit. half-cycle of fault curren t.

G H For tripping , both the mark and space frequencies must be

- F¡andFE -FE transmitted through the interna! fault via power line carrier
Protected LJne F¡ - Fi channels. lf these frequencies are not received, the receiver
1----=...:..:..c=-::....:.::...~~'--~2f-f,......,. ....
detects a loss of channel and clamps both the rnark and
space outputs to a continuous posit ive state. This loss of
channel clamp enables both comparison circuits, allowing
the systern to trip on the local square wave input only.
After 1 SO ms, both outputs are clamped to the zero state.
At this point, the system cannot trip and is lockecl out; an
alarm indicates loss of channel.
Chonnel
For externa! faults, the reversa) of current at one end shifts
the square waves essentially 180°. As a result, neithcr
_..._'-!--Local Negotive AND-1 nor AND-2 has the sustaincd output required to op-
Local F\:Jsil1ve
erate the 4-ms timer (Figure 16-1 O). No trip occurs at
Arming
eit her line terminal.

JV.B.2. Distance-Supervised Comparison

Distance supervision is required on long and heavily loaded

lnternal Fault (F 1) External Fault (Fe)
transmission lines whose mínimum interna! three-phase
(at Terminal G*) (at Terminal G*) fault current is less than 1.5 times the maximum load cur-
Local rent. Two sequence current networks are used with a single
(Positive Hall Cycle) os-u-lJ1 t~I

Receiver Output
distance relay (21 P) for operation on three-phase faults.
(Markl os-u-lJ, o_j¡___SL_ o The adjustable sequence network, which responds only to
AND 1 Output o..JL..JL.l1 o _fl___fi___J\._ o negative and zero sequence currents, operares FD2 for the
Local overcurrent ar ming function on al! unbalanced phase and
(Negative Hall Cycle) lLnJ"""Lo o _j¡___SL_o
ground faults. For ali three-phase faults, the distance relay
Receiver Output
iLnJ"""Lo l~l
ISpace) and KD-3 or SKDU-3 (2 IP) provídes the arming input di-
AND 2 Output iLnJ"""Lo o _fl___fi___J\._ o rectly.

OR Output lTnnul o _fl___fi___J\._ o

Trip Output
o o
I• l- Equivalent Operation and SameTrip Output at Station H
Figure 16-1O: Besic Operation of The Dual Phase Comparison
Pilot Relaying System.
On internal faults, the positive half-cycle of the local square
wave lines up with the received mark output to provide an
AND-1 output (Figure 16-10). On the negative half-cycle ,
this local square wave lines up with the received space out-
put to provide an AND-2 output. lf an arming signal is re-
ceived (FD2 and/or 21 P) and either AND-1 or AND-2 out-
The second sequence network which is non-adjustable=
o responds to positive, negative, and zero sequence. This net-
work operates the squaring amplifier to provide the local
and carrier-keyed square wave. The operation of this sys-
tern is the same as that shown in Figure 16-1 O, except for
the arming functions.
Since this system is permissive, FD2 overcurrent or 2 J P
distance trip units must opera te for ali internal faults. 21 P
is set as shown in Figure 16-9. FD I and 21 S start units are
not required with the continuously operated frequency-
shift channels.
 16·1 L

IV.C. Dual Phase Comparison Transfer-Trip System

These transfer-trip
dual phase cornparison
systerns operate
unblock
in the same way as the
systems described above, (\ (\V (\ V\vv
1\J
~ (\ crv~v
!\
\JI
!\ A
V
C:>o•

except for the channel. The comparison can be either la Station H -1

lb Station G (\
current-only or distance supervised.
(\ /\ /\ _A /\ (\ (\ - A

Frequency-shift audio tones are used overa non-power line

carrier channel used in the transfer-trip mode. For the sys-
tem to trip on interna! faults, the mark and space signals
must be received correctly. lf channel signals are not re·
ceived, the receiver mark and space outputs are clamped to V'7\J(Q~\j vcr~v
zero , locking out the systern and actuating an alarm. 1
V\TV\}"
/"\

le Stauon H
/"\ ~ (\ /\
V/\ /'\.
V'-'
[\ f\
V -
C>
C>

The absolute delay time of the channel used with these

IG Stauon G
tones must be kept to a minimum. Otherwise , the local
square wave phase delay cannot compensate for the chan-
nel delay,
IG Stat,on H

IV.D. Segregated Phase Comparison System

Figure 16-11: Phese end Ground Currents at The Terminals of •
180 Mile. 600 Kv Series Cepec1tor Compenseted
The segregated phase cornparison system has been devel- Trensmission Line for en Externel Three Phese Feult.

oped to improve pilot relay protection, particularly for thc

long El-IV series capacitive-cornpensated transmission lines.
Long EliV series capacitive-cornpensated lines are a source
of significant transients during the fault period. Figure
16-11 shows the phase and ground currents recorded at the
terminals of a 180-mile, series capacitor-cornpensated,
500-kV line during an externa! three-phase fault. These cur-
rents are quite typical and illustrate the high wave form dis-
tortion that is encountered.
Under these circurnstances, sequence current networks de-
signed to operate at normal system frequency may present
a problem. The experience with these phase cornparison
systems has, however, been remarkably good. Directional
comparison systems, on the other hand, are subiect to mis-
operation on series capacitor-compensated lines-particularly
if the capacitor gaps do not short the capacitors on faults.
Segregated phase comparison systems, which are current-
only, are independent of the foUowing phenomena:
The segregated phase comparison systern can be divided
into two types: a two-subsystern scherne and a three-
subsystem scheme. In the two-subsystern scheme , onc sub·
system operates from delta current (la-lb) for all multi-
phase faults, anda ground (310) current subsystem operares
for ali ground faults. The three-subsystem scheme has a
subsystern for each phase (la, lb, and le).
Both segregated phase comparison systems incorpórate
"offset keying," enabling them to trip for interna!
high-resistance ground faults and interna! faults with
outfeed at one terminal. No other systern can clear
these types of faults without extra logic or channels.
On a 500-kV line with a 2000: 5 current rransforrner ratio,
for example, the three-subsystern scheme will operate fer
ground-fault resistances up to about 100 ohms primary irn-
pedance. Under the same condit ions, the two-subsystem
scheme will operate up to about 200 ohms primary fault
resistan ce.

a) Power systern frequency and wave form
b) Effects of impedance un balance between the power sys-
tern phase circuits
e) Maximum load/mínimum fault current margin.
The two-subsystern package is su ita ble fer all applications
except single-pole tripping, where the three-subsystern pack-
age must be applied. The basic operation of the scheme is
illustrated in Figure 16- l 2. Each current is fed through a
non-inductive resistor, supplying a voltage output to the
squaring arnplifier (SA) that is exactly proportional to the
16-12

prirnary currents. The output of tbese arnplifiers is used to
key the individual channels and, through the local delay
timers (LDT), to provide the local square waves for compar-
ison. The timers are adjustable between 2 to 20 ms to com-
pensate for the delay time of the channel. This digital de-
lay circuit translates the pulse train independently of the
pulse width ratio, in contras! to the ac phase angle shift
corresponds to a 1 input to AND-P and the received nega-
tive square wave to a O input, negated to 1, into AND-N.
Except for this variation, operation is as shown by the
square wave blocks in the lower half of Figure 16-10.
Arm,ng Input-Curren, Detector (CD)

used in the other systerns, The ac phase shift delay uses

frequency-dependent components, which are accurate only Chonnel Securoly Checks

at system frequency and can "ring" during transient condi- Remo te

Comporison
Square Waves ----- Tr1p
tions. from Chonnel ANO

ANO
Pro1ec1ed L,ne p
OR
Local ( A:,sohve r-Lr'L
Squore
v.bves Negotove1......rl....r

Note:
{X)=3 Milliseconds for The
PhaseSub-Svsterns.
4 Milliseconds for Ground.
Sqoonnq Amplif,ers
Basic Logic Comparison Circui1
Channel (One Required for Each Subsystem)
Fac,1,tíes

Figure 16-13: Basic Operation of The Segregated Phase

Comparison System .

.._,__,
Remate Locol Sc¡uore Woves
Squore ...__, To generare the local and keying square waves, conven-
Local Oeloy T,mers Waves Remate Square Woves
tional phase comparison systerns use thresholds equivalent
al The Three Sub-System (13. lb, le) SPCU Svs1em to (or very near) the zero-axis, As a result, an interna) fault
with outfeed looks like an external fault to those systerns
Stonon G StotoonH
Pro!ecled une (Figure 16-14). The offset keying technique perrnits the
SPCU relay to trip for interna! faults with outfeed-current
out at one terminal. While the outfeed condition is very
Squoring Amphfiers unusual, it presents difficult problerns to the great majority
of pilot relaying systems when it does occur. Outfeed can
Channel Facilities occur in any of the following cases:

a. Series-compensated parallel lines

L.ocol SquareWoves
............., '-,.-)
LoooJSouoreWoves
b. Weak-feed or zero-feed applications, particularly with
Remole Square Woves Remo1eSquoreW:lves
heavy through load
h] Two Sub-Svstern {la-lb. IGI SPCU System

Figure 16,12: Basic Segregated Phase Comparison Systems. c. Sorne multi-terminal applications (see Chapter 17)

The square wave comparison is made independently for
each current in the sepárate subsysterns. Separate channels
are req uired for each oí the subsysterns. One of the com-
parison circuits is shown in simplified form in Figure 16-13.
In this dual cornparison circuit, AND-P is used for the posi-
tive half-cycles and AND-N for the negative half-cycles. As
shown in Figure 16-13, the received positive square wave
d. Series-compensated (line-end cornpensation) line with a
source inductive reactance smaller than series capacitor
reactance
e. Sorne single-Iine-to-ground faults, occurring simultane-
ously with an open conductor, where the fault is on one
side of the open conductor
 J(>-[j

f. Some singlc-line-to-ground faults with high fault resist- Typ,col Sett,ngs

ance and heavy through load.* +3A

Outfeed for on ln!ernol Foull {SeeText) -2A

G
Foult l1H H
-4A

t.
~
:,
I 1 1 1

Local
:, :, I
1
1
I

SquoreWove -r-r----f"
• 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 _j
Remole~ +--- ~ -1....Squore
SquoreWove
~ Output trip signa Is are supervised by an arming input and a
ExtemolL,ne Up
Note: Comparrson at Both Term,nals sees Fault as External
Figure 16-14: Conventional Phase Comparison Response toan
Outfeed Condition Block Tripping.
The offset keying technique allows the SPCU relay to work
like a true curren! differential scherne. The scherne takes
advantage of lhe fact that, for the outfeed condition, the
current into the Jine is greater in magnitudc than the curren!
out of the Iine for the interna! fault.
This relatlonship is illustrated in Figure 16-14, where le
equals lp plus IH. While the two terminal currcnts may have
any angular rclationship with one another. most outfeed
conditions display a nearly out-of-phasc rclat ionship. The
out-of-phase condition illustrated is the most difficult case
for pilase comparison, as well as the rnost common outfeed
condition.
1
1
1
1
L--......! Key,ng Figure 16-1 5: Typical Threshold Setting for Offset Keying.
Wo,e
nurnber of security checks (Figure 16-13). Phase arming is
performed by a curren! rate-of-change detector that re-
sponds to sudden increases, decreases, or angular shífts in
current. lt opera tes on current changes of 0.5 A or more,
with an operating time of 2 ms. Ground arrning is 310
magnitude typically 0.8 A secondary.
Security checks to comparison ANO (Figure 16-13) include
( 1) low channel signa! blocking, (2) lockout for sustained
low channel signal, (3) channel noisc clamp, and (4) receivc
guard block. For the phase subsysterns, a trip signa! occurs
if comparison ANO has an output for more litan 3 ms (4 ms
for the ground subsystem).
The segregated phase comparison systern may be uscd over
type DIT-4 audio tones, or over a powcr line carricr using
type TCF carrier equipmcnt.

In the offset kcying technique , the keying threshold is dis-
placed in thc posit ive direction, away frorn the zero-axis.
The local square wave thresholds are displaced negat ivcly.
To maintain securit y, the local thrcsholds are separatcd
from each other, providing "nesting" during externa! faults.
Typical settings are shown in Figure 16-15.
Figure J 6-16 illustrates t he square wave characterist ics of
the SPCU with offset kcying for normal interna! Iaults, ex-
terna! faults, and interna! faults with outfeed.
The SPCU segregated phase cornparison scheme incorpo-
rates a high degree of securit y. lts design is based on exren-
sive field experience and model line tests for the very long,
series capacitor-cornpensated EHV lines.
IV.O. l. Audio Tone Channels
The OIT-4 tones may be applicd to a microwave systcm or
to telephone lines (see Chapter 15). When using the DIT-4
tones for a segregated pilase cornpar ison systern, the pre-
ferred total channel space for tite system is two f'our-wire
channels. However, three two-wire channels will provide
adequate space for t he three-subsystem SPCU. One four-
wire channel or t wo t wo-wire channels is required Ior the
two-subsystern SPCU. Each channel must be equivalen! to
a 3002 data line with CI condií ioning, as described in
Chapter 15. Maximum propagation delay of the channel
(not including the OIT-4 de lay) should be 5.5 ms or less.
Severa! more rnilliseconds' delay can, howcver , be handled
by special arrangements.

*Such conditions can cause outfccd only in the faultcd phase cur-
rcnt , not in the ground subsystem.
l(>-14

-~1- r G

01----'l:-(
-
- - - 4º~rl
H
IV.D.2. Power Line Carrier Channels

Type TCF wideband frequency-shift equipment is used for

power line carrier channels, with one TCF transmitter and
~~
Local A:>s,11ve - - - - - - -
~--
~'-,-~--1- receiver required for each subsystern. Two TCF wideband
Locol Negot,ve - ¡--- 1 - ,- 1
1 channels require at least S kHz of spectrum; a group of
1 11 ,, 1

ó~
1 11 ,, 1
Loco! Pos,rwe 1 three TCF wideband channels needs a minimum spectrum
1 r Key,ng
LooolNegar,ve o~
1 1
, : Squors of 7 kHz.
TfipPositive 1 1 Telp Posuíve ~
TripNegotive~ +---- TfipNeqorive
With power line carrier application of TCF equip ment, the
pCo,nc,dence~ Note:
~ Similar Companson Occurs relay logic uses the unblock concept. Relays will thus trip
Remare Sqocre Wove Shoded Porrion is
at Terminal H
Trip Comodence correctly for interna) faults, even if the carrier signa! does
I nternol L,ne uo
not reach the rece iver terminal. This unblock logic is simi-
a/ Normal lnternat Fault
lar to that for the directional comparison un block systems.

- -
~ ,~~ :0v-
IV.E. Summary of the Pitase Comparison
G H Pilot Relaying Systerns

Locol Negotove- r - - -, r-· Note:

O I1 --J:
r :
Four basic types of phase comparison systerns account for
_'t----- ~IKey the rnajority of applications.
1 Variations and options can be
added, and other types of channels may be used.
r lr rI Local Square I r
1 ~} Waves 'NEST" W1th,n 1 :
LocolPos,hve o- -r-r Re1101e Square Wave 1 • Since ali phase comparison systerns use current only for
r ' ' , I Key,ng r
Local Negollve o ____J"""'l.,_ 10 Provide Secunty 1 Squore fault location, they are not affected by system swings and

r
1
TripPos,tive ~ TropPosor,ve ~e
Tnp Neqot1ve +- - - Frip Negot1ve out-of-step conditions. Also , they are not subject to mu-
Tnp Coincrdence : None Note: tual induction and zero sequence polarizing problerns, or
Remare Squore Wove Similar Comparison Occurs to voltage reversals resulting from the negative reactance of
E,ternot Line Up at Terrn,nal H.
series capacitors. Voltage transformers are either not re-
b) External Fault quired orare used only as fault detectors, so that the accu-
racy of directional sensing and reach is not critica\.

-/ l - The segregated phase comparison systern, with its rate-of-

II
G H change current detector, minimizes proble ms of discrimina-
o--><'-------10 tion between mínimum three-phase f'ault current and rnaxi-

A - '-
¡"' mum load. Here , the protection is armed only momentarily

Local Fl:>s,hve
.,~ during sudden load changes and , of course, during faults .
Local Nego)lve ~
11 '1
Loco\~1twe ó~ ,1 '1 Ali phase comparison systems are highly reliable and in ac-
I I tive and wide use. The blocking types tend to be more de-
Local Negalive J---{""1---
TnpPos,ttve 1 1 T,ipPos1tive
pendable , while the transfer-trip systerns are more secure.
TripNegotive
1 1
+ - --TripNegot,ve
Comodence ~ Keying Sqore'Nave rs
~
Remole SquoreWo,e Shoded Portian is SteadyTripNegorive
Tnp Coincidence
V. ADDITIONAL SECURITY ANO
Tnp Comporison Note:
Similar Cornparrson
PROTECTION TECHNIQUES
Occurs ar Terminal H.

e) Interna! Fault W1th Outfeed {Cornparison al Strong Terminal) Severa! techniques are important in the proper operation
of the various pilot systerns. These techniques include
Figure 16-16: Response of Segregated Phase Comparison System transient blocking, Joss of voltage, and open breaker logic
With Offset Keying. for the unblock and transfer-trip pilot systems.
 16-15

V.A. Transient Blocking High speed reclosing into a permanent externa! fault that
originally caused a quick reversa! can result in a second
Clearing an externa! fault may result in a sudden reversa! of reversal. A 1000-ms release dela y is inserted to prevent loss
fault power through the line section, particularly on para lle! of transient blocking during this period. This dela}' is oper-
lines. With the directional cornparison blocking systerns, the ated by AND-4, which requires that transient blocking have
trip units at the end being blocked must reset bef'ore the been established and an externa! fault exist. High speed re-
blocking channel signa! is removed. The opposite end must lays plus breaker time for the externa! fault will exceed the
then transmit a blocking signa! bcfore the rernote end trip block timer dela y.
units opera te.
When the externa! fault is cleared, the inputs to AND-1,
With the ovcrreaching dircctional cornparison transfer-trip AND-2, and OR-1 go to zero, blocking A:-.ID-4. The timer
systerns, the channel trip signa! must be removed before resets after 1000 ms, rernoving the inputs to O R-2 and
the local fault detectors opera te al one end. Al the other AN D-3 and resetting transient blocking.
terminal, the local fault trip units must reset before the
channel trip signa! is received. Underreaching transfer-trip Transient blocking circuits for unblocking and overrcaching
systerns do not have this problern, since the trip fault detec- transfer-trip systerns are shown in Figure 16-18. The
tors do not opera te for externa! faults. 0/1000-ms tirner will opérate through OR-1 upon either op-
eration of a local lrip fault detector (P) or receipt of an un-
Electromechanical systerns are coordinated by a time dela y block or tra nsfcr-trip signa! from the remote end. lf u pilot
of 13 to 15 rns in the CS units (Figure 16-1) or by the faster trip has not occurred or the 18/0 unblock Limer has not op-
resctting than pickup of the units of Figure 16-3 and Figure erated , there will be an output from AND-3 to start the
16-5. block tirner. lf a trip does not occur in 18 or 25 ms, trip-
ping will be blocked.
A transient blocking circuir provides coordination in the
solid-state systern, as shown in Figure 16-17 for the direc- Polot Trop Output
!Figure 16·3 O, 16·5)
tional comparison systerns. For an externa! fault such as
(FE) in Figure 16-1, AN 0-1 of Figure 16-17 operares at
station G, and AN0-2 at station H. Either operation pro-
vides an input to AN0-3 through OR-1 and OR-2, which
energízes the timer in the absence of a local trip signal. The
terminal is blocked from tripping after 18 rns, allowing am- P !From Figure Block
16· 3 or 16-5) Trippong
ple opportunity for any interna! fault trippíng to block
Chonnet Recetl.1!r
AND-3. Should an interna! fault occur after transient block- from F,gure 16 • 19
ing is established, the local lrip signal will negatc AND-3
to drop out the tirncr. In such cases, tripping is delayed
by the 18-rns reset time.

Note:
(X)= 1 B Milloseconds for 2 Cycle Breakers
from Remole
Te..m,nol ve Chonnel 25 Milhseconds for > 2 Cycle Breakers

Figure 16-18: Simplified Diagrem of Trensient Blocking for The

p Loco! Oirectional Comparison Unblocking end Over·
Corroer Reaching Transfer Trip Systems.
Stop

The inputs lo OR-1 reset as the externa! fault that caused

transient block ing clears. The 1000-ms t irner, however,
maintains the block to avoid another power reversa! should
Local Trop Sognol reclosing into the externa! fault prove unsuccessful.

Figure 16-17: Simplified Oiegrem of Trensient Blocking for lf an interna! fault occurs after transient blocking takes
Directionel Comperiaon Blocking Systems. place, the trip output operates A. D-2. Afrer 18 rns, tran-
 !O-JO
sient blocking is removed, and tripping occurs. This tr ip in-
put occurs prior to operation of the 4/0-ms timer shown in
Figures 16-3 and l 6-5.
The fast-reset (0/100-ms) timer prevents initiation of tran-
sient blocking during an open cycle of the protected line
circuit breakers. Consequently, a high speed trip can take
space should the protected line breaker be reclosed into a
permanent fault.
Phase comparison systerns with composite sequence current
networks contain reactive elements, which may discharge
stored energy as the externa) fault is cleared. Since this en-
ergy is a possible source of incorrect operation, a transient
blocking circuir similar to those described above is used in
these pilot systerns.
V.B. Loss of Voltage
Pilot systerns using system voltage may have logic to protect
against incorrect operation on loss of voltage. This logic op-
erates if there is zero sequence voltage and no zero sequence
current for 500 ms or more. Such a condition blocks trip-
ping and sounds an alarm. The reset time is 500 ms.
V.C. Open Breaker Logic for the Unblock and
Transfer-Trip Pilot Systems
When one terminal is open, additional logic is required to
permit tripping on interna! faults. At the open terminal,
a breaker auxiliary 52b contact is used to remove blocking
or to esta blish a transfer-trip signal.
At the closed terminal, transient blocking is not required
and must be removed to permit tripping en interna) faults
(Figure 16-19). An unblock or transfer-trip signa! from the
channel receíver , indicating a trip request frorn the remo te
terminal, permits normal operation of transient blocking
(Figure 16-18). In theevent of a remote open breaker, this
channel request will Jast for 2500 ms or more, at which
point the ANO of Figure 16-19 is turned off to stop tran-
sient blocking.
To prevent transient blocking during the reclose cycle, 52b
is operated upon opening the local breaker or by an interna)
fault. Closure of 52b negates the ANO of Figure 16-19 and
removes the channel input to the transient block ing circuit.
Chonnel Receiver
Input to OR 1 of
2500/0 ,____ __,, ANO Trons,ent Block
Chame! Receiver Cucou of
from Ficve 16-2--<~-------t Figure 16-18
or Figure 16-4
Figure 16-19: Block Logic for 52b and Channel Control of
Transient Blocking for The Directional Comparison
Unblocking and Over·Reaching Transfer Trip
Systems.
VI. SELECTING A PILOT TRANSMISSION LIN E
RELA YING SYSTEM
Past experience and personal preference along with the re-
lative importance of system dependability versus security,
large!y determines the selection of a pilot transmission line
relaying system. With so many options available, there is
seldom just one practicable system for a given transmission
line or lines. In general, the least expensive system that
meets the constraints of the application is the logical choice.
Figures 16-20 through J 6-24 are logic guides to aid in select-
ing the most cost-effective systern. The systems indicated
are not necessarily the only usable relaying systerns ,
VI.A. Cbannel Selection
Toe choice or the availability of the pilor relaying channel
is a major consideration in system selection.
Figure 16-20 is an aid in selecting a pilot channel for trans-
mission line protection. As indicated, the pilot wire relay-
ing system (HCB-1 )-the most economical choice-can be
applied to short lines if the available continuous metallic
pilot pair does not have excessive series resistance or shunt
capacitance. The physical make-up and protection of the
pilot wire must also be carefully considered. See Chapter 14.
Toe "continuous metallic pair" req uirernent, assumes that
de channel monitoring will be used with the pilot wire relay-
ing system, and so a de path must be available. Three-
terminal pilot wire applications are feasible only if the
branch resistance and total capacitance limits are not ex-
ceeded. Circuits with more than three significant terminals
cannot be protected with pilot wire relaying.
lf the economical pilot-wire relayíng system cannot be used
for short lines, audio tones on communication circuits are
 16-17

Is Transmiss,on Is Une Pilo!-

Lrne 9 L,kelyTo y
Wlre
Miles Long Remain
(No 26 wire srze) Relatnf
2 Terminal (HC -1
N N N

WillltBe Special
Note: Likely To Have Consideration
No 26 wire reters ·3 Terminals Requlred
10 püoi wires
N

Will II Exceed
2.3 Miles per Leg Y Mlcrowave
or 6.9 Miles Total~-------4-,--..--f or
Tones
(No. 26 wlre)

Conunuous H,gh Speed 4 kHz of Frequency

Channel Clearing of Carrier Shift
Monitoring Weak-Feed Spectrum Carrier
Oesired Term,nals Req Available (TCF-10)
N N N N N

Add
Auto
Cneckback

6 kHz of Catcurateo On-off

Carrier Carrier Carrler
Spectrum Atlenuation (TC-10)
Available 25db Wioe-Band
N N N

Catcotateo On-of.f
Camer Carrler
Attenuation (TC-10)
:\5db Narrow-Band
Note
N s,gnal to noise ranos
are all based on
noise measurea m a
3kHz flat bandwrdth

Figure 16·20: Logic Guida far Selecting a Transmission Line Pilot Relaying Channel.

the next logical choice. For longer lines, carrier on micro-
wave channels should be considered. Factors other than re-
laying may dictate the choice of channel, For example, the
availability of microwave links to ali other terminals of the
transmission line would encourage using microwave chan-
nels for the relaying functions.
Carrier can be used only if there is a band in the frequency
spectrurn in which interfering signals will not disrupt the
normal relaying sígnal transmission. The magnitude of the
interfering signa! is as important as frequency separation.
The 6-kHz and 4-kHz criteria specified in Figure 16-20 are
for a relaying receiver set at maximum sensit ivity , with +37
16·18

dBm leve! interfering signals on eit her side of the relaying VI.B. Relaying Systerns with Microwave or Tone Channels
carrier frequency. (The 6-kHz and 4-kHz. figures are, how-
ever, only an approximate guide.) The logic guide of Figure 16-21 is designed to aid in the se-
lection of a relaying scherne using microwave or tone chan-
The required signal-to-noise ratio (Sl\R) for the different nels. The first consideration is whether or not the station
receivers is a function of the type of modulation and the has a series capacitor. Such a capacitor introduces protective
receiver bandwidth. The required SNR shown is for noise relaying problerns for transmission lines terrninating in that
measured overa 3-kHz bandwidth. When calculating SNR, station, since distance relays will incorrectly sense the direc-
the coupling losses at the receiving terminal should not be tion of a fault at the capacitor line junction (Chapter 10,
included (see Chapter 15). Figure 10-68). This incorrect directional sensing is ex peri·
enced by relays on lines with series capacitors and by those
The criteria given in Figure 16-20 are intended only to pro- on adjacent lines-with or without series capacitors. Phase
vide an approximate guide to carrier spacing and Jevels. comparison systems do not have this difficulty.
Closer spacing may be possible-depending on the type of
carrier involved , permissible rnargins, and carrier applica- An interna! three-phase fault with unequal gap flashing will
Lion. produce "through" negative sequence and zero sequence
current flow. Consequently, a systern using a filter with a
Usually, continuous channel monitoring is permitted only heavy zero sequence weighting factor will incorrectly sense
if frequency-shift carrier is used; periodic sampling of the an externa! fault. The segregated phase comparison system
channel by checkback is widely used with on-off systems. must be used where th.is type of fault may occur without
being detected by other de vices. In the segregated system,
At one time, service voice require ments dictated the use of each phase and residual circuit are treated as independent
either an on-off carrier channel or microwave. Since a entities. The relaying system compares each of these quanti-
frequency-shift system can now accommodate the voice ties at the two line terminals via the cornmunication channel.
option, however, this factor is no longer critica l.
When conventional phase comparison systems can be used,
Carrier frequencies may be repeated at fairly close geo- load current is the significant consideration. The fault de-
graphic intervals if they do not interfere with other relaying tector for three-phase faults should not operate on rnaxi-
functions. A continuous guard signal, for example, may in- mum load flow. Although such a situation would not pro·
terf'ere with proper tripping a few line sections away if iden- duce tripping, it would represen! a security infringement, in
tical freq uencies are used for relaying syste ms on both sec- that the systern would be continuously armed. The dual
tions. Sirnilarly , volee communications or any continuous distance phase comparison system" solves this problem by
function over the carrier channel may block tripping on ad- incorporating a distance relay that is insensitive to the high
jacent line sections unless different frequencies are used. power factor conditions normally associated with load flow.
Line traps do not eliminate this hazard.
for two-terrninal applications with no series capacitar prob-
A directional comparison systern can respond at "strong- lems, system selection is largely a matter of personal judg-
feed" locations without any relaying action at "weak-feed" ment. The customary decision-making process for choosing
locations. * Tripping does not occur at weak-feed locations between overreaching and underreaching transfer-trip sys-
unless there is sequential action as a result of fault current tems is f'orrnalized in Figure 16-21. The logic of this figure
redistribution. Since an unblocking systern normally trans- allows selection of the less expensive phase comparison sys-
mits a guard signal, relaying action is necessary to key the tem onJy if system parameters permit.
transmitter for tripping. In a blocking systern, carrier is nor-
mally off and does not block tripping ar other stations. The logic in Figure 16-21 does not allow an underreaching
transfer-trip system unless a fault detector ovcrcurrent relay
* A strong-feed location is a linc terminal from which sufficient fault
current is contributed to an interna! fault to reliably operate *The qualifying term "dual" indicares that a frequcncy-shift channel
current-dependent tripping relays. Conversely, ata weak-Ieed loca- is used and that tripping is possible on eithcr half-cyclc. In the sin-
tioo, the line terminal does not contribute enough fault current to gle comparison systerns, which use on-off carrier, tripping can occur
produce reliable operation of current-dependent relays. only during the "off" half-cycle.
 16·19

1iol~n:n~~~~1/
Y
Terminal

N N

o.,.,,-hlng
·r,-,,11 ... Trlp
(DUL)

N N

AOd Oul·Ol·SleP
T,lp Elemanls
<l>Cornp

,s Lino
50 Mll&8
Lono

N N N N

Can
AII secucns Be
Cove,ed Dy ZOf'IB '

\~r1 ~º:~
~T~~ro~'s
Overreachlng Any
Breakor N
N
"'
Fígure 16-21: Logic Guida for Selacting a Microwave or Tona Ral•ying Syatam.

can be used. This arrangernent climinates the possibility of
false trips resulting from voltage supply circuit failure. The
direct underreaching systern is sclected for three-terrninal
applications under the following conditions only: (!) where
all faults can be recognized by Zone 1 relays at one or more
stations, (2) where ali terminals require high speed trípping,
and (3) where fault detecting relays (including phase under-
voltage and zero sequence overvoltage) cannot recognize ali
internal faults.
VI.C. Relaying Systerns with Frequency-Shift Carrier
Channels
When a frequency-shift carrier channel is indicated, the re·
laying scherne should be selected as outlined in Figure 16·22.
Again, the presence or absence of a series capacitar in the sta-
tion wil\ determine whether phase comparison or directional
comparison unblocking systerns are appropriate. A dual
phase comparison unblocking system is selected for short
16-20
M!trowave
orTOl'!H
(,ig1)
Figure 16-22: Logic Guide for Selecting • Frequency·Shitt Carrier Releyíng Sy,tem.
and moderatcly long t wo-tcrminal lines where the backup
and out-of-step trip functions are to be independent of the
-primar)' te\a)"mi system.
For thrce-terminal frequency-shift carrier applications, the
unblock ing sysrern is preferred if rhere is sufficient carricr
frequency spectrum. Three-terminal phase comparison svs-
terns, while possible, are not al\owed by this selection proc-
ess in the intercst of restricting choices to flexible, easily
realizable schemes.
VI.O. Relaying Systems with On-Off Carrier Channels
The select ion process for a directional comparison or phase
comparison on-off carrier system is shown in Figure 16-23.
As abo ve, the presence or absence of a series capacitor in
the station determines whether a phase cornparison systern
is required. lf the primary relaying need not incorporate a
C,,olisef-0
ForT 'TW:"lrifl
Add 0.il ol s1ep
frlpEleme-nlS
No'o
Ae.!p,on••
18F Sc111ng, -~~-
distancc-controlled backup timing function nor clear out-oí-
step condit ions, the less expensive phase comparison systern
may be useó for a\\ bu\ extreme\y \one,-\ine, two-terrninal
applications.
On three-terminal lines, the direclional comparison system
requires no rclaying action at weak-feed locatioris in order
for high speed clearing to occur at the strong-fecd location
for interna! faults. This characteristic, however, ho\ds true
only if there is no continuous use of the carrier systcm at
thc weak-feed location. Otherwise, the weak-feed carrier
must be stopped for interna! faults to clear.
As with frequency-shift systerns, three-terminal applications
of phase comparison systems are not considered because of
thci.r inflexibility and restrictive nature. However, where
permitted by system characteristics, such installations have
performed successfully for many years.
 16-21

U!H>
Freq....--cy
ShlltC-nel
(TCF-10)

N N N

134>M•n Pha$8
t 51 Load 1Max) eos~'.1°"
N

Dls1enee
Pt,-
Compa,Json
SKBU-11
SKOu.3

ª=,º
OlrtcUona!
Comparlaon

N
N

Add Our-ot-Step
RecloseBlock

Is L,ne y
· 200 M,les
long

N N N

Nolo
Response
(BF Setting)
Figure 16·23: Logic Guide for Selecting an ON·OFF Carrier Relaying System.

VI.E. Additional System Options
Any pilot protection systern can be equipped with options
to give the desired degree of redundancy orto provide ad-
ditional features required by a particular application. These
options include high-set overcurrent trips, Zone I phase and/
or ground relaying, a T2 timer, and out-of-step relaying.
High-Set Overcurrent Trips. Available for the standard sys-
terns, high-set overcurrent trips are highly recommended for
applications where faults can be located on the basis of cur-
rent magnitude alone. Air-gap units (overcurrent elements
with a gapped iron circuit) are available with no more than
17-percent overreach with the maximum asymmetry dueto
the de cornponcnt of fault current. These units should be
set 25 percent greater than the maximum curren! fer an ex-
terna! fault in the forward or reverse direction. Where us-
able, high-set overcurrent trips provide fast, simple, and in·
expensive back up, independent of ali other sensing elements
and of the communications channel.
Zone 1 Pitase and/or Ground Relaying. Pitase and/or
ground-distance relays can be applied to lines that are long
enough for a fault at the balance point to produce adequatc
energy for the relays to operate reliability. These relays are
not responsive to externa! faults; they are fast and require
no information frorn the remote terminal via the communi-
cation channel. They provide an excellent support function
to most pilot relaying systerns and are available as a part of
ali standard systems.
T2 Timer. Any system equipped with overreaching phase
and ground-distance relays may drive a timer to provide re-
mole backup. While local backup systems have been used
increasingly in recent years to cover the breaker-failure con-
tingency, t here is still a place for dista nce-controlled tímers.
A single timer is adequate Ior both the phase and ground
functions with sepárate indication.
Out-of-Step Relaying. Figure 16-24 provides a logíc guide
for selecting an out-of-step relaying system. Although
16-22

OST
OSR8
A1eOS Tr1p
.r,,nd Aeciose 8IOC:k
Onl'( Reouued

N
y

-=
S08U-IISNJ

OST8
._,.os34> y Is Bhnoe, Req
Tu:, Bloc:11.and:or
OSRB OS RecloseBlodung to,3$Faul1'load
Requued 01scnm1nation

N N

OSTB
osr
OSR8
...
OS JC, T110 Block,
COf"loo•'ed Roccwe,y
VOII.IGe. OS fflpp.ng
and Reclose Blodung
~,.mees
N
y IS tne OS h1Qplng
ana 8too1ng Achon
1'o&eVai-1e<1
Frequently

N
y

--·
Dual91-
(I.DIIIOS-2)

RI
IS811Aotc
ROQ.a11ect10, To1~~~':'<t,r y
'.IG> Fa,ullllo.a wnen ZOl\e: 1 Pha,e
01sr.• m1n11eon 01,1anu Qpe,atn
N N

No OST -Oul·ol .. $199 Trlp

O..t-ol·SM!> Unlllea OSAB-Out,.Ol•Sll1) Aec:lott Block
~·"O Ul9 OSTB-0-.il·Of·Sltp Trlp 81ock
AT -AttlrlcllnTrio

Figure 16-24: Logic Guide for Selecting en Out·of·Step Releying System. The single·blinder scheme uses distence elements heving a
cherecteristic on • resistance-reectence plot consisting of two perellel lines centered ebout the origin and sloping at
16 degreea from the verticel. The duel·blindar scheme uses two such units. the second heving • wíder specing th1n th1 firat.
The concentric·circle scheme, as the neme impli1s. uses distence units heving circuler cherecteristics on I resiatenc•
reectence plot. Usuelly the three·phese unit of the zon•2 reley in the trensmission fine releying scheme i1 usedfor the lnner
circle end • seperete reley equipped with the eppropriete logic provides the outer-clrcle cherecteristíc.

many other considerations enter into the selection, this
logíc displays the key factors influencing the proper system
choice once the desired philosophy is deterrnined.
Determining the appropriate philosophy is not easy. For
example, much depends on whether instability can develop
in the systern, and where the electrical center will be if in-
stability does develop. Other critica) factors include the
mínimum interna! three-phase fault current , the maximum
load current, and whether an out-of-step condition produces
enough current to cause an interruption problem with the
very high recovery voltage that may accompany out-of-step
tripping. Ali these factors must be determined within reason-
a ble contingency lírnits, and each factor may manifest its crit-
ical case for a completely different system arrangernent. In
any event, each of the out-of-srep relaying variations indi-
catcd in Figure 16-24 may be applied to the standard sys-
tems (sce Chaptcr 19).
VI.F. Choice of Reclosing System
Automatic reclosing is an advantage in any application where
a fault may clear before the circuit is reenergized. For ex-
arnple, rnult i-shot reclosing relays will improve service con-
tinuity with overhead distribution circuits. In transmission
applications, reclosing relays are often used to provide a sin-
gle high speed reclosure upon pilot relay tripping, followed
by one or more time-delayed reclosures in response to syn-
chronism check or live bus/dead line control. High speed
reclosing occurs in response to ali high speed tripping; nor-
mally, a control switch contact prevents high speed recios-
ing unless pilot tripping is in service (see Chapter 20).

Vll. TRIPPING SYSTEMS FOR CIRCUIT BREAKERS
In conventional three-pole tripping, thc output of protective
relays energizes a single trip coil to open all three poles of
the circuit breaker. Newer circuit-breaker tripping methods
can help reduce the crit ical fault clearing times required to
maintain system stability and improve continuity of servicc.
These methods are independent pole, single-pole, and selec-
tive pole tripping.
VII.A. lndependent Pole Tripping
lndependent pole tripping employs a separate tripping mech-
anism for each phase of the breaker, so that f'ailure of one
pole will not prevcnt the operation of the other poles. The
protective relays trip ali three poles for any type of fault ,
providing a very high degree of assurancc that at least two
poles will open for any system fault. Thus, the most severe
stability criterion-the three-phase fault-is reduced by in-
dependent pole tripping combined with separate pr irnary
and secondary relaying systerns, each on separa te current
transforrners and operating separare trip coils.
The usual pract ice is to connect the three trip coils in series,
as shown in Figure 16-25. While parallel connection of the
three trip coils has been considered, it has the disadva ntages
of high currents through the relay trip contacts or circuits,
and more complex control wiring. Either an open coil in the
series winding ora coil short in the parallel connection
would disable ali three trip coils. However, with the coils
in series a monitoring systern can be used to assure continu-
ity.
VII.B. Single-Pote Tr ipping
Most transmission line faults are transient single-phase-to-
ground. They can be cleared by opening and high speed re-
closing of only the phase associated with the fault. This
rnethod , known as single-pele rripping, Jeaves the other two
pilases intact to exchange synchronizing power and minimize
i he shock to the power system. lf only single-phase-to-
ground faults occurred, more power could be transmitted
without exceeding the transient stabilit y limit. Systern de·
sigo rnust , however , also take phase faults into consideratio n,
including the most severe three-phase t'ault.
Onc good application for single-pole relaying is a large gen-
t'ration plant connected to the system by a single transmis-
sion line. Opening ali three poles would completcly discon-
16·23
----¡--Pos,1,ve ~f\)s1r,e
1Primory Prorecnve .L 5econdory
Reloy Tripüutpu' Prorect.ve
Re.ay T, ,p Outpu1
Phose o Phoseo
Phose b Phoseb
Phosec Phosec
I I I
52o 520 520
2o 2b 2c
Negar ve
Figure 16·25: lndependent Pole Tripping With Trip Coils in Series.
nect the t wo systems, and thcy could not be reconnccted
safely with high speed reclosing. The result would be con-
siderable loss of generation until the two systerns could be
resynchronized and the machines reloaded. Single-pele re-
laying would eliminate this problern for the majority of
t'aults, with only a momentary loss of the generat ion plant.
Opening the fault phase circuir ora single phase-to-ground
fault leaves the plant coupled with t he two soun<l phases.
For two or three pitase an<l perrnanent Iaults, ali t hree poles
must be opened , either initially or eventually , wit h cense-
quent loss of generat ion.
On long and high voltuge lines, single-pole t r ipping may re-
sult in enough e ncrgy being coupled to maintain the are and
irnpede the <leionization process. Longer dead times (0.7 to
1.5 sec.) before reclosure will hclp minimize this potential,
but tend to worsen syst ern stability. To limit thc ground cur-
rerit and the eff'ect of inrerphase coupling, a recen! 500 k V
EHV application ernploys a four-legged reactor eonnected be-
tween the three line phases and ground at the rece iving ter·
minal. Reclosing time is the conventional 0.5 sec.
During the single phasing pcriod between the opening of
one pole and its reclosure, ground current continúes to flow
through the system. Groun<l relays in the other parts of the
system must be set so as not to operate during this perio<l.
With a substantial ground sourl'e at each end of the line,
rnost of tht: ground curren! will tend to circulate in the line
and terminal ground sources, thereby minimizing tht' .:ffect
16-24

in thc adjaccnt systern. In any case, this effect should be In single-pole tripping, thc protect ivc relays must accurat cly
carefully cvaluated. determine which phase is Iaulted and init iat c tripping a nd
reclosing Ior o nly that phase brcakcr mcchanism. Figure
Single-pole rcla y ing , while used in many countries, has had 2-46 (Chapter 2) shows t hat , Ior single-ph.rsc-to-grouud
very limit ed application in the Unitcd Sta les. Unt il recently, faults, the negativo ami zero sequence curre nts are csseu-
power circuir brea kcrs wcre not normully applied wit h sep- tially in pilase for tite Iault cd phase an d csscnt ially 120° out
ara te operating mechanisms. The relaying schernes are gen- of pilase f'or the unfaulted phascs. This phcnomeuou pro-
crally more complicatcd , ancl stability crit eria must be bascd vides thc critcria íor the (aultcd phasc sclcctio n.
on phase Iaults, Furt hcr , cxccpt Ior the early sí ages of a
highcr voltage overlay, thc USA systerns are highly intcrcon- In the KQS (8JC) relay, t hrce dircclional units are op-
nect cd , minimizing the stability advantages of single-pole erated by zero scqucnce curren! anti Ihrcc-phusc ncgat ivc
rclay ing. The availability of modern circuit breukcrs with sequence curren! írom a sequence net work . h,r a phase-a-to-
indcpcndcnt pole mecha nisms, along with present econornic grourid faull. thc phasc a clirectional unit (SA) operares.
and cnvironmental trends, muy rcsult in a wider application while pilase b anJ e dircct io nal unit s restrain. Suuilurly. l'or
of siuglc-pote relaying. phase b-to-ground tuults, t hc phuse b unit (SB) operares
whilc phasc a ande units rcst rain ; and for phasc c-to-ground
Singlc-po!e relaying should only be used wilh pilot relay ing. faults, the phasc e unit (SC) operares whilc phasc a and b
units rcstrain.
VII.B. l. KQS·KDAR Single-Pote Tripping System
Figure 16-26 shows t he basic circuits for singlc-polt: l npping
This basic systern, [irst applicd in the United States in the with clt:ctromecha ni ca 1-ty pt' rela ys. M iscclla ncous cirrn it s
carly l 940's, has sincc bce n used primarily for overseas a p- not directly conncctcd wilh unJerslanding of tht' operation
plications. are omittecl for simplicity.

r------i\Jon Pdot Re1oy,n9 --- -i I· - Hrv, Rekly·mg ----------

G<ound Zone 2 KO Ground

Zone I IR Type (Optoonall KR T,pe Pr,ase
KD 21·1 l(D Type
67NT <l-,
,.._..._.,
67N
21P

I . ,. .
O.lc.e1c

Gmunc1
/'..uiulio,y to T,1p ,'\v,;11,a,y fo fr(p
ou ft'uee Pnoses 011 r,,ces Pnoses

se I ',
7o"f!}

TX.l
ISAISB
)(3
x,; f3ock ú(-'

4~-BOP<J
10·4C!DO
A..1x.1l10,y 1C Tf,p
f'nose o l'b1e º"'Y
~~o t.;2n 520

J J J
O

b \,eqn•,ve
ALJx, llor +; to for,
Phose b f':)11• C•,ly
Au(1'i10,y ltl fr1p
Device Numbe, Chart !:>ca '.i?o ':>2o

IºI I
Aux.1IOf)' IC Tftp 011 fn,ee Ptto..,es
OS Out ot-Srep Block,ng IWhén Use.di P,,ose e Pt,1c On y b e
Coil Cucuus Not Shown ~--- ....
----+-Neqo\'e
1

Figu,e 16-26· Basic Schematic ol The KOS-KDAA Single Pote Tripping Svstem.

For internal single-line-to-ground faults, ground relay 67N
operates with pilot supervisión, initiating single-pele trip-
ping of the faulted phase breaker through the phasc selec-
tor contacts SA, SB, or SC. Simultaneously, 67N energizes
units X3, 48, and X. Relay X3 opens ali the single-pele trip
circuits, after a short time delay permits the particular
faulted phase circuit to seal in. Relay X ensures that ali
three-pole tríp paths are blocked for the single phase trip.
While the non-pilot Zone 2, 3, and time-overcurrent relays
are shown blocked out, this function might be omitted if
the relays can be set not to operate during the single phas-
ing period.
When the faulted phase pole opens, its S2b contact doses
to keep X3, 48, and X rclays energized and to o perate the
X2 unit. Relay X2 inserts XS delay in the phase pilot trip
(21 P), bypasses SON and the SRD contacts, bypasses X4
delay in the non-pilot ground instantaneous trip circuit, and
connects 67N for subsequent three-pole tripping. The lat-
ter connection permits both protection of the sound phases
during single phasing (65 to 200 ms after one pole opens)
and three-pole tripping if the open breaker pole recloses
into a fault.
The SRD (83) relay compares the magnitudes of the three-
phase-to-ground voltages. When one voltage is larger than
the other two, the rclay operates. Thus, its contacts close
for faults involving two phases, but not for three-phase or
for single-phase-to-ground faults. The SRD opera tes on a
mínimum of l O Volts difference bet ween the one voltage
and the larger of the remaining two voltages.
The SRD contact is used to block the Zone 1 phase-to-phase
unit and both units of the pilot Zone 2 KDAR phase relay
from operating on phase-to-ground faults .. Otherwise, three-
pole tr ipping might occur on sorne line-to-ground faults.
The SON unit, operated by 310 ground current, has its back
contact in parallel with the SRD contact in the phase pilot
trip circuit to permit tripping on three-phase faults. Thus,
the parallel combination of SON and the SRD contacts pro-
vide a trip path for ali fault types except single-phase-to-
ground.
Relay 48 is a TD-S-type timer set for longer than the single
phasing period. lt serves as a backup to trip ali three
breaker peles directly when one pole is open tonger than
the normal trip/dead-time/reclose cycle.
16-25
The phase KDAR with the SRD relays operares to trip ali
three peles for ali phase faults-including two-phase-to-
ground faults. For these latter faults, the phase selector for
the sound phase will operate. (See the phasors in Figure
2-46 of Chapter 2.) For example, the phase a negative and
zero sequence currents are essentially in phase for b-c-to-
ground fault to opérate the SA phase selector. While this
action initiates tripping of the phase A breaker pole, Zone I
(21-1) and/or phase pilot (21 P) simultaneously opera te to
trip all three poles. The short pickup time of X perrnits
these three-pole trip paths to be sealed in (circuits not
shown for simplicity) before the back X contacts can open.
During the open phasing period, the line voltage on the open
phase is determined by the interphase capacitance to the
two sound phases and not by the system. This can cause
misoperation of distance r elays when line-side voltage is
used. In these applications, auxiliary relays are used to dis-
connect the 21 P, 21 S, 68, and 83 relays from the potentiat
source on the opened phase and connect them to ground.
This assures their correct operation.
VII.8.2. Segregated Phase Comparison Single-Pele
Relaying
As illustrated in Figure 16-27, the three-subsystem segre-
gated phase cornparison systern is easily adapted to single-
pole tripping. The three pilase cornparison systems deter-
mine the faulted phase and initiates tripping of that phase.
If two or more phases are involved, these phases are tripped.
At the same time, OR-2 (which provides an output only with
two or more inputs) will have an output to assure tripping of
ali three phases. Pilot secondary and high speed backup trip-
ping is inhibited through OR-1 if any subsystern of the SPCU
relay operates to avoid three-pole operation on single phase
faults. During the open phasing period, the pote disagree-
ment timer, through the OR-1 and the AND-1 circuit, atso
inhibit secondary and backup tripping. This pole disagree-
ment circuit also operates a back-up tírner to trip ali phases
if single phasing exists after the normal cycle.
VH.8.3. Reclosing for Single-Pote Tripping
A conventional single-shot recloser can be used in the single-
pole relaying system. While the opening of one pole initiates
reclosing of ali three poles, two would airead y be closed.
Three separate reclosers will be required where this method
presents a problern.
 AuA~.ory to r,o
Phose o -----------, Pilase o
Tr,p Oó,y

'ripOu!pUIS from Aux,ltory to Tnp

SPCUCircu,ts Phose b __ _.. ._____. Phose 1>
lF,gvre 16·13) frip Üflly

Au .. 1,0,y to Tr,p
Pnose e ----1--1-------1--~ Phose e
frip OrAy

A.ml,ory
io r,,p oll
521> :,zb S2D r11,ee l'l:>les
o b e
Pole o,sogremen1 "Ou1pu1 Onty W11h
r,mer Two or More Input>

Figure 16-27: BHic: Sc:hemetic: of SPCU The Single Poi• Rel•ving Svatem.

lf single-pele relaying is used when three-pole reclosing is VIII. BREAKER POLE DISAGREEMENT PROTECTION
not perrnissible, reclosure must be locked-out for ali three-
pole tripping. lf system and stability requirements permit Using a separate and indcpendent breaker mechanism for
both single-polo and thrcc-pole reclosíng, one single-pele each of the thrce pales or pitases irnproves systern reliabil-
rccloser and one thrce-pole recloser should be used , with ity during fault clearing. This generalization assurnes that
differcnt reclosing cycle times. AII schemes should block at lcast onc pole will open in a darnagcd breaker to reduce
subseque nt reclosure upon reclosing into a pcrmanent fault. systcm instability during a fault. Independcnt peles, how-
cver, increase the possibility of unintcntional "pole disagree-
Vll.C. Selective Pole Tripping me nt" if one or more pales are open during non-fault condi-
tions while the others are still closcd.
Selective pole tripping opens the faulted phases Ior all typc
of faults: onc pote for single-phase-to-ground and phase-to- The standard brcaker-failure schemes previously described
phase fault, two potes for double-phasc-to-ground faults, provide protection in most pole disagreements during fault
and ali three potes for three-phasc faults. This systern allows clearing. In addition, the type SLB relay providcs sensitive
interchange of synchronizing powcr for phasc f'aults. as well detection of pote disagrccment during normal operation,
as for ground faults so that the line is only o pe ned when all The SLB relay monitors each phase of the secondary cur-
three phases open on three phase faults. rent, sensing whcther any phase is below a low threshold
value whilc any other is above a high threshold value. The
Severa! selective pote rclaying installations were made in the low and high threshold sett ings are adjustable. It is recom-
l 9SO's, but the system is no longer in general use. Selective mended that the high threshold be set about three times the
pole tripping is complex and, in view of the relatively small low threshold setting. These values are selected to detect
nurnbcr of inter-phase faults, its advantages are not particu- an open phase or pole when the breaker is only charging the
larly significant , The SPCU system can, however, provide line.
selective pole relaying with mínimum additional complexity.
 16-27

An SLB application is shown in Figure 16-28. Usually, the

three breaker pole trip coils are connectcd in series, as -...r--~
10 Level
Detector 1 >-'
'•Ol
...
shown. The three coils can also be connected each with ¡_L·o ANO 01
-1
their 5 2a con ta et in paraUeL This arrangement in creases
the trip current through the relay and is not desirable if
more than one breakcr is involved in the application.
Level (O)

Typical timer settings are 1.0 sec for tripping ancl 2 .O scc
Detector r >----.. . ._...
1L·b
for breaker failure lockout to trip ancl lockout ali adjacent
breakers after a sustained pole disagreement condition.

Ic Level (O)
o
--t-r-.---. Detector r >-....;....---+-
ll:c ANO
b
-3 (0)

+ Pos.llve
Note:
Log,c S1a1esÚO)
ar ( 1 ijShown lar
Normal Load Curren!
!CS
SLB Rekly -2 (Balanced 5 Amperes)
Figure 16-29: Simplified Logic Diagram for The SLB Pole
Timer ICS Disagreement Relay.
T2 1

T,mer fault detectors, The most importan! consideration in a di-

T3 reet transfer-trip systcrn is the type of channel applied. Thc
communications equiprnent must carry the total burden of
system security and dependability.
Breol<er
Foolure
Lockout Direct transl'cr-trip systerns are applied for:

a) Line protection with non-perrnissive underrcaching

tra nsf'er-t rip systerns"

b) Transforrner protection where there is no circuit breaker

Figure 16-28: Typicel Externel Connections of The SLB Pote between the transformer and transmission line
DiHgreement Reley.

Figure 16-29 is a simplificd logic diagram for the SLB rclay.
The phase current for the current transforrners passes
through three low leve! detectors and one high Jevel detec-
tor. When one or two of thc pitase currents are below the
low leve! rhreshold and one or two are above the high leve]
threshold, onc or more of the three ANO logic circuits will
have an output to OR-2. The OR-2 output energizes two
tirners (T2 and T3) that, in turn, operare telephone relays
TR-2 and TR-3 to provide contact outputs.
IX. DIRECT TRANSFER-TRIP SYSTEMS
Direct transfer-trip systems provide circuit-breaker tripping
at remate or receiver terminals, without any supervisión by
e) Shunt-reactor protection
d) Remete brcaker-failure protection
IX.A. Transformer Protection
A typical transformer protection scherne is illustrated in
Figure 1 6-30. A direct trip channel is keyed to the trip
statc when the transformer protective relays opera te. The
received trip signa! will then trip the remate end breaker
and lock out reclosing.
"Non-permissive underreaching transfer-tríp systems are discussed
in Section 111.D, above,
16-28

H
Tronsmiss,on L,ne

Shun1 Reoclion
Protec11on
87, 50/51,63 et.,
\ Cnopter B I
1 \ I
1 T.+ > e <,
/
L - - - O,rect Tronsfer Trip ChOnnel / <,
<,
---~DTI /

+T
/ <,

e
¿_ 81-0.recttonol Direct
lionsler Tr,pChannel
--"'
'
T +
----•¿TT
DTT~+----
_ _l 520
C
Figure 16-30: Oirect Trip for Transformer Protection. ~
520
Altcrnatively, a ground switch operated by the transformer -l l~º
protcctive relays may be used for transformer protection. Figure 16-31: Oirect Transfer Trip for Shunt Reactor Protection.

In this technique, a ground fault is initiated on the trans-

mission line at G, providing adequate fault current for the channel must neither fail to provide a correct trip signa! nor
ground relays at H to trip the breaker al H. This systern is provide a false signal.
slower but is widely used on lower voltage systerns and is
fairly simple and straightforward. 1t does not require any Channels used for direct trip are:
secure communication medium between G and H. For this
typc of application, the ground relays at H can be set to op- a) Direct current signals on a pilot wire or communication
era te for 100 percent of the line and not overreach to bus G. line

While a single switch on one phase is normally applied, a
dou ble switch on t wo pilases may be used to initiate a
double-phase-to-ground fault. In the latter case, both phase
and ground relays can operatc to ensure redundance. Fault
grounding is not applicable to ali systerns, either because of
high short-circuit capacity or psychologically.
IX.B. Shunt Reactor Protection
As discussed in Chapter 8, shunt reactors are frequently used
on HV and EHV lines. These line reactors are connected on
the line side of the circuit breakers {Figure 16-31 ). A rernote
trip channel is thus required for a fault in the shunt reactor.
IX.C. Remole Breaker-Failure Protection
A remote breaker-failure system is necessary where a rnulti-
breaker bus, such as a breaker-and-a-half or ring bus scheme,
is applied ata transmission line terminal. A direct transfer-
trip system will be a part of the remole breaker-failure pro-
tection (see Chapter 18).
IX.D. Direct Trip Channel Considerations
Toe channel and its terminal equipment are rnajor factors in
the proper operation of the direct transfer-trip system. The
b) Audio frequency signa! on a communication line or
mícrowave channel
e) High frequency signals over the power line.
Application of the de system is explained in Chapter 14, in
connection with pilot wire relaying. The other two types
generally ernploy frequency-shift transmitter-receiver ter-
minal equipment. While other types of modulation are pos-
sible, frequency-shift keyed (FSK) equipment offers the
best cornprornise between noise rejection capability and
equipment complexity. Two frequencies are usually trans-
mitted in an FSK system: the "guard" frequency is trans-
mitted during no n-trip conditions, and the "trip" frequency
is transmitted when a breaker trip is required. Since a signa!
is always present, the FSK systern will allow the channel to
be continuously monitored. Continuous channel rnonitoring
is necessary in a direct trip systern, since breaker tripping is
not supervised by any local relays.
As noise in the channel increases, a point is reached where
there is a high probability of false tripping. The leve! of
noise at which the channel becomes unreliable must be de-
termined by tests. Signal-to-noise ratio monitors must then
be included with any direct trip channel, in order to block
possible false tripping. lt is irnportant, however, not to set
 16-29

the noise monitors any more sensitively than required, since IX.E.2. Dual Channel Systerns
their operation will prevent tripping.
A dual channel system is recornmended for direct trip appli-
cations. Two FSK channels should be used in series, so that
IX.E. Application of Frequency Shift (FSK) for both must trip before the breaker is tripped. Many tests have
Direct Trip indicated that dual channels improve the security of the di-
rect trip system by severaJ orders of magnitude. Use of a
There are three important aspects to the application of dual channel system has very little effect on dependability,
FSK channels to direct trip systems: channel bandwidth, even if both channels are on the sarne transmission medium.
dual channel systems, and channel protection.
IX.E.3. Channel Prorectíon

IX.E. l. Channel Bandwidth
Although faults should be cleared in the shortest
time, speed, is not the only criterion for selecting
lt is important to use the narrowest bandwidth equipment
possible. A wide bandwidth channel may give the desired
speed, but more noise enters the system. Thus, the channel
will block tripping sooner than a narrower bandwidth chan-
nel with the same received signal level. A wideband channel
will consequently not be as dependa ble as a narrower chan-
nel under equal receive-level conditions.
The channel must function properly during the time of sys-
tem trouble which is often a severe time for the channel.
possible Careful attention to channel protection is the key to high
equipment. system reliability-both dependability and securit y, Wherc
audio tones are used on a communication line, such as a
leased line f'acility ora long metalJic pair, the channcl must
be properly protected from longitudinal induced voltagcs
and station ground mat rise. Further, the protection equip-
ment used must properly protect the channcl from damage,
yet allow the tones to remain operative for protective relay
purposes.

Chapter 17
Multi-Terminal, Tapped Unes,
and Weak-Feed Protection
Author: \11. L. Hinman
l. lntroduction
11. Multi-Terminal Line Protection
A. Distance Relays and Their Settings
1. The lnfeed Effect
2. The Outfeed Effect
3. Zone l Distance Relay Settings
4. Zone 2 Distance Relay Settings
5. Zone 3 Distance Relay Settings and Remote
Backup
B. Pilot Protection for Multi-Terminal Lines
1. Alternating-Current Pilot Wire Schernes
2. Directional Comparison Systems
a. Directional Comparison Blocking Schemes
b. Transfer-Trip Schemes
i. Permissive and Non-Permissíve Under-
reaching Transfer-Trip
ii. Overreaching Transfer-Trip
c. Directional Comparison Unblocking Schemes
3. Phase Comparison Systerns
fil. Tapped Line Protection
A. Distance Relay Settings
B. Ground Relay Settings
C. Protecting Tapped Transformers
D. Blocking Terminals
IV. Protecting Weak-Feed Terminals
A. AJternating-Current Pilot Wire Schemes
B. Directional and Phase Comparison Blocking Pilot
Systems
C. Permissive Pilot Schemes
1. Unblocking and Permissive Overreach Transfer-
Trip
2. Phase Comparison Schemes
D. Underreaching Pilot Schemes
E. Summary
~ motors.
17-1
l. INTRODUCTION
Multi-terminal and tapped lines, while usually economical in
their breaker requirements, need complex relaying for ade-
quate protection and operation. In fact, these lines are the
most difficult to protect, particularly with weak feed (lim-
ited-fault current) and where high speed reclosing is desired
at one or more terminals, Weak-feed protection may also
be required for two-terminal lines. Although the weak-feed
terminal can maintain the fault are, the current may not be
sufficient to operate conventional protective relays ade-
quately.
This chapter will discuss protection techniques for these re-
lay applications. While the fundamentals apply to proteo-
tion and reclosing of distribution lines and feeders, discus-
sion here is directed primarily to transmission and sub-
transmission circuits.
The following definitions will be used throughout this
chapter:
Multi-Tenninal Lines: Transmission lines with more than
two terminals, each connected to a major power source. A
typical multi-terminal line is shown in Figure 17-1. The
source will provide positive sequence fault power and, usu-
ally , zero sequence as well. A transformer bank may be in-
cluded as part of the transmission fine at one or more of the
terminals.
Tapped Lines: Transrnission lines that are tapped (usually
through a transformer bank) primarily to supply loads. A
typical tapped line is shown in Figure 17-2. The source
may be positive sequence, either local generation oran in-
terconnecting tie with another part of the power system.
There may also be a zero sequence source.
Weak-Feed Terminal: A terminal whose source does not
supply enough current for faults on the line to operate the
line protective relays at that terminal. This situation can
occur for either phase (positive sequence), ground (zero se-
quence), or both. The terminal may only be "weak" during
sorne operating periods, but "strong" or have only load at
other times. A tapped terminal (Figure 17-2) is frequently
a case of weak feed if the tapped load has limited local gen-
eration, synchronous motors, and/or many large induction
 G H section, increasing the apparent impedance "seen" by the
line relays at G. For faults from the junction poinl toward
bus H, the limit of coverage of the relays at G (for Zone 1
set at 90 percent of the 4-ohm distance from C to R) varíes
from 3.6 ohms, if lhe breaker at R is open, to 2.0 ohms, if
R provides an infinitely larger current than the current from
bus G. Hence, the reach of the distance rclay varíes as a
function of fault location and current dislribution.

Figure 17-1: Typical Multi·Terminal Line.

2!l.(Mox.)
5!l.(M,n.) G 3Phose H
in Fou11
G
3íl.(Max.)
4íl.(Mln.)

~R
, .. L ... ,

lood ( ..: Opt,onot Local Generor,on

. . . ... o, tnre,connechon Tie
Figure 17·2: Typical Tapped Line
l!l.(Max.)
l.5!l.(M,n.)

11. MULTI-TERMINAL LINE PROTECTION

Protection schernes for multi-terminal fines almost always
use phase-distance and ground-distance or directional over-
current ground relays and/or pilot relays. In general, pilot
proteclion is necessary for high speed relaying of line faults.
Because of the variety of multi-lerminal line schemes, it is
necessary to study each applicalion individually. Specific
information is needed on each line configuration, the irn-
pedances of the various sections, the details of phase and
ground faults under ali operating conditions, and reclosing.
Note:
Currents ,n Amperes lmpedances in Ohms on a Secondary (Aelny) Base
First Curren, ,s tor Max,mum Generauon Second Curren! ror M,nimum
Generanon
Conditions:
1) System as Shown. ali L,nes and Sources ,n Service,
all Breakers C losed
21 Same 11s 1 but Breaker on Lme GH Open at H
31 L111e AH Open
41 L,nc AH Open. Breaker on L,ne GH Open at H
51 Generator at A Out ol Servrce
61 Same as 5, but Breaker on L,ne GH Open at H
Figure 17·3: Current Distribution for a Three Phase Fault
Occuring on The Branch Toward Station H Under
Operating and Switching Conditions.

11.A. Distance Relays and Their Settings

Distance relays are used either in the primary or backup
protection scherne, or in both. Relay application and set-
ting is affected by tap location and current distribulion for
line faults under all operating conditions. The latter-the
infeed and outfeed effects-will be reviewed before discuss-
ing the distance relay settings.
11.A. I. The Infeed Effect
lnfeed reduces the reach of a distance relay (Figure 17-3).
The source behind bus R contributes to faults on the H line
For example, assume a three-phase faull occurs 1.0 ohm
frorn the tap point toward station H (Figure 17-3). From
the current distribulion for condition 1 (maximum genera-
tion), the voltage drop from bus G to the fault is:
2 x 18.99 + 1 x 44.03 = 82.01 V, secondary
Since the curren! through the relays at G is 18.99 A,
82.01
z apparent (máximum generation) =
18_99
= 4.32 ohms
 G H
Figure 17-1: Typical Mul1i-Termlnal Line.
G H
A~
Lood
Figure 17-2: Typical Tapped Line.
( ,:
.........
Op11ono1 Local Genero1,on
or lnlerconnect,on Tie
11. MULTI-TERMlNAL LINE PROTECTION
Protection schemes for multi-terminal Unes almost always
use phase-distance and ground-distance or directional over-
current ground relays and/or pilot relays. ln general, pílot
protection is necessary [or high speed rclaying of line faults.
Because of the variety of multi-tcrminal line schemes, it is
necessary to study each application individually. Specific
information is needed on each line configuration, the im-
peda nces of the various sections, the details of phase and
ground faulls under ali operating conditions, and reclosing.
JI.A. Distance Relays and Their Settings
Oistance relays are used either in the primary or backup
protection scheme, or in both. Relay application and set-
ting is affected by tap location and current distribution for
line faults under all operating conditions. The latter-the
infeed and outf'eed effects-will be reviewed before discuss-
ing the distance relay settings.
11.A. I. The lnfeed Effect
Infeed reduces the reach of a distance relay (Figure 17-3).
The source behind bus R contributes to faults on the H line
section, increasing the apparent impedance "seen" by the
line relays at G. For faults from the junction point toward
bus H, the limit of coverage of the relays at G (for Zone I
set at 90 percent of the 4-ohm clistance from G to R) vades
from 3.6 ohms, if the breaker at R is open, lo 2.0 ohms, ü
R provides an infinitely Jarger current than the current from
bus G. Menee, the reach of the distance relay varíes as a
function of fault location and current distribution.
2!l.(Mox.)
5ílíMin.) G 3 Phose H
2,(). l.íl. Foull
1.n( Mox.)
l.5!l.(Min.)
Note:
Currenrs in Amperes. tmpedonces on Ohms 011 a Secondary (Relay) Base.
Firsl Curren! is for Ma~omumGeneration, Second Curren! far Mln,mum
Gener anon
Conditions:
1 \ Svstern as Shown, all Unes ;ind Sources ,n Service.
au Breakers Closed
21 S11me 11s 1 bul Breaker on L,ne GH Open llt H
31 t.me RH Open.
41 L,ne RH Open, Bre;iker on L,ne GH Open al H
5) Generator 111 R Out of Service.
6) S11me 11s 5. but Breaker on Line GH Open at H
Figure 17·3: Current Distribution lor a Three Phase Fault
Occuring on The Branch Toward Stalion H Under
Operating and Switching Conditions.
For e xample, assume a three-phase faull occurs 1.0 ohm
from the tap point toward station 11 (Figure 17-3). From
the current distribution for condition 1 (maximum genera-
tion), the voltage drop from bus G to the f'ault is:
2 x 18.99 + 1 x 44.03 = 82.01 V, secondary
Since the current through the relays al Gis 18.99 A,
82.01
z apparent (maximum generation) = 18.99
= 4.32 ohms
 17-3

2 12.02 + J 35.83 rent flows out of R and over line RH to lhe inlerna1 fault
z apparent (minimum generation) =
X

12_02
X

on line GH, reducing the apparent impedance.

= 4.98 ohms (10-18) 2fi(Mox.)

H
Sfi(Mm.) G 3Phose
2n 8fi Riull
Table 17-1 lists the apparent impedances "seen" by distance
3!l(Max.)
relays at busses G and R for the six different operating con- 1) 6.52- 4.94 - l) 11.74-10.68 4íl.(M,n.)
2) 5.23- 3.79 - 2) 12.38-11.69
ditions of Figure 17-3. 3) 5.29- 3.87 3) 12.35-11.61

d_l-
4) 5.29- 3.87 4) 12.35-11.61
5) 13.63-10.04 5) 8.18- 6.02
6) 8.49- 6.48 6) 10.75- 9.32
The actual irnpedance to this fault from the relays at either
bus G or bus R is 3.0 ohms. The relays at G would "see"
1> 5.22-
2) 7.15-
5.74
7.90
f an -----"1o"'n"'----~
3) 7.06- 7.74 - 1) 10.4"- 9 68
this impedance if the breaker at R were open, or if there 4) 7.06- 7.74 .., · 1)40.00-30.00
•5} 5.45- 4.02~._..._-.R -~)) .501~ .76 2) .51- .76
were no source of fault power al station R. Although this .., O 3)40.00-30.00
6) 2.26- 2.84 t 4) O- O 4) O- O
fault is within the 3.6-ohm Z 1 setting, the Zone I relays at 5) 5.45- 4.02 5)40.00-30.00
f
-+
1l 15.65- 15.42 +- 6) 2.26- 2.84 6) 2.26- 2.84
G will not operate with the source and breaker at R closed 2) 6.64 - 7. 14
31 7.06- 7.74
for the 1, 2, 3, and 4 operating conditions. The reason is 4) 7.06- 7. 74 lfi(Max.)
5} O- O 1.5fi(Min.)
that the apparent impedance "seen" by the relays is greater 6} O- O
( •)-Curren!lntoBus
than the 3.6-ohm setting (Table 17-l). Sirnilarly, the Z¡ re-
lays at R will not operate for this fault, except for condi- Note:
Currems ,n Amperes. lmpedances in Ohms on a Secondarv (Relay) Base
tions l, 2, 3 and 4 minimurn. First Current is for Maximum Generation. Second Curren! for M,n,mum
Generation.

Conditions:
Table 17-1 1) Svstern as Shown, ali Lmesand Sources,n Services.
Apparent lrnpedances "Seen" by Distance Relays ali Breakers Ctosed
at Busses G and R in Figure 17-3 2) Same as 1 but Breaker on Une GH Open a1 H. With Line End Fault.
3) Line RH Open.
(Z Actual for Relays at G and R is 3.0 ohms.) 4) t.me RH Open. Breaker on Une GH Open at H, With Line End Fault.
51 Generator at R Out of Service.
61 Same as 5. bu1 Breaker on L,ne GH Open a, H. W,th Line End Faull
Operating Z Apparent for Z Apparent for
Condition Relays at G (Ohms)* Relays at R (Ohms)* Figure 17-4: Current Distribution for a Three Phase Fault
Occuring on Bus H Under Various Operating and
Switching Conditions.
I max 4.32 3.76
I min 4.98 3.50 As shown in Table 17-11, condition 5, lhe appare nt imped-
2 max 4.40 3.73 anee for the bus H fault is only 6.8 ohms, while the actual
2 min 5.09 3.48 irnpedance is 10 ohms. Zone I at Gis not affected by t he
3 or 4 max 4.33 3. 75 outfeed and the reduced apparent impedance. since the 2-
3 or 4 min 5.00 3.50 ohm tap to R is less than the 8-ohm branch to 1-1. However,
5 max 3.17 8.76 assuming there is no source at R and line Rl-1 is in service,
5 min 3.32 6.64 Zone I at G would have to be set for the apparent imped-
6 max 3.27 6.75 ance to H if the irnpedance from lhe tap point to R were
6 min 3.44 5.29 greater than that to H. That is, the setting would be lower
than the actual ohms.
*Zone I set 3.6 ohms
Curren! from the breaker at R indicates an apparenl exter-
11.A.2. The Outfeed Effect na! fault for an actual interna! faull near H. Thus. direc-
tional distance relays and pilot relaying systerns at R will
When a tap has no source except a tie to a re mote bus, cur- not respond until the breaker at H opens to reverse the cur-
rent can flow out of this tap terminal for an internal fault rent (Figure 17--4, condition 6). The HCB pilo! wire system
near the remate terminal (Figure 17--4, condition 5). While can operate under such conditions, but only if the curren!
the fault is shown on bus H, it could be near or at breaker H flowing from one terminal is small relative to the fault cur-
on line GH. With no source at R other than line RH, cur- ren! flowing into the Jine from the other two termina Is.
 l 7-4

Table 17-11 A similar situation applies to the Zone I relay al station R.

Apparent lmpedances "Seen" by Distance Relays
at Busses G and R in Figure 17-4 At station H, the tap provides no limitations (Figure 17-5).
(Z Actual for Busses G or H to Fault is JO.O ohms.) Zone I can be set for 90 percent of the line either to J-1 or
to G, or for 9 ohms. Restrictions would apply if the sec-
Operating tions from the tap point to R orto G wer e unequal, which
Z Apparent for Z Apparent for
Condition Relays at G (Ohms) Relays at R (Ohms) is usually the case. With high current infeed from either G
or R, the H relay would always "see" at least 8 ohms. In
1 max 16.40 19.99 other words. the Z I coverage from H is limited less severely
1 min 19.30 16.89 than in the case above.
2 max 20.94 15.85
2 min 26.68 13.84 Although the infeed effect reduces the reach, Zone I rnust
3 or 4 max 20.68 15.99 not be set on the basis of the higher apparent ohrns listed in
3 or 4 min 26.00 14.00 Table 17-II. If this setting were made, Zone I would over-
5 max 6.80 00 reach and operate for externa! faults beyond the remole bus
5 min 6.80 00 if the tap breaker were open or the source were off.
6 max 12.13 40.05
6 min 13.51 28.25 When the line sectioo to one of t he busses termina tes in a
transformer bank (Figure 17-6, station R), the Zone I reach
from bus Gis the sarne as for a two-terminal Une Gl-1. In
Il.A.3. Zone I Distance Relay Settings theory, the infeed effect of station R on the relays at G
could reduce the coverage frorn the maximum of 9 ohms to
The location of the tap and the impedances, together with an extreme limit of 2 ohms. In practice, the reduct ion is
infeed or outfeed effects, can severely limit the coverage of much smaller, since the high impedance of t he transformer
Zone I distance relays at one or more terminals. The effect bank tends to limit the current supplied from station R.
of tap location is shown in Figure 17-5. lf terminal R did
not exist, the Zone I distance relay at G could be set for 85 (9.0!l)
to 90 percent of the 10-ohm Jine to H (9.0 ohms using 90
I·
21-1 (lf TwoTerm,nol)
.. 1

1
percent). Given terminal R and a 9-ohrn setting, however,
lhe G distance relay would operate for faults externa! to the
r
21-1 (lf Toree Terminal)
.,''
,
1
line at station R, which is actually only 4 ohrns away. Thus, 1

the tap location and impedance to station R require the G 2!1 8!1 H

r-ci
1

reach at G to be reduced to 85 to 90 percent of 4 ohms, or

3.6 ohms for the 90-percent setting. This reach offers very IJ2n
o-f
1:·
little Zone 1 protection for the line section from the tap
poinl to bus H.

(9.0!1)
21-1 (11 TwoTerm,nol)
'
•I Figure 17-6: Zone 1 Oistance Refay Cover aqe at Terminal G íor a
Mullí- Terminal Line With a Transformer Bank in The
(3.6!1)
21 • 1 ( lf Three Term,nol) 1
Lineal Station R.

Figure 17-5: Zone 1 Distance Relay Covera9e at Terminal G for a
Multi-Terminal Line.
The faull shown in Figure 17-3 is within lhe operat ing zone
of the Zone I relays at H; t herefore , 11 will he cleared at
high speed. Conditions 2, 4. ami 6 show lhe redistribution
of fault currents with hreaker 11 open. The redist ribu t ion
does not change the apparent impedances at G or R. such
so their Zone I relays would "see" the fault. Thus, in this
example, high speed sequential tripping does not occur, al-
though in ot her cases it rnight. For this reason , rnult i-terrni-
nal lines require pilot relaying for high speed fault clearance,

Zone l at any terminal, then, must always be set on the
basis of the smallest value of either the actual or apparent
ohms to any remote terminal. Thus, Zone 1 at G and R
would be set on the basis of 4 ohms-the mínimum actual
ohms from G to R or from R to G (Figure 17-4 and Table
17-JI). This procedure will avoid overreach of Zone I at G
or R when the breaker at H is open. With infeed from one
remote terminal, the reach of the relay on the other line sec-
tion will be less than that determined by the setting, That
is, the relays will "underreach" according to the "infeed,"
but never to the junction point, or less. This reduced effec-
tiveness of Zone I severely restricts the applicability of non-
pilot and underreach transfer-trip pilot schemes.
11.A.4. Zone 2 Distance Relay Settings
For the second zone to protect all line sections, it must he
set above the maximum apparent or actual ohms to any re-
mote terminal. For example, in Figure 17-4, Zone 2 at G
must be set for more than 26.68 ohms (Table 17-11). The
maximum actual impedance is only 10 ohms. For the out-
feed effect of condition 5, however, a fault at the remote H
terminal appears to the G relay to be only 6.8 ohrns distant.
Thus, the setting required is approximately four times the
mínimum impedance condition. Sirnilarly , Zone 2 at R
must be sel for more lhan 40.05 ohms; that is, more than
four times the actual impedance of 10 ohms (Table 17-11).
To set z2 at H, an additional fault study must be made un-
der ali operating conditions to determine the máximum ap-
parent impedance that may occur for a faull on either bus
G or bus R. To avoid operation on heavy load or system
z
swings, long 2 settings may require such restrictions as off-
set circles or blinders. (See Chapter 19 .)
A nominal overreach under the maximum apparenl ohm
condition may resull in excessive Zone 2 overreach under
other operating conditions. Coordination with relays pro-
tecting the lines from the remote busses may thus require
long time settings or compromises. Por sorne applications
requiring nominal operating times for faults near the remote
terminal, it may be necessary to tolerate miscoordination
and possible incorrect operation for remole faults occurring
under conditions that permit a large z2 overreach.
Il.A.5. Zone 3 Distance Relay Settings and
Remote Backup
The conditions that result in very long Zone 2 settings also
apply to Zone 3. Setting Zone 3 to protect ali the adjacent
l 7-5
line sections may not be possible or may cause excessive
overreach under sorne operating conditions. Thus, in many
applications, remote backup is either impossible or imprac-
tical. Additional infeeds at the remote busses further com-
plicate setting z3 to cover ali of an adjacent line and may
aJso help to 1imit overreach.
Il.B. Pilot Protection for Multi-Terminal Lines
Multi-terminal lines require pilot protection for high speed
protection in ali but a few cases. The choice of a pilot sys-
tem is determined by two basic considerations: protection
features and pilot channel availability.
Where a pilot wire channel is available, ac pilot wire relay-
ing (HCB, HCB-1) is preferred for short lines. In other
cases, either a pilot blocking system ora transfer-trip pilot
system may be used, although a blocking system is generally
preferred. Blocking pilot systerns are either directional
comparison or phase comparison; transfer-trip pilot systerns
are direct underreachíng, perrnissive underreaching, or over-
reaching. The fea tu res of the blocking and transfer-trip sys-
tems can be combined in a directional comparison unblock
system.
11.8. l. Alternating-Current PiJot Wire Schemes
As described in Chapter 14, the ac pilot wire scherne is a
current-differential system that is applicable to thrce-termi-
nal lines. Because it operates on the total fault current, the
systern is relatively independenl of the distribution of the
current arnong the three terminals. Figure 17-7 illustrates
the HCB, HCB-1 relay application for a typical case with
zero infeed al two terminals. This scheme wiJI provide si-
multancous high speed tripping of ali terminals for pitase
and ground interna! faults, with small or even zero infeed
from one or two of the terminals, provided there is a rela-
tively high infeed from the rernaining terminal or terrninals.
For the ac pilot wire schernes, the pilot channet must be a
continuous metal1ic pair with resistance and capacitance
values as indicated in Figure 17-8. (See also Chapter 14,
Table 14-IV .) The series resistance of each leg must be bal-
anced, which involves adding resistance to the shorter legs.
These requirements limit the ac pilot wire scheme to fairly
short lines, usually less than I O to 15 miles. Also, applica-
tion to more than three terminals is not recommended.
Since it is preferable to set the relays above maximum load,
the ratio of the minimum interna! fault current to maxi-
17-ó

Terminal G Terminal H fault has occurred within their zone. The distance relays
(Strong Source) (Zero Source)
must be set to overreach both remote terminals. The nor-
mal relay setting and application criteria for the HCB,
HCB-1 relays are covered in Chapter 14.

II.8.2. Directional Comparison Systems (See Chapter 16)

11.8.2.a. Directional Comparison Blocking Schemes

Directional comparison blocking schemes are the most

widely used pilot systems for protecting rnulti-terrninal
Terminal R lines, especially where more lhan Lhree termina Is or laps are
[Zero Source) involved. An on-off power Une carrier channel is used with
a common frequency. roran external fault, ali of the ter-
minals except the one nearest to the fault will usually indi-
Condition: ca te tripping but will be blocked by tite lransmission of the
Interna! Fault W1th Total Fault Current 3 per Un,t,
Woth Current Source from Terminal G Only.
carrier from the terminal nearest the fault.

Figure 17-7: A Three Terminal HCB, HCB-1 Relay Appfication to

Provide Simultaneous Tripping of ali Three Terminals Since, however, outflow conditions could result in transmis-
With a Source at Only One Terminal.
sion of two blocking signa Is, the common frequency is off·
set by approximately 100 Hz at (n-1) of the terminals to

l
Series Res,stonce W,th 4/1 tnsulot,ng Tronsfo,mers ( 500 Ohrns per Leq) avoid possible cancellation of a received signaí. On a three-
Series Res,stonce W,th 6/1 lnsuloting TronsfO(me,s ( 1000 Ohrns pe, Leq)
Bolonc,ng Resosto,s Moy be ReQuired ,n 1 or 2 Leqs Connected on The ReklySode terminal line, for exarnple, one transmilter is tuned Lo fe,
Terminal H another to fe plus 100 Hz, and the third to fe minus 100
Terminal G
lnsuloting lnsulolonq Hz. Ali receivers are tuned to the channel center frequency

!i~~:b1 ~--··----------..11d~::l
L---~
Transforme, Tronslorme,

L---J
fe.

Directional-distance relays are used for phase Iaults. For

ground faults, directional overcurrent relays are normally

o
used, but distance types may also he applied. The funda-
tnsulOhng mental criteria for relay application are:
Total Oistributed
Transforme,
Shunt Ccpocuonce
L1m11: 1.8¡.,.f W1th 4/1 a. The trip units must overreach ali remote terminals.
Terminal R
!
r- - ,
lnsulatong Transforme,
: HCB·I
0.75¡.,.f With 6/1
lnsulot ,ng Transforme,
I Relay I
L---J b. The start units must coordinale with the trip units. Start
Figure 17-8: Three Terminal Pilot Wire Requirements for The HCB. units may be non-directional or directional. lf direc-
HCB-1 Relay. (See also Chapter 14-VI A Table 14-IV)
tional, they are set looking out or away from the pro-
tected line section.
mum load must be 150 percent greater for three-terminal
than for two-terrninal applícation. This criterion may not c. The start units must be set further (or more sensitively)
be a limitation since, for a multi-terminal Line, the third ter- than ali the remole terminal trip units.
minal may supply the additional fault current. Where the
minimum interna! fault current is not sufficiently greater The trip units are set as described above for Zone 2 distance
than maximurn load, distance relays can be used lo super- relay settings. Very long carrier start settings may be re-
vise the pilot wire relays. The pilot wire relays, which are quired to compensate for high infeed and for the possibility
set below load on the basis of the mínimum fault current, of considerable overreach during sorne operating conditions.
will block correctly under ali loads and for externa! faull lt is irnportant to realize that the apparent impedance
conditions, except in the event of an open pilot wire. In "seen" by the remote trip relays can vary significantly from
such a case, the distance relays will prevent tripping unless a the apparent impedance "seen" by the start relays. The trip
 J ,- ,

relays are affected by the infeed within lhe Line section, as
well as by lhe infeed at the remote bus, while lhe start re-
lays are affected only by the remole-bus infeed. With multi-
terminal lines, then, the start units' settings must be coordi-
nated with ali remole trip units.
Overcurrent settings for ground relays pose fewer problems.
Because of infeed eff'ects, however, lhe setting magnitudes
can be quite low. In all cases, the 310 start unit pickup
must he sel at least 25 to 50 percenl lower (t hat is, more
sensitively) than any 310 trip unit pickup.
The directional comparison block ing system allows tripping
al lhe other termina Is if one or more of lhe carrier I rip re-
lays do not respond to a particular interna! fault. With lhe
opening of the breakers al Lhe terminals responding to the
interna! fault, a redistribution of faull current may provide
high speed sequential tripping.
On the other hand , transfer-trip schemes do not require car-
rier start units and thus etiminate the need for coordinating
trip and start units under the various infeed ancl outf'eed op-
erating conditions.
ll.8.2.b.i. Permissive and Non-Permissive Underreaching
Transfer-Trip
Trip fault detectors at ali terminals must overlap each other,
at least in pairs, but must not overreach any remote terrni-
nal. That is, ali of the protected line must be covered by
one or more trip fault detectors. Zone I distance setting
will provide this requirement on multi-terminal lines. Since
setting ground overcurrent relays to meet these require-
ments may be difficull or impossible, distance ground relays
are preferred. A simplified setting diagram and de sche-
matic are shown in Figure 17-9.

----------- Tr,p Foult OelectO< OI G

Fault current outfeed from one terminal for an interna)
G H
fault will result in a blocking signal, preventing the other
termina Is from tripping. Because t hese faults are near one
-------+
terminal, a supplement Zone 1 or instantaneous trip unit ------- '1 Ttonsfer Tr,p
can, in general, be applicd al the breaker nearesl lhe fault lo 1 Chonnel 10 H (f 1 )
Tronsfe, Tr,p i
provide high speed lripping. The subsequent redistribution Chonnet to R (f t) R
of fault current will perrnit high speed sequential operation
of lhe directional cornparison block ing systcm.
1 TripFoull
Detector ot G 1 Rece,ver
Reloy lJr
Olonnet from
1 Rece,ver
Reloy ro,
Chonnel from
(Zone 1) Reloysol R
In short , directional comparison blocking is lhe rnost flex- Reloys 01 H

ible, most easily applied protection for multi-terminal lines.

1t can usually be expanded from a two-terminal application Kev Tronsfer
Trop Tronsm,tter
to cover addilional lerminals, with minimum effecl on lhe 01 GtoH And R
existing tcrrninals. Similar equipment can be added al new
terminals, and e xisting terminals usually require only reset-
Tr,p Breoker G
ting. The systern requires simply a single-frequency on-off
Note:
channel, with a slight shift in tuning. Trop Fault Derectors Requored for Both Phase
and Ground F aults

11.8.2.b. Transfer-Trip Schemes

Transfer-trip systems, which require a channel signa) lo trip,
are recommended for use with microwave or audio tone
channels over telephone-type circuils. These channels are
separated from the protected line to eliminare the need for
sending a tripping signa! through a fault. For multi-terrninal
lines, a separate channel is required from each terminal to
every other terminal. In other words, three channels are re-
quired for a three-terminal line. This multiple-channel re-
quirement tends to lirnit the application of transfer-trip sys-
tems on multi-terrninal lines.
Figure 17-9: Simplified Set1ing Requirements and Basic Oc
Schematic of a Non·permissive Underreaching Line
Transfer Trip Protection System for Station G of a
Three Terminal Line. Similar Equipment is Required
at H and R. The Trip Fault Detector at G. H and R
Must Overlap at Least in Pairs and not Ovarraach
any Remote Bus.
Non-permissive (direct) underreaching systems, while sim-
ple, are relatively insecure. Since tripping can occur for
spurious or inadvertent channel signals, overreaching fault
detectors are usually applied for a permissive system. These
detectors must be set to overreach ali remole terminals, as
discussed above for Zone 2 settings.
17·8

As shown in Figure 17-10, in this permissive system

tripping they must be set for more than the rnaxirnurn apparenl im-
requires the receipt of a channel signa! from any of the re- pedance for Zone 2, or for less than the minimum ground
mote terminals and the operation of the overreaching or current for any interna) fault. Such a system is always per-
permissive fault detector. missive, since the trip detector is also used as a perrnissive
fault detector. The settings and simplified de schematic for
Perm,ssive Foul1 Detector G (Zone2l
the system are shown in Figure 17-11.

Trip Fou\1 Detector G (Zone1) Perm,ssweTnpFo1.1lt Detector ot G ( Zone 2 l

G H G H

---- ... ______ ...

-------- \, Tronsfer Tr,p \ Tronsfer Trip
Chonnel to H ( f1) 1 Chonnel to H (f 1 \
'1 1
1
1
1 1

•
1 1

---+--
Ironsíer Tnp •
Cnonne' to Tronsfer Trip
R(f1) R
Chonnel 10 R
R(f1)

.l Tr,pFoult 1 PermiSSM: 1 Perm,ssive Trip Foult

rl I
Detector 01 Foúlt Oetec1or
DetectorotG (Zone2\
G (Zonell at G (Zone2l

Receiver Reioy Recen,er Reloys

Key T,onsfe, Rece,ver Reloy lor
KeyTronsfer for Chonnel from fOt Chonnel fmm
Trip Tronsrnnters Reloyso1 H Re!oys ot R Tr,p Tronsm,ners Chonnet from Reloys or H
01 GtoH ondR olG toH ondR

T Rece,ver Reloy ro, Chonnel

fromReioys et R

Tr,p BreokerG Tr,pBreoker

Note:
Trip and Permrssive Faul1 Oetecrors Requ,red for Both Phase and
Ground Faults
Figure 17-1 O: Simplified Setting Requirements and Basic De
Schematic of a Permissive Underreaching Line
Transfer Trip Protection System for Station G of a
Three Terminal Line. Similar Equipment is Required
at H and R. The Trip Fault Detector at G. H and R
must Overtap at Least in Pairs and Not Overreach
any Remate Bus. The Permissive Fault Detectors
must Overreach ali Remete Busses.
For the outfeed condition on an interna) fault, the terminal
nearest the fault should detecl the fault, trip its own
breaker, and send a trip signa! to the other or remote terrni-
nals. In the permissive scheme, directional overreaching re·
lays at the outfeed terminal would delay tripping until the
other breakers open to reverse the flow of fault curren t.
Permissive systems require no additional equipment for pro·
tection under outfeed conditions.
G
Note:
Permissive-Trip Fault Detectors Required for Both Phase and
Ground Faults.
Figure 17-11: Simplified Setting Requirements and Basic De
Schematic of an Overreaching Line Transfer Trip
Protection Svstem for Station G of a Three Terminal
Line. Similar Equipment is Required at H and R. The
Permissive-Trip Fault Detector at G, H and R Must
Overreach ali Remate Busses.
Since each terminal must detecl the interna( fault before
tripping is allowed at any terminal, sequential tripping is not
possible with overreaching transfer-trip. Additional Zone I
and instantaneous trip units, however, are usually applied to
trip the terminal nearest the breaker. For the outfeed con-
dition, this arrangement will reverse the fault current, per-
mitting high speed sequential tripping of lhe other terrni-
nals. A trip signal must also be transmitted continuously
when one of the terminals is not in service.

n.B.2.b.ii. Overreaching Transfer-Trip D.B.2.c. Directional Comparison Unblocking Schemes

In overreaching transfer-trip systems, the trip fault detector Directional comparison unblocking schemes combine fea·
at each terminal must operate for aU interna) faults. That is, tures of the blocking and transfer-trip systems. Essentially,
 17-9

the scheme consists of a blocking system that transmits the versal then perrnits high speed sequential tripping of aU
blocking signal continuously. Carrier start units are thus other terminals.
not required. Continuous channel monitoring is also pro-
vided with the continuous transmission of a blocking signal, When any terminal is removed from service, hlocking must
be removed from that terminal. (See Chapter 16.)
Overreaching phase- and ground-fault detectors are applied
and set as for directional comparison blocking or overreach- 11.B.3. Phase Comparison Systems (See Chapter 16)
ing transfer-trip systems. For an interna) fault, the direc-
tional fault detectors at each terminal must remove block- Phase cornparison systems are not usually applied to multi-
ing. The absence of blocking from all terminals may cause terminal lines. With tbese systems, it is often difficult to
simultaneous tripping of all terminals (Figure 17-12). obtain the proper pickup ratio and still keep the units set
above maximum load and below mínimum fault curren! al
Tnp Foulf Detecto, otG{Zooe2) ali terrninals. For the single-comparer scheme used with an
on-off carrier channel, the ratio should be 2.5: 1 between
G H
the pickup of the low set (carrier start) unit and the high set
( carrier trip} unit.
-----~
--------,, Continuous Block,ng
1 Ch<Jnnet to H (f 1 l
1 lf a lower rnargin, or the two-terrninal line margin ratio of
1
1
1
1.25: 1 were used, the trip unit at H (Figure l 7- l 3a) could
~ pick up under externa! fault conditions without operating
ChonneltoR(f 1) ----R
ConttnuovsBlock,ng
the start unit at either G or R. The system would thus pcr-
mit incorrect tripping of the H relay for the externa! fault
shown. Under outfeed conditions (Figure l 7-l 3b), a false
trip could occur at G with a pickup ratio of less than 2: 1
between the carrier trip and start units.
TripFoult
Detect0<s 01 G
(Zone 21

-
Block F,equency from H G H
Block Frequency fromR
Sh,ft •o Unbtock Stale
Tronsm,tters ot
G to H ond R
LO

ti.o
-
2.0
Externo!
Fou11

a) lnfeed Case R
Note:

-
Trip Fault Detectors Required for Both Phase and Ground Faults G H
Figure 17-12: Simplified Setting Requirements and Basic De
Schematic of an Unblock Directional Comparison Externa,
Protection System for Station G of a Three Terminal 2.0 fi:)ult
line. Similar Equipment is Required at H and R. The
Trip Fault Detector at G. H and A Must Overreach J.to
all Remote Busses.
b) Outfeed Case

For a three-terminal line, three frequencies are required; Figure 17-13: Distribution of Fault Currents Establishing The
power line carrier channels with narrow-band frequency Setting Criteria for Phase Comparison Pilot Relaying.

shift can be used, Frequency shift sets require minimum

spectrum and provide high signal-to-noise ratios. (See Chap-
ter 15.)
For the outfeed condition, additional Zone I distance and
instantaneous trip relays are required to trip the terminal
nearest the interna! fault. The subsequent fault current re-
lf these pickup ratio criteria can be met, the single-cornparer
phase comparison system can be applied with an on-off
power line carrier channel. A cornmon channel can be
used, with each transmitter operating at a slightly different
frequency, to avoid possible cancellation of a received sig-
nal. lf one transmitter for a three-terminal Jine is tuned to
17-10
fe, the other two should be tuned to approxirnately fe plus
100 Hz and fe minus 100 Hz. Ali three receivers operate
at fe.
A dual-comparer system has better sensitivity and is less dif-
ficult to set for maximum load and minimum faults. This
systern uses either a frequency-shift power line carrier or
audio tones overa telephone-type line or microwave. The
frequency shift channel is continuously operated and
square-wave keyed by load current, at approximately 1.0 A.
For this reason, the low-Jevel start fault detector is not re-
quired. An arming fault detector, set above maximum load
and below the minimum interna! phase-fault current, re-
stricts operation to fault conditions and avoids incorrect op-
eration in case of channel problems.
A separate channel is required from each terminal to ali
other terminals for the dual-cornparer system. Thus, for a
three-terminal line, one transmitter and two receivers are re-
quired at each terminal.
Fault current outfeed for an interna] fault will block ali ter-
minals in both types of phase comparison systems. Addi-
tional Zone I distance relays or instantaneous trip units are
usually applied. These units provide instantaneous tripping
of the breaker nearest the fault. Subsequent reversa) of
fault current will permit high speed sequential tripping of
ali the remaining terminals.
lll. T APPED UNE PROTECTION
Taps offer an economical way of using a transmission or
subtransmission line for distribution. The transformer bank
is often connected directly to the line, without a high-side
breaker (Figure 17-2). The bank may be a two- or three-
winding type-or an auto transformer. To design a protec-
tion scherne for such a system, the connections, grounding,
and bank impedance must be known.
This section will cover taps which supply load only. Taps
with local generation, heavy motor loads, or interconnect-
ing ties that supply low energy (sufficient to maintain a
fault on the protected line) will be discussed under weak-
feed terminals below.
With a transformer as part of the line, the relays at G and H
in Figure 17-14 must operate for ali faults on the line sec-
tions and in the tap transformer (that is, within Zc, ZH,
ZR, and ZT). In addition, they must coordina te with the
relays protecting bus R and its load feeder circuits, as weU
as with the relays beyond either bus G or H. When bus R is
energized, there can be a magnetiz.ing inrush al G or H to
the banks tapped on the line. This inrush is not expected to
operate relays at G or 1( unless there are severa! transformer
banks and/or very Jarge capacity bank(s) together with rela-
tively short line sections.
Lood Feeder Circu, ts
(No Foult Source)
Figure 17-14: A Tap in a Line GH to Serve Bus R.
Distance relays with long settings are more suhject to opera-
tion on inrush than those with shorter settings. Where a
problem exists, the HRU three-phase, instantaneous over-
current relay , which provides second-harmonic restrainl,
can be used to supervise the line relays. This relay responds
to the high second-harrnonic component presenl in the
transformer inrush current and block s tripping.
DI.A. Distance Relay Settings
Zone I relays at G are set for 80 to 90 percent of the im-
pedance (ZG + ZH) or (Zc; + ZR + ZT), whichever is
smaller (Figure 17-14). Since there is no source behind bus
R, there is no apparent impedance problem. Good coverage
of the line sections is obtained when (Z R + ZT) is approxi-
mately egua! to or greater than either Zll or Zc;.
If a line-side breaker is used at the transformer, then Zone I
at G must be set for 80 to 90 percent of the smaller imped-
ance-either (ZG + z8) or (ZG + ZR). Sirnilarly, Zone I al
H must be set for the smaller of the impedances (ZI-1 + ZG)
or (ZH + ZR). With ZR frequently zero (a transformer
bank at the tap point), the reach of Zone I may he limited-
either at G when Zc is small cornpared to ZH, oral H when
ZH is small compared to Zc;· Altematively, t he Zone I re-
lays can be set as if the line-side breaker did not e xist , on
the assumption that very few transformer faults will occur,

The Zone 2 distance relay at G must be set above the maxi-
mum of either (ZG + ZH) or (Zc + ZR), whichever is
greater, and perhaps for more than (ZG + ZR + ZT). Like-
wise, the Zone 2 distance relays at H must be set higher
z
than the maximum of (ZH + 0) or (Z11 + ZR), and per-
haps more than (ZH + ZR + ZT). The setting al G, relative
to lhe impedance (Zc + Zu), is a function of the relaying
on t he Jines to the right of H; at H, relative to (Z11 + Zc),
the setting is a function of relaying on lines to the left of G.
Zone 2 relays must be coordinated for time and distance
with the protection on the lines from the remote bus. (See
Chapter I O.) As a result, relay reach through the trans-
Iormer ZT may be limiled, eLiminating potential coordina-
lion problems with lines from bus R. lf the Zonc 2 relays
reach through Zp lhey must be coordinated with the relays
on the circuits from bus R.
Similar coordination is necessary for Zone 3 relays at G and
H, which are sel as for Zone 2 but for a greater distance.
The reach of single-phase phase distance relays al G or H for
ground Iaults at ornear bus R should also be considered.
Such ground faults appear as phase faulls on the line side.
This phenomenon, however, is nota problem with the
K-DA R-type relays, which have a fixed reach through ali
lypes of lransformer connections and will not respond lo
remote ground faults.
For múltiple taps on a Jine seclion, the same logic appLies:
the Zone 1 al each terminal must not overreach the remole
source terminal or reach through any transformer tap. Zone
2 and Zone 3 must overreach the remole source terminal
and into the adjacenl lines and must always be set into each
tap transformer. Obtaining lhis coverage may require reach-
ing lhrough one or more of the lap transformers and, there-
fore, coordinating with relays protecting the circuits on the
other side.
Ill.B. Ground Relay Settings
The fundamentals of distance relay setlings apply to both
phase and ground relays. Setting directional overcurrenl re-
lays requires coordinalion, as described below.
lf the tapped lransformer bank or banks are ali connecled
wye-delta or delta-wye, the ground relays will not opérate
for ground faults on the opposite side of the bank. The re-
lays do not , then, require coordination with relays on bus
l 7-11
R. lf the line side is wye-grounded, zcro sequence current
will be supplied to the Line Iaults, producing apparenl im-
pedance or reduced current. This situation is shown in Fig-
ure 17-14, assuming a ground faull on the line near bus H.
The infeed from ZT will shorten the reach of a distance
ground relay al G. Alternatively, the zero sequence current
lhrough a directional overcurrent relay at G may be reduced
because of the current supplied via z,.. Fault studies are
necessary to study this effecl. lf the bank has no high-side
breakers, fuses, or automatic disconnects (if, in other words,
lhe bank is permanently connected to the line), this effect
may help instantaneous trip or Zone 1 relays lo provide
more Jine coverage, They can be sel into but not through
the bank.
Where zero sequence currents can pass through the bank-
such as wit h an aulotransformer ora wye-grounded, delta-
wye-grounded transformer lhe relays at G and H will "see"
ground faults at R. They must then be coordinated wilh
the bus and circuits from R. Also, if there are other ground
sources at R or beyond, an apparent or reduced curren! ef-
fect can occur.
111.C. Protecting Tapped Transformers
Distance or overcurrent relays al a remole localion, set into
or through a transformer, provide Limited protection for
tapped transformers. The best protection for lhe trans-
former is, however, a Iocal-differential scheme with sudden
pressure relays. (See Chapter 8.) Such a scheme requires
high-side currenl lransformers usually available for ali but
very small units, Alternatively, a sudden-pressure relay can
be used with the dístance-overcurrent protection at lhe re-
mole terminals set into or through the bank.
With local-differential or sudden-pressure protection, the re-
lays must trip the remole breakers, which will operate for
light faulls not detected by the remole relays. A direct
transfer-trip channel to each source terminal ora line
grounding switch are often used for lhis purpose. A line
grounding switch initiates a solid fault on the line that can
be detected by the remole terrninals. Transfer-trip systems
for tapped transforrners are discussed in Chapter 16.
111.D. Blocking Terrninals
The above discussion of tapped Line protection is based on
non-pilot protection. Tapped lines, however, are more
likely to be protected by pilot relays. In many cases, the
 17-12
pitase and ground relays at G or H (Figure 17-14) can be set
to overreach the remole source terminal but not the tap ter-
minals, such as bus R. In these systems, conventional Jine
pilot protection can be used without any protective equip-
ment at the tap. If, however, the terminal relays reach
through the tap transformer to overreach the other source
termina Is, a blocking terminal is required at the tap termi-
nal. The block ing terminal is designed onJy to prevent the
pilot relays at the source terminals from tripping for faults
at or beyond the tap bus (such as R in Figure l 7-14 ). The
blocking terminal does not provide tripping, since the tap
terminal (load onJy) does not have to be open for the line
fault to clear, A blocking terminal is usuaJly required where
there is a line-side breaker at the tap.
Figure 17-15 illustrates the fundamental application of
block ing terminals. Relays at the tap should coordinate
with the tripping relays at G or H. For phase cornparison,
overcurrent relays (50) are used. A distance relay is pre-
ferred for distance units, although an overcurrent relay can
be used if it will operate for ali types and levels of faults on
bus R or on the circuits connected to bus R. lf zero se-
quence cannot flow through the bank, only phase relays are
required.
G H
Tronsmitter
Receiver
Figure 17-15: A Blocking Terminal at Tap R for Pilot Retaying
Protecting Line GH.
The relays (50 or 21) opérate for faults at bus R and on the
connected circuits externa! to line GH, sending a blocking
signa! to botb G and H. These relays will not operate for in-
ternal faults, since there is no source connected to bus R.
However, the relays must be set sufficiently b.igh to avoid
operation on momentary motor contribution to a line fault.
If overcurrent or distance types cannot meet this criterion,
directional relays may be required.
IV. PROTECTING WEAK-FEED TERMINALS
A weak-feed terminal or tap is characteristically unable to
contribute sufficient current to operate local fault-detectíng
relays (distance or overcurrent) for sorne or alJ internal
faults. At the same time, however, its very low fault contri-
bution can rnaintain the fault. The terminal must thus be
opened to clear the fault. If high speed reclosing is used,
this weak-feed terminal or tap must be opened quickly to
permit deionization of a transient fault are.
A weak-feed may occur for phase and/or ground fuults and
weak-feed protection is required. Normal protection may
be used for either phase or ground faults where the weak-
feed condition does not exist. Care should be exercised for
phase relay operation on ground faults, and vice versa, in
mixed systems.
Where high speed clearing at ali terminals is required, sorne
form of pilot relaying must be applied. Pilot wire, clirec-
tional comparison, or phase cornparison systerns can be
used, In such applications, the strong-feed terminal(s) must
provide ample fault current for alJ faults under ali operation
conditions.
IV.A. Alternating-Current Pilot Wire Schemes
As discussed above, the HCB or HCB-1 pilot wire systern
can tripa weak-feed, zero-Ieed, and even a small reverse-
feed terminal if the current to the interna! faults from the
other terminal(s) is large. This scheme operates on the total
interna] fault current and is relatively independent of its
distribution.
IV.B. Directional and Phase Comparison Blocking
Pilo! Systems
Blocking systems using an on-off channel permit strong-feed
terminal operation independent of the status of the weak-
feed terminal, for ali interna] faults. Dur ing normal condi-
tions no channel signa! is transmitted from either terminal.
In the event of an external fault behind the weak-feed ter-
minal, its phase- and/or ground-fault detection operates on
the through-Iault current, transmitting a blocking signal
that prevents the strong-feed terminal(s) from tripping. The
reverse is not true as the weak-feed terminal will not see ex-
temal and most internal faults without weak-feed line pro-
tection.
 17-13

The weak-feed terminal may be tripped by dircct transfcr-

f--------------~
: ®----,/------
trip from the strong-Ieed terminal which opera tes on inter- 21S,67NS
I or 21 NS
na! faults. Sensítive directíonal overcurrent relays can also
be upplied wíth undervoltagc relays at the weak-Ieed termi- F¡ G Oiannels F2
nal. The undervoltage relays will operatc on thc small en-
ergy to thc interna! fault. In litis case, undervoltage carrier VT
27 }
start relays are requircd at all thc terminals and must be set ~N
more sensitively than the tripping undervoltage relay at the 21?, 67NPo, 21 NP

weak-feed terminal. This procedure will avoid tripping the Figure 17· 16: Simplifred One line Diegrem lllustreting The
weak-fced terminal for externa) faults behínd the strong- Week·Feed Loglc.

fced terminal(s).
opera tes, in conjunction with 21 P and/or 67NP or 21 NP, to
lrip breaker G. This phenomenon, known as "echo lrip-
IV.C. Permissive Pilot Schemes
ping," is sumrnarized in Table 17-111.

Table 17-111
IV.C. l. Unblocking and Permissive Overreach Sirnplifíed Tripping and Keying Logic for the
Transfer-Trip Permissive Schemes as Applíed to a Weak-Feed
Transmíssion Líne in Figure 17-16
These permissive schernes requíre that ali of the line terrni-
Strong Source G Weak Source H
nals recognize the fault. Consequently , a complement of
additional relays is required al the weak-feed terminal. lf Breaker Tripping (21P and 94) or ('27 or 59N) and
the terminal will always be a weak-feed source, the normal (21 NP and 94) (IB and 21NS)
cornplement of forward-lookíng relays may be ornitted, and and 94
the weak-Ieed equipment substítuted. lf the terminal is Transmitter 21P or 21NP (27 or 59N) and
sometimes weak and sometimes strong, both the normal and Keying (IB and 21NS)
weak-Ieed complement of relays should be applied. This ar- and (94-1 or
rangernent ensures hígh speed sirnultaneous clearing at ali 94-2)
line terminals, for ali faults, and under ali operating con-
ditions. Note: 2 l S indica les operation while 21 S indicatcs no operanon.

The weak-feed cornplernent and logic is outlined in Figure So urce

17-16. It consists of directional reverse-looking fault dctec- Device Location Function
tors (21 S) for phase, and/or (67NS or 21 NS) for ground ; 21P Strong Forward-Reaching, Dircctional Oís-
undervoltage (27) for pbasc, and/or overvoltagc (S9N) for lance Phase Relay
ground. The voltage relays sense faults at the weak-fecd ter- 21NP Strong Forward-Reaching, Dircctional Dis-
minal and opera te for eilher internal or externa! faults. The lance Ground Relay
revcrse-looking distancc relays 21 S, 67NS, and 21 NS oper- 67NP Strong Forward-Reaching, Dircctional Over-
current Ground Relay
a te only if the fault is externa! at H. Tripping is permitted
94-2 Strong Trip-Signal Relay (Channel from
at H in the absence of 21 S, 67NS, or 21 NS operation, and weak to strong terminal)
the receipt from station G of a tríp signa! (or the abscnce of 21S Weak Reverse-Reaching, Directíonal Dis-
a blocking sígnal in tite unblockíng system). Thc signa! lance Phase Relay
from station G is necessary to prevent tripping II for exter- 21NS Weak Reverse-Reaching, Direclional Ois-
na! faults F 1, since 27 and S9N will operate for thcse faults. lance Ground Relay
67NS Weak Reverse-Reaching, Directional Over-
current Ground Relay
For in terna! faults F2, t he relays (21 P and/or 67 N P or
27 Weak Phase-Undervoltage Relay(s)
21 NP) at G wíll send a signa! to operate rclay 94-1 at H. In
S9N Weak Ground-Overvoltage Relay
tite absence of 21 S and/or 67NS or 21 NS operation, H wíll
94-1 Weak Trip-Signal Relay (Channel from
then trip on the operation of 27 and/or 59N, plus 94-1 al H.
strong to weak terminal)
In turn, the channel ís keyed back to slation G. Relay 94-2
94 = 94-1 and 94-2
17-14
IV.C.2. Phase Comparison Schemes
Permissive dual-phase comparison systems that use a fre-
quency shift channel normally have continuous keying. The
weak-feed terminal will thus perrnit the strong-Ieed terminal
to trip for intemal faults, in a manner similar to the block-
ing schernes. A direct-trip channel from the strong-feed to
the weak-feed terminal is required if the weak-feed terminal
must be tripped at high speed.
IV.O. Underreaching Pilot Schemes
Underreaching schemes are not applicable to Jines with
weak-feed terminaJ(s), since the protection at the strong-
feed terminal does not "see" faults near the remote termi-
nal. By definition, the weak-feed terminal cannot support
the normal underreaching trip fault detectors.
IV.E. Summary
Schemes for protecting weak-feed terminal(s) can be surn-
rnarized as follows:
a. The ac pilot wire scheme provides high speed simultane-
ous tripping of aU terminals. lts use is limited to short
lines with no more than three terminals.
b. Blocking systems with directional cornparison permita
complement of phase-undervoltage and/or ground-over-
voltage relays to be applied for high speed tripping of
the weak-feed terminal(s).
c. Blocking systems without directional compa rison require
a trip channel from the strong-feed source to trip the
weak-feed terminal(s).
d. The directional comparison permissive schemes (un block
or permissive-overreaching, transfer-trip types) can be
used if a complement of relays for weak-feed logic is ap-
plied at the weak-feed terminal(s).
e. The dual-phase comparison permissive schemes can be
used only with a direct-trip channel from the strong-feed
terminal(s) to trip the weak-feed terminal(s).
f. Underreaching transfer-trip schemes (director permis-
sive) cannot be used for weak-feed lines.
 18-J

Chapter 18 l. lNTRODUCTION

Backup relaying, which provides necessary redundancy in

Backup Protection protective systems, is defined in the IEEE Standard Diction-
Author: W. L. Hinman
ary as "protection that operates independently of specified
components in the primary protective system and that is in-
tended to opera te if the primary protection fails or is tern-
l. lntroduction
porarily out of service."
ll. Remete versus Local Backup
In the past, backup protection for Lines was provided by ex-
A. Remete Backup
1. Selectivity tending primary protection to Une sections beyond the re-
2. Sensitivity mete bus. This remote backup is defined in the IEEE Die-
3. Speed tionary as "backup protection in which the protection is at
4. Application
a station or stations other than that which has the primary
B. Local Backup and Breaker Failure protection."
1. Definitions
2. Basic Schematic and Operation
Backup protection for equiprnent such as generators. busses,
C. Applications Requiring Remete Backup with and transformers usually duplicates the primary protection
Breaker-Failure Protection and is arranged to trip the same breakers. In the event of a

lll. Breaker-Failure/Local Backup Application

breaker failure, * sorne remete line protection would isolate
the fault.
A. Single-Line/Single-Breaker Busses
B. Breaker-and-a-Half and Ring Busses With the advent of EHY and the increased concern about
both service continuity and possible breaker failures, local
IV. Timing Characteristics
backup, including breaker-failure protection, has become
V. Breaker-Failure/Local Backup Relay Characteristics common. Unlike remote line protection, local backup is ap-
plied at the local station. lf the primary relays fail, local
A. Current Detector Relay
B. Timer Relay backup relays will trip the local breakers. lf the local
C. Auxiliary Relay breaker fails, either the primary or the backup relays will
D. Multi-tr ip Auxiliary Relay
initiate the breaker.failure protection to trip other breakers
E. Static Breaker-Failure Relay
adjacent to the failed breaker. While local backup protection
has many advantages and is widely used, it does not auto-
rnatically eliminate the need for remole backup.

A protection system involves a number of elements, includ-

ing protective relays, ac current transformers and wiring, ac
voltage transformers or devíces and wiring, de supply and
wir ing, circuit breaker or other disconnection rneans, and
communication channel with pilo! relaying, ldeally, a
backup protection systern should duplicate all these ele-
ments to provide total redundancy. In practice, however,
circuit breakers are not duplicated. Many modern breakers
have two independent trip coils, and breaker-Iailure protec-
tion provides a duplicate function. AU other elements can
be and frequently are duplicated in a variety of combina-
tions, depending on the degree of protection required.

*Breaker failure is defined as a Iailure of lhe breaker to open orto

interrupt curren! when a trip signa! is received.
 18-2
The maximum practica} redundancy in separating two proteo-
tion systems is shown in Figure 18-1. The common element
is the circuit breaker; even so, separate trip coils are shown.
lf a comrnon station battery is used , separate fused leads
from the battery are used for the two protection systems.
Quite frequently, only one voltage so urce is used, and sepa·
rate leads are run from the transformer to t he relays.
-J
de SJpply
-~T---chome --•
(ofUse<f)
PrimorySystem
- 52 520
~
Aiternote
(Secondaryor
Bock-up) System
--------Pr0tec1ed
L,ne Seclion-------•
Figure 18-1: Transmission Line Protection With Meximum
Practica! Redundancy.
Since, in many cases, it is difficult lo sepárate primary and
backup protect ion, both are discussed in the appropriate
chapters on equipment protection. Tbis chapter covers the
fundarnentals of backup protection and discusses backup
protection systems designed prirnarily for transmission lines
and associated bus configurations.
11. REMOTE VERSUS LOCAL BACKUP
11.A. Remote Backup
A re mote backup system is shown in Figure 18-2. The re-
lays at bus G for breaker l for protecting line GH must also
overreach and protect ali other lines extending from the re-
mete bus H. That is, the relays at G must operate selectively
for faults on lines HR, HS, and HT if the relays or breaker 2,
3, or 4, respectively, fail to clear the associated line fault.
Thus, the relays on breaker l provide prirnary protection
for line GH, as well as backup protection for lines HR, HS,
and HT. Backup systems use time discrimination to detect
faults in the remete line sections.
In designing remole backup systems, their selectivity, sensí-
tivity, speed, and application must be considered.
H R
G 2
5
3 s
\. . ......
,vyv,
1
~11 T
4
'r'
1
--+--
•
1
Topped Load
Note:
The lnfeed Effect at Bus H Reduces The Curren! Magnitude and
The Reach of Distance Relays at Breaker 1. Bus G for Faultson
lines HR, HS or HT.
Figure 18-2: Remate Back·up at Bus G, Breaker 1 Requires
These Relays to Selectively Operate for Faults on
Unes HR, HS and HT Under all Operating Conditions.
11.A. l. Selectivity
Opening breaker I at G for faults on a remete section may
interrupt service to tapped loads on line CH unnecessarily.
For a breaker Iaílure at bus H, ali lines feeding fault power
through the defective breaker must be opened at their re-
mete ends with remete backup. Such a scheme interrupts
all loads on the lines, as well as on bus H. Thus if breaker
2 fails to open for a line HR fault, breakers at G, S & T
must be opened with rernote backup.
11.A.2. Sensitivity
Relays I at bus G may not "see" faults near busses R, S, or
T. For the scheme shown in Figure 18-2, the fault infeed eí-
fect at bus H for faults near R, S, or T tends to reduce the
current magnitude and "reach" of distance relays at breaker
1 at bus G. In these cases, relays at other remete terminals
will have to trip first, redistributing the fault currents and
increasing the effective reach of the relays at bus G. This
can result in sequential tripping.
11.A.3. Speed
Remete backup must be relatively slow to give the primary
relays in the remote line time to clear their fault (Figures
18-3 and 18-4). As the coord inat ing time interval is typi-
cally 0.3 sec, backup times greater than 20 cycles are corn-
mon. lf sequential tripping is necessary, as indicated in the
preceding paragraph, the Iault-clearing time for the breaker
for a remete backup must be further increased.
 For effective local backup, then, there must be at least two
relatively independent protective systems that cover alJ the
lines or equipment being protected. For breaker failure,
G
however, onJy one protective system is required , even
though the protection is initiated by both the primary and
1
the secondary relaying systerns. With this exception, the cir-
1
\4.1.AI cuitry and operation for local backup and breaker-Iailure
'"1"•
protection are identicaJ.
'
Í L~

--·--
'·'1
lnstantaneous relays can be considered as an independent
+' protective system. Because these relays do not fully cover
Topped Lood
the line section, however, a remo te end-zone faull would re-
Figure 18-3: Remote Back·up at Bus G. Breaker 1 for Line HR
Wlth lnverse Time Overcurrent Relays. quire an additional protection system. Local backup is usu-
ally applied only on lines equipped with a primary pilot sys-
tem backed up by a second pilot system or by non-pilot
Bock-vp T,me backup relays, or both.
Coord1no1tnq Time lntervol r--l---ZDn_e_3
__
Zone 2 Zone 2 11.8.2. Basic Schematic and Operation
G
Zone
Zonel lDnel I R
Figures 18-5 and 18-6 illustrate basic local backup and
Foull
breaker-Iailure schemes for electromechanical and solid-
,,,,,,,,
' state relays, respectively. The operating principie is thc
¡l~
,,, same for either scheme. In Figure 18-5, operation of one
1
---+--
..
Topped Lood
'
of the protective relay systems trips its associated brcaker
and energizes 62X and/or 62Y, which are auxiliary SG-,
Figure 18-4: Remote Back-up at Bus G, Breaker 1 for Line HR
MG-6-, or AR-type relays. Contacts on 62X and 62Y oper-
With Dlstance Relays. ate the timer 62 only if thc instantancous overcurrent relay
50 indicates that current is continuing to flow. This con-
H.A.4. Application tinued current ílow, indicating a failure to clear the fault,
causes the timer to energize the rnulti-contact 86 (type W L)
The application and setting of relays for re mote backup re- relay, tripping ali the adjacent breakers. The 86 relay may
quires an understanding of fault levels under ali possible op- aJso be used to block reclosing; to stop carrier with blocking-
erating conditions. type pilot relaying, so that the remole end can trip, if possi-
ble; and to initiate transfer-trip.
II.B. LocaJ Backup and Breaker Failure
Since transformer faults may not provide sufficient current
U. B. l. Definitions to opérate device 50, a transformer differential relay can be
used instead, supervised by the breaker "a" switch to oper-
Local backup and breaker-faiJure protection are character- ate time 62 (Figure 18-6).
ized by fault detection and initiation of tripping at the local
terminal. For exarnple, if a fault on line HR (Figure 18-2) Timer 62 should be energized with device 50 (Figure 18-5)
is not properly cleared by the primary protection system be- rather than through the breaker auxiliary contacts 52a,
cause of a failure in any part of the system other than the since these contacts may be open while the contacts in a
circuit breakcr, the secondary relaying system will detect damaged breaker are closed. AJternatively, breaker 52a
the fault and trip breaker 2. lf the fault on line HR is not contact can be used together with the 50 relay (Figure
properly cleared beca use of a failure of breaker 2, then the 18-6).
primary and/or secondary protective relays will initiate
local breaker-f'ailure backup to open breakers 3, 4, and 5 at The three overcurrent units (50) are normally connected
bus H. in phases a and e and to ground, but can be connected in alJ
JO ...

three phases if necessary. The phase units can be set below
minimum fault current for high sensitivity to current flow,
or above maximum load if operation can occur on the rnin-
imum fault for which protection is required. Setting above
maximum load helps to prevent undesirable tripping dur-
ing testing.
ForThe Second Breoker Wíth Breoker
ond Holf ond Ring Bus Schemes
Posmve Pos1t,ve
11.C. Applications Requiring Remote Backup with
Breaker-Failure Protection
Whcre r ing busses or breaker-and-a-half schemes are used ,
breaker-Iailure protection does not necessarily eliminare the
need for remote backup. As shown in Figure 18- 7, a fault
on any line requires tripping two breakers at station 11. A
fault on line HR, for example, requires tripping both break-
ers 2 and 3 at station H. lf breaker 2 fails to cleur the fault,
breaker failure would initiate tripping of breaker 5 but

I
would leave line CH still connected to the fault. The breaker-
T};otective Pl-otect,ve failure protection for breaker 2 frequently initíates transfer-
94 Reloy Reloys
System 1 System2 tripping of breaker 1 at station G. lf transfer-trip is not ap-
plied or is not operative, however, remo te backup at breaker l
is still req uired to clear the fault.

Because of the infeed effect and high apparcnt impedances,

remote backup from the remote statio ns may be difficult
if not impossible to achieve when all lines are in service.
Opening the breakcrs around the failcd breaker will, how-
ever, remove the infeed effect and perrnit remote backup
coveragc, lf, for exarnple, breaker 2 fails for a faull on linc
Ne90t1ve NeQohve Negotive HR (Figure 18-7), line protection will open breakcr 3 ami
breaker-failure protection will open breaker 5 to remove ali
Notes: infeeds around station 11 except that from line G H.
1) 94 Function is Auxiliary Tripping Relay Wh,ch may not be Required
With Dual Trip Co,ls
2) Multi·Contacts to Trip Local Crrcuu Breakers around Fa,led Circuu Breaker-failure protection would trip both breakers 5 and 6
and lnitiate Remote Trip as Required to lsolate Fault.
Block Reclosing. etc. upon failure of breaker 4 for a linc I IS fault (Figure 18-7).
Figure 18·5: Simplified Oc Protection Schematic for Breaker
Similarly, thc failure of breaker 5 in Figure 18- 7 for a linc
Failure and Local Back·up Protection. (Ac Circu11 per Gil fault would trip both breakers 4 and 6. Ali othcr
Figure 18·1. 12, or 13).
breaker-failure conditions of breakers 4 or 5 would require
remole backup, at Sor R respectively or transfer-trip ,

Seol ,n

62X
--j
62Y
--j
For The 2nd{ 62X ¡·
Breoker With --: ~ - -' '
R,ng ond 6~.Y :
Breoker ond - -: ~-- ~
R,ng Bus
Half Schemes Figure 18·7: Remote Back·up Required With Breaker Failure et
Station H Where Ring Bus or Breaker anda Half
Schemes are Used.

J_ J_ J_ j,
TTTt 111. BREAKER-F AILURE/LOCAL BACKUP
Tnpond Lockouf
Cwcu1ts os
APPLICATIONS
Required
Optroocl
lt is recommended that ( 1) one breaker-failure circuit per
Figure 18·6: Simplified De Schematic Logic Diagram for Solid breaker be applied , regardless of the bus configuration and
State Breaker Failure and Local Back·up Protection.
(Ac Circuit per Figure 18· 1, 12. or 13). (2) that ali adjacent breakers be tripped, regardless of fault
 18-5

location. One tirncr per bus or one timer per breaker rnay
1 1 1
1
1
be used. The latter is recommcnded, since it provides rnaxi- 62X,Y

I I I
62X,Y 62X,Y :i:62X, Y

mum isolation and ílexibility, even though it does in vol ve L,nel L,ne2 L,ne3 : L,neN
50·1 50·2 50·3 .L""-N
additional timers. These methods will be illustrated for var- T.,v
ious bus arrangements.
---------------- - - - - . - - - --
III.A. Single-Line/Single-Breaker Busses

r r r---t + t----
62

A typicaJ single-line/single-breaker bus is shown in Figure ª~l --- - -

18-8. Figures 18-9 and 18-1 O show the de schematics for 86-G

breaker-failure/local backup protection using one timer per

bus section. Figure 18-11 shows the schematic for one Legend:
62X, Y · Breaker Failure lnitiating Auxiliaries Operatedby The Lone
timer per breaker. The two methods-one timer per bus Relaying.
(method 1) and one tirner per breaker (method 2)-have the 50 · Overcurrent Relay Respons,veto Current Flow,ng Through The
Individual Breaker.
following differences: 62 - Breaker FailureTimer.
86 · Lock-out Relay.

a. Method I is less costly than method 2, since fewer timers Figure 18-9: Typical Simplified Oc Schematic for Breaker Failure
Local Back-up Protection Using a Common Timar for
are required. a Single Line Single Breaker Bus of Figure 18-8.

b. Transf'er-trip of the remote breaker is easier with method 62X,Y

L,nel {
2. With method 1, the common timer cannot distinguish 50·1
which breaker has failed.
t.me 2 { 62X,Y
50·2
c. A spreading fault may cause incorrect breaker-failure op-
62 X,Y r
eration with method 1. lf a line I fault spreads to line 2, L,ne3
{ 1
50_3 1 Str,p8us
with sequential operation of 62X, 62Y, and 50 contacts, r--, 1
J
Loek·Out, etc

the common timer circuit may be energized long enough Lme N { 62X,Y -,
50-N - -"
AND 1---.l
N I
L--~
to operate and trip ali breakers, even though both line I
Figure 18-10: Typical Simplified Oc Logic Oiagrem for Breaker
and line 2 breakers trip normally. With method 2, each Failure Local Back-up Using • Common Timer for a
Single Line Single Breaker Bus of Figure 18-8.
timer is deenergized as soon as the associated line fault is
cleared.

d. The common timer approach of method I requires that l 1

I
62X;( 62X,Y
the t irner be set for the slowest breaker interrupting time.
Method 2 permits the separate t irners to be set for the in·
Linel
IT l.Jne2
50·2
terrupting times of the individual breakers. 50-l

S1m1klr Cwcu11
G IOf Eoch8reoker

1------------------L,nel

t-------------------L,ne2

31------------------L,ne3
----+ +--+ +--
Tr,pond Lock·Ou1 011 Breokers
1 on Bus ·G ond Tronsle< • Tnp
1
1 Remole Breoker on L,ne 1

+-- -~~}- -- ---- -- - -- -- - - ----

1
--L1neN
1 Figure 18-11:
Figure 18-8: A Single Line Single Breaker Bus. (The Breaker Failure
Local Back-upProtective Scheme is Shown in Figure 18-9)
Typical Simplified Oc Schematic for Breaker Failure
Local Back·up Protection Using One Timar per
Breaker for The Single Line Single Breaker Bus of
Figure 18·8. (The Solid State Log,c O,agram Would be
as Shown in Figure 1 8·6 to, Each Breaker)
18-6

111.B. Breaker-and-a-Half and Ring Busses lt is simpler, howcver, to trip ali breakers involved. This
practice also provides syrnrnetrical protection around the
Typical breaker-and-a-half and ring busses are shown in Fig- bus.
ures 18-12 and 18-13. These arra ngerncnts require tripping
two breakers and paralleling the current transformers for
each line, as shown. A current detector (50) is provided for L,ne I Line2

each breaker. Onc timer per breaker is recommended for Primory Reloys.--+--4------1-+----'
Line I
all these bus conf'igurations. Breaker-Iailure/Iocal backup
protection systerns are shown in Figures 18-5 and 18-6. An- Secondory---+-'--1 Pr,mory
Reloys L-----+--- Reloys
other set of 62X, 62Y auxiliarles (shown dottetl) must be uoe I Line 2
added for lhe sccond breaker. '---------1--1---Secondory
Reloys
Une 2

L,nel Lme 2
Seco<1dory Reloys
Bus L Llne I
8usR

Secondory Reloys
Line2

Line3

Tronsformer
Di fferentiol Primor y Reloys
Pro1ec1ion L,ne 3

SecondoryReloys
L,ne 3

Figure 18-13: Single Line Diagrem of a Ring Bus.

8usl Bus H
01fferen1iol Oifferen1io1
Pro1ec1,on Prolect,on Table 18-l
Figure 18-12: Single Line Oiegram of a Breaker end e Helf Bus. Breaker-Failure/Local Backup Operations
for Bus Type of Figure 18-12.
(Breaker anda Half Bus)
(See schematics of Figures 18-5 or 18-6.)
The breaker-Failure/local backup circuits are the sarne for
each breaker, except for the application of thc 86 relay con- For Local Backup
tacts. The 86 relay operations are outlined in Table 18-1 for or Breaker Failure 86 Relay Operations
No.
Figure 18-12 and in Table 18-11 for Figure 18-13. Neither
table includes reclosing lockout, which may be desired. Trip 2 and ali other bus brcakers, such
as 4, etc., on bus L. Transfer-trip line
lt will be noted from Tables 18-1 and 18-11 that ali adjacent 1. Consider option of 86T and 52a of
breakers are tripped, regardless of fault location. For sirn- Figure 18-6.
plicity and reliability, breakers which are already tripped
will be retripped. Assurne, for example, that a fault occurs 2 Trip I and 3. Transf'er-trip lines I
on line 1 of Figure 18-13. The protective relays for line 1 and 2.
will attempt to trip breakers 1 and 4 and the remete end of
line 1. Assurne breaker I fails to clear, but breaker 4 and 3 Trip 2 and ali other bus breakers, such
the remo te line I breaker do open. Then breaker-f'ailure/ as 5, etc., on bus R. Transfer-trip line
local backup need not retrip 4 and transfer-trip line 1, as 2. Consider option of 86T and 52a of
shown in Table 18-11. Similiarly, for a fault on line 2, it may Figure 18-6.
be unnecessary to retrip breaker 2 and transfer-trip linc 2.
 18-7

Table 18-11 at least as fast as the protective relay plus the 62X, 62Y
Breaker-FaiJure/Local Backup Operations time. lf not, thc backup clearing time will be longer and
for Bus Type of Figure 18-13. (Ring Bus) the mar gin incrcased.
(See schematics of Figures 18-S or 18-6.)

c. Overtravel of the timer. Static urners have less than one

For Local Backup
or Breaker Failure 86 Relay Operations ms of overtravel.
No.
d. lnconsistcncy in 62 timing. Thc static timcr as con-
Trip 2 and 4. Transfer-t rip lincs I tained in the TD-5, TD-50, and SBFU has a repeatabil·
and 2. ity (including variations of ambient tcmperature and volt·
age supply) of ±5%, which is ±5 ms for a timer setting of
2 Trip I and 3. Transf'er-trip lines 2 100 ms. (6 cycles on 60 Hz base)
and 3.
e. Timcr selling error, including human error, instrumenta-
Trip 2, 4, and S. Transfer-trip line 3.
tion error, and potentiometer resolution. The static
3
timer may be set to within 2 ms.
Consider option of 86T and S2a of
Figure 18-6.
f. A safety factor. To increase security and avoid a false
86 rclay operation, a generous safety margin is desir-
4 Trip 1, 3, and 5. Transf'er-trip line 1. able. The degree of safety required rs a direct function
Consider option of 86T and 52a of of the confidence lcvel of the total protective system.
Figure 18-6. Typical values range from 33 to 100 ms (2 to 6 cycles
60-liz base).

IV. TIMING CHARACTERISTICS Foull

Occurs
!
The breaker-failure/local backup protection should be as
fasl as possible without lripping unnecessarily. This criter- T,oni'er Tr,p
50Reset (When l.Jsed)
ion is particularly imporlant in l:.IIV lines, where stability
Breoker Bock Up Breoker
is cr itical, Here, breaker-failure/local backup timer settings 1 n1erruphnc¡ .... -t"'1'.'1"?'?,.,.,. ln1euup11n9 T me
Tune Time
of 150 to 250 ms (9 to 15 cyclcs 60 llz basis) are used.
These critica! operations require dual solid-state pilot and
86BF
solid-state breaker-failure/local backup protection. With 62X;f
IBFI)
electro mechanical-type relays, breaker-failure/local backup
timer settings of around 250 ms or more are practical,
I· 1
L.ocol Bock·Up S,eoker
lnterrup11ng T,me
----Breoker folure L.ocot Bock Up i>tol Clearing T,me---et
/\ time chart for breaker-fnilure/local backup is given in
Figure 18-14. The shaded margin time provides security Figure 18-14: Breaker Feilure Local Back-up Time Chart.
and should accommodate the following variables:

V. BREAKER-FAILURE/LOCAL BACKUP
a. Excessive breaker interrupting time. According to ANSI
RELA Y CHARACTERISTICS
Standard C37.04, the interrupting lime may be one cycle
longer for three-cycle breakers at currents below 25% Five types of protective rclays are used: current detector
of maximum rating. Also, the interrupting time may relays, timer relays, auxiliary relays, multi-trip auxiJiary re-
be longer on close-open duty. lays, and static breaker-Iailure relays.

b. lnconsistency in 62X and 62Y times. In the SRU relay,
with a 0.25-ms operating time, such inconsistencies are
minimized by static breaker failure initiation (BFI).
The AR relay BFI in the SRU relay has a 6-ms operating
lime. lt is assumed that thc pickup of device SO will be
V.A. Current Detector Relay (SO)
There are two types of overcurrent relays: type KC-4
(electrornechanical) and type SI, SIU (solid-state). Both
are high speed units with a 98% or greater ratio of dropout
JB-8
to pickup. The KC-4 relay has three cylinder-type over-
current units in an FT case. lt is available in 0.5-2.0, 1-4,
2-8, 4-16, 10-40, and 20-80 Amp ranges, with continuous
ratings of 5 .O • 8.0 - 8 .O - 1 O.O - 1 O.O - 20.0 Amp, respec-
tively. The pickup is approximately 18 to 24 ms at four
times pickup current, and 12 to 16 ms at eight times
pickup. Drop-out times are on the order of 20 ms after the
current decreases to zero. Various combinations of ranges
for phase and ground applications are available.
The SI relays have three solid-state magnitude comparison
units, which are mounted in the FT case. (See Chapter 3.)
The application is the same as for the KC-4 relay. Ranges
are 0.25-1.0, 0.5-2.0, 1-4, 2-8, 4-16, and 10-40 Amp each,
with a continuous rating of 6.0 - 8.0 - 1 O.O - 12.0 - 15.0 -
20.0 Amp, respectively. Operating times are in the range of
1.0 to 4 ms at four times pickup current with drop-out
times of under 5 ms when the current goes to zero. The
SIU relays are similar to the SI relays, but are rack mounted.
V.B. Timer Relay (62)
Direct-current static timers, either the TD-5 or the TD-50,
are used in ali schemes. The TD-5 is used in the electro·
mechanical schernes with contact input, as shown in Fig-
ure 18-5. The T0-50 is used in solid-state schemes with
transitar input, as shown in Figure 18-6. Both units pro·
vide telephone relay outputs. The range for the breaker-
failure/local backup applications is O.OS to 0.4 sec.
V.C. Auxiliary Relay (62X, 62Y)
Operating times are 16 to 50 ms for the SG and MG relays,
and 2 to 3 ms for the AR relays.
V.O. Multi-trip Auxiliary Relay (86)
The type WL rclay is used, and the operating times are ap-
proximately 16 ms.
V.E. Static Breaker-Failure Relay (SBFU)
This rack-type unit combines the various functions in onc
unit. The SBFU includes ali the protection from the 62X,
62Y inputs to the 86BF auxiliary relay shown in Figure
18-6. With solid-state pilot protection for the lines, lhe
SRU pilot auxiliary relay replaces the 62X and 62Y rclays
with a breaker-Iailurc initiation (BFI) output operating in
0.25 ms. This voltage output will work into the SBFU
relay.
 J 9-1

Chaprer 19 l. INTRODUCTION

Since relaying systerns must function properly during sys-

Systern Stability and Out-of-
tern swings, it is necessary to understand the effects of
Step Relaying
these disturbances on relay performance. Swings are the
oscillations of synchronous machines with respect to
Author: W. A. Elmore
other synchronous machines. They are caused by
l. lntroduction changes in load, by switchíng, and by faults. A swing
does not necessarily indica te system instability. In sorne
11. Steady-state Stability cases, however, the swing is severe enough to cause syn-
111. Transient Stability chronous machines to go out of step. Before examining
the influence of systern swings on relay performance, three
IV. Relay Quantit ies during Swings factors must be considered: steady-state stability ," tran-
sient stability, and relay quantities encountered during
V. Effects of Out-of-Step (OS) Conditions
swings.
A. Distance Relays
B. Directional-Comparison Systerns
C. Phase-Cornparison or Pilot-Wire Systerns
D. Transfer-Trip Schemes
H. Circuit Breakers
F. Overcurrent Relays
G. Reclosing

VI. Out-of-Step Relaying

A. Cenerator Out-of-Step Relaying

B. Transmission Line Out-of-Step Relaying

VII. Philosophies of Out-of-Step Relaying

VIII. Types of Out-of-Ste p Schemes

A. Offset Distance Schemes

B. Concentric Circle Scheme
C. .Blinder Scheme

IX. Relays for Out-of-Step Systerns

A. Electromechanical Types

1. KS Out-of-Step Block ing Scheme

2. KST Out-of-Step Tr ipping Scheme
3. K D-3 Out-of-Step Tripping Scheme

B. Solid-state Types

1. SKSU Out-of-Step Blocking Scheme

2. SDBU-1, Sl-1, ARS Out-of-Step Tripping
Scheme
3. SDBU-2, SIU, SRU Out-of-Step Tripping and
Blocking Scheme
*Stability is the ability of a systern to develop restorative forces in
X. Selection of an Out-of-Step Relay System excess of thc disturbing forces.
19-2
11. STEADY-STATE STABILITY
The íundamentals of power transmission and stability are
more easily understood if both systern resistance, excluding
the load impedances, and rnachine saliency are neglected.
In this case, the power (P) transmitted over circuits con-
necting two portions of the systems is given by the follow-
ing equation:
(19-1)
where
VS and VR = Sending- and receiving-end
voltages, respectively
X= reactance between VS and V R
et,= angle by which VS leads VR·
lf systern resistance is not neglected, different equations ap-
ply for the sending- and receiving-end power; the variables,
however, are essentially the same. lf phase-to-phase volt-
ages are used, Equation (19-1) gives three-phase power. For
this discussion, VS and V R are taken as line-to-neutral quan-
tities, and Equation (19-1) gives single-phasc power. If VS•
VR, and X are held constant in Equation ( 19-1 ), the power
flow is changed by varying the angle, et,.
As the load increases at the receiving end, synchronous ma-
chines are momentarily slowed down, and the rnachine
rotor inertia meets the increased load requirernents. That
is, an increase in load results in a small reduction of system
frequency until there is a change in mechanical input via
the governor or manual action. To restore systern fre-
quency, the mechanical input to the machines must be
increased. This input must be greater than the steady-state
load requirements, since the machines rnust be accelerated
to a new and larger angle. When the new angle, et,, is
reached , the mechanical input will exceed the load require-
ments by the amount required to accelerate the machines.
The mechanical input must then be reduced to maintain
frequency and required power transfer.
Any load change, then, results in swings or oscillations as
the systern adjusts to the changes. Steady-state stability is
the ability of the systern to adjust to gradual load changes.
Toe extreme unstable condition occurs when et, is equal to
90°. At this point, increased load conditions could only be
met by increasing VS or V R· A11 increase in 1/¡ would cause
a reduct ion , rather than an increase , in power transfer.
lll. TRANSIENT STABILITY
Transient stability is the ability of the system to properly
adjust (rernain in synchronism) to sudden large changes
such as load changes, faults, or switching. Again, ignoring
systern resistance and machine saliency, the power trans-
mitted during the transient interval. P, is given by the fol-
lowing equation:
V 'V '
P= S
X'
R Sin m (19-2)
where
VS' = voltage behind transient reactance at the
sending end
V R' = voltage behind transient reactance at the
receiving end
X'= reactance between V s' and V R., includ-
ing transient reactances oí the machines
m = angle by which Vg' leads VR'·
The value of X' is influenced by the prevailing fault condi-
tions. In general, the magnitude of X' varíes, in ascending
order, for the following fault conditions: three-phase,
phase-to-phase-to-ground , phase-to-phase, and phase-to-
ground faults. Three-phase faults, then, reduce load carry-
ing capability the most and have the greatest influence on
stability.
When a fault occurs, the power being transmitted suddenly
decreases, reducing the electrical output oí the sending-end
machines to below the mechanical input. As a result, the
sending-end machines speed up, increasing angle, m. At the
same time, rotating equipmcnt at the receiving end slows
down, since the mechanical load is now greater than the in-
put. This receiving-end slowdown further increases ang\e,
m.
When a three-phase fault occurs (Figure 19-1), the trans-
mitted power is reduced to point E because of the increased
effective X', and the swing begins along E-F. Power D-E
is that available for accelerating the mass of the sending-end
machines and for decelerating the mass of the receiving-end
 19-3

machines. At point F. brea ker A opens, and the transmitted as system resistance, will dampen the oscillation, until the
powcr increases to G. The swing then continues along G-H. final operating point is reachcd.

lf the initial swing wcnt to point L, and if the sending-end

s R generators still had excess rotor cnergy (area 11 srnaller than
30 area l), the swing would continue in thc sarne direction.
Foull After L was passed, the mechanical input of lhe sending-
j.-n~ end gcnerators would again cxceecl the electricul output ,
and the swing would be acceleratcd , rcsulting in instubility
with the machines operating out-of-step or out-of-
synchronism with each other. After this, only systcrn scp-
u
aration and re-synchronizing of the machines can restore
normal systern operation.
L.one A·B Open

Steody Stote Lood

IV. RELA Y QUANTITIES DURING SWINGS
Requirements ond
Mechonicot Input
toGenerotors Figure l 9-2 illustrates the voltage and currcnt relationships
during a swing, assuming the following: IVs'I = IVR'I; tite
frcquency of Vs' is fixed; and V R' rota tes with respecl to
v5•. The horizontal linc, X, between v8• und V R' repre-
sents the reactancc bctween thesc t wo voltagcs. The volt·
age loci of VR' and of lhe reactance midpoint (clectrical
center) are also shown.

--x--i
45 90 135
Angle m Vp_ t.ocos
Figure 19. 1: Power Tranafer Curves Befo re. During and Aftar
Line·to-Line Fault.
v;
S
r!:::::::::::::=:==:::=z-\q;;----~~I;><Z;;-

Electrocol Cenler votrcqe Locus

When thc fault is cleared at H by breakcr B opening, thc
scnding-end rotor kinetic energy has increased by an
amount proportional to area 1, sincc the mechanical input
has exceeded thc transmittcd electrical power. As the f'ault
is clcarcd, the transrnitted po wcr increases to J, exceeding
thc mcchanical input ancl causing the sending-end machines
to decelerate and the receiving-end machines to accelerate.
Since thc velociry of a rotating rnass cannot be changed in-
stantly, the swing continues to K, at which point the addi-
tional scnding-end rotor energy , result ing from the fault, is
completely absorbed (area ll equals area 1).
The velocity of the sending-end mass, with respect to the
receiving-end rnass, is zcro at K. At K, the electrical output
of the sending-end exceeds the rnechanical input; therefore,
the swing reverses, reaching a point N. At N, the swing re-
verses again. Voltage regulator and governor action, as well
180'
•I=--vs-vR
¡x
1vs1=1vR1
Figure 19·2: Voltage and Current Loci During Swing.
When the voltages are in phasc, no current flows. As V R.
lags Vs', current I increases. lf thc system is unstable, V R.
will continue to lag farther behind Vs' until l reaches its
maximum valuc at 180°. Just as fault current lags, 1 lags
V R' by 90°, the natural power-Iactor angle of the systern.
At the current locus rnaxirnurn, the voltage al the electrical
center is zero. V R' continues to rota te, and the current re-
turns to zero when the voltages are in phase. The out-of-
step condition will contínue, with VR' slipping with respect
to Vs' until the machines are separated.
 194

IVR'I
X and jy-;¡ =ratio of magnitudes of receiving-to
S sending-end voltages. See explanation
following:

Equation 19-4 is derived as follows:

From the Law of Sines:

R'L - R'S' - S'L

--------
Sin p Sin m Sin u

Figure 19-3: Swing Ohm Locus on The R·X Oiagram.

S 'L _---
R'S' Simu-_ z Sin u
--
Sin m T Sin m

The radius of the swing ohm locus (Figure 19-3) is: 1 al an angle of 8 - p. p + m + u = 180° and substituting
ZT O - p = 8 + m + u - 180°. 180° can be eliminated by
S'O = --je + rn - 90°
2Sin rn ~----
(I 9-3) cbanging the sign to give equation 19-4.

where From above:

S'O = measured distance on an R-X (resistance-
R'L Sin p Sin (m + u)
reactance) diagram from S' to the center --=--=
of the swing locus circle O. S'L Sin u Sin u

ZT = total systern impedance between V s' and Since Sin p - Sin (180 - m - u)= Sin (m + u). Expanding
VR'·
R'L= Sin m Cos u+ Cos m Sin u
m = angle between V s' and V R. in degrees S'L Sin u

The center of the swing locus circle is on a line through the .

= S mm (Cos
-- u) +Cos m
Sin u
origin and at an angle frorn the horizontal of (8 + m - 90)º,
where O is the angle of the total irnpedance vector ZT. = Sin m Cot u + Cos m

The ohmic value, as viewed from S', for a given value of m Solving for u:
is:
ZT Sin u
S'L = -
Sin m -
/<8
+ m + u)? (I 9-4)
R'L) -Cos m
(-
u0 = are Cot .>...:::.S....::'L:;..!...
_
Sin m
where
lf phasor R'S' is the total system impedance between the

u0 = are cot
lv 'I -Cosm
~
_s'I
V
_
J equivalen! source voltages V'R and V's, and mis thc angle
between these two voltages, the circle becornes a load locus.
R' V'
~ is the ratio of the voltages ~ so that
~ Sin m S'L V's

1
A ngle S'OR' is 2m. Chord S'R' = 2 (S'O) Sin 1/2 (2m). A perpen-
dicular from O to chord S'R' bisects angle S'OR'. From this right
V'RI
V'sl - Cos m
J
triangle angle OS'R · is (90 - m). This angle of radius from the u0 = are Cot
R-axis is (8 + m - 90° .) ~ Sin m
 19-5

This calculation can be applied to a transmission line in a the relay reach. In Figure 19-5, for example, there must be
power systcm by relocating thc R-X diagram origin to the a 90° phase displacernent between the voltage phasors al
location under consideration, as was done for bus G in Fig- relay location A and a point at 90 percent of the line
ure 19-4. Howevcr, the impedancc, as rneasured from G, lengtb, for a 90 percent reach zone I relay to opera te on a
must be multiplicd by J /K, whcre K is the part {in per unit) swing, The effective generator voltages will be displaced
of the total current between V s' and V R' flowing in the substantially more than 90° (angle m in Figure 19-5). The
transmission line under consideration. (In Figure 19-4, K likelihood of a systern attaining a stable operating condi-
is l.) tion after such a swing is virtually ni!. In general. zone 1
swing-trips occur only on unrecoverable swings.
In Figure 19-4, it is assumed that, when a fault is clearcd,
V s' leads V R. by 60°. This relation corresponds to point J Some form of blinding is required to screen overreaching
in Figure 19-1. (This initial poinl is shown on the right side ohm relays against tripping on severe swings from which
of Figure 19-4.) As the swing continues, the impedance recovery is possible.
seen at bus G will have a straight line locus and move to-
wards the clectrical center if IV s'' = IV R'I. lf the swing is Operating independently, phase-distance relays (21) will in-
arrested at point K (Figure 19-1 ), the impedance movement itiate tripping when the angle bctween the two system volt-
will reverse. If the swing is not arrcsted, it will co ntinue ages is very large and increasing (Figure 19-5).
through thc electrical centcr (ncar m = 180°) and leave to
left at minus inf'init y , when m equals oº. The impedance
X R'
will return from plus infinity on the right and swing through
again.

G H

Generoto,
v's
Zs Swng
Sw,ng t.me X R Zs• J3 Lrne
lvs'l>lvlil zL, 3+i6
ZR•J2
....__
Sw,ng L,ne/
lvsHViil F\:Joll J Figure 19-5: Source Angle Relationship for Swing Trip on The
Figure 19·1 System of Figure 19· 1.
~~~~~~~~~,f'--,1--~~"""'-<::>"":--=--o°'<-~~-:-:-~~R

V .B. Directional-Comparison Systems

'"'"º' of01rec1ron
Sw,ng
Swing ohms entering a protectcd linc urea, such as locus I
Figure 19,4: lmpedance Swing Locus on an R·X Oiagram. in Figure 19-6, will produce simultancous high speed trip-
ping at the t wo termina Is. Only swings entermg externa! to
the linc arca, such as locus 2, will block tripping, and then
V. EFFECTS OF OUT-OF-STEP (OS) CONDITIONS only if local 21 S operates and/or if the remote 2 1 P does
not. For the un block system, lripping occurs on OS condi-
V. A. Distance Relays tions only if the 21 P for each terminal operates. Figure
19-6 shows how blinders will prevent tripping on stable
A distance relay (21) responsive to three-phase faults will swings, such as locus 3.
opera te if an out-of-step (OS) condition produces a swing
locus that falls within its operating area (Figure 19-5). V.C. Phase-Cornpar ison or Pilot-wire Systerns

When swing ohms en ter the operating area of a zone I relay Phase-comparison or pilot-wire schemes are solcly curren!
with a circular characteristic, there is a 90° angle between rcsponsivc, and since swings produce a through currcnt con-
the voltages at the points along the line angle identiíied by dition. tripping does not occur.
l9·6
Figure 19-6: Oirectional Cornparison Systern R·X Plot.
V.D. Transfer-Tr ip Schemes
Out-of-stcp swings entering the circlc of either zone 1 relay
will cause tripping in the underreaching scheme. Swings
entering both zone 2 characteristics will cause tripping in
the overrcaching scheme.
V.E. Circuit Breakers
With the two system segments l 80° apart at the instant of in·
terruption, a theoretical undamped recovery voltage of four
times normal is possible. lf the circuit breaker has insuff'i-
cient dielectric strength to withstand this voltage, reignitions
will continue until a more favorable angle is reached. To in-
terrupt at ali, a breaker must be capable of attempting in-
terruption, possibly for several seconds, at each current
zero. lf the breaker cannot perform such interruptions,
tripping must be initiated at a favorable angle, preferably
just before the two sources are in phase.
V.F. Overcurrent Relays
Figure 19-2 can be used to illust rate the conditions encoun-
tered by phase overcurrent units during swings. Assume,
for example, that an instantaneous overcurrent unit set for
2.5 times full load were used in a line connecting Vs' and
V R'• and that X equals 0.765 per unit on the full Joad base.
During an OS condition, the instantaneous unit would op-
erate beca use the current reaches at least 2.65 (2/0. 765)
times full Ioad when V R. lags by 180°. Swings during sta-
ble conditions will also result in higher than normal cur-
rents, although currents will be considerably less than dur-
ing an OS condition.
V.G. Reclosing
Where a fault persists after reclosing, the stability of the
system will probably be jeopardized. On the other hand,
system stability is greatly improved if the fault is tempo-
rary and does not reignite following reclosure. For this rea-
son, reclosing is often blocked for three-phase faults, but
allowed for ali others. Three-phase faults tend to be perma-
nent more often than other faults. They also have the most
severe effect on stab ility.
There appears to be no advantage to high speed reclosing of
both terminals following an OS trip, Reclosing one termi-
nal, or preferably blocking tripping at one terminal, will fa.
cilitate system restoration. The second terminal can be re·
closed under synchronism-check relay supervision.
VI. OUT-OF-STEP RELA YING
ldcally , fault relays should clcar f'aults fast enough to main-
tain stability. Also, they should not operare on swings
from which the system can recover. lf a system does go out
of step, it should be split by circuit breakers opening ata
few preselected locations, in such a way that generation and
load on each side of the split are reasonably balanced. The
system should not be split in such a way as to sepárate most
of the generation from the major system load.
Jn Figure 19-7, breaker A is in a poor lccatio n for splitting
systern (1) from (2), since it would dump one unit of load
on system (2), which only generales 0.4 unit of power.
Splitting the system using breakers D or E would offer a
more tolerable generation/Joad balance. In this scherne,
system (1) need only increase its gerierat ion from 0.6 to
0.66 to maintain frequency.
Figure 19-7 also illustrates that OS tripping is desirable at
sorne points, but should be blocked at others. This selec-
tive tripping/blocking philosophy is basic to the intelligent
application of OS relaying.
0.33 0.33 O 33
Figure 19-7; Generation and Load Oistribution.
VI.A. Generator Out-of-Step Relaying lf swmg ohms pass through the unit transformcr, OS dciec-
tion may not be possible with either a Ioss-of-Iield relay or
Generator pcr-unit reactances have steadily increased over a simple distance relay. Moving the directional unit char-
the years, and inertia constants have decrcased as rnachine acterrstic output to point G on Figure 19-8 substantially
ratings havc increased. This, in rurn. has rcduced critica! increases the possibility of a false trip on a stablc swing,
clearing times and increased thc need for OS rclaying for such as GCD. Alternatively, the time critcrion could be in-
genera tors. creased to the point where thc stable swing would not trig-
ger relay operation, but then the fastest out-of-step swing
Loss-of-ficld relays, cquipped with dircct iorial units and may not be recognized.
undervoltage supervisión. providc a measure of OS protec-
tion for generators. Vicwed from the terminals of a largo
For severa! reasons. then. other schernes are less desirable
modern machinc, t he ohms will, in general, fall within the
than those specifrcally committccl for OS rcluying for gen·
machine or within thc unit transformer when t he machine
erators. This is because of the inherent inadequacies in de-
is out of step with thc system. lf thc swing ohms fall within
tecting OS condiuons with a rclaying systcrn designcd to
the rnachmc for thc systcrn shown in Figure 19-8. the KLF
derect field Iailure, the increased tendencics toward mstu-
(or K LF-1) loss-of-field rclay, (40), will o peral e if swing
bility, and the diffcrent responses requircd upon recogni-
ohms stay inside the characteristic circle for 0.25 sec.
tion of the two phenomena.

This should not be takcn to mean that gcnerator tripping is

encouraged when OS conditions dcvelop, but rather that OS
deiecuon may be casiest at the generat rng plant. Out-ol-
stcp scparation would then be accomphshcd by transíer-
tripping, or other suitable means, to maintain a generauon/
X load match, as described above.

VI.B. Transmission Line Out-of-Step Relaying

/
/ Thc prime critcrion in OS tripping is to mu mta in a
/
Unol
(401
I Xd' generation/load match in the islands crcatcd. lf such a
/#1
KLF_._ 1 match wcre perfect , no large load shifts ano no load drop-
Selhn<¡ 1
ping would be requíred. Also, lit tic or no gencration would
be dropped. To even approximale this ideal would, in ali
probability , require trip-blocking al sorne local ions and
I.IXd
tr ip-imtiation ar others.

Figure 19-8: Steble Swing Following CIHring of Neerby 3 Phen

Feult With The Type KLF Releya (401.
Distance relay operation on OS conditions tcnds to occur
at locations where the relay rcach settings are longest.
Therc are two reasons for this phenomcnon. First , thc mín-
lf a loss-of-Iield relay is used for OS sensing. thc timer must imum systern voltage during an OS condit ion tcnds to oc-
not lime out for stable swings. lt must operare, however, cur in thc high-irnpeda ncc segments of thc systcrn. Sccond,
for field failure before damage (or further damage) can oc- distancc rclays with long reach scu ings, such as those on
cur ami it must recognize the fastest realistic swing rate. long lines, cover a larger arca on the R-X diagram and there-
Gencrally all these time constraints can be satisfied. Fig- fore are more likely to respond to swing conditions. Out-
ure 19-8 shows a typical stablc swing locus following a se- of-step tripping al long-line tcrminals is not necessarily con·
vere threc-phase fault. ducivc to ideal systcm splitting.
 19--8

VII. PHILOSOPHIES OF OUT-OF-STEP RELAYING b) Allowing the loss-of-field relays to initiate OS generator
tripping.
Certain fundamental objectives should influence the design
of protection systems: e) Restricting relay-trip sensitivity at lhe higher power fac-
tors.

a) Block tripping at all locations for stable swings.

d) Blocking tripping.

b) Ensure separation for every OS cond it ion.

e) Blocking reclosing.

c) Effect separation al points that will leave a satisfactory

f) Lnitiating tripping using relays designed for OS tripping,
load/generation balance in each separated area. Loads
should not be interrupted.
There is no industry standard for protcction systcm design;
however, once the difficult functional decisions of "what"
d) Block tripping or autornatically reclose at one end of and "where " are rnade, there is reasonable corisistency in
any line that trips because of an OS condition. the "how."

e) lnitiate tripping while the systems are less than 120° out
of phase and thc angle is closing, in order to minimize VUI. TYPES OF OUT-OF-STEP SCHEMES
breaker stress.
Sorne typical systems used in OS relay ing are described here,
f) Minimize the possibility of an OS condition occurring
by:
VIII.A. Offset Distance Scheme
J) using high speed relaying ,
Figure 19-9 shows how an offset distance relay (21) can be
2) using a high speed excitation systern, used to decrease the susceptibility of a distance relay from
tripping on severe but stable swings. The cross-hatched
3) employing loss-of-field relays to rernove a unit which area represents the effectíve trip arca when the offset dis-
is drawing excessive reactive power from the system, tance relay is added. The swing shown would have caused
the distance relay to opera te if the relay had the reach
4) providing sufficient transmission capacit y , shown by the dotted circle, rather than by the screening
technique (the two circles).
S) tripping generators u pon the loss of critica! transmis-
sion lines,

X
6) applying generator braking resistors or inserting se-
Required Reoch
ries capacitors for critica! faults, 3(il
Setting
Hequired
7) applying fast valving techniques , and w,1hout //
KD·3 ~/
Sloble
8) using independent mechanisms for each breaker pole I Swmg

to downgrade faults from three-phase to phase-to- I

phase. \
While easily stated, these objectives are not so readily
\'
achieved , particularly ítem (e) above. 30
Setting
Required
Utility practice consists of a combination of: Wi1h K0·3

a) Allowing the line-protection relays to initiate OS line Figure 19-9: Screening Technique Using Offset Oistence Reley.
tripping. (The Phese-to-Phase Unit of The K·DAR Oiatence
Releys not Shown as it Ooea not Reapond to Swing1.)

Vlll.B. Concentric Circle Scheme
A concentric circle scheme for OS detectíon on terminal A
is shown in Figure 19-1 O. Custornarily, an OS relay with a
characteristic as shown for 68 is added to a transmission
line relaying systern and surrounds an overreaching
such as 21 P. For all swings, the swing locus enters 68 be-
fore 21 P. Because of rotating apparatus inertia, a signifi-
cant time is required for the torquc angle to advancc,
the swing locus to pass from 68 to 21 P. For a fault within
the 21 P reach, however, both elemcnts operate essentially
sirnult aneously. The relaying logic senses the sequence,
identifies swing or fault, and initiatcs the appropriatc
X
'--'--21P
(SKDU or K0-10)
68
(SKSU o, KSl
Figure 19- 1 O: The Concentric Circle Scheme for Out-of-Sf ep
Detection.
The abovc scheme is appropriate for an OS trip-block ing
function or for OS reclose-blocking. It is not appropriate
for OS tripping, however, unless additional logic is added.
lf an externa! phase fault occurs closc to thc balance point
of 21 P as at Pin Figure 19-10, for example-the relay will
rcspond slowly beca use of its low energy lcvcl, Device 68,
on the other hand, has an appreciably higher energy leve!
and opera tes fastcr than does 21 P. Rernoving remotc ter-
minal in-feed on externa! fault clearing following breaker
Iailurc can also produce sequential operation of 68 and 21 P.
lf the time in tite sensing logic is shorter than this operating
time difference, a fault at P would be incorrectly identified
asan OS condition and would cause a false trip at A. !f the
time is increased to avoid this situation, rapid OS swings
would not produce OS tripping. Adding a third concentric
circle would allow better perccpt ive segregation of swings
and faults, but could introduce load ohm involverrient.
OS tripping can be achieved with the two-concentric-circle
scheme if the 68/21P operating sequence is checked and the
19-9
resetting sequence is correct. This lessens the load ohm
difficulties associated with the three-circle scheme.
For thrce-terminal applications. in-feed can adversely affcct
OS blocking relays that use tite concentric circle scheme
element, if sequential clearing of a three-phase faull can occur. The
reach-shortening effect of the third terminal in-feed can
cause an interna! line-end fault to o peral e 68-but not 21 P.
and Clearing tite in-feed may then allow 21 P to opera te. This
sequence can cause undesirable OS trip-blocking at one ter-
minal. Out-of-step block ing, then, should not be used in a
three-terminal application unless remo te terminal coverage
action. can be obtained with maximum in-feed.
VIII.e. Blinder Scheme
A blinder relay has an operat ing charactcristic that parallels
the transmission-line plot on an R-X diagram (Figure 19-11).
A single blinder rclay (21 B), type SDB or SDBU-1, gives
the two linear characlcristics shown.
(218)
SOBu 1
82
Figure 19-11: The Single Blinder Scheme for Out-of-Srep
Detection.
An obvious application of this devicc is for limiting the
coverage of a distance relay in the load arca. This is a side
benefit of the application of blinder OS relays.
A single blinder relay plus auxiliary logic can be used for
OS tripping. lts use, however, is limitcd to only those ap-
plications where OS trip blocking of phase distance relays
is not required, since swings passing through the line section
(on an R-X plot) will cause the operation of the line relays.
A single blinder cannot distinguish between a faull and an
OS condition until the resetting sequence is confirmcd.
Such a scherne delays OS tripping until the swing is well
l~HU

past the 180° position and is returning to an in-phase con-

dition.
r- -------------, 21-2
1 1
The single blinder OS package is recommended for a trans- 1 1 30
60ms i L-- --1 21-2
rnissio n linc protected by phase-cornparison relays. Another Pic~up : zos os I
__ j 00
1
application is OS tripping on swings passing beyond the r-------...J os
reach of the line relays (on an R-X plot). Finally, this re-
lay scherne is particularly well-suited for generator OS trip
applications.
ir1
1

L--~--1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
To TripC,rcuil

1
Redasing : 1
1
The two-blinder scheme (Figure 19-12) senses OS condi- 1
L_ ---------- KS(68~
lions by observing the operating sequence of the outer and
inner blinders. A fault produces essentially simultaneous
operation; an OS condition causes the outer blinder to op-
ZOS(681
era te first followed by operation of the inner blinder. The
two-blinder scheme allows trip-area restriction of distance
relays, OS trip-blocking, OS reclose-blocking, or OS trip-
ping, regardless of normal load-flow direclion.
21-2(30)
~->.c-~~f.;.;,,==-...c_~-,,...~~~R

Non Figure 19-13: The Type KS Out-of-Step Blocking Scheme.

Operale

For faults, 21-2 trip contacts clase to short out the OS

unit coil, blocking pickup of the OS unit. This scheme is
recommended for short- to moderate-length lines; it should
not be used on long lines, whcre the load might operate
21B·! } SDBU-2 the Zos unit.
218-0 Relay
--t--""".._...¡-~~~~~~~~R
IX.A.2. KST (68) OS Tripping Scheme

Figure 19-14 illustrates the KST scheme for OS tripping us-

Figure 19-12: The Two Blinder Scheme for Out-of-Step Detection.
=
(l = lnner Blinder, O Outer Blinder)
IX. RELAYS FOR OUT-OF-STEP SYSTEMS
LX.A. Electrornechanical Types
lX.A.l KS (68) OS Blocking Scheme
Figure 19-13 shows the configuration for the type KS out-
of-step blocking scheme. lf Zos operates appro xirnately
60 milliseconds or more ahead of 21-2, the OS relay op-
erates to block ali or selected tripping. The OS relay also
blocks reclosing where sorne elements in the systern, such
as zone I or time trips, are allowed to operate during OS.
ing approx. time. After sensing an OS condition in the
same way as does the KS relay , telephone relays TI and
T2 add two requirements: that the 21 ·2 relay (for example,
the KD-10 phase-distance relay) operate for 100 millisec-
onds, and that 21-2 reset 50 milliseconds or more ahead of
Zos· On a swing Zos operates first to energize OS. lf
21-2 does not operate befare 60 milliseconds, OS operates.
Then when 21-2 opera tes the AR re lay, TI is energized.
lf both Zos and 21-2 remain closed for 100 milliseconds
T l operates. As the swing rnoves out 21-2 resets first, de-
energizing AR and permits the energiz ation of T2 through
AR back contacts if Zos is still closed. lf Zos does not
reset for 50 milliseconds T2 operates to trip and block re-
closure as shown.
A fault which operates z05 and 21-2 together (or within
approximately 60 milliseconds) will operate 21-2, and AR
 l9·11

r; IT2
are placed in parallel and the operation of either produces
121-2
3~ 1 tripping. Such a system allows tripping on severe swings
that enter the characteristic circle of either unit.

AR
.-~OS,-i:--..--- -1Ty IX.B. Solid-state Types
os Trip ond
Reclose Block

AR
IX.B. I. SKSU (68) OS Blocking Scheme

Figure 19-15 shows the block diagram for the concentric

Figure 19-14: The KST Out-of-Step Tripping Scheme.
contact shorts out the OS coil. This permits the Zone 2
timer to time out and trip , blocking reclosure.
IX.A.3. KD-3 (21) Restricted Trip Scheme
circle form of OS relaying. Reclosing is blocked if device
68 opera tes at least 25 to 45 rns befo re 21-2, a nd then 21-2
operates for 23 ms. In the Figure, operation of 68 and not
the ground relay 21 N-2 or 21-2 opera tes AN D 1 to energize
the 25-45 ms adj. timer. The operation of the timer seals
in the 21-2 input to AND I thru OR. The subsequent op-
eration of 21-2 energizes ANO 2 and the 23 ms timer.
This operares Y for reclose blocking functions.

The operation of the 25-45 ms timer blocks AND-3 for

The screening technique shown in Figure 19-9 uses an Zone I trip, AND-4 for Zone 2 trip and sets up AND 5 for
offsel·distance relay (KD-3) to cornplement the distance Zone 1 tripping only after 68 resets on an out-of-step
unit (Type KD-10) used for the tripping function. Contacts swing. These functions are ali optional.

Opt,onol to Block ZI ~-----------------------------, Device Number Chart

Trip Unlll 68 Resets I 21 N·2 ·SDGU·6 Ground Relay
I Reset
21·1 ·SKOU Zona 1 Phase Relay
21 ·2 ·SKOU Zone 2 Phase Relay
1
1
68 ·SKSU oor-or-srec Relay
1 95 ·SRU Output Relay
1
-e( ·NOT
os 1
I
1
1
1
L_ ---------------------------J
X
l-i-1 -+------------------..------- To Trip Auxiliory
1
1 1
r--------
L-- -------
- ----,
--- _J
1

-+---------------------

--------a
1 l-i-1 To Otner Funct,ons
1
1
1
1
1
1

i
1L 21·2 1-- .....
- .J1

ToOther
21N.2t- .... _-Fu_nc_t_io_n_s_-+--------<l 25·45/0 Reclose
BIOcking

68 Logic 95

Figure 19-15: The SKSU Out-of-Step Blocking Scheme.

19-12

Fault clearing with 21-1 will occur through AN0-3. The across B¡ to reset it, ANO 6 has an output. An output
fault operation of 21-2 removes the OR input to AND-l from AR occurs 20 ms later for tripping and/or reclose
so that tripping by pilot or Zone 2 timer can occur thru block.
AND-4.
Swings originating to the left of B travelling left to right
1
produce identical action thru ANO 1, ANO 3 and ANO S.
IX.B.2. SDBU-1 (21 B), SI (50), ARS (94 ), OS Tripping
Scheme
The restricted trip feature prevents tripping on recoverable
swings. Both B 1 and B2 must operate thru ANO 7 to super-
For lhe single-blinder OS tripping scherne (Figure 19-16),
vise operation of the SKDU lhree phase unit.
swings from right to lefl cause B to operate, B2 to oper-
1
a te, B to reset , and then B2 to reset. lt is of no conse-
1 Out-of-step block reclosing is not available wilh this corn-
qucnce whether B is initially operated by load and B2 does
1 plernent, unless OS trip is uscd.
nol subsequenlly reset.

Thc above scheme is recommended for generator OS sens-

Device 50 (Sl-1 relay) is sensit ively sel and opera les al a ing , because its logic requires that swing ohrns emerge Irorn
current levcl above máximum zero power factor ínter- the side of the relay characteristic opposite lo that from
change, line charging, or lransformer magnetizing current. which it entered. That is, there rnust be a reversa! of power
The device operares when a swing bcgins and prohibits load ílow as viewed from the machine terrninals, and the re-
pickup trip. versa! rnust occur during high current. These two condi-
tions will not be satisfied unless the machinc is out of step
Thus ANO 2 opera tes when B and 50 opera te with B2 re- with the systern , A low current reversa! can, however, oc-
1
set to identify the swing origin in the positive R region. cur during motoring.
After 4 milliseconds, the feedback circuit holds the upper
input to AND 2. ANO 4 has an output when the swing This scheme, supervised by an overcurrcnt or distance re-
moves between B 1 and 82 to opera te both blinders. lf lay, is the most secure available for generator OS tripping.
ANO 4 output persists for 20 rns and the swing moves Asevere but stable swing, such as shown in Figure 19-8,

Reclose
Trip Block
Op1,onot Superv,s,on of
3 ~ Un,1 of Si<OU Reloy TIIT
1
1
TTTT
..
SOBU·I J ARS
.

Example of Notation: Required:

B1 Denotes B 1 (Not Operated) One SDBU· 1 Bhnder Relay (B 1 fB2I
B 1 Denotes B 1 (Operated) One sr-t (50). 2·8A Element
4(0 4Ms. Operate Time O ms Reset One ARS (94)

Figure 19·16: The SDBU-1 Out-of-Step Tripping Scheme.

 1'1·1 J

cannot cause misoperation, regardless of timing involved in
the transien t.
JX.B.3. SDBU-2 (21 B), SIU (SO). SRU (95). OS Tripping
and Blocking Scherne
The block diagram for the two-blinder scheme is shown in
Figure 19-1 7. Characteristics B 1 and B4 ( the o u ter blinders)
control one output (218-0) of the SDBU-2 B2 and 83
(the inner blinders) control another (21 B-1).
lf swing ohms progress from right to left on the R-X día-
grarn, optional device 50 or alternate optional device 21-2
opera tes early in t he swing. As the ohms seen by the relay
cross the 84 characteristic, the 218-0 out put appears.
ANO I output drives lhe 50-ms timer. If 83 does not op-
erate to produce a 21 B-1 output within this 50-ms interval,
the feedback to OR I from the timer causes 21 B-1 to lose
control of AND 1. At this point, three-phase unit blocking
of tripping occurs, if the "three-phase trip block" switch is
closed.
As the swing continues, the inner blinder elernent , 83 op-
era tes to produce 21 B-1 output. AND S is t hen satisfied
and, after 20 ms, produces an output from ANO 3 to "seal
in" the 21 B-1 input through OR 2. Al this point , a lrip
commitment is made with the top input to AN D 4 satis-
fied but the operation of the outer blinders 218-0 negates
AND 4 so that tripping does not yet take place. Also at this
point, relay unit Y causes reclose-blocking.
After the swing progresses to the point where B I resets to
remove the 21 B-0 input. AKD 4 output appears although
ANO 1 output is simultaneously removed. The drop-out
time of the 0/500 timer continues thc top ANO 4 input
for 500 rns, providing a continuing "breaker Iailure initiate "
input.
lf the "out-of-step trip" switch is closed, trip-mit iation
takes place 20 ms after reset of 218-0. ata point where
breaker interruption is more desirable as outlined in Section
V.E. earlier. An available option also allows OS tripping to
be initiated simu1taneously with reclose-blocking.

Opt,onol
C'ose to Block SKOU Block Ovemde
3fl! UnitTriponO·S",,._ r----,

lq
~--------------- ..... ____., 62 l
BKXks SKDU
Reqwed Only L----' 30 Untt Trop
for O·S Tr,pping
Outer
Bl,nder-l--"-21-8--C-+--------t
BIXB4 01500 Pulse
C.rcu,1
lnne, 2181
Blinder-
B2XB3 Trop

50 8Fl

L
UseE,tner

X ~.::_-:: T T BIOcking
--1_v_J__v_J__vj_Re_cio_se----~
,.,.~
Non
Operate

Device Number Chut Options: Legend

21·2 - SKDU a) Restnct Trip and Reclos,ng Block OS - Out-ot-Step
21 BI 21 B·O • SDBU-2 Relay bl Trip Blockmg BFl · Braaker Fa,lure
50 - SIU 2-8A e) 0-S T nppmg When 21 B·O Resets tmtiate
95 - SRU Output Relay
62 - r,mer (SRUI Note
y - Telephone Relay
21 B-I Set to Exclude Stable Sw,ng Area

Symbols Example of Notation.

-<( -NOT 20/0= 20 Ms Operare T,me
X -ANO O Ms. Reset Tome

Figure 19-17: The SDBU-2 Out-of-Step Tripping/Blocking Scheme.

19-14
When a fault occurs, 21 B-1 opera tes well within 50 ms of
218-0 and ANO l is blocked. Therefore, no blocking of
either tripping or reclosing takes place.
Timer (62) is an available option designcd to release a sus-
tained out-of-step block of tripping. This function is use·
ful in the unlikely event that (1) a three-phase fault oc·
curs during an out-of-step condition, or (2) the out-of-
step swing were so slow that thc transmission line werc en-
dangered thermally. In the lalter case, the possibility of
breaker damage caused by premature opening must be
weighed against the possibility of thermal Line damage.
This package provides maximum flexibility of operation
and sophistication of control.
X. SELECTION OF AN OUT-OF-STEP RELA Y SYSTEM
Figure 19-18 provides a logic table to aid the sclection of
relaying schemes for OS relaying functions.
 19-15

Start Out of
St ep System
Setec non

Are OS Trip ANO y y Single· Blinder

OST
OSRB
Reclose Block Static
Preferred
-· 5cl:ieme
Only Required (SDBU-1)
IX.B.2
N N

Concentric
"l~ Circle Scheme
(K:ST)
IX.A.2

Are OS 3111 Trip Is Blinder

OSTB Block AND/OR OS y Required for y
OSRB Reclose Blocking 3111 Fault/Load
Only Required Discrimination
N N

y Concentric
Static

l
Circte Se.heme
Preferred
(SKSÜI
IX.8.1
N

Concentric
Clrcle Scheme
(KSI
IX.A.1

Are OS 3jíl Trip Is The OS Tripping

y y Du$1 Blinder
OSTB Block,Controlled And Blocking '
OST Recovery Voltage, Schér!\e
Action to be (SOBU·Z. GS·2)
OSRB OS Tripping,and Varied Frequently
Reclose Blocking IX.B.3
Required
N

-~
N

Is Load Is OS Tripping Is Blinder

Screening Required for y to be Allowed y Required for y
RT
3f21 Fault/Load Only When Zone· 1 Phase 3111 Fault/Load
Discrimination Distance Operates Oiscrimination
N N JN

Sta tic
Preferred - y

. . • ..1¡1;; JN
fílq " ..
.;, 11;
>· ..
Static y
Out-of:~!+Pi:, Preferred
Rel3ytng · "·
~' ;; 4 * :i: •
·-
Legend: N
Qttset
os . o ut of
Step Dist.antli
OST · O ut of Step Trip 0(f<M!I'
OSRB • O ut of Step Reclose Block IX.A.3
OSTB · Out of Step Trip Block '---T--'
RT · Restrictive T rip Sections in Which The Equipment
Y = Yes Operation is Described.
N = No

Figure 19-18: Out-of-Step Relaying Selection.

 20·1

Chaptcr 20 l. INTRODUCTION

The large majority of overhead line faults are transient and

Reclosing and Synchronizing
can be cleared by momentarily dcenergizing thc line. In
Author: W. A. Elmorc fact, utility reports show that less than 1 O percent of ali
faults are permanent. lt is therefore feasible to improvc
l. lntroduction service continuity by automatically reclosing the breakcr
after fault relay operation. For exarnple, automatic recios·
11. Reclosing Systern Considerations ing greatly irnproves service in radial distribution circults,
where continuity is clirectly affected by circuit interruption.
A. One-Shot versus Multiple-Shot Reclosing Relays
B. Selcctive Reclosing High spced reclosing on tic lines, if succcssful, also assists
C. Deionizing Times for Three-Pole Reclosing in maint aining stability.
D. Synchronism Check
E. Live Line/Dead Bus, Live Bus/ Dead Line Control
(LLDB/LBOL) This chapter will describe the application and operation of
F. lnstantaneous Trip Lockout reclosing and synchronizing relays. Both are programming
G. lntermediate Lockout types, rather than fault detect ing relays.
H. Compatibility with Supervisory Control
l. lnhibit Control
J. Trip Control
K. Factors Governing Application of Reclosing 11. RECLOSlNG SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

111. Considerations for Application of lnstantancous Re·

closing 11.A. One-Shot versus Multiple-Shot Reclosing Relays

A. Feeders with No Fault-Power Back-Feed and Mín- The desired attributes of a reclosing systern vary widcly
imum Motor Load
B. Single Ties to Industrial Plants with Local Genera- with user requirements. In an area with a high leve! of light-
tion Equipment ning incidence most transmission line breakers will be suc-
C. Lines with Sources at Both Ends cessfully reclosed on the first try, Here, the small addi-
VI. Reclosing Rclays and Their Operation tional percentage of successful reclosures afforded by rnulti-
ple operations does not warrant the additional breaker op-
A. Review of Breaker Operation erations. Single-shot reclosing relays are entirely justified.
B. Single-Shot Reclosing Relays
1. Electromechanical SG R-12 Relay Operation
2. Solid-State SGR-51 Relay Operation Subtransmission circuit reclosing practices also vary widely,
3. Solid-State SGR-52 Relay Operation dcpending on rcquirements of the loads supplied. lf there
C. Multi-Shot Reclosing Relays
are motors or generators in the systern, the first rcclosu re
l. Solid-State SGRU-54 Relay Operation
2. Electromechanical RC and Serni-Static DRC may be time delayed. Most often, two or threc reclosures
Relays are uscd for subtransmission circuits operating radially, and
3. Solid-State S RCU-2 Relay only one or two reclosures for tie circuits. Approximatcly
4. Surnmary of Reclosing Relay Characteristics
half the utilities use sorne form of circuit checking before
V. Synchronism Check time-delayed reclosure to assure that either synchronisrn
exists or onc circuir is dcad.
VI. Dead Line or Dead Bus Reclosing

VII. Selcctive lnitiation Multiple-shot reclosing relays are warrantcd on distribution

circuits with significan! trec cxposure , whcre an unsuccess-
VIII. Automatic Synchronizing
ful rcclosure would generally mean a customcr outagc, A
typical utility experie nce on distrihution fcedcrs in an urca
with a large numbcr of annual thunderstorm days is as
follows:
20-2

Number of Successful Reclosures Percent ing the devíce in thc protected environment of the control
housc and of havíng a more accurate timing devíce, tite time
lmmediate 83.25 delay should be in thc reclosing relay rathcr than in the
Second ( 15 to 45 seconds) 10.05 breaker.
Third ( 120 seconds) 1.42
Total Successful 94.72 11.D. Synchronism Check
Lockouts 5.28
A synchronism check relay is an elernent in the reclosing
system which senses that the voltages on the two sides of a
The data show that increasing the nurnber of reclosures does breaker are in exact synchronism. (An autornat ic synchro-
improve service continuity , but thc incremental benefit of nizer , on the othcr hand, initiates closure al an optimurn
each additonal reclosure is less than for the preceding one. point when thc two systcrn scgrncnts are not in precise syn-
chronisrn but have a small beat frequency across Lhc breuker
11.B. Selective Reclosing contacts.) Thc setting for a synchronisrn check relay is
bascd on the angular tlifference between the two voltages
The speed of tripping is a significant factor in the success of and is designed to minimize the shock to the systcm when
a rcclosure on a transmission circuit , The faster thc clear- the breaker doses. The angular difference between the
ing, the less fault damage and/or degree oí are ionization, voltages does not, however, determine the transient to which
the less the shock to the system on reclosure, and the thc systcm will be subjcctcd upon closure. Rather, the
greater the likclihood of rcenergization without subscquent shock to thc systcrn is related to the voltage across thc
tripping. The probability of successful reclosing, then, is breakcr contacts (thc "phasing voltage"). The phasing volt·
improved if reclosing occurs only after a high speed pilot age is thc critica! quantity in deterrnining whether or nota
trip. By allowing only pilot tripping to initiate high speed breaker is allowcd to close.
reclosing, maximum success can be assured for single-shot
reclosing, and many unsuccessful reclosures can be avoided. 11. E. Live Line/Dead Bus, Live Bus/Dead Line Control
Such a systern eliminates the high probability of unsuccess- (LLDB/LBDL)
ful reclosure on non-pilot trips, particularly for end zone
faults where clearing occurs sequentially and the deener· The LLDB/LBDL control is frequcntly intro duced in a re-
gized time is short. closing system for a transmission or subtransrnission circuit.
This scheme allows thc breakcr to be closcd when the cir-
11.C. Deionizing Times for Three-Pole Reclosing cuit on onc sidc is cnergized at full voltage and the circuit
on the other side is dead. The sy nchronisrn check and
When reclosing at high speed, the dead time required to de- LLDB/LBDL controls are complementary. The sy nchro-
ionize the fault are must be considered. Based on a study nism check unit allows closure whe n the two voltages are
of 40 years of operating experience, mínimum dead times high but in sy nchronism: the volt age control allows closure
can reasonably be represented by a straight line, using the when one voltagc is normal and the other is very low pref-
following eq uation: erably zero.

kV 11.F. lnstantaneous Trip Lockout

t = 1 0.5 + --
34.5
cycles (20-1)

On distribution systerns, where coordination with fuses is

where kV is rated line-to-line voltage. On a 345-kV sys- necessary , it is customary to protcct the fuse on the first
tem, for example , this formula would give an approximate trip with an instantaneous tripping elerne nt on the sub-
required dead time of 20.5 cycles. station breaker relay. This control is removed after the first
trip, allowing the fuse to blow and preventing a second
lf the inhcrent mínimum rcclosing time of the brcakcr in- breaker trip if the fault is beyond the fuse. The rcsult is a
volved can produce a shorter dead time than indicated, a re- combination of mínimum outagc arca for permanent lateral
closing delay must be incorporated. In the intcrest of plac- faults and rcclosing for tcmporary faults.
 20-3

ll.G. lntermediate Lockout tiating a trip on the basis of DBDL (dead bus/dead line) af-
ter five seconds. Under control of LLDB, LBDL, or syn-
Unattended substations not equipped with supervisory con- chronism check, as muchas possible of the system is then
trol can be controlled more effectively by a reclosing scheme put back together automatically. lf a permanent fault ex-
that locks out on a permanent fault before exhausting ali its ists, only the faulty section is isolated. This will be de-
reclosing shots. With an attended (or supervisory controlled) scribed later in section IY.C.3.
substation at the other terminal of the line, a manual reclos-
ure can be attempted after Iockout, whenever the operator n.K. Factors Governing Application of Reclosing
judges that the fault no longer exists. lf manual closure is
successful, a synchronism check relay will operate-in con- Thc factors governing the application of reclosing are surn-
junction with the reclosing relay in the Intermediare lock- marizcd below.
out condition at the unattended station-to restore the
second-line terminal to servícc. This reclosing scheme is a. For instantaneous reclosing, the protective relay con·
very effective for multiterminal Unes where severa) unat- tacts must open in less than the breaker reclose time.
tended stations without supervisory control are discon- This presents no problern with high spced relays but on
nectcd for line faults. sorne slow speed relays, it rnay be necessary to reduce
the contact íollow, or "wipe."
11.H. Compatibility with Supervisory Control
b. The breaker latch check ( LC) and, whcrc applicable, the
Ali reclosing systems should incorporate sorne provision al- low pressure switch (LPC) should be used to avoid op-
lowing circuit breakers to be tripped manually or by super- crating the breaker if the trip latch and gas pressure are
visory control without inadvertent reclosing action. Such a not functional.
provision is inherent in any reclosing systern that has an
"initiate" function. In other reclosing systerns, lockout c. The breaker should be derated according to NEMA or
must be accomplished by other rneans, such as a breaker the breaker rnanufacturer's standards.
control switch slip contact or the temporary removal of
control voltage to the reclosing relay. d. For instantaneous reclosing, are dcionizing time must be
considered (see Scction 11.C.).
11.1 lnhibit Control

In sorne applications, rcclosing should be inhibited until fur- 111. CONSIDERATIONS FOR APPLICATIONS
ther action takes place in other devices. For example, if a OF INSTANTANEOUS RECLOSING
dual breaker schcme is used, and one of the breakers fails
while clearing a fault, a transfer trip signa) would be sent to The applications of instantaneous reclosing fall into three
the rcrnote terminal to clear the fault contribution from categories:
that source. Reclosing of the remote breakcr would be pre-
vented until the transfer trip signa! was removed. (There a. Feeders with no fault power back-feed and mínimum
must also be assurance that removal of the transfer trip motor load.
signal is not a result of channel failurc.) With this addi-
tional logic in the reclosing relay, the remete breaker can b. Single tiesto industrial plants equipped with local gener-
be reclosed reliably , simply by resetting tite local breaker ation.
failure lockout relay after the faulty breaker has been prop-
erly isolated. c. Lines with sources at both ends.

11.J. Trip Control 111.A. Feeders with No Fault-Power Back-Feed and

Minimum Motor Load
Subtransmission applications require a cornbination of sim-
ple protective relaying and discriminating fault isolation. lnstantaneous reclosing can be applied to these feeders, but
One optional reclosing relay offers this combination by ini- care must be taken to avoid reclosing into motors that are
still rotating, since their internal voltage may be out of
phase with the system voltage.
Ill.B. Single Tiesto Industrial Plants with Local
Generation Equipment
Since these circuits must be opened at the plant before re-
closing, instantaneous reclosing at the utility end is not
practicable unless instantaneous tripping of the plant tie or
local generator is assured. Without this instantaneous trip-
ping, the local generation, even when quite small, can main-
tain the are for line faults and negate successful reclosure.
Reclosing may also occur out of synchronism.
111.C. Lines with Sources at Both Ends
Simultaneous tripping of the line is necessary for instantan-
eous reclosing, which invariably requires sorne form of pilot
relaying. Both ends of the line can be instantaneously re-
closed only if there are sufficient ties between the terminals
to ensure that the two ends will not be out of synchronism
during the dead time. In the absence of sufficient ties, one
end can be reclosed instantaneously by LBDL (live bus/dead
line) reclosing, with the other then closed manually or by
synchronism check.
Where two EHV lines parallel a lower voltage system, there
may be instantaneous reclosing problerns unless both lines
are in service. The lower voltage ties are frequently not
strong enough to maintain synchronism during the dead
period. Supervising instantaneous reclosing with a line volt-
age check from the parallel line, plus a S 2a contact from
the local parallel line breaker, will prevent reclosing when
the parallel line is open at either or both ends. A single-
phase voltage check is usually adequate, but a three-phase
voltage check is more reliable.
lnstantaneous reclosing of both ends of a line without any
checking is widely practiced for high voltage transmission
lines in the USA. These lines have multiple interconnecting
circuits and are protected with pilot relaying. The practice
is usually suspended when the pilot relaying is out of serv-
ice, since Zone l phase and ground or ground instantaneous
relaying do not provide 100 percent instantaneous line pro-
tection. There are exceptions based on the probability of
end zone faults versus faults in the 70-to-80 percent center
section, where Zone 1 overlap provides instantaneous pro-
tection.
Reclosing transmission lines near large generating plants
should be done cautiously to avoid possible transient surges
which may damage the machines.
IV. RECLOSlNG RELA YS AND THEIR OPERATION
IV.A. Review of Breaker Operation
Knowledge of the operation of the breaker and its auxiliary
contacts is essential to understanding how reclosing relays
function. The time sequence of events occurring within the
breaker and its auxiliary contacts during a typical instantan-
eous reclosing cycle is shown in Figure 20-1. The auxiliary
contacts are actuated directly by breaker main contact
travel ("a" and "b") or by the operating mechanism travel
("aa" and "bb"). Auxiliary contact operation occurs within
a limited time band in the cycle. The relative time of opera-
tion of the "a" and "b" contacts is more important in con-
trol and reclosing schemes than the actual time in the cycle.
(ContocrTooch) --- - - -
Breoker
Contocl Trove!
I I
I I
,1 \ /
l
Trtp
O'--~~~~-~/-,.__~-~------"'~-~~~
(FullOpenl
Time (Cycles)
Notes:
1) lf Required for a Particular Scheme. The "a" and "b"
Contacts May be Overlapped.
2) 52a and 52aa · Closed When Breaker is Closed
52b and 52bb · Closed When Breaker is Open.
3) Cross·Hatched Areas lndicate Variable or Adjustable Range.
Figure 20.1: Typical Circuit Breeker lnstantaneous
Reclosing Cycle.
 20-5

Poslt,ve 120/240 Volls Ac Device Number Chart

143 43 Automahc Oeerano« Cutout Switch

435 - SynchronmngSwitch
52a Corcu,t Breaker Aux,hary Switch (Open When
Breaker ,s Openl
52b · Crrcuu Breaker Aux,hary Switch (Closed When
Breaker 15 Openl
52aa Circuot Breaker Awuhary Switch (Open When
Breaker 15 Openl
--------- -----,
1
52bb Circuu Breaker Aux1hary Sw,tch(ClosedWhen
Breaker os Open]
1
52LC · Latch Check Switch

L---f-,
1
1 52LPC Breaker Low Pressure Check
52 52
X 52CC Cucuu Breaker Closong C0tl
X
52X Breaker Control Relay
52Y Breaker Cutoff Relay
79 Automauc Reclos,ng Relay (Type SGR 121
79M Timer Un,1 ol Type SGR· 12 Relay

l.
M
79X Toggle Un,1 or SGR· 12 Relay
O · Operator C0tl
R - Reset COII
r-- ......---+--, Contacts Shown alter Reset Co,1 Energ,zed
1101 52 (Rcset Pos,1,onl
0 TT y 868 Bus Lockout Relay
101 Manual Control Switch
Nego11ve
L-----~~~-~~---- ---------- J 0 When Synchronmng SV111tch Supervises 1 O 1 C contact
an Extra 101T Con11c1 IS Needed as Shown

Figure 20·2: Externel Schemetic of The SGR-12 Reclosíng Relay.

IV.B. Sinale-Shot Reclosing Relays
Single-shot reclosing relays are available in both electrome-
chanical and solid-state form.
IV.B.I. Electromechanical SGR-12 Relay Operation
Toe schematic for this type of reclosing relay is shown in
Figure 20·2. When the breaker is tripped by protective re-
lays I O I SC will be closed so that as 52bb closes, reclosing is
initiated. This energlzes the 52X coil through the preclosed
contacts 79X, IOISC, 43, 52LC, 52LPC and 52Y. The 52X
make contact energizes the 52CC breaker close coi! to
close the breaker. At the same time, another 52X make
contact "seals" the 52X coil, anda third 52X make contact
energizes 79X-O to toggle the 79X latching unit. This opens
the 79X contact in the closing circuit and closes the 79X
contact in the reset motor circuit. Closing the breaker and
52a contact energizes 52Y to deenergize 52X. The 52X/52Y
scheme prevents pumping when the systern is closed man-
ually into a permanent fault.
If the breaker remains closed, 52a stays closed, and the
motor is energized. After a preset interval, timer motor
contact 79M energizes the 79X-R reset coil to toggle the 79
unit back and restore the SGR-12 to its "normal" condition,
ready for a subsequent breaker trip.
If the breaker does not remain closed, 52a reopens to deen-
ergize the motor 79M, and the SGR-12 is locked out. The
relay remains in this state and can produce no further re·
closing action until the breaker is closed manually and the
motor times out to reset 79X.
Thc breaker mechanism shown is only one of a number of
schemes used, but the reclosing action as similar for ali the
othcr schemes.
IV.B.2. Solid-State SGR-51 Relay Operation
The logic diagram for the SGR-51 is shown in Figure 20·3.
lt is functionally identical to the SGR-12 but requires only
a 52b contact to indicate breaker status. The single-shot
function provides an output during the closing strokc of the
brcaker, similar to the action of a 52X contact. lt has a
short output immediately following a" l " input. lt then re-
verts to "O", regardless of whether the input "I" is short or
contínuous. Thus, with the SGR-51 reset and the breaker
closcd, the 52b switch is open, anda continuous "L" exists
at the single-shot input with a steady-state "O" output. For
this condition, the flip-flop outputs are as shown. With the
negated input to the upper arnplifier, relay CR is continu-
ously energized, providing a closed contact CR in the
breaker close circuit.
Positive
r---------- --- -- ------- -------- ----
: RS
' 1
11
1
52b
L-------------- -- ------- - --------- ---
Figure 20.3: logic Oiegrem of The SGR-51 Reclosing Relay.
As the breaker is tripped by the relays, the only open con-
tact in this breaker close circuit, 52bb, closes (Figure 20-3).
Shortly after, 52b closes to produce a "O" input to the
single-shot. Then, as the breakcr recloses, 52b opens, put-
ting a "I" on the single-shot input. A short "I" output fol-
lows to opérate the flip-flop. The upper output of the flip-
flop changes to "I ", putting a" I" on the negated amplifier
input and dcenergizing CR relay, This opcns contact CR in
thc close circuit. The lower output of the flip-flop changes
to "O", operating the amber lamp to indicate a lockout.
lf the breaker stays closed (52b open), the two "L" inputs
to ANO permit an output to the reset timer. lf this condi-
tion continues for the reset interval (adjustable írom 3 to
30 seconds), the lower input (e) to the flip-flop is ener-
gized. This resets the Ilip-flop, turns off the amber light,
and closes CR ready for the next automatic reclose opera-
tion.
If the breaker retrips before the reset timer times out, the
closing of 52b rernoves the "I" from the ANO to stop the
timer and prevent the reset. Further action is blocked un-
til the breaker is closed manualJy.
IV.B.3. Solid-State SGR-52 Relay Operation
The SGR-52 logic, shown in Figure 20·4, is similar to the
SG R-51 but has reclose-initiate and reclose-blocking func-
tions. Also, the closing contacts CR are not preclosed. To
initiate reclosing, CR must be energized vía the reclose-
Device Number Chart
43 - Automatoc Operation Cutout Switch
868 52b - Crrcuu 8reaker Aux1hary Switch
(Closed When 8reaker is Open)
52bb - Circuu 8reaker Aux1hary Switch
• (Closed When 8reaker is Open)
IlOlC 52LC - Latch Check Switch
52LPC • 8reaker low Pressure Check
43$ 79 - SGR-51 Automatic Reclosing Relay
868 • Bus Lockout Relay
t 01 · Manual Control Switch
435 · Synchronozing Switch
~ - Contact of Normal Energized Relay
<>-* - Relay Terminal and FT
Case Test Switch
Anto· Log1cStates Shown With Breaker Closed
Pump (52b Open and SGR-51 Reset}
8reoker
Close
Circu11s
......J
initiate circuit. This reclose-initiate contact may be on an
auxiliary in the SRU relay or, in an electromechanical pilot
system, on the 62X breaker-failure-initiate auxiliary. The
reclose initiate circuit includes a 100/0 millisecond timer
which aJlows time for the 52b contact to operate even if
only a momentary closure of the reclose-initiate contact oc·
curs.
When a trip for which reclosing is desired (such as a pilot
trip) occurs, the reclose-initiate auxiliary contact closes to
provide a "I" input to OR-1. The output deenergizes the
100/0 timer and places a zero on the input of O R-2. This
puts a "O" on the negated ANO-! input. As the breaker
opens and 52b closes, the middle negated input to the
AND-1 goes to "O". lf a lockout has not occurred, the
three-input AND-1 is satisfied to initiate the reclosing tirner
(O to 2 or 2 to 20 seconds). The output of the timer satis·
fies AN 0-2 to opera te CR and initiate reclosing.
The 52b switch may close several cycles after breaker ínter-
ruption, If the reclose timer is set on zero, the CR relay
will close its contacts at approximately the same time as the
52b switch closure. This produces only a slight delay in re·
closing relative to the SGR-51 with its preclosed CR con·
tacts and reclosing initiated by the faster 52bb switch. For
EHV applications where intentional delay is required, the
delay is provided by the O-to-2-second timer. Where longer
delays are required, 2-to-20 or 6-to-60 second timers are
available.
 Posinve

Reclose
Reclose lnitiote 868
Block
Auxiliory

Note2 G

CA

Note3
1--<~---------=-1º
S 01----4---4

Flip·
Flop

i--___...;º"-4 3·30 1----º;..¡c _ _...__

0-,__ ..___,
Seconds

Negot,ve

Device Number Chart Notes:

43 · Recloser Cutout Switch 1 Log1c States Shown W1th Breaker Closed. 52b Open and
43$ · Synchronizing Switch SGR-52 Reset
52a • Breaker Auxiliarv Switch (Open When Breaker is Open) 2 Light Not ReQuired Onlv a Circu1t to Negative Through
5:i:b • Breaker Auxihary Switch (Open When Breaker is Open) 52b is ReQuired
79 · SGR-52 Relay 3 Upon Energ1zat1on of Power Supply, Relay Locks out
868 • Bus t.ockout Rclay Unto! Reset
101C • Breaker Control Switch Close 4 Output from O 2/60 Causes Fast Trmeout of 100/0
101SC • Breaker Control Switch Slip Close T1mer
D-M- · Relay Terminal and FT Case Test Switch

Figure 20·4: Logic Diagram of The SGR·62 Recfosing Retay.

Reclosc blocking is necessary for functions such as out-of-
step tripping and breaker failurc transfer tripping. The re-
close block input to OR-3 operates a timcr to input OR-2.
This output of OR-2 overrides the initiate input and blocks
rcclosing by rernoving one of the AND-1 inputs, evcn though
the pilot systern may be calling for a reclosure. To avoid
critica) resetting between initiate and block inputs, the 0.2/
60-millisecond tirner provides a continuing block signa! for
60 milliseconds after removal of the blocking input.
The lockout and reset operation is the same manncr as de-
scribed above for the SGR-51 relay.
IV.8.4. Solid-State SGRU-52 Relay
This relay is virtually identical to the SGR-52; the cornpo-
nents, however, are enclosed in a 19-inch rack mounting
chassis. Also, the relay contains an interna! reclose cut-out
switch, which allows the SGRU-52 to be taken out of serv-
ice without affecting thc ability to test it. Ali rclay connec-
tions are made through a plug connector and harness,
IV.C. Multi-Shot Reclosing Relays
IV.C. l. Solid-State SGRU-54 Relay Operation
The SGRU-54 rclay is a two-shot reclosing relay that pro·
vides one high speed rcclosurc on pilot trips and one time-
delayed reclosurc on ali rclay-initiated trips. Basically, it
consists of two SGR-52 relays: one provides the high speed
reclosing function; the other provides the time-delayed re·
closing function.
For HIV applications, initial reclosure may be delayed to
allow an appropriate dead time. lf necessary , the time·
delayed reclosure may be supervised by an externa! CVE-1
synchronism check relay (equipped with LBDL/LLDB con·
trol). lf a synchronism check is not used, the reclosing
20-8
times (2 to 20 seconds) are controlled solely by the S2b
switch input.
The SGRU-54 relay can assist in equalizing the reclosing duty
on the circuit breakers in a breaker-and-a-half or ring bus
configuration. This function can be accomplished by (1) al-
lowing the reclosing relay for one breaker to reclose at high
speed on pilot trips, with a fairly long second reclosing time
delay and (2) by setting up the reclosing relay for the adja-
cent breaker for short time-dela y reclosing only.
Thus, on a high speed pilot trip, the first breaker will re-
close at high speed. If reclosure were unsuccessful, the sec-
ond breaker would provide the second reclosure. lf that
were also unsuccessful, both reclosing relays would be
locked out by interconnecting circuitry.
lf the second reclosure were successful, the second relay
would reset in 3 to 30 seconds, and the reclose inhibiting in-
put to the first SGRU-54 would be removed. The first
breaker then doses after a time delay. The first relay then
resets to its normal condition after completion of the 3-to-
30-second timing cycle.
The tirne-delayed reclosure may be supervised by a synchro-
nism check relay and, if desired, by LBDL and LLDB auxil-
iaries.
[V.C.2. Electromechanical RC and Semi-Static
DRC Relays
These two relays provide multiple-shot reclosing, which can
be programmed for a variety of applications. The RC se-
quences under the influence of a motor started by a relay-
initiated tri p. The D RC monitors its state in the reclosing
sequence by a stepping switch; timing for the reclosing and
resetting delays is performed by the DRC with solid-state
elements. Both relays provide the same functions, closing
the breaker in accordance with a preset sequence, resetting
if the breaker recloses without further tripping, or locking
out if reclosing is unsuccessful. Both have provisions for
instantaneous trip lockout, as described earlier. The DRC
permits fast resetting, while the RC must go through its full
drum cycle before resetting.
IV.C.3. Solid-State SRCU-2 Relay
This three-shot reclosing relay for subtransrnission and
transmission line applications incorporates a synchronism
check and LLDB/LBDL control f'eatures. It provides high
speed reclosure, followed by one or two time-delayed re-
closures.
The high speed initiated reclosure is controlled by a O-to-1-
second calibrated tirner, adjustable from no intentionaJ de-
lay to the appropriate dead time for EHV applications. For
additional reliability, the high-speed reclose-initiate input
incorporales an 8/0 millisecond seal-in circuit.
Toe SRCU-2 also provides a high specd reclosure inhibit in-
put. This circuit is designed so that the inhibit signal takes
precedence over the initiate input and blocks only high
speed reclosing. To avoid critical resetting between the ini-
tiate and block inputs, a 0.2/60-millisecond timcr provides
a continuing block signal for 60 milliseconds after the block-
ing input is removed.
The two time-delay reclosure circuits have independently
adjustable 2-to-120-second calibrated timers. High speed re-
closure is not a prerequisite for time-delayed reclosures.
Both time-delayed reclosures are supervised by the synchro-
nism, and the LLDB/LBDL functions; that is, one of these
functions must be present (within its setting) for time-
delayed reclosures to take effect.
The SRCU-2 can be programmed for independent reclosure
times for LLDB- and LBDL-supervised reclosures. The
timers normally committed to the first and second time-
delayed reclosures are set to allow a maximum of two,
2-to-120-sccond independent reclosures before lockout
After sequencing with no successful rcclosures. the relay
Jocks out to prevent further operations. Lockout is indi-
cated by an amber light and energization of the lockout re-
lay. The sequence check circuitry, designed to initiate lock-
out upon any discrepancy of breaker operations (through
52b) versus relay operation settings, provides the SRCU-2
with an antipump capability , When de is applied, the
SRCU-2 locks out until reset. Ali elernents, except the in-
dicating lights, are reset 3 to 60 seconds after the breaker
remains closed.
The SRCU-2 also incorporates an intermediate lock out
function, with one remaining reclosure available to final
lockout. Final reclosure is allowed under synchronism
check supervision only.
Four voltage level detectors indicate line and bus status.
Each is independently adjustable from 3 to 120 V for live
and dead conditions.
 20-9

The synchronism check detector, indicating the phasing One Line Diagram
5 to 120 V. A
voltage bctwecn linc and bus, has a range of
synchronism confirmation requires that one of the voltages
be above thc live voltagc leve! sctt ing.

An optional inhibit input blocks ali reclosing as long asan Load Load
input persists-such as a reception of a transfer trip signal SRCU·2 Settings
from a remote station. This inhibit input is retained if loss A B e o E F
of signa! occurs when "trip" is being received. LLDB 2 Sec 14 Sec 12 Sec 2 Sec
LBDL 10 Sec 14 Sec 12 Sec 14 Sec t 2 Sec 10 Sec.
Reset 10 sec. 10 Sec tO Sec 10 Sec 10 Sec
Another option, the supervisory close input, overrides lock-
Permanent Fault on Une CD Temporary Fault on Line CD
out to provide one additional reclosure if either synchro- A and F Trip A and F Trip
nism or the LLDB/LBDL conditions are satisfied for more B. C. O and E Trip B. C, O and E Trip
A and F Reclose (LBDL) A and F Rectase (LBDLI
than 2 seconds, lf the circuit recloses and retrips and dur- B and E Reclose (LLDB) B and E Redase (LLDB)
ing this time the supervisory close input continues, a second SRCU·2 at B and E Reset SRCU·2 at B and E Reset
C Clases (LBDL) c Clases ILBDL)
reclose wiJI not occur. A Tnps o Clases (LBDLI
O Clases (LBOL)
F Trips
B and C Trip
Another option is a voltage output on a DLDB condition D and E Trip
after a 5-second delay. An externa! A RS relay driven by A Recloses
B Recloses (LLDB)
this output can provide trip control. This use of this option F Recloses
E Recloses (LLDB)
is diagramrncd in Figures 20-5 and 20-6. Faults are isolated
by tripping ali intervening devíces-ssuch as switches B, C, O Figure 20-5: Typical Example al an Application of The SRCU-2 on a
and E when breakers A and F trip-and then reclosing them Subtran~mission Circuit.

discriminatingly as shown. Switches B, C, O and E must be

able to close into the worst three-phase fault, but need not IV.C.4. Summary of Reclosing Relay Characteristics
interrupt fault current. This scheme also dicta tes that bus
and line potential be available for each switch. The characteristics and features of the various solid state re-
closing relays are summarized in Table 20-1.

Permanent Fault on Line CD Temporary Fault on Line CD

Foult Occurs FaultOccurs

-fo 1 1

..
Closed 10,___ i-,,. Closed -o
Breoker A Breoker A 10
Open
--ho
...,~••
Open
Switch B ---¡-,. 1z Sw11ch 8 12

e -l.-,, e -- ho ••
- -
Switch Sw1ICh
o -- • o --r-i,
-
Switch ... )1 SwolCh
,. -- r-i.
... ,
Switch E --:-.. 1Z S1 Switch E "'
1 '1
Breoker F Breoker F -o 10
=t-10 1 1 1
Reset 1 Rese, -o 1
2or----,21 1 ~. 1 ._
-- -,.
SRCU-2 A SRCU-2 A 20

SRCU·2 B
Not Rese1
--.-,, •• r-1~1. : '
"' SRCU-2 B
No1 Reset
1

SRCU·2 e __¡.._.
1 1 SRCU-2 e -- -,. 1
•
-- -,.
I, _
SRCU·2 o -+-,. 1 SRCU·2 o 1 1
E ----,, l1r"- .. 1
•• E -- -,. 1
---,
SRCU·2 SRCU-2
SRCU·2 F -,º f.o, ..1 1 SRCU-2 F -o 1 20

Seconds -+O
1
10 20 30 '
40 50 60 70 80 90 Seconds-+ o 10 20 ' 30 40 !IO 6 o
Faull Locoted ond lsoloted Al I Load Restored AII Load Restared AII Unes Restored

Figure 20-6: Timing Chart for Fault on Line CD in The System of Figure 20-5.
20-10

Table 20-1

Solid State Reclosing Relay Characteristics

(Table Gives Times in Seconds)

SGR-Sl SGR-52 DRC SRCU-2

SGRU-52 SGRU-54
(Flexitest (Flexitest (Flexitest (Rack)
Functions (Rack) (Rack)
Case) Case) Case)

Instantaneous one-shot reclosing X

First-shot reclosing with time delay 0-45

lnitiated first-shot reclosing with time

dela y 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-1

Second-shot reclosing with time delay 0-45 2-120

lnitiated second-shot reclosing with

time delay 2-20

Third-shot reclosing with time delay 0-45 2·120

Interna! reclose lockout switch X X X

lnstantaneous trip lockout after any

preset trip or when closing in from
lockout X

lntermediate lockout to allow final

reclosure on synchronism only X

Synchronism check, live bus/dead line

and live line/dead bus functions X

Optional inhibit input to restrain ali

reclosing X

Reset interval with instantaneous rcsct

following 3-30 3-30 3-30 3-30 10-60 3-60

Test/reset switch for indicator lamp

check X

Lockout relay X X

Output relay for energizing close circuit X X X X X X

lndicating light for functional reclosures X

52b switch controlling green light for

ali breaker status supervision X X X X X

Locks out on application of de X X X X X

 ~u·.1..1

1~-s_,_o,_io_n_a_u_s ~ De Control Sus Device Number Chart

Pos. 25 . Svnchro-venher Relay tType CVE)
2 -+-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ , 101 25/0 . Operat,ng Elec1romagne1 (Type CVEI

3~ ------------------------------.-------t-- o 25/R
52
. Restramt Elec1romagne1 (Type CVE)
· Power Circuu Breaker
101 52b · Breaker Auxihary Contact
se (Closed When Breaker is Open)
1O1 Circun Breaker Control Sw,tch
25 25 1, 1 O 1-0 . Contact as Shown m Off Positoon
52b R o 101-SC. Contact Closed Dunng and Aher a
~

I
Close Operatioo
25
2!I 25
R o Other Dev,ces Requored for
Anti·Pump Control Not Shown

Closing
Circuit
of Breoker

Volroge Tronsformer Neg .-.il..--------

Figure 20.7: Synchronism Check Relay Schematic Oiagram.

V. SYNCHRONISM CHECK

Synchro-verifier relays check that the voltages on the two

sides of a breaker are approximately the samc in magnitude Conrocl Clos,ng Iorque -~- ..
When Line Volloge A •..,..._.,..~~- Bus Volloge
and phase. These relays supervise automatic or manual Folls Wi1h,n Circle IReference)
closing of a circuit breaker and are connected as shown in
Figure 20-7. The 52b contact ensures that the CVE con-
tact is open immediately after tripping.

Because of their slow speed, even on low time dial settings,

these relays cannot pcrform a generator automatic synchro-
nizing function except on very small machines (500 kV A),
where a fairly large angle at closing may be permissible. The
relays contain no provision for energizing the closing coil at
Figure 20-8: Typical Synchro·Verifier Relay Closing Characteristícs.
the precise angle that would ensure zero voltage across the
breaker contacts at thc instant of closure.

The synchro-verifier relay's prime function is to ensure that,

bcforc closing a breaker, two system segments are already 40°
tied together or that two separated systems are very nearly
in synchronism. Characteristics of the CVE group of relays
are shown in Figures 20-8 and 20-9. Their normal adjust- 50° 50º

ment is 20 degrees, whích may be increased to 60 degrees

if such a wíde closure angle will not disrupt thc system.
60°

Figure 20-1 O plots the maximum beat frequency across the 70° 70°
open breaker that will allow the CVE contacts to close. For
exarnple, ata 20-degree angle of closure, a slip frequency of
.O 16 7 (the valu e that gives a synchroscope pointer rnove-
90º 90°
ment at the rate of a clock's second hand), would requíre a
Figure 20-9: Typical Voltage Anglo Characteristics of CVE for
time dial setting on the CVE of 2 or less. Various Angle Settings. (Rated Voltaqe on One C,rcuit)
20-12

.30

\ -, Partial Schematic

I 143
:-,..

'\
.20
<,
.15 -- -- ~ r-, --- --- -- ,_ __ --
:----1------- -- ------1--- - -- -- M-i:
>---

---
60º 179
r--- IOlC

.10
.08 . "
'
-
i
"r-, "'r---...._
l : CVE !V2 V2
.06 1 '
\ 1 1
.05 I V1 V1 :
.04
\ 1
1
1
1
1 40°
1 .............. ......__ L---- ---- --------------- - -- ---~
.03
--..

.02
\\ r-- r--
¡-_
,_ __ ,_ __ ,_ __ --- - - --
..,
i~
.015
¡\ r-,-- -- -- >- --

..
g .o 1 .......

s
r-;
~ .008 ..... Device Number Chart
........ 20º 52c · Close Cost of Circuit Breaker

--
. 9- .006
vi .005
Opero te r-- 43
79
· Automatic Reclose Lockout
· Reclosong Relay
E
:, r---
.004 101 C · Control Swotch Contact (Closed in "Clcse"]
·~ V1 • Voltage Umt for One Side of Breaker
o
;'!;: V2 • Voltage Unit for Other Side of Breaker
.0030 l 4 7
2 3 5 6 8 9 10 11
Time Dial

Figure 20- 1 O: Approximate Maximum Slip Frequency for Which Figure 20-11: Typical Synchronism Check Control of Breaker
Operation Occurs. (Rated Voltage on Both Sodes) Closing Using CVE- 1.

VI. DEAD LINE OR DEAD BUS RECLOSING

At sorne Jocations, reclosing is initiated when the bus is hot Partial Schematic

and the line is dead, or vice versa. This arrangernent may

be used, for example, to energize one end of a transmission
Time
Jine if the bus is hot. Reclosing at the other end of the line Deloy Resel
Trips
could be supervised by a synchro-verifier relay. The CVE-1 Monuolor
Supetvisory
relay contains elements for synchronism check, DLLB, and Trips

LBDL controls. Figure 20-11 illustrates its basic operation L.--------- - -- --cvE-21
for controlling breaker closure. Manual breaker closures by ~lnitiote
1
T SX-1 HighSpeed 1
1 O 1 C can also be supervised as shown. ~ Reclosures 1
1

To avoid any possibility of pumping, synchronism check

520 ':
..r=:-::--
-2
SX
ln,tiote Time
Deloyed SX·2¡
1
1

closures should always be made under control of a reclosing 1

1
C.:.. Reclosures 1
1
1
relay or similar device (see Figure 20-J 1). The synchro-
..r=:-
1
1 1
verifier relay does not include an antipump provision, nor 1
1 Check 1

_
1 ~ Synchronism
will the antipump scheme in the breaker reliably prevent 1
._
1
1 _____ _J 1
pumping when closing into a permanent fault.

Figure 20-12: Reclose lnitiation Scheme of CVE-2 Relay.

VII. SELECTIVE INITIATION

Figure 20-12 shows how the CVE-2 relay is used to selec- high speed and tirne-delayed reclosures; tirne-delayed relay
tively initiate reclosures. The reclosing action is modified trips initiate only time-delayed synchronism check recio·
by the nature of the trip: high speed relay trips initiate sures; and manual trips do not initiate reclosures.

VIII. AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONIZING
The type XASV synchronizing system can be used at unat-
tended locations or at attended locations for automatic
synchronizing or supervision of manual synchronizing, The
heart of this system is the X synchronizer, which compares
the voltage on two sides of an open breaker and energizes
the breaker close coil under the following conditions:
a. lf the frequency difference is below a preset amount
b. At such a phase angle that the breaker contacts close
when the systems are in phase.
20-13
The automatic synchronizer can also be equipped with the
following options:
a. An acceptor (A) to restrict the range of voltages at which
breaker closing is initiated
b. A governor control auxiliary (S) to initiate angular adjust-
ments needed for synchronizing
c. A regulator control auxiliary (V) to initiate voltage level
adjustments needed for synchronizing
d. A synchronism check device (Y) to avoid possible clo-
sure because of component failure in the XASV.
 21-1

Chapter 21 l. INTRODUCTION

When a power system is in stable operation at normal fre-

Load-Shedding and quency, the total mechanical power input from the prime
Frequency Relaying movers to the generators is equal to the sum of all the con-
Author: E. A. Udren
nected loads, plus ali real power losses in the system. Any
significant upset of this balance causes a frequency change.
l. lntroduction The huge rotating masses of turbine-generator rotors act as
repositories of kinetic energy: when there is insufficient
ll. Rate of Frequency Decline mechanical power input to the system, the rotors slow
111. Systern Operating Limits down, supplying energy to the system; conversely, when ex-
cess mechanical power is input, they speed up, absorbing
IV. Load-Shedding energy. Any change in speed causes a proportional fre-
quency variation.
V. Frequency Relays

A. CF-1 Induction-Disc Underfrequency Relay
B. KF Induction-Cylinder Underfrequency Relay
C. SDF-1 Digital Solid-State Underfrequency Relay
VI. Formulating a Load-Shedding Scheme
A. Maximum Anticipated Overload
B. Number of Load-Shedding Steps
C. Size of the Load Shed at Each Step
D. Frequency Settings
E. Time Delay
F. Location of the Frequency Relays
VII. Special Considerations for Industrial Systems
Unit govemors sense small changes in speed resulting from
gradual load changes. These govemors adjust the mechan-
ical input power to the generating units in order to maintain
normal frequency operation. Sudden and large changes in
generation capacity through the loss of a generator or key
inter-tie, can produce a severe generation and load irnbal-
anee, resulting in a rapid frequency decline. lf the gover-
nors and boilers cannot respond quickly enough, the system
may collapse. Rapid, selective, and temporary dropping of
loads can rnake recovery possible, avoid prolonged systern
outage, and restore custorner service with mínimum delay.

VIIl. Restoring Service

IX. Other Frequency Relay Applications 11. RATE OF FREQUENCY DECLINE

Before designing a relay scheme for system overload protec-

tion, it is necessary to estímate variations in frequency dur-
ing disturbances. Figure 21-1 shows a system, S, which con-
sists of two interconnected subsysterns, SI and s2. For all
of S, the following relationship rnust hold true for constant-
frequency operation:

~ Generation = ~ Loads + ~ Losses (21-1)

There can, however, be more generation than load in S 1 and

more load than generation in s2, with the difference being
transferred by an inter-tie as shown. If the total loads and
losses are equal to the total mechanical power input, there
will be no change in generator speed or frequeocy with
time.

If, however, the tie is suddenJy lost as a result of a perrna-

nent fault, the kinetic energy in the S generators must in-
1
crease to absorb the excess power input; that is, the genera-
 tors must speed up. Conversely, the s2 generators
must The larger the inertia constant, the slower the frequency de-
slow down. lf both generator output and load are assumed cline for a given overload. Older water-wheel generators,
constant with frequency, the average rate of change of fre- with their massive rotors, have inertia constants as large as
quency overa specified frequency intervaJ is given by: 10. Newer generating units, however, may have inertia con-
stan ts of only 2 or 3, since the trend in turbine-generator
pL (f1 - f0)
R design is toward larger outputs with smaller rotor masses.

·{- ::: )
Power systerns are becoming more prone to serious fre-
quency disturbances for given arnounts of sudden load
(21-2) change.

where
Since the inertia constant is based on the unit capacity, the
R = average rate of change of frequency, Hz/s effective constant for a machine operating at partial load
is higher than the rated value. Even so, since load-shedding
p = power factor rating of the machines schemes must function most effectively during heavy sys-
tem loading, the rated, rather than effective, H value should
L = average per unit overload be used to calcula te the largest expected average rate of
change of frequency, R.
= Load - power input
(21-3)
Power input

fo = initiaJ frequency for interval on which R Ironsmissioo Tie

is being caJculated
200MW Tronsfer

f1 = fina] frequency for interval Generotion = 1000 MW Generorion = IOOOMW

Lood=800MW Lood=1200MW
MW-s
H = inertia constant, --
MVA
Figure 21·1: lnterconnected System S.

The inertia constant (H) is defined as the ratio of the rno-

ment of inertia of a generator's rotating components to the Assuming system s2 in Figure 21-1 has a net load of 1200
unit capacity. It is proportionaJ to the kinetic energy in MW and a totaJ generation of l000 MW, the tie must carry

tbese cornponents at the rated speed. Por exarnple, a 200 MW from s1 to s2. The inertia constant for s2 is 4,

turbine-generator rated at 100 MV A, with an inertia con- and the power factor rating of the machines there is 0.85.
stant of 4, has a kinetic energy of 400 MW-s, or 400 MJ, in If the tie is suddenly lost, the average rate of frequency
its rotor when spinning at 3600 rpm. lf both power output drop between 60 and 58 Hz in system s2 is calculated as
and load were constant with declining frequency and speed, follows. From Equation (21-3):
the generator could supply its full load ( with p = l) for 4
Average Per Uni it Over I oa d L --------=--
= Load - Generator Input
secor.ds, with no power input to the turbine, before the ro- Generator Input
tor would come to a complete halt. The inertia constant
(H) for an individual unit is available from the manufac- 1200 - 1000
turer. For a system, a composite value is calculated as fol- 1000
lows:
=0.2

H ¡ MV A I + H2 MV A2 + ... J-1 M V A then, using Equation (21-2):

H = 11 11
(21-4)
systern MV AJ + MVA2 + ... MV A11
pL(f1 - f )
R= o

,{-:~:)
(21-2)

where subscripts 1,2, ... n refer to individual generating

units.
 21-3

(.85) (.2) (58-60) frequency declines, the overload is reduced and the fre-
4 (.0656) q uency drop slows. At 57 .3 Hz, the freq uency is down by
4.5 percent, and the load is reduced by 9 percent to 91 O
= -1.30 Hz/s MW. This reduction completely relieves the overloac.l, and
the frequency will level off here.
The negative rate of change indicates frequency drop. Halv-
ing the inertia constant-putting H = 2 rather than H = 4-
60
will double R. Repeating the caJculation for the intervaJ be- H(Cons1on1)
tween 58 and 56 Hz: +
58 10% Overíood --1----1

R = (.85) (.2) (-2)

56
4 (.0678)

= -1.25 1-lz/s (21-2) 54

Between 52 and 50 Hz, R = -1. l 2 Hz/s. For reasons dis- 52

cussed in Section m, a 60-Hz power system that reaches :i:

>,
o 50
this frequency range could not avoid collapse. e
"'"
O'

Assuming that the load and the power input to the genera-
tor remained constant with frequency, the rate of drop (R)
would decrease only slightly even after an intolerably large
frequency reduction. Real loads, however (particularly mo-
tor loads), do vary with frequency, tending to decrease as
frequency drops. This effect relieves sorne or all of the
overload that caused the frequency disturbance. The load
reduction factor, (d) is defined as follows:
percent change in load (21-5)
d = ----------~
percent change in frequency
This factor may vary from 1 /2 to 7, depending on the mix
of loads, although typically most utilities assume d = 2 (that
is, a 2 percent decrease in load for each l percenl decrease
in frequency). An exact valué of d can be determined only
by observing variation of load with frequency on the system
under consideration.
J: 480 4 12
8 16 20 24 28 32 36
Time, Seconds
Figure 21-2: Behavior ol Frequency During Overload.
Figure 21-2 shows the behavior of system frequency for
several combinations of inertia constant and percent over-
load, assuming d = 2. The ratio of d to the percent overload
determines the final settling frequency of the system; the
inertia constant affects only the speed with which the new
steady-state condition will be reached.
The effect of d on the value of R, calculated using Equation
(21-2), can be determined by using small decrements of fre-
quency, f1 - f0. L must also be adjusted each time to retlect
the reduction in loading as the frequency drops. This series
of solutions will yield a close approximation of the desired
curve.

111. SYSTEM OPERATING LIMITS

Using Equation (21-3) and assurning that d = 2, H = 4, and
p = 0.85 on a 1000-MW systern, the overload resulting from As described above, severe overloads on power systems will
a sudden loss of 90 MW (9 percent) of its generation is: produce rapid frequency drops to levels radically below nor-
L = Load - Generator Input mal. The apparatus in such a systern, however, is designed
Generator Input for nominal 50- or 60-Hz operation, and often cannot func-
tion effectively or safely at more than a few percent below
1000 - 91 O rated frequency. This performance deterioration can com-
910 pound the overload crisis and haste n system collapse.

= 0.1 per unit (or 10 percent) (21-3) Generating plants, where optirnum performance is essential
to ride through overloads, are highly sensitive to frequency
The frequency will initially drop at 0.65 Hz/s, but, as the drop. There are two rnajor problcm areas:
a. Motor-driven auxiliaries, particularly boiler feedwater
pumps, will slow down, reducing generator output.
Safety margins in generator cooling and bearing lubrica-
tion systems may become dangerously Most
small,
plants will operate effectively only down to the 56.5- to
5 7 .5-Hz range.
b. The last rows of long, low-pressure blades in steam and
gas turbines are tuned to opera te free of resonance
around 60 Hz. When running under heavy load at about
58.5 Hz or below, the steam excitation frequency ap-
proaches blade resonance. The blades may thus vibra te
severely, producing fatigue stress. On the average, blades
should not be subjected to a total of more than 1 O min-
utes of severe vibration over their lifespan-fatigue is
cumulative. A11 possible precautions should be taken to
avoid operation below 58 to 58.5 Hz. Frequency and
time limits for turbine units should be specified by the
man u facturer.
IV. LOAD-SH EDDING
For gradual increases in load, or for sudden but mild over-
loads, unit govemors will sense speed change and increase
power input to the generator. Extra load is handled by us-
ing spinning reserve-the unused capacity of alJ generators
operating and synchronized to the system. lf alJ generators
are operating at maximum capacity, the spinning reserve is
zero, and the governors may be powerless to relieve over-
loads.
In any case, the rapid frequency plunges that accompany
severe overloads require impossibly fast governor and boiler
response. To halt such a drop, it is necessary to intention-
ally and automatically disconnect a portion of the load
equal to or greater than the overload. After the decline has
been arrested, and the frequency returns to normal, the load
may be restored in small increments, aJlowing the spinning
reserve to become active and any additional available gen-
erators to be brought on line.
Frequency is a reliable indicator of an overload condition.
Frequency-sensitive relays can therefore be used to discon-
nect load automatically. Such an arrangement is referred to
as a Ioad-shedding or load-saving scheme, and is designed to
preserve system integrity and rninimize outages. Although
utilities generally avoid intentionally interrupting service, it
is sometimes necessary to do so in order to avert a major
system collapse. In general, non-critica! loads, usuaJly resi-
dentia1, can be interrupted for short periods, minimizing the
impact of the disturbance on service.
Automatic load-shedding, based on underfrequency, is nec-
essary since sudden, rnoderate-to-severe overloads can
plunge a system into a hazardous state much faster than an
operator can react. Underfrequency relays are usually in-
stalled at distribution substations, where selected loads can
be disconnected.
The object of load-shedding is to balance load and genera-
tion. Since the amount of overload is not readily measured
at the instant of a disturbance, the load is shed a block ata
time, until the frequency stabilizes. This is accomplished by
using several groups of frequency relays, each controlling its
own block of load and each set to a successively lower fre-
quency. The first line of frequency relays is set just below
the normal operating frequency range, usually 59.4 to 59.7
Hz. When the frequency drops below this level, these relays
will drop a significant percentage of system load. If this
load drop is sufficient, the frequency will stabilize or actu-
ally increase again. lf this first load drop is not sufficient,
the frequency wil1 continue to drop, but at a slower rate,
until the frequency range of the second line of relays is
reached. At this point, a second block of load is shed. This
process will continue until the overload is relieved or until
all the frequency relays have operated. An alternative
scheme is to set a number of relays at the same frequency
or at close frequencies, and use different tripping time de-
lays.
Techniques for developing schemes and calculating settings
are described below in Section VI.
V. FREQUENCY RELA YS
Three types of underfrequency relays are available. The
induction-disc and the induction-cylinder relays are both
electro-mechanicaJ and use a frequency-sensitive phase-
shifting network. The third and most sophisticated is a
solid-state device that uses digital logic for precise and
stable setting. All frequency relays use ac voltage from a
voltage transformer ora capacitive voltage device for fre-
quency measurement.
V.A. CF-1 lnduction-Disc Underfrequency Relay
The induction disc (detailed in Chapter 3) is subjected to
 21-5

two ac fluxes whose phase relationship changes with fre- time dial setting of 1 /2; they are connected to trip 6-cycle
quency to produce contact opening torque above the fre- breakers. Figure 21-3b shows that, for a 1-Hz/s frequency
quency setting and closing torque below it. Characteristics decline at point X, the relays will trip 3.2 seconds after the
of the type CF-1 underfrequency relay for a frequency set- disturbance begins.

14 Since the frequency decline can not be arrested until loads

13 T are actually deenergized, all externa! time delays (including
12
breaker interrupting time) must be added to the relay time.
1 1
10 Adding the breaker time of 6 cycles, or O.J second, gives a
1
9
\ nme Lever .......
1-- total of 3.3 seconds from the start of the disturbance to in-
6 Time Leve,- 1-- 1 ....... ,.... terruption of the load. With a 1-Hz/s decline, the frequency
;- 1--
10_6_ r,,2 ....... -
"' 7
'§ 6
\
1

)O- 116 -2- ,.... \ vi/ at load interruption will be 3.3 x 1 = 3.3 Hz below normal,
\ \ / 1\\ V I/ V
~ 5 or 56.7 Hz.
.,¡ 4 \ / V ' '( I/ V

1\. / "'r-..v
~ 3
~ r-, '>.;: .... ~ ""'-~
:? 2
·c.
.9- 1
¡.!;:
059 - 17' r-,... !"-- .._

0o
..... ...._
- V.B. KF lnduction-Cylinder Underfrequency Relay

57 55 53 51
Frequency,Hz
(a) Response to lnstantaneous
Frequency Change.
/Trip Frequency = 58 Hz)
Figure 21-3: Characteristics of 60 Hz lnduction Disc (CF-1)
Frequency Relay.
ting of 58 Hz are given in Figures 21-3a and 21-3b. As the
curves of Figure 21-3a show, the relay has an in verse time-
underfrequency characteristic. The time-lever parameter re-
fers to the adjustment for initial contact separation, which
determines the operating time for a given applied frequency.
For predicting relay behavior during actual frequency dis-
turbances, a more useful plot is operating time as a function
of rate of change of frequency (Figure 21-3b).
The induction-disc underfrequency relay is accurate to
within 0.1 to 0.2 Hz ofsetting, depending on temperature
and ac potential variations. It is designed for applications
where high tripping speed is not essential.
49 2 4 s s 10
Rote 01 Whoch Frequency Droos, The induction-cylinder underfrequency relay is more accu-
Hz/Seconds rate and much faster than is the CF-J disc relay. The oper-
(b) Response to Constant
F requency Dechne
ating principie, however, is the same: two ac fluxes, whose
(Trip Frequency = 58 Hz) phase relationship changes with frequency, produce contact-
closing torque in the cylinder unit (detailed in Chapter 3)
when the frequency drops below the setting. The contacts
have a fixed initial separation and may close in as líttle as
5 to 6 cycles after application of underfrequency potential.
Phase shifts in the ac potential supply, resulting from fault
inception or clearing, may appear to the relay as sudden fre-
quency changes, and may result in incorrect cylinder unit
contact closure. For this reason, at least 6 cycles of inten-
tional delay must be added to the relay operating time be-
fore tripping. This delay may be obtained either by picking
up a 6-cycle telephone relay or by energízing an adjustable
static timer in the KF relay. The frequency setting accu-
racy of such a relay is about ±0.1 Hz, depending on voltage
and temperature changes.

The operating time of the CF-1 relay can be calculated as The tripping characteristics for the KF induction-cylinder
follows. lf the relay is applied to a system in which H = 8 relay are shown in Figure 21-4. This type of plot is use ful
and which is subjected to a 31 percent overload, the initial for predicting the frequency at which tripping will occur
rate of frequency decline between 60 and 58 Hz can be cal- during frequency declines. It reflects the fact that the fre-
culated using Equation (21-2). quency will continue to drop after the relay setting fre-
quency is crossed and during the time the relay is operating.
(.85) (.31) (-2) As a result, the actual contact closure freguency will be
R
8 (.0656) somewhat below the set value.

= -1.0 Hz/s The cycles of delay para meter associated with each curve in
the family is the intentional time delay setting after the cyl-
The CF-1 relays have a frequency setting of 58 Hz and a inder unit doses its contacts. The plot shown in Figure
21-6

6
J quency decline indicates that the trip contact will close
1 1 1 1 IJ
when the frequency is 2 Hz below the setting. Total operar-
30Cycte Deloy
\ 1/ ing time wilJ thus be:
,v I

V 2
I - x 60 {base) = 12 cycles (21-6)
JO
V
' 20Cycte Oeloy 1- 1-
\

1/ ' , In other words, the cylinder unit operates in 6 cycles, and

4
J , the timer adds a 6-cycle delay.
V , 15Cycle Oeloy
1/ ,v I\. ,
V L.)
I The time frorn disturbance inception to interruption, using
V
, ,v the KF induction-cylinder relay, can be calculated as fol-
V
I V
~ lows. Assuming the relay is applied to a systern in which

V
,, V
1/
6Cycle Oeloy - 1-
H = 2 and which has a 31 percent overload, the initial rate
of frequency decline is 4 Hz/s (Equation 21-2). lf the delay
/
, ,,,
V V \
2 v:
J 1 .......... timer is set for 1 O cycles, and the relay trips a 5-cycle
/ V ........
/ breaker, the total effective delay in disconnecting the load
1/ V t> ,V
....... is 15 cycles. Figure 21-4 indicates that, if the K F relay is
I V l/ 1 .....

V V L.,., set to trip at 59 .O Hz, load will actually be disconnected at

1/ vv , ~¡,.., point X, 1.55 Hz below the setting, or 57.45 Hz. Thus, the
JV: !..,,' ..... time from disturbance inception to interruption is:
11. v,......-
,,,
J~
60.0 Hz - 57.45 Hz
0o
2 3 4 5 s 7 8 9 10 11 -------- = 0.64 sec. (21- 7)
Rote ofChongeof Frequency, Hz/Secoods 4 Hz/s
Figure 21-4: Characteristics of 60 Hz lnduction Cylinder (KF)
Frequency Relay.
V.C. SDF-1 Digital Solid-State Underfrequency Relay
21-4 includes the inherent cylinder unit operating time. An
examinatioo of the 6-cycle-delay curve with a 10-Hz/s fre- The SDF-1 relay combines a crystal-controlled clock with

Clock
(Crystol
Oscillotorl

, t,- Pulses at 1.96 MHz

(Approximale) ENABLE

~
Ac Potentiol 0--- lsolotion Zero· 168,t Trip
Oeloy Shed
Supply ond Crossing
.
Bnory .-----; Control
Timer
TripO...!put ~ Load
120Vol!S o--- Filtering Detector COU'lter Counter

~~
INHIBIT
r
Timer Setting
Entered Here
RES ET

Under
vouoqe Frequency Sett,ng -'3
Penod 1---
Detector
Detector Entered Here

Figure 21·5: Simplified Block Diagram of SDF-1 Solid State Underfrequency Relay.
 21-7

digital counting circuiting to provide high accuracy, stabil-

ity and fast operation. In addition, it is insensitive to tran-
sient phase shifts caused by faults.

Figure 21-5 shows the SDF-1 in simplified block diagram

form. Filtered ac potential is applied to a zero-crossing de-
tector, which yields an output pulse for each positive-going
zero-crossing of the ac wave. This pulse defines the period
of the waveform and is used to trigger the accumulation of !
clock pulses generated by a stable 1.96-MHz crystal oscil- .
u
3

~
lator in a 16-bit binary counter. The next zero-crossing
pulse signals the end of the period and the period detector
s
1
:,..

2
circuitry checks the accumulated pulse count. The counter
is then cleared for the next cycle, and a new count is begun, j
The lower the Irequency, the longer the period and the
e
~
greater the number of clock pulses accumulated in the 16- J¡
bit counter during each cycle. ~ 2
e
..s
~
ie:
The relay frequency is set using a series of binary-weighted ::r: 2
ºo 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1()-
tap-screw inputs in the period detector circuitry, Inputs are
Ro!eof FrequencyOecllne, Hz/Second
set to the binary count for the period corresponding to the 1() 20 30 40 SO 60 70
H•2
desired tripping frequency. If the period detector circuitry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
H•4
10 20 JO 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 120 140
senses an accumulated count larger than indicated by the App,o11mo1e Pe<cent System Olle<lood
relay setting, the period detector signals the trip control {Assume Lood Constont W1!h Freouencvond PF•.85)
H ~ System Inertia Constant, KW Sec/KVA
counter that an underfrequency cycle has been detected.
( • )· Totol lnterrupt,nq Time ,s 2Cycles Greote,
The trip control counter will immediately start the delay
Figure 21-6: Characteristics of Digital Solid State (SDF· 1)
timer, but will not enable the trip output circuits until three Underfrequency Relay.
consecutive underfrequency cycles have been detected. The
trip output will reset and the timer stop only after two con- front panel. The curves are plotted, however, to show total
secutive cycles with frequencies higher than the set value relay operating time, which is approximately 2 cycles longer
have been detected. than the delay setting. Again, externa! delay should be
added to the delay setting when determining the time or
The relay tripping frequency is accurate to within ± 0.007 frequency at which load will actually be disconnected. The
Hz of the frequency setting. Total minimum operating time overload nomograph at the bottom of Figure 21-6 relates
is 4 cycles, including one cycle for pickup of the interna! percent overload to initial rate of frequency decline, based
tripping telephone relay. The delay timer is adjustable in on Equation (21-2) with a frequency interval of 60-58 Hz
1 cycle setting increments from 2 to 99 cycles, 33.3 ms lo and 0.85 power factor.
1.65 sec. 1 t starts after the first detected underfrequency
cycle. Thus with a 2 cycle setting, it wiU time out al the The total time frorn disturbance inception to load-shedding
same time that tripping is enabled by the trip control using the SDF-1 is calculated as follows. Assuming the re-
counter. lay is applied to a system in which H = 2 and which has a
38.5 percent overload. The rate of frequency decline is
If the ac potential faUs below approximately 40 Vac, an un- 5 Hz/s (Figure 21-6). lf the relay is set al 3 cycles (50 ms)
dervoltage detector blocks underfrequency cycle counting intentional delay and is connected to trip a 5-cycle breaker
in the trip control counter and resets the trip out pu t. for load-shedding, the curve delay is 8 cycles. With a fre-
quency setting of 59.5 Hz on the SDF-1 anda curve delay
The tripping behavior of the SDF-1 relay can be predicted of 8 cycles, Figure 21-6 indica tes that the load will be dis-
using Figure 21-6. The cycles of delay pararneter on each connected at 0.83 Hz below the relay frequency setting, or
curve corresponds to the actual delay setting on the relay's 58.67 Hz. Since the relay has an operating time of 2 cycles
21-8
longer than the intentional delay , the total interrupting
time is I O cycles (0.17 sec.). The total time from disturb-
anee inception to load·shedding is:
60.0 Hz - 58.67 Hz= 0_27 scc.
(21- 7)
S Hz/s
VI. FORMULATING A LOAD-SHEDDING SCHEME
Severa! procedures and criteria must be considered when
designing load-shedding schemes for specific systems. These
inelude:
a. Maximum anticípated overload
b. Number of load-shedding steps
c. Size of the load shed al each step
d. Frcquency scttings
e. Time delay
f. Location of the frequency relays.
VI.A. Maximum Anticipated Overload
Underfrequency rclays should be able to shed a load equal
to the maximum anticipated overload. Logically, there is
no reason to limit load-shedding to any percentage of load.
lndeed, it is prcferahlc to shed 100 percent of load, preserv-
ing interconnections and keeping generating units on line
and synchronized, than to allow the system to collapse with
customers still connected. E ven if 100 percenl of the load
is shed, service can be restored rapidly; if the system col-
lapses, a prolonged outage would result. For this reason, it
is necessary to evaluare the cost of the load-shedding
scheme in light of the probability that an overload of a
given severity can occur.
The system should be studied with respect to the overload
that would result from the unexpected loss of key general·
ing units, transmíssion ties, and busses. Stability studies can
help identify arcas which, if separated or islanded from the
rest of the system, would have a severe generation defi-
ciency. These arcas will need more cornprehensive load·
shedding.
In theory, the load reduction factor (d) must also be con·
sidered, since it may reduce the overload once the frequency
has dropped. If spinning reserve, oran additional genera-
tion capacity equal to the overload compcnsated for by d,
is not available shortly after the disturbancc, it will be irn-
possible to bring the system back to 60-1 tz operalion. This
will mean that an islanded system cannot be resynchro-
nized, and interconnections to neighboring utilities cannot
be reclosed. (It should also be remembered that the turbine-
gencrators must not be operated for extended periods below
rated speed.)
The load reduction factor (d) is rarely known exactly and
may vary with time. To design a conservativa scheme,
wltich will tend to shed enough load for system recovery to
normal frequency, it is safest to assume that d equals tero.
Vl.8. Number oí Load-Shedding Steps
Tite simplest load-shedding scheme is one in which the pre·
determined percentage of tite load is shed at once when a
group of relays senses a Irequency drop. While this scheme
will arrest any anticipated frequency decline, it will often
disconnect far more customers than necessary. A refine·
ment, then, would be to use two groups of relays, onc oper-
ating ata lower frequency than the other, and each shed-
ding half the predetermined load. The higher-set relays
would trip first, halting tite frequency decline as long as the
overload were half or less of the worst-case valué. For more
severe overloads, the frequency would continue to drop, al·
though ata slower rate, until the second group of relays op-
erated to shed the other half of the expendable load.
The number of load-shedding steps can be increased virtu-
ally without limit. With a great many steps, the system can
shed load in small increments until tite decline stops; almost
no excess load need be shed. Such a scheme rnay, however,
inhibit system recovery. As noted below, it may also be
difficult to coordinate so many steps.
Most utilities use between two and five load-shedding steps,
with three being the most common.
YI.C. Size of the Load Shed at Eacb Step
Where possible, the size of the load-shedding steps should
be related to expected percentage overloads. When a study
of the system configuration, ora stability study, reveals
that there is a relatively high probability of losing certain
 21-9

1:
11 generating units or lransmission lines, the load-shedding If the systern under consideration is large, there may be
¡11 blocks should be sized accordingly. Sizing can be deter- many possible combinations of losses to consider, each
1, mined as follows. causing onJy a small percentage overload in itself. In this
case, a number of overload situations rnay be Jumped lo-
Assume that a power system has a generating plant (A) ata gether and handled in one step. Conversely, it may be suffi-
remole location; that this plant is tied to the rest of the sys- cient to shed a percentage of the overload in a few equal
tem by long Lines; and that the system also is connected by steps. To implement the shedding evenly and at the distri-
" a transmission tie (B) to a neighboring utility. Assume also bution level, such a system would require a large number of
that A carries up to 20 percent of system load and B carries frequency relays, distributed over the system. With so
up to 12 percent. Stability studies show that certain faults many relays, there is no cost penalty in using more but
,1
or disturbances may result in loss of synchronism between smaller steps (five, for exarnple) to more closely balance
A and the system, so that its transmission ties must be generation and load, provided ali the steps can be coor-
','
opened. Furthermore, problems on the neighboring utility dinated.
systern may necessitate tripping of B. lt is important for
such a systern to implementa load-shedding scheme that VI.O. Frequency Settings
will preserve the remaining systern if A and B are lost. lt is
logical, therefore, to use three load-shedding steps to handle The frequency al which each step will shed load depends on
overloads resulting from: ( 1) loss of A, (2) loss of B, or the system's normal operating frequency range, on the op-
(3) loss of both A and B simultaneously. The overloads, in erating speed and accuracy of the relays, and on the number
order of increasing probability and seriousness, are listed in of load-shedding steps.
Table 21-1.
The frequency of the first step sbould be just below the
Table 21-1
normal operating frequency band of the systern , allowing
Percent for variation i11 the tripping frequency of the relay. The
Percent of Overload stable, solid-state relays may be set from 59 .6 to 59 .8 Hz to
Generation (from
Event Lost Equation 21-3) trip al the Iirst indication of trouble. For electromechani-
cal relays, the highest frequency setting should be approxi-
Loss of intercon- mately 0.1 to 0.2 Hz below the system's lowest normal op-
nection B 12 13.6 erating frequency. Whatever type of relay is used, the fre-
quency should be selected to avoid shedding for minor dis-
Loss of generator A 20 25 turbances from which the system can recover on its own.

Loss of both A and B The rernaining load-shedding steps may be selected as

simultaneously 32 47 follows:

The following load-shedding steps are implernented to han-
die each situation in succession:
Step I Shed 12% of total load ( 12% of total)
Step 2 Shed an additional 8% of remaining load (20% of
total)
Step 3 Shed an additional 12% of remaining load (32% of
total).
a. Using relay tripping curves, caJculate the actual frequency
at which load will be shed by the first-step relays for the
most severe expected overload. (See Section V, Fre-
quency Relays.)
b. Set the second-step relays just below this frequency, al-
lowing a margin that will tolerate frequency drift for
both sets of relays.

c. Calculate the actuaJ frequency at which the second load-

Note that each step sheds only enough load to handle the shedding step will occur. The rate of frequency decline
next, more serious contingency. Each step should be evenly by the second-step relays can be calculated as that re-
spread over the system by dropping loads al diverse loca- sulting from the most severe expected overload minus
tions. the load shed in the first step.

I!
 z i-ru
d. Again, allowing a margin for relay drift, set the third-
step relays below the Jowest second-step shedcling fre-
quency.
e. Repeat the calculations until settings are obtained for alJ
steps. Determine the system's lowest frequency value
before the final load block is interrupted for the worst-
case overload. This value should not exceed the systern's
low-frequency operatíng limit. To avoid turbine blade
vibration and the attendanl chance of fatigue damage,
the limit should be no lower than 58 to 58.5 Hz. lf the
turbines are permitted to opérate below this level but
within the fatigue time limit, t he load-shedding scherne
can be desígned to allow the frequency to drop to be-
tween 56.5 and 57.5 Hz. Below this limit, generating
plant performance will suffer.
If the lowest calculated frequency clip is well above the
lowest tolerable operating frequency, either the margin be-
tween steps or the number of steps can be increased to min-
irnize the chance of unnecessary load interruption. lf, on
the other hand, the low-frequency operating Limit is ex-
ceeded for the worst-case overload, one or more of the fol-
lowing remedies may be applied, after which the settings
must be recalculated:
a. Reduce intentional and/or auxiliary time delays
b. Use a higher first-step frequency setting, if possible
c. Use faster frequency relays
d. Use more accurate frequency relays to reduce the coor-
dinating margin between steps
e. lncrease the proportion of load shed in the early shed-
ding steps
f. Reduce the nurnber of steps and increase the size of
each step.
Continuing with the exarnple given in Section Vl.C above,
frequency settings may be calculated as follows. Assume
the first-step load-shedding frequency is 59 .65 Hz, and that
H = 4. From Table 21-1, the worst expected overload is 47
percent, and, from Figure 21-6, a 4 7 percent overload will
cause a frequency decline of approximately 3 Hz/s. Apply-
ing SDF-1 relays with the minimum possible intentionaJ de-
lay setting (2 cycles) and distribution breakers with an in-
terrupting lime of 6 cycles, the curve delay for removing
the loads is 8 cycles. Figure 2 1-6 indica tes tha t, for the
worst case of the simultaneous loss of generator A and inter-
tie 8, the first load block will be shed when the frequency is
0.5 Hz below the first step setting of 59.65 Hz, or 59.15 Hz.
The 12% reduction in the load of step I causes a corre-
sponding drop in percent overload. Using equation 21-3
with the reduced load of 12% ancl the same 32% generation
.88 - .68
loss, the overload now is x 100 = 29.4 percent.
.68
The rate of frequency decline is now approximately 1.91
Hz/s as can be observed from the nomograph of Figure 21-6
which assurnes an interval of 60-58 Hz or calculated directly
from equation 21-2 using any I to 2 Hz interval around
59.J 5 Hz. This calculated rate is not significantly changed
by the choice of the interval as long as it is within 1 or 2 Hz
sin ce equation 21 -2 is nearly linear.
AIJowing a safety margin of O.OS Hz (these relays are accu-
rate to± 0.007 Hz), the second-step frequency can be set at
59 .1 O Hz. Using the same time dela y and breaker interrup-
tion time, the 8-cycles-of-delay curve of Figure 21-6 for
29.4% overload indicates that the frequency will drop
another 0.32 Hz to 58. 78 Hz when the second-step loads
are removed for a 20% total. The overload is now reduced
.8 - .68 , or 17 . 6 percent , and the rate of frequency de-
to ---
.68
cline falls to approximately l .14 Hz/s. The third-step should
be set at 58.75 Hz, 0.03 Hz below the seco nd-step shedding
frequency , Again using the 8-cycles-of-delay curve, for a
17.6 percent overload, the frequency will drop another 0.19
Hz to 58.56 Hz when the final step is interrupted. At this
point, the overload is completely removed, and the fre-
quency is stiJI high enough to avoid turbine bla de stress.
lf the KF induction-cylinder relays were used in the above
example, the settings would be caJculated as follows. The
mínimum intentional delay setting of this relay is 6 cycles.
Cornbined with the 6-cycle interrupting time of the distri-
bution breakers, the total effective time delay is thus 12
cycles. The 12-cycle-of-delay curve can be found by calcu-
Jating how far the frequency will drop during the excess
time delay and adding this drop to the value obtained from
the 6-cycle curve (Figure 12-4).
In this e xarnple, the extra delay from the break er is 6
cycles, or 0.1 second, Since the frequency initialJy is drop-
ping at 3 Hz/s, it will fall an extra 0.1 x 3, or 0.3 Hz while
the breaker is interrupting. Figure 21-4 indicates that, with

6 cycles of interna! delay, the relay closes its tripping con-
tact at 0.8 Hz below setting frequency-yielding a l. l Hz
(0.8 + 0.3 Hz) total frequency drop below the setting of the
first-step relays, That is, if the first-step relays are set to
59.5 Hz, the load will be shed at 58.4 Hz. AUowing a mar-
gin of 0.2 Hz, the second-step relays can be set at 58.2 Hz.
Since the frequency is now declining at approximately 1.91
Hz/s, the second-step relays will shed their load at:
58.2 Hz - 0.6 Hz -(0.1 s x 1.9 Hz/s): 57.4 Hz
'-v-'~~
(setting) Figure (breaker)
21-4)
Again, aUowing a 0.2-Hz margin, third-step relays are set at
57.2 Hz. The rate of decline is now approximately J .l l
Hz/s*, so the th.ird-step relays will shed their load at:
57.2Hz-0.38Hz-(O.I SX l.l Hz/s):56.71 Hz.
Although this value is quite low, the system can be held to-
gether and restored to normal-frequency operation with
d-factor load reduction, govemor response, and diligent op-
erator monitoring. Sorne additional manual shedding may
be necessary.
VI.E. Time Delay
The above examples illustrate an important rule for load-
shedding schemes: use the mínimum possible time delay
consistent with relay security. The less the delay, the more
easily the scheme can cope with severe overloads. AlJ un-
necessary interposing auxiliary devices should be avoided.
Naturally, there are exceptions where extra time dela y may
be needed. One such case is a frequency relay connected to
a potential supply from a bus that supplies induction motor
loads (Figure 21-7). lfthe line breakers I and 2 trip and in-
terrupt current to the motors, the motors will slow down
rapidly. Because of trapped, decaying flux, the motors will
*This 1.11-Hz/s rate ofdecline, compared with 1.14 Hz/sin the
previous example, occurs beca use the frequency is 57 .2 Hz rather
than 58.7 Hz as before. As a result, R is calculated from Equation
21-2 using a 58-to-56-Hz interval for f1 and f0, rather than a 60-to-
58-Hz interval, The calculated valuc of R changes only slightly,
?"d thc effect on the KF load-shedding calculations is not signif-
icant.
21-U
Dc Posmve
UnderfrequencyReloy lmriotes
Shedd,ng of Feeders 4, 5 ond 6
l
res
tnducnon
MoiorLoods
50
<,
K0-1 OvercurrentRetoy DcNegoi,ve
Supervises Shedding
of Molur Loads
Figure 21-7: Underfrequency Relay With lnduction Motor Load.
excite the bus with ac potential of declin.ing frequency, pos-
sibly for 0.5 second or longer. As a result, the load-shedding
frequency relay will trip unnecessarily and lock out the
feeder breakers 4, 5, and 6. When remole breakers J and 2
reclose, service to the motors will not be restored, and
breakers 4, 5, and 6 must be reclosed manually. This situa-
tion has caused frequency relays with up to 30 cycles of de-
lay to trip.
An intentional time delay long enough to ride through the
false bus excitation is quite often too long to be consistent
with load-shedding requirements. A more effective method
is to supervise the underfrequency relay using the overcur-
rent relay (50) connected to the source current transformer,
as shown in Figure 21-7. The frequency relay (81) will trip
breakers 4, 5, and 6 and shed load only when significant
load current is flowing into the bus.
VI.F. Location of the Frequency Relays
In large systerns, the load-shedding relays should be spread
throughout the system to avoid heavy power flows and un-
desirable islanding. Load-shedding in one concentrated
area, for exarnple, can cause heavy power flow over trans-
mission lines from the area where the load was shed to areas
of excess load. Because of the original disturbance, these
lines may airead y be operating at h.igh emergency levels, and
the u neven load shedding may cause thermal overload or
system instabil.ity.
Concentrated loss of generation in certain areas of the sys-
tem will also result in frequency dispersion; that is, the fre-
.lJ • l .l

quency in the overloaded areas will drop faster than else- incompatible with security requirernents for rnilder dis-
where. The difference in frequencies, na tu rally, produces turbances.
rapidly increasing torque angles on the transmission lines, Oc Posotove
which may cause the system to go out of step. Fortunately, E UhlotyToe
load-shedding relays in the area of greatest frequency de-
cline wiU trip firsl. This action alleviates the u neven load·
ing, helps to bring the system back to uniform frequency,
and avoids the irnpending loss of synchronism. It is clearly
KO·l Resets ond
res
importunt, however, lo install sorne extra load-shedding ca- E nobles Shedd ,r19
pability in any portien of the system that is prone to con- lo, Lossof Utohty Toe
centrated overload. Tri~
Expendoble WL
Feede,s
Flnally, load-shedding priorilies must be establishe d. The
nature of the loads shed can usually be controlled only by
KFor SOF·l Set lo, Short Oeloyond DcNegohve
tripping feeders at the distribution level. The implication FrequencyJust SelowNormol
is thal frequency relays will be instalJed in many distribu- (a) Fost Sheddong Scheme for t.oss of External Source
tion substations and will control relatively small blocks of
load.
Utd11y T,e
KH·2lorCW Po .. e, Reloy CIOses Contocrs Whenover
Power FIOws Ql¡J From Plont ,nto Utoloty Tie 2

VII. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR

Zero Feed Buso,
INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS KFo, SOF·I Another Cusromer

Load-shedding prograrns are recommended for industrial OcPoslt,ve

power systems. Frequency rclaying is híghly desirable for
those systems where loads are supplied either exclusively by
local generation, or by a combination of local generators
and utility ties. Power rnust oflen be rnaintained to certain
P1ont Loods
essential processes lo avoid danger of personal injury, equip- Locot
ment darnage, product loss, or process disruption. Ge,,e,oiors

Por local generators, the same type of single- or mulliple-

step frequency-based load-shedding program can be applied
as that described for utility systems. Special precautions
rnay be necessary, however, Lo accommodatc tite rclatively
small numbcr of power sourccs, cach of which can supply a
considerable part of the total load. This type of scheme can
produce different, more serious disturbances.
For example, the scheme shown in Figure 2 l-8a is for a
plant that generales about half its own power requirernents,
the balance being supplied through a utility tie. If lhis tie
is lost, the local generators will be 100 percent overloaded,
and the rate of frequency drop will be 6.5 Hz/s (Equation
21-2 assuming H = 4 anda power factor of0.85). Clearly,
litis plant needs an exceptionally fast load-shedding scheme
that can drop a large percentage of low-priority load wilh a
minimum delay. There may be no time for multiple steps.
Al the same time, the need for speed and sensitivity is often
OcNeqo11ve
lb) Tropp,ng T,e Breaker for Power Outflow to External Loads
Figure 21-8: Control of Industrial Plant Load Shedding.
One solution, shown in Figure 2 l-8a, is Lo set the frequency
rclay at a high, near-normal frequency and mínimum delay.
Its tripping circuit is supervised by an undercurrent relay,
wltich closes if feeder service from the utility is lost. The
large, sudden overload on lhe local generators is relieved by
tripping low-priority plant loads. lf the tic is in service and
the utility suffers a frequency disturbance, the undercurrenl
relay will prevent load-shedding in the plant, while the util-
ity sheds its overload in lower-priority areas.
Another common situation occurs when a tapped transmis-
sion line supplying more than one industrial customer is de-
 21-lJ

energized as a remote breaker opens (breaker 1 in Figure

2l-8b). In this situation, a plant with its own generation
may find itself inadvertently supplying power to its neigh-
bor, even while its own frequency is collapsing. The power
outflow can be prevented by using a reverse power relay
(such as type CW or KH-21) to trip the plant breaker 3. If
this does not remove ali the overload, the frequency relay Coo•d,noting Ma,g,n
;;¡, 0.3 Seconds
will shed low-priority local loads.

Plants without local generation but with multiple feeders or Normal

Loading '1
transformers can use load-shedding to ensure that loss of : /M1n1mumFoul1Current
one or more feeders or transformers will not overload re- Cur,ent
maining units. Frequency relays are neither required nor
Figure 21-9: lllustration of The Coordination of Overcurrent Load
applicable. Tirne-overcurrent relays, set just above feeder Shedding Relays With Fault Sensitive Relays.

Essen1,a1
Essennot

Expendoble Expendoble
lncom,no lneommg
Feeders 3 Feeders
fromu1,111y C0-6
from Ut1li1y se C0-6
Expendoble Expendable

Essentiol

Pfonr Loods

Notes:
11 C0·6 Relays Sel 10 P,ck Up for Transformer Overload Notes:
1) C0-6 Relays Set 10 P1ck Up for Feeder Overload

l.
2) SC Relays Set to P,ck Up Well Below Full Load Current

-:.~ l. :ªIf.
De Pos,1ive

B B lrcs
lICS

[[] m
'°L
52b 52b
.._ _, 52b 52b B
O] @] 50 se
A A B B

50 se 50 se
A A B e
Trips Expendoble Brea~e,s 7and8

DcNegotive

Notes: De Negar,ve
1) 52b- Breaker Auxiliary Contact Wh,ch is Closed When Breaker is
Open Notes:
2) Circuu Perrnus Shedding When One Transformer is Overloaded 11 51 (C0-61 Contact Will Close 11 Respective Transformer rs Overloaded
and The Other is Disconnecred from The System on The High Side. 21 50 (SC) Contacts Will Cornotete Tripping Pa1h When One Feeder
Low Side or Both Carries Current and The Other ,s Open

(a) Protection against Transformer Overload. b) Protection Against lncoming Feeder Overload.

Figure 21-10: Load Shedding Schemes for Industrial Plants With No Local Generation.
21-14
or transformer capacity but below fault relay setting, will
detect overloads and drop low-priority plant loads.
To avoid unnecessary shedding during faults, these load-
shedding relays should be coordinated with fault relays, as
shown in Figure 21-9. If the coordinating margins are nar-
row, or if feeders or transformers frequently opera te at
near-capacity, relays may be supervised to limit shedding to
situations where not all apparatus is in service. Figure
21-1 Oa shows two transformers with 51 overload-detecting
(C0-6) relays designed to shed low-priority plant loads.
Each tripping circuit is supervised by auxiliary contacts on
the breakers associated with the other transformer: load can
be shed only when one transformer is out of service and the
other is overloaded. For example, if breaker 5 is open
and/or if both breakers 2 and 3 are sirnultaneously open,
then transformer B is not in service, and the overload relay
on A is permitted to shed load.
Figure 21-1 Ob shows overload protection for two feeders
where, again, load is only to be shed when one is lost. Aux-
iliary contacts from remote breakers are not available, so
low-current detectors establish whether a feeder is in or out
of service. The contact interconnection of Figure 21-1 Ob
permits shedding if one low-current detector resets (feeder
out of service) at the sarne time that the other is picked up
(feeder in service), and if the live feeder is overloaded.
vm. RESTORING SERVICE
In general, the reclosing of feeders that have been tripped
for load-shedding is left to the discretion of system or sta-
tion operators. Frequency relays can be used, however,
either to supervise restoration orto restore loads auto-
matically.
The following considerations apply to any restoration of
service, whether manual or automatic:
a. Frequency should be allowed to return to normal before
any load is restored. Reclosing feeders when the fre-
quency is still recovering may plunge the system back
into crisis and will certainly prevent reunification of is-
lands. Resetting of load-shedding frequency relays cannot
be used for the supervisión of restoration.
b. Once the frequency has retumed to normal, all service-
able interconnections must be allowed to resynchroniz.e
and reclose. Unifying an islanded system as muchas
possible generally facilitates service restoration.
c. Load should be restored in very srnall blocks. Recon-
necting an entice shedding-step load at once, even at nor-
mal system frequency, can cause an overload. Not only
may its size exceed spinning reserve, but high currents
resulting from cold load pickup can temporarily cause a
severe overload. Reconnecting small blocks of load wW
cause only small frequency dips, which can be handled
by the govemors.
More small blocks may be reconnected until most or all
of spinning reserve is active. At this point, no further
load should be added until additional generating capacity
is available. Restoring excessive load may cause the fre-
quency to settle below normal system frequency, making
further reclosing of interconnections impossible.
d. lf a significant loss of generation occurs in a concen-
trated area of the system, transmission lines into that
area may be heavily Ioaded just to supply essential loads.
In this case, the imbalance should not be increased by
restoring expendable loads.
If overfrequency relays are used for automatic restoration,
as they sometimes are at unattended installations, they
should have a frequency setting of the normal system fre-
quency. The load should be restored in blocks of 1 to 2
percent of systern load, and restoration should be sequenced
by time dela y. After the initial system recovery to normal
system frequency , there should be a delay of 30 seconds to
severa! minutes, implemented automatically with a tirner or
manually via supervisory control. This delay allows for re-
synchronizing of islands, reclosing of interconnections, and
starting of peaking generators when available. The first
block of load may then be resto red; the frequency will dip
and retum to the normal system frequency. The next block
should also incorporate several seconds delay to permit fre-
quency stabilization.
Each successive block should use a slightly longer time de-
lay than the previous one. Thus, the second-block relays
will time out before the third, and will reclose next. The
frequency will dip again; the third- and successive-block fre-
quency relays will reset. The frequency will restabilize at
the normal system frequency, and the third block will time
out and reclose. This process will continue until ali blocks
are restored or spinning reserve is used up.
When restoring cold loads, it may be necessary to temperar-
ily disable the instantaneous overcurrent fault protection to
prevent the initial current surge from retripping the feeder.
 21-15

Restoring load for the example used in Section VI, C and D,
can be described as follows. Assume 10 percent of geuera-
tion is lost, causing an 11 percent overload. The first-step
relays shed a block equal to 12 percent of system load. The
block shed consists of groups of distribution feeders located
at six different unattended substations, each equipped with
an underfrequency relay. A second set of six static-
frequency relays, used in the overfrequency mode, auto-
rnatica.lly restores service. All relays are set at the normal
system frequency and reclose feeders, one substation at a
time, using externa! timers for sequencing and delay. The
initial de/ay is 45 seconds after frequency returns to nor-
mal; subsequent delays are as follows:
Substation No. External Delay (Sec.)
1 10
2 12
3 14
4 16
s 18
6 20
Figure 21-11 shows the behavior of frequency over time for
this shedding and restoration action.
IX. OTHER FREQUENCY RELAY APPLICATIONS
a. Overfrequency relays, usually of the induction-disc type,
are often applied to generators. These relays protect
against overspeed during startup or when the unil is sud-
denly separated frorn the system with little or no load.
Relay contacts either sound an alarrn or remove power
input to the turbine.
b. Underfrequency relays, with long externa! time delays,
may also be connectecl to generating units to protect
against turbine blade damage resulting from prolonged
full-load underspeed operation. Jf the overload exceeds
the capability of the load-shedding scherne, these gener-
ator relays will ísolate the unit (with sorne load, if possi-
ble) to keep it in operation and to avoid blade fatigue.
When load is srnall or absent and vibration is minimal, a
supervisory overcurrent relay ora manual switch can be
used to prevent trípping during startup.
c. Underfrequency relays can also be used to sense disturb-
anees and intentionaUy split systems by opening ties.
System splitting is not usually a recommended way of

60.5

DISTURBANCE
Causes l1%0verlood

Frequency Rises obove

60 Hz dueto Excessive
LouJ Sneddinq

lOSecond 14Second lBSecond SYSTEM BACK

Deloyot60Hz Oeloyot 60Hz Deloyot60Hz TO NORMAL
45Seconds 12Second 16Second 20Secood
( Deloy for Reclosing Ties, etc.) Deloyot 60Hz Delo y ot 60 Hz Deloyot60Hz

59.5 Step l Load Shedding Reloys Set to 59.5Hz

12%of Load lnterruptedat 59.35 Hz

N
:e
~
Q)
:,
O'
~
u. 59.0

Figure 21-11: Behavior of Frequency Ouring Automatic Load Shedding and Restoration. (Example for a 60 Hz System)
21-16
alleviating overloads, but it can be useful, especially on
interconnections between adjacent systems.
Neighboring utilities should agree to uniform load-
shedding programs, otherwise the utility which sheds the
most load may find itself relieving overloads for disturb-
anees on other systems. In such cases, the shedding utility
could use underfrequency relays to trip the interconnec-
tions (possibly in coniunctíon with reverse power relays).
This scheme would eliminate the possibility of a utility ag-
gravating its own loading problems by adding those of a
neighboring utility without adequate load-shedding.

Chapter 22
Testing and Maintenance of
Protective Relays
Author: L. J. Schulze
l. INTRODUCTION
Yarious classes of tests can be made on protective relays
each with varying degrees of cornplexity and results. lt is
most importan/ that ali tests be geared to the objectives
which they are intended to meet and that they be strearn-
lined within these objectives. The keynote is mínimum test·
ing for maximum performance. The actual operating time
of protective relays is extrernely small overa long life on
the power systern. Thus, the natural question arises, "Will
the relay or relay systern opera te properly if an intolerable
situation such as a fault occurs?" In cases having no recenl
operation experiencc, the answer is lo test. Relay testing
tends to relieve this concern more than to check the actual
wear, etc. Yet any testing has the potcntial liability of add-
ing more trouble lhan that corrected (if any). Thus over-
testing is to be avoided.
11. TEST I NTER V A LS
There appears to have been a general tendency toward over-
testing of protective relays. This is justified on the basis of
thcir importance in the power system and the serious con-
scquences of mis-operation or failure to opérate. While
this importance is a fact, il has been interesting to observe
that the relay performance récords of power systems vary
very little while the amount of testing varíes widely.
To avoid over-testing, two areas need constant vigilance.
The first includes tests which are added to take care of tern-
porary or local problems. These are very easy to add to a
test procedure but difficult to remove later when the origi-
nal problem no longer exists and time has obscurcd the ob-
jectives. A test log where the reasons and objectives of each
test are briefly summarized is helpful in controlling this.
lntermittent problems are a prime area and cause for over-
testing and may also be the cause of other problems in·
duced especially on solid state relays.
The other area is the increased tendency to lose test per-
spective as the test group is separated from the application
22·1
and operation groups. Such scparation becomes necessary
as the power systems expand , but it has the potential dan-
gers of the test personnel becoming un familiar with the ap-
plication of the relays and apply tests for conditions for
which the relays will never be called upon to operate. Ap·
plication groups also may lose test perspective of the test
groups and specify excessive or unnecessary testing.
With rising costs and manpower shortages, the area of test·
ing, particularly maintenance testing is being studied by
many utilities. A number of users indicate that less fre-
quent testing has resulted in an improvement in the operat-
ing record. The reduction in errors caused by ernploye
carelessness are inherently reduced by less frequent maintc-
nance. The studies show that the two prime causes of
troubles, equipment defects and ernploye carelessness, are
both decreasing, and in such a manner that employe care-
lessness is now showing upas the cause of a much largor
percentage of troubles. Severa! companies who previously
used maintenance intervals of 6 months havc extended
these now to two years and are considering a further cxten-
sion to two and one-half years. There is a trend toward
longer intervals between maintenancc.
111. TEST CONCEPTS
The main concept of testing relays is to apply the same
voltages and currents at the proper phase angles to the re-
lay which would be applied during normal relay operating
conditions. These conditions not only includes faults
within the relay zone of operation but also thosc outsidc
the zone of operation and under non-fault or normal sys-
tem conditions. The accuracy of the test quantities directly
determines the accuracy of the test results obtained. Ac·
curate meter readings should be continuously made and ad·
[usted if needed. ltems such as meter reading accuracy,
lead length, wave distortion from the test equipment, in·
strument calibration, etc. will ali affect the test results and
should be taken into consideration when analyzing the test
results.
IV. TEST OBJECTIVES
The objectives of protective relay testing suggest four
classes o f tests:
1. Acceptance Tests
a. New products first time applied
b. Tests on each product received
22-2

2. lnstaUation Tests Relay maintenance generally consists of:

1. lnspection and burnishing oí contacts (electromechani-

3. Maintenance or Functional Tests cal relays),

4. Repair Tests 2. General inspection (forcign matter removed, screws

checked for tightness, printed circuit boards properly
inserted, covers cleaned, etc.),
Acceptance Tests

3. Adjustments checkcd ,
Acceptance tests are done once and generally in the labora-
tory. Thesc are scparated into the two types, (a) new
4. Breakcrs tripped by manual contacl closing or in the
products which havo not been previously used ; extensive
case of solid state relay systerns elcclrically by the use
testing on a samplc rnay be desired to gain experience and
oí thc íunctional test unit.
knowledge and/or additional technical information. The
second type test (b) on cach product received from the
S. "As lef't" conditions recordcd (quite a fe w also record
manufacturer should be strcamlined to a mínimum including
"as found" conditions).
only the important practica! check points to assurc that the
product is what the manufacturer specifies.
Repair Tests

Repair tcsting as the name implics involves re-calibration

lnstallation Tests after major repairs have been madc , Such tests are usually
made in the laboratory. Many rninor rcpairs frcqucntly are
lnstaUation tests are field tests to determine that the instal- done during maintenancc tests and nccd not involvc corn-
lation will perform correctly in actual service , These are plete re-calibration tests. This is oftcn thc case with solid
not normally rcpeatcd on any given installation unless an
state relays. Aftcr a componen¡ is changcd , a test nccd
incorrect opcration has occurred. Most frcquently they are
only be performed to indica te thc circuit ls operational
performcd by simulated tests with the secondary circuits
and that thc ncw cornponent has not affcctcd thc relay's
cnergízed Irorn a porta ble test source. Other methods in-
performance.
elude ( 1) simulated tests using primary load currcnt and
voltage (2) opcrating tests with thc prirnary energized ata
V. ACCESSORIES FOR TESTING
rcduccd voltage, and (3) staged fault tests.

One of the most important tools in installation or in thc

Staged fault tests are actual faults applied to the power sys-
event of trouble is the automatic oscillograph. Severa! of
tem to verify the relay operations. Usually severa! typcs of
these , judiciously placed around the system, are invaluable
faults, both interna! and external, are applied. While this is
in times of trouble and may savc rnany manhours of con-
the best method, the cost and potential hazards are high.
jecture. Thc desire is to obtain a record oí conditions
Therefore, staged íaull tests are limited to very important
which will indicate the source of trouble. Howevcr they
and/or ncw rclay installations to thc power system.
can be equally valuable in indicating what the trouble was
not.
Maintenance or Functional Tests
Test switches are normally supplied with the relay panels.
Maintenance or functional testing is generally done in the These test switches are a convenient access to the voltagcs
field at regular intervals. These intervals vary among users and currents seen by the relays. Care should be used when
dcpcnding on ( 1) past experience (2) type of protective re- checking the currents so as not to open the current circuit ,
lays ernployed, (3) voltage class of the power systern, (4) An inservice current plug is available for this use. Con-
irnportance of equipment being protected and (S) support- nected toan ammeter the plug is inserted into the test
ing systerns, among others. A large rnajoríty of users per- switch. The test swit ches also provide a convenient loca-
form maintenance or functional testing at least once a year. tion to open the trip circuits and potential circuits. They
However there is a trend toward longer intervals. also allow test perso nnel to short out and isolate the cur-

rent circuits from the relay panel for sepárate source test-
ing. When testing on line, it is imporlant to take out only
one relay or relay system at a time, leaving the other
backup relay or relay system intacl in the event of a faulr.
Caution must be taken when using separa te source test
quantities. The test plug must be inserted into the test
switch insuring isolation from the power system before any
equipment is connected to the test plug. Ungrounded test
supplies should be used to prevent accidenlly introducing a
ground on the secondary circuits which could cause a false
trip. Al ali times when testing relays on an energized power
system ali safety precautions for both personnel and equip-
ment must be observed.
Functional test units are normally supplied with solid state
relay systerns. These test units are often "hard wired" into
the relay systern. A trip cutout switch is used to open the
trip circuits and initiate a trip light for indication. Tests
can be done with or without the trip activated.
The test units are normally of the "go-no-go" type. A for-
ward fault within the reach of the relays can be simulated
during which time all forward looking relays should oper-
ate. A reverse fault can also be simulated during which
time only the reverse looking relays should only opera te.
Both single station and station-to-station tests can be pcr-
formed. The functional test units also can be used during
installation of the relay system to assure that the correct
connections were made to the power systern. The test units
are not designed for acceptance or calibration testing. They
are intended to provide an indication that the relay system
opera tes properly. The test units are also useful tools whcn
trouble shooting and doing maintenance testing.
Sorne manufacturers offer a variety of portable test sets
varying in function and capability. Porta ble functional test
sets are available for use with sorne solid state relay systems.
Such test sets plug into the relay system by mea ns of test
switches and are able to simulate not only forward or re-
verse faults but also the type of faults (phase or ground)
and the phases involved in the simulated fault. These test
sets allow the tester to loca te the fault within the reach of
the relay or beyond ,
VI. TYPICAL RELA Y TESTS
The following summarizes the typical protective relay test
procedure which rnight be followed by an electric utility or
22-3
industrial user. Variations from this composite summary in
actual practice wiU be the rule rather than the exception.
lnformation Used - Relay and test equipment manufac-
turers' bulletins, or thc user's own test procedures based on
thcir experiences and requirements.
Analysis of Relay Performance - Past records of relay per-
formances are analyzed, (both correct and incorrect ). Rec-
ords from automatic oscillographs are also used.
Test Equiprnent Used - The test equipment required to test
relays is directly dependent on the types of relays to be
tested. The relay rnanufacturers' bulletins and the test
equipment bulletins should be consulted prior to testing.
Wave distortion must be taken into consideration when an-
alyzing test results as mentioned earlier. Porta ble test in-
struments and equipment are available and should be con-
sidered.
Test Methods Used - Secondary tests only are normally
made. Thorough periodic tests per the rnanufacturers' rec-
ommendations are made. The circuit or relay eq uiprnent is
separatcd from the power system at the time of testing un-
less the tripping circuit is also to be checked.
Test lnterval - Nominally one year with a trend to longer
intervals, as previously discussed.
Tests of Overcurrenr Relays - Tested at several points on the
time curve with intervals between testing for cooling.
Mínimum operating currents are obtained and instantaneous
units are checked for pickup curren t.
Tests of Directional Overcurrent Relays - The overcurrent
units are checked in a similar manner to that of an over-
current relay with the directional unit blocked closed. Care
should be taken to remove the blocking from the directional
element prior to placing the relay back into service. Cor-
rect operations of the directional units are verified by sirn-
ulating fault currents and voltages. Mínimum operating
currents at normal voltages are checked.
Tests of Differential Relays - Mínimum operating values are
checked. Operating and differential currents under load are
checked. A majority of users trip all circuir breakers from
the relays as a regular procedure.
22-4

Tests of Distance is
Relays · The distance characteristic ing list. Test equipment requircments, like relays, varíes
checked at or near both the fault and load angles. ALI op- from user to user. Requirements should be based on needs.
erating sequences tried.
ltem •use Quant. Description
Tests of Pilot Wire Schernes • Circuits are rested for conti-
nuity , shorts, and grounds in the pilot wircs. Operating E-S 2 Variable autotransformer, 120
values are checked. Additional tests of the scquence filter volts, 5 amperes continuous rat-
and the operating unir shouJd be performed if the relays do ing.
not meet acceptance tests. Supcrvisory and alarm relays
are checked for correct calibration , 2 E-S Vana ble autotransformcr, 120
volts, 15-20 amperes continuous
Tests of Synchro-Check and Reclosing Relays · Timing and rating.
synchronizing chaructcristics are checkcd along with aU re·
closing sequences. 3 E·S·C Type ac Volt meter. rectifier
type, 5000 ohms per volt, 3-15·
Tests of Plungcr and Hingcd Armature Relays · Operating 1 SO volts.
values are checked by gradually increasing or decreasing the
opcrating current or voltage. 4 E·S·C de Amrneter, 0·5-20-50 amperes.

Tests of Associated Current Transformers · Tcsted only on 5 E-S ac Arnmeter, 0-5 amperes.
installation. Ratio chccked with arnrncter.
6 E·S ac Ammeter, 0-2-5-10·20-50-100·
Tests of Frequency Relays • The trip frequency and time de· 200 amperes.
lay are checked. The interfacing relays as well as the total
trip circuits are chcckcd. 7 1:.-S Phase angle meter, 5-10-30 am-
peres, 1 S-30·50·120-240-480
Tests of Associated Potential Transformers and Capacitive volts.
Potential Devices- Testcd only on installation. Ratio
checked by comparing secondary voltages when energizcd 8 E-S Auxiliary current transforrner ,
lo other units on the bus. 1-5-10-25-50-62.5-125-250-500/5
amperes.
Tests of Thermal Relays · Generally tested only al time of
installation. 9 E·S Electric timer or cycle counter,
0-1 O seconds, 1 20 volts.
Tests of Solid State Relays · Thc same basic tests are per-
formed as with electromechanical relays. Voltage or thy- 10 E-S Phase shifter, three-phase, 500
ristor outputs are chcckcd rathcr than contact closures. watts.

Tests of Communications Equipment · Ali transrnitting and 11 E-S 3 Non-inductive load resistor made
receiving levels and frequencies are checked. Normally up of eight to ten parallel resistors
checked as a system to include all interfacing equiprncnt. capa ble of handling a maximum of
100 amperes load continuous. Re·
VII. TYPICAL RELAY TEST EQUIPMENT • Relay test sistors should be capa ble of sup-
cquipment varies wilh the type of relays to be tested. Test plying continuous 0· l 00 ampere
equipment is aJso required for communication equipment. loads. A fine adjustmcnt is essen-
Equipment also varíes depending on where the majority of tia!.
tcsting is done· in the test labor at the relay location. The
basic equipment that should be available for the majority of 12 E·S Three-phase sequence indicator,
testing in the lab and/or in the field is shown in the follow- 120-240-480 volts.
 22-5

ltem "'Use Quant. Description Jtem *Use Quant. Descriptfon

13 E-S 1 (3) Auxiliary relay , 2 make, 2 break, 28 E-S-C 2 Portable test units, a minimum of
electrically operated and elec- two should be available for pilot
trically or hand reset, 48 volts, de, systerns. These are available from
and/or 125 volts de and/or 250 the relay manufacturer.
volts de each.
*Use is indicated for basic types of equipment to be tested.
14 S-C Dual trace oscillograph with ex-
terna! triggering. It may be de- E = Electromechanical relays
sirable to have a storage function.
S = Solid state relays
15 E-S-C de voltmeter, 0-3-7.5-30-75-150-
300 volts. C = Communication equiprnent

16 e Freq uency generator.

The above list is for general testing, minor repair, and
17 E-S-C Volt-ohm-meter (VOM) multi- recalibrat ion tests. The extent of these tests will also
function. determine the type of test equipment required. The relay
manufacturer's bulletins should also be consultccl for the
18 e Frequency counter. recommended test equiprnent for each particular reluy used.
Ratings and ranges will vary from manufacturar to manu-
19 e Frequency selective voltmetcr. facturer. The above is a general guide only.

20 e Radio-frequency (R-F) directional VIII. TEST CIRCUITS

wattmeter.
When only one quantity is rcquircd to opera te the relay ,
21 e Power arnplifier capable of arnpli- the test circuits are straightforward and therc are vcry fcw
fying up to and including audio problcms. llowcver, with two or more variable ac quanti-
leve! without major distortion. ties, more complexity results, particularly when the phase
angle between thc quantitics rnust be controlled. Two of
22 E-S ac source, three phase, 120 volts, these typical test circuits are shown in Figures 22-1 and
50 amperes capability per phase. 22-2. Fer more information and recommended test circuits
for each relay the manufacturer's bulletins should be con-
23 E-S-C de power supply , 48-125-250 sulted.
volts, 20 watts burden capability
minimum. A variety of phase relations can be obtained from three
phase and single phasc sources. By combinations of Van
24 E-S-C Assorted test leads in various with Vab or V ca> test sources with phase relations every 30°
lengths. over 360° range can be obtained. See Figure 22-3.

25 E-S-C Relay tool kit. Shorting and opening current and voltage transf'ormer will
provide quantities somewhat typical of power system
26 E-S-C Assorted test plugs available from faults. These can be used for checking the operation of
the relay rnanufacturer. ground and sequence type relays. These should be applied
carefully and with caution to avoid errors and false conclu-
27 S-C 2 Printed circuit board extenders for sions. As a guide, the phasor relations are given for a nurn-
each size board in the relays to be ber of combinations in Figures 22-4, 22-5, 22-6.
tested.
22-6

311l Supply- o b e a

Phose Angle Meter

l
n
Three Phase Source Single Phase Source

1_
Van

Variable Auto-lronsformer 230 Volts

Use on 115 von Topro Reduce Exc,t,ng
Current and Wave Form Error

Figure 22-3: Phasors for Obt11ining Various Phase Relations for

Testing Relays Without a Phase Shifter Utiliiing
Combinations of a Three Phase and a Single Phase
Source.

Ali test conditions are for unity power factor load current
where the phase rotation is a, b, c. The normal conditions
are shown in Figure 22-4.
Figure 22-1: Test Circuits for Determining The Phase Angla Curve
of • Relay Operating on a Current and a Voltage.

Variable Au10-1ronslormer 18-20 Amps

Cont,nuous to Obto,n Large Snort Time Currents
30 Suppty
o o

+ + + +
E E
Phose Pnose
Angle Meler ilngle Me1e,

Figure 22-4: Phaaors for The Normal Balanced. Unity Power

Factor Load.

Where the phase rotation is a, e, b, the connections and

Vorible voltoqe
phasor diagrarns can be used by interchanging every refer-
Vmn ond lz ence to phases b and c. All phase b's becorne phase e and
ali phase c's becorne phase b.

When a neutral connection is req uired for testing a relay ,

'leo
Figure 22-2: Test Circuits for Determining The Phase Angla Curve
of a Relay Operating on Two Currents.
such as a ground distan ce re lay, and only a delta so urce is
a~a\\.a\::i\e, \\\e C"-'tC\l\\. \'\\ Ei\\te 11-1 can 'be u.sed. Resistors
should be 100 ohrns, SO watts each. The resistors are con-
nected pitase to neutral, which then must be solidly tied to
ground. This then provides a grounded wye connection for
testing the relay from a delta source. This test connection
 22-7

lü
VOi vo2
a)

vb'\ ve, vbl Vb2 Vc2

a b e
Va=\ vob Vo{!voD
\\¡=Ve = ~vob :1Vo Va2' !vo=!vob
l) Phase "a" Current Transformer Short-Circuued and Opened on
Relay Side.

la b)m I I1,

l
101 o

l
a be
¡ tl2 102 ¡oo, 1oo'1co Va=Ve vbc'!
"'-../" ',, Vb:ivbc
/ ~ !
ül
le
1c1 101 [C2 va, Vb2
vb,vo
101' !ro 102' 1ro • • 1 •
·oo·3 ·o e)

o b e \1 vbl ~ Va2
2) Phase "b" Current Transtormer Short-Crrcuited and Opened on
Relay Side Va' Vb= ~'to
veo =Veb Ve=ha ve, :!ve' !veo Veo: !ve= tVco
lo --------------------------
l
!01

i 1 1 1,
J
02".::::,./
lc2
100' 1bo' 1co

/'
d) H-í
~ ~ ! a be
Va:Ve =!voo
'e• lbl Jb2
le
110 \\¡' i \\io
101' ~ 1o 102: 1oo=sro --------------------------
3¡ Phase "e" Curren! Transformer Short-Circuued and Opened on

l~
Rel11y Side. vol Vo2
el
Figure 22-5: Current Phasors for Various Simulated Tests With
load Current. (The Normal Balanced Conduions are o b e
~1 ~ vb2 \2
Shown in Figure 22-4) ~=\ Va:ivoc
vb,ve =! Voc Vo1' !va• ivoc Yaz•h· !Yac
should only be used as a last resort and not as a normal test --------------------------
~l
vol Vb2
connection. "cb' veo Vo:Vb
f)
•
ve a
1
• ~1 \vb1 v:2 ( V02
a be
IX. TESTJNG VOLTAGE POLARIZED GROUND Ve:!vcb.
RELA YS WITH LOAD CURRENT Va = vt, = ! vcb Vc1:~ve =ivcb 'tz:fve =!vcb

Reference : v01 = 1 ( v0+oyt,+o2ve I

Voltage polarized ground relays can be very conveniently
checked for correct connections with ordinary load cur-
rents flowing in the power systern. This is done by open-
ing and shorting various current and voltage transformers
to simulate an artificial ground fault condition. Consider-
able care must be exercised as the simulated operating
quantities are not the same as those provided by actual
faults. The techniques and methods of analysis are devel-
oped in Figures 22-9 and 22-1 O, which show two possible
tests. The normal conditions, systern fault conditions, and
connections for the ground relay to be tested are shown in
Figure 22-8. Figures 22-9 and 22-10 provide checks to de-
termine that the connections in Figure 22-8 are correct,
~2= !(Va+~2vb+o\ 1
F"igure22-6: VohagePhasorsfar VariousSimulated TestsWith LoadCurrent.
(The Normal Balancee!Canditions areShown,n Figure 22-4).
analysis given. This method cannot be used for current
polarized ground relays as there is no way to establish cur-
rent in the power bank neutral utilizing balanced system
load.
However, a paper check should be made at the time of ap-
plication to insure proper connections are made. This may
be accomplished by:

Other simulated currcnt faults can be made following the 1. Assurning a phase to ground fault on the protected linc.
zz-s

2. Assuming current flow up the bank neutral or up the a~-F-'f=l<=\--.~~~~~~.-~-._....:...._u~,p~p~,n2g~D~or~ec=r~,o~n~~~o

neutral of the voltage transformers or devices, and,
Bus b 1/oltoge Transforme, b L,ne
thence, to the fault. e e

3. Tracing current through to the relay coils.

i ~::
r
Reloy
4. lf currents are both in polarity or both in non-polarity X~
the directional unit contact will close. .___,__rY"V"\___,.__l_-----rv",r"\.___

Auxi hory Stor Brel<en Delta

Volloge Tronsfo,mer

Assume o Une toGround

Foult on Phase "o" occo-s
Out on The Une Then The
Phasors Drsto-t ro
V lo

~~·1,,0

~Av,
Va
Ve vb

Figure 22-7: A Meena of Obtaining Three PhHe. Four Wire Tut

Ouantitiu From a Delta Source.
Un,ty Fbwer Factor Lood Flowmg
Awoy From &,s into Lane

~-
(In Tr,pp,ng D<rect,on l

v.,. (Polority to Non·Polor,ty)

Polorily 10 Non-Polarity)

las,ngZone
7T.arque
Zero Torque Line
Moxomum Line
Mo,umum Torque lme Iorque Llne
a) For Ground Relays Where b) Far "WATT" Type
Max,mum Torque Occurs When Ground Relays
Current Lags Voltage 60°

Figure 22-8: Normal and Syatem Fault Connectiona and PhHors

for a Voltage Polarized Ground Relay.
 _ro - Tr,pping D,rect,on _ro - Tripping O"ec11on
o
_ib
o o
_10 o
b
-1,

~q·e 00:
Bus b L,ne Bus b -ic b t.me
e e e e
Snon

[;8§·
sno«

!b•lc f Relay lc•lc f Re lay I•

X y X y

-
Zero Torque L, ne

Zero Torque t.me

MaximumTorque L1ne
Max,mum
Torqueline
a) Far 60° Ground Relays Phasors far Unity Power
Factor Load in Tripping a) Far 60º Ground Relays
Drr ection With."a" C T Open Phescrs tor Unity Power
and "a" V T Open as Shown. Factor Load in Tripping
Direcrion W,th "a" C T Open
Zero Torque Une
and "b" V T Open as Shown
Closing Zone
Zeta TorqueUne
Note:
Max,mum Torque Line Relay Torque in Opening
Direction to Indicare
b) Far "WATT" Ground Relays Corree! Connections.
Mox1mum Note:
Torque Line Relay Torque in Opening
Figure 22-9: Simulated Ground Fault Test for Voltage Polarized
Ground Relay by Opening and Shorting Phase "a" Direction to lndicate
b) Far "WATT" Ground Relays Correct Connections.
Current and Voltage Transformers.

Figure 22-10: Simulated Ground Fault Test for Voltaga Polarized

Ground Relay by Opening and Shorting Phase "a"
Current and Phase "b" Voltage Transtormers.
 App. 1-1

Appendix l Used only where the voltage bases of the per unit valúes
are different, remembering that where transformer banks
are involved, the per unit impedance is the sarne referred
Formulas Commonly Used In to either winding as long as the base voltages on either
Relaying side of the bank are proportional to turns.

PER UNIT SYSTEM Converting Zpu to New kVA Base:

Definitions (kVA)base 2
(Zpu\ase 2 = (Zpu\ase 1 (k V A) (6)
base 1
(kVA)base = Base kVA (3 phase) in kilovolt amperes

OTHER FORMULAS
(k V\ase = Base kV (Une to line) in kilovolts

Converting lmpedance to New Voltage Base:

= Base Current in amperes

= Base I rnpedance in ohms 2

(k V)base 2
(Zn\ase 2 = (Zn)base 1 2 (7)
= Per Unit lmpedance (kV)base I

Converting to Zsec·
Z,n = lmpedance in Ohms

Basic Formulas (8)

(kVAibase where the relay receives star current and star voltage, delta
•base= rx amperes (1)
curren! and delta voltage, or when specified. An example is
v3 (kV\ase
the KD-4, KD-10 type relays which use equation 8 to ob-
2 tain secondary ohms although they are connected using star
1000 (kV\ase 1000 (k V)base
Z =-- --ohms=- --- ohms=
base Y3 1base (kV A)base currents and delta voltages.

(kV)~ase
ohms (2) (8A)
(MVA\ase

Z,n Z,n (k VA)base Z,n (MVA)base where the relay receives star current and delta voltage
zpu =-- = (3)
2base 2 2
1000 (kV)base (k V)base where Re= current transformer ratio ( wye connected)

Conversely and translating per unit to percent (%Z = Rv = voltage transformer ratio
I oozpu>,

2 = vpri (Both Line to line or both line

I O(kV)base x %2 to neutral)
(4) Vsec
(kVA\ase
Deterrnining Surden lmpedance (Z):
CONVERSIONS

2
Converting Zpu to New Voltage Base: Z =(VA)= (V) ohms (9)
12 VA

where VA= volt-ampere burden at specified V or I in

(5) volt amperes
App.1-2

V = voltage at which burden is specifiecl in 13</> = primary fault current for a three-phase
volts fault

= current at which burden is specified in Rv = voltage transformer ratio

amperes.
Determining Distance Relay Apparent lmpedance, ZR, Due
Determining New Short Time Relay Coil Rating to lnfeed Current (minus sign for outfeed)

(Approximate • do not use continuous rating):

1
2
= J, ,, t2
(JO)

where 12 = thermal rating for t2 time in amperes

where I1 = thermal rating for t I time in amperes

(14)
Converting k VA to Amperes (1):
where = infeed current in amperes
kVA
1 = y3kV amperes (11) = current in relaying current trans-
formers (referred to saine base as 10)
where kV A= 3 phase power in kilovolt amperes in amperes

kV = rated voltage in kilovolts Za ·:tual = actual impedance from relay location

to fault • relay ohms
Determíning Load Ohms Seen by Distance Relay:
= that portien of the impedance between
relay and fault through which 10 is
z _ IOOO(kV)2 Re (l2) flowing • relay ohms
load - kVA x R
V

where Re= current transformer ratio (wye connected) per unit values may be used in equation 14.

Rv = voltage transformer ratio

REVIEW OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Determining the Voltage Across the Distance Relay for a y
Solid Phase Fault at the Relay Balance Point:

2 ZBP J</></>
V BP = R for a phase-to-phase faull (13a)
V

,/3 2BP 13</>

(l 3b)
= R for a three-phase fault
V

where VBP = secondary line to line voltage across re lay

ZBP = prirnary line to neutral impedance from 90°

potential transformer connection to re-
8---
lay balance point

l</></> = primary fault current for a phase-to-phase a= abscissa = e Cos 8 Cartesian Coordinates
fault b = ordínate = e Sin 8 O measured counter-clockwise
is positive
 App.1-3

The specification of point p can be made in various forms as Multiplication Law: Absolute value of the product is the
follows: product of the absolute values of the components, and the
argument is the sum of the component arguments. Thus:
Rectan- Expo-
gular Complex nential Polar Phasor (20)

a+jb=c(Cos8+jSin8)= ce ;8=c~= é (IS) or (21)

a-jb=c(Cos8-jSin8)=Cé-;o =cl-Bº= 'e (16)
Division Law: This is the in verse of multiplication. Thus:
a is the real component
b is the imaginary component
(22)
e = é = le] is the modulus or absolute value (magnitude)
8 is the argument or amplitude (relative phase
position) Powers of Complex Numbers:
is a phasor
"'e is the conjugare of e (1 e jO )11 = (1)11 é j,¡O

(23)
Thus if e= a + jb then ~ = a - jb
Thus:

The absolute value of the

or (24)
phasor e or [e] = Ja2 + b2 (17)
Phasor Times its Conjugate:
a= 1/2 (e + e) by adding (1) and (2) (18)
i b = 112 ce - 2) subtracting (I) and (2) {19) (25)

Appendix JI
Electrical Power System Device
Numbers and Functions
The devices in switching equipment are referred to by
nurnbers, with appropriate suffix letters when necessary, ac-
cording to the functions they perform.
These numbers are based on a system adopled as standard
for automatic switchgear by IEEE, and incorporated in
American Standard C37.2-1970. This system is used in
connection cliagrams, in instruction books, and in specifi-
cations.
Device Definition
Number and Function
Master Element is the initiating device, such as a
control switch, voltage relay, float switch, etc.,
which serves either direct ly, or through such per-
missive devices as protective and time-delay re-
lays to placean equipment in or out of opera-
tion.
2 Time-dela y start íng , or closing relay is a device
which funclions to give a desired amount of time
delay before or after any point of operation in a
switching sequence or protective relay systern,
except as specifically provided by device func-
tions 48, 62, and 79 describecl later.
3 Checking or interlocking relay is a device which
operates in response to the posilion of a number
of other devices, (orto a number of predeter-
mined conditions), in an equipment, to allow an
operating sequence to proceed, to stop, orlo pro-
vide a check of the position of these devices or of
these conditions for any purpose.
4 Master contactor is a device, generally controlled
by device No. 1 or equivalent, and the required
permissive and protective devíces, that serves to
rnake and break the necessary control circuits to
placean equipment into operation under t he de-
sired conditions and to take it out of operation
under other or abnormal conditions.
5 Stopping device is a control device used primarily
to shut down an equipment and hold it out of
operation. (This device may be manually or elec-
trically actuated, but excludes the function of
electrical Jockout (see device function 86) on ab-
normal conditions.J
"l'P· u - t
Device Definition
Number and Function
6 Starting circuit breaker is a de vice whose principal
function is to connect a rnachine to its source of
starting voltage.
7 Anode circuit breaker is one usecJ in the anocJe
circuits of a power rectifier f'or the primar y pur-
pose of interrupting the rectifier circuir if an are
back should occur.
8 Control power disconnecting device is a d iscon-
nective cJevice such as a knife switch, circuir
breaker or pulloul fuse block, used for the pur-
pose of connecting and disconnect ing the source
of control power to and from the control bus or
equipment.
Note: Control power is considered to include
auxiliary power which supplies such apparatus as
small motors and heaters.
9 Reversing device is used for the purpose of revers-
ing a machine field or for perforrning any other
reversing functions.
10 Unit sequence switch is used to change tite se-
quence in which units rnay be placed in ami out
of service in rnult iple-unit equipmcnts.
11 Reserved for future application.
12 Over-speed device is usually a d irect-connected
speed switch which functions on machine over-
speed.
13 Synchronous-speed devíce , such as a centrifugal-
speed switch, a slip-frequency relay, a voltage re-
lay, an undercurrent re lay or any type of dcvice,
operates at approximately synchronous speed of
amachine.
14 Under-speed device functions when the speecl of
a machine falls below a predetermined value.
15 Speed or frequency, matching device functions to
match and hold the speed or the frequency of a
machine or of a system equal to. or approximately
equal to, that of another machine, source or sys-
tem.
16 Reserved for future application.
17 Shunting or discharge switch serves to open or to
close a shunting circuit around any piece of ap-
parat us (excepta resistor), such as a rnachine
field, a machine arrnature , a capacitor or a reactor.
App.11 -J.
Device Definition
Number and Function
Note: This excludes devices which perform such
shunting operations as may be necessary in the
process of starting a machine by devices 6 or 42,
or their equivalent, and also excludes device 73
function which serves for the switching of re-
sistors.
18 Accelerating or decelerating device is used to close
or to cause the closing of circuits which are used
to increase or to decrease the speed of a machine.
19 Starting-to-running transition contactor is a de-
vice which operares to inítiate or cause the auto-
matic transfer of amachine from the starting to
the running power connection.
20 Electrically operated valve is an electrically op-
erated, controlled or monitored valve in a fluid
line.
Note: Tite function of tite valve may be incli-
cated by the use of the suffixes.
21 Distance relay is a device which functions when
the circuit admittance, impedance or reactance
increases or decreases beyond predetermined
limits.
22 Equalizer circuit breaker is a breaker which
serves to control or to make and break the
equalizer or the current-balancing connections
for amachine field, or for regulating equipment,
in a multiple-unit installation.
23 Temperature control device functions lo raise or
lower the ternperature of a machine or other ap-
paratus, or of any medium, when its temperature
fa lis below, or rises above, a predetermined value.
Note: An exarnple is a thermostat which swit ches
on a space heater in a switchgear assembly when
the ternperature falls to a desired value as d is-
tinguished from a device which is used to provide
automatic temperature regulation between close
limits and would be designated as 90T.
24 Reserved for future application.
25 Synchronizing or synchronísm-check device op-
erates when two ac circuits are within the de-
sired limits of frequency, phase angle or voltage,
to permit orto cause the paralleling of these two
circuits.
De vice Defínition
Number and Function
26 Apparatus thermal device functions when the
temperature of the shunt field or the armortisseur
winding of a machine, or t hat of a load lirniting
or load shifting resistor or of a liq uid or other
medium exceeds a predetermined value; or if the
temperature of the protected apparatus, such as a
power rectifier, or of any medium decreases be-
low a predetermined value.
27 Undervollage relay is a device which functions on
a given value of undervoltage.
28 Flame detector is a device that monitors the pres-
ence of the pilot or main flame in such apparatus
as a gas turbine ora steam boiler.
29 lsolating contactor is used expressly for discon-
necting one circuit from another for the purposes
of emergency operation, maintenance, or test.
30 Annunciator relay is a nonautomatically reset de-
vice that gives a number of separa te visual indica-
tions upon the functioning of protective devices,
and which may also be arranged to perform a
lockout function.
31 Separare excitation device connects a circuit such
as the shunt field of a synchronous converter, to
a source of separare excitation during the starting
sequence; or one which energizes the excitation
and ignition circuits of a power rectifier.
32 Directional power relay is one which functions on
a desired value of power flow in a given direction,
or upon reverse power resulting from are back in
the anode or cathode circuits of a power rectifier.
33 Position switch makes or breaks contact when the
main device or piece of apparatus, which has no
device function number, reaches a given position.
34 Master sequence device is a device such as a motor-
operated multi-contact switch, or the equivalent,
ora programming device, such as a co mputer,
that esta blishes or determines the operating se-
quence of the majar devices in an equipment dur-
ing start ing and stopping or during other sequential
switching operations.
35 Brush-operaring, or slip-ring-short-circuiting, de-
vice is used for raising, loweríng, or shifting the
brushes of a machine, or for short-circuiting its
slip rings, or for engaging or disengaging the con-
tacts of a mechanical rectifier.

Device Definition
Number and Function
36 Polarity or polarizing voltage device operates or
permits the operation of another device on a pre-
determined polarity only or verifies the presence
of a polarizing voltage in an equipment.
37 Undercurrent or underpower relay functions
when the current or power flow decreases below
a predetermined value.
38 Bearing protective device functions on excessive
bearing temperature, or on other abnormal me-
chanical conditions, such as undue wear, which
may eventuaUy result in excessive bearing tem-
perature.
39 Mechanical condition monitor is a device that
functions u pon the occurrence of an abnormal
mechanical condition (except that associated
with bearings as covered under device function
38), such as excessive vibration, eccentricity, ex-
pansion, shock, tilting, or sea! failure.
40 Field relay funclions on a given or abnormally
low value or failure of machine field current, or
on an excessive value of the reactive cornponent
of armature current in an ac machine indicating
abnormally low field excitation.
41 Field circuit breaker is a device which functions
lo apply , or to remove, the field excitation of a
machine.
42 Running circuit breaker is a device whose princi-
pal function is to connect a rnachine to its source
of running or operating voltage. This function
may also be used for a device, such as a contactar,
that is used in series with a circuit breaker or
other fault protecting meaos, primarily for fre-
quent opening and closing of the circuit.
43 Manual transfer or selector device transfers the
control circuits so as to modify the plan of oper-
ation of the switching equipment or of sorne of
the devices.
44 Unit sequence starting relay is a device which
functions to start the next available unit in a
multiple-unit equipment on the failure or on the
non-availability of the normally preceding unit.
45 Atmospheric condition monitor is a device that
functions u pon the occurrence of an abnormal
atmospheric condition, such as damaging fumes,
explosive mixtures, smoke, or fire.
App.11 -3
De vice Definition
Number and Function
46 Reverse-phase, or phase-balance , current relay is a
relay which functions when the polyphase currents
are of reverse-phase sequence, or when the poly-
phase currents are unbalanced or contain negalive
phase-seq uence components above a given amount.
47 Phase-sequence voltage relay functions upon a
predetermined value of polyphase voltage in the
desired phase sequence.
48 lncomplete sequence relay is a relay that generaUy
returns the equipment to the normal, or off, posi-
tion and locks it out if the normal starting, op-
erating or stopping sequence is not properly corn-
pleted within a predetermined time. I f t he device
is used for alarm purposes only , it shoulcl prefer-
ably be designated as 48A (alarm).
49 Machine, or transformer, therrnal relay is a relay
that functions when the temperature of a machine
armature, or other load carrying winding or ele-
ment of a machine, or the temperature of a
power rectifier or power lransformer (including
a power rectifier transformer) exceeds a predeter-
mined value.
so lnstantaneous overcurrent, or rate-of-rise relay is
a relay that functions instantaneously on an ex-
cessive value of current , or on an excessive rate of
current rise, thus indicating a fault in lhe appa-
ratus or circuit being protected.
SI Ac time overcurrent relay is a relay with either a
definite or inverse time characteristic that func-
tions when the current in an ac circuit exceeds a
predetermined value.
52 Ac circuit breaker is a device that is used to close
and interrupt an ac power circuit under normal
conditions orto interrupt this circuit under fault
or emergency conditions.
53 Exciter or de generator relay is a relay that forces
the de machine field excitation to build up during
startíng or which functions when the rnachine
voltage has built up to a given value.
54 Reserved for future application.
SS Power factor relay is a relay that operates when
the power factor in an ac circuit rises above or
below a predetermined value.
56 Field application relay is a relay that autornatically
controls the application of the field excitation to
~l'l'·H •-t
Device Definition
Number and Function
an ac motor at sorne predetermined point in the
slip cycle.
57 Short-círcuiting or grounding device is a primary
circuit switching device that functions to short-
circuit or to ground a circuit in response to auto-
matic or manual mea ns.
58 Rectification failure relay is a device that func-
tions if one or more anodes of a power rectifier
fail to fire, or to detect an arc-back or on failure
of a diode to conductor block properly.
59 Overvoltage relay is a relay that functions on a
given value of overvoltage.
60 Voltage or Current balance relay is a relay that
opera tes on a given difference in voltage, or cur-
rent input or output of two circuits.
61 Reserved for future application.
62 Time-dela y stopping or opening relay is a time-
delay relay that serves in conjunction with the
device that initiates the shutdown, stopping , or
opening operation in an automatic sequence.
63 Pressure switch is a switch which operates on
given values or on a given rate of change of pres-
sure.
64 Ground protective relay is a relay that functions
on failure of the insulation of a machine, trans-
former or of other apparatus to ground, or on
flashover of a de machine to ground.
Note: This function is assigned only to a relay
which detects the flow of current from the frame
of a machine or enclosing case or structure of a
piece of apparatus to ground.or detects a ground
on a normally ungrounded winding or circuit. It is
not applied to a device connected in the secondary
circuit or secondary neutral of a current trans-
former, or in the secondary neutral of current
transforrner , connected in the power circuit of a
norrnally grounded system.
65 Governor is the assembly of fluid, electrical, or
mechanical control equipment used for regulating
the flow of water, stearn, or other medium to the
prime mover for such purposes as starting, hold-
ing speed or load, or stopping.
66 Notching or jogging device functions to allow
only a specified number of operations of a given
Device Definition
Number and Function
device, or equipment, ora specified number oí
successive operations within a given time of each
other. lt also functions to energize a circuit
periodically or for fractions of specified time in-
tervals, or that is used to perrnit intermittent ac-
celeration or jogging of a machine at low speeds
for mechanical positioning.
67 Ac directional overcurrent relay is a relay that
functions on a desired value of ac overcurrent
flowing in a predetermined direction.
68 Blocking relay is a relay that initiates a pilot sig-
na! for blocking of tripping on externa! faults in
a transrnission line or in other apparatus under
predetermined conditions, or coopera tes with
other devices to block tripping or to block recios·
ing on an out-of-step condition or on power
swings.
69 Permissive control device is generally a two-
position, manually operated switch that in one
position permits the closing of a circuit breaker,
or the placing of an equipment into operation,
and in the other position prevents the circuit
breaker or the equipment from being operated.
70 Rheostat is a variable resistance device used in an
electric circuit, which is electrically operated or
has other electrical accessories, such as auxiliary,
position, or limit switches.
71 Leve! switch is a switch w hich opera tes on given
values, or on a given rate of change , of level.
72 De circuit breaker is used to close and interrupt a
de power circuit under normal conditions orto
interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency
conditions.
73 Load-resistor contactor is used to shunt or insert
a step of load lirniting, shif'ting , or indicating re·
sistance in a power circuit , orto switch a space
heater in circuit , orto switch a light, or regen-
erative load resistor of a power rectifier or other
machine in and out of circuit.
74 Alarm relay is a device other than an annunciator,
as covered under device No. 30, which is used to
operate, or to operate in connectíon with, a
visual or audible alarm.
75 Position changing mechanisrn is a mechanism
that is used for moving a main device from one

Device Definition
Number and Function
position to another in an equipment; as for ex·
ample, shif'ting a rernovable circuit breaker unit
to and from the connected, disconnected, and
test positions.
76 De overcurrent relay is a relay that functions
when the current in a de circuit exceeds a given
value.
77 Pulse transmitter is used to generate and trans-
mit pulses overa telernetering or pilot-wire cír-
cuit to the remole indicating or receiving device.
78 Phase angle measuring, or out-of-step protective
relay is a relay that functions al a predetermined
phase angle between two voltages or between
two currents or between voltage and curren t.
79 Ac reclosing relay is a relay that controls the
autornatic reclosing and locking out of an ac cír-
cuit interrupter.
80 Flow Switch is a switch which operates on
given values, or on a given rate of change, of
flow.
81 Frequency relay is a relay that functions on a
predetermined value of frequency - either
under or over or on normal system frequency -
or rate of change of frequency.
82 De reclosing relay is a relay t hat controls the
automatic closing and reclosing of a de circuit
interrupter, generally in response to load circuit
condilions.
83 Automatic selective control or transfer relay is
a relay that operates to select autornatically be-
tween certain sources or conditions in an equip-
ment, or performs a transfer operation auto-
matically.
84 Operating mechanism is the complete electrical
mechanism or servo-rnechanism, including the
operating motor, solenoids, position switches,
etc., for a tap changer , induction regulator or
any similar piece of apparatus which has no de-
vice function number.
85 Carrier or pílot-wire receiver relay is a relay that
is operated or restrained by a signa! used in con-
nection with carrier-current or de pilot-wire fault
directional relaying.
A.pp. ll . .)
Device Definition
Number and Function
86 Lockíng-out relay is an electrically operated,
hand or electrically reset, relay that functions to
shut down and hold an equipment out of service
on the occurrence of abnormal conditions.
87 Differential protective relay is a protectrve relay
that functions on a percentage or phase angle or
other quantitative difference of two currents or
of sorne other eleclrical quanlities.
88 Auxiliar y motor or motor generaror is one used
for operatíng auxiliary equipment such as pumps,
blowers, exciters, rotating magnetic amplifiers,
etc.
89 Line switch is used as a disconnecting load-
interrupter, or isolating switch in an acorde
power circuit, when this device is electrically
operated or has electrical accessories, such asan
auxiliary switch, magnetic lock, etc.
90 Regulating device functions to regula te a quantity,
or quantities, such as voltage, current, power,
speed, frequency, temperature, and load, at a
certain value or between cerlain (generally close)
limits for machines, tie lines or ot her apparat us.
91 Voltage directional relay is a relay that operates
when tite voltage across an open circuir breaker
or contactor exceeds a given value in a given di-
rection.
92 Voltage and power directional relay is a relay that
permits or causes tite connection of two circuits
when the voltage difference between thcm ex-
ceeds a given value in a predetermined direction
and causes these two circuits to be disconnected
from each other when the power flowing be-
tween them exceeds a given value in the opposite
direction.
93 Field changing contactor functions to increase or
decrease in one step the value of field excitation
on a machine,
94 Tripping or trip-free relay functions to trip a cir-
cuit breaker, contactor, or equiprnent , orto per-
mit immediate tripping by other devices; orlo
prevent immediate reclosure of a circuit ínter-
rupter, in case it should open automatically
even though its closing circuit is maintained
closed.
95 Used only for specific applications on individual
96 installations where none of the assigned nurn-
97 bered functions from 1 to 94 is suitable.
Devices Performing More Than One Function CL - Auxiliary Relay, open (energized when rnain de-
lf one device performs two relatively important functions vice is in open position)
in an equipment so that it is desirable to identify both of OP - Auxiliary Relay , Open (energizecl when maín de-
these functions, this may be done by using a double func- vice is in open position)
tion number and name such as: U - "Up" position-switch relay
D - "Down" position-switch relay
50/5 1 lnstantaneous and Time Overcurrent Relay. PB - Push button

Suffix Numbers
lf two or more devices with the sarne function number and
suffix letter (if used) are present in the sarne eq uipment ,
they rnay be distinguished by numbered suffixes as for ex-
arnple, 52X-I 52X-2 and 52X-3, when necessary.
<D In the control of a circuir breaker with so-called X-Y relay
control scherne, the X relay is the dcvice whose main contacts
are used to energize the closing coil or thc dcvicc which in sorne
other manncr, such as by the release of storcd energy , causes the
breaker to closc. The contacts of the Y relay provide the anti-
pump feature for the circuir breaker.

Suffix Letters
Suffix letters are used with device function numbers for Actuating Quantities
various purposes. ln order to prevent possible conflict These letters indicate the condítíon or electrical quantity
each suffix lelter should have only one meaning in an in- to which the device responds, or the meclium in which it
dividual equipment. Ali other words should use tite ab- is located, such as:
breviations as contained in ANSI Y 1.1 latest revision, or
should use sorne other distinctive abbreviation, or be A - Air, or Amperes or Alternating
written out in full each time they are used. The meaning e - Current
of each single suffix letter, or combination of letters, o - Direct or Discharge
should be clearly designated in the legend on the drawings E - Electrolyte
or publications applying to tite eq uipment. F - Frequency, or Flow or Fault
H - Explosive
Lower case (small) suffix letters are used in practicaUy ali J - Differential
instances on electrical diagrarns for the auxiliary, position, L - Level, or Liquid
and limit switches. Capital letters are generally used for ali p - Power, or Pressure
other suffix letters. PF - Power Factor
Q - Oíl
The letters should generally form part of lhe device func- S - Speed or Suction or Smoke
tion designation, are usually written directly after the de- T - Temperature
vice function number, as for example, 52CS, 71 W, or 490. V - Voltage, Volts, or Vacuum
When it is necessary to use two types of suffix letters in VAR - Reactive Power
connection with one function number, it is often desirable VB - Vibration
for clarity to separate them by a slanted line or dash, as for W Water, or Watts
example, 200/CS or 200 - CS.
Main Devíces
The suffix letters whiclt denote parts of the main device, These letters denote the locatíon of the main clevice in tite
and those which cannot or need not form part of the de- circuit, or the type of circuit in which the clevice is used
vice function designation, are generally written directly be- or the type of circuit or apparatus with which it is associ-
low the device function number on drawings, as for exarn- ated, when this is necessary , such as:
ple,
52 43 A - Alarm or Auxiliary Power
ccºrA · AN - Anode
B - Battery, or Blower, or Bus
Auxiliary Devices BK - Brake
Separate Auxiliary Devices BL - Block (Valve)
X BP - Bypass
y - Auxiliary relay(l) BT - Bus Tie
z C - Capacitor, or Condenser, Compensator, or Carrier
R - Raising relay Current or Case or Compressor
L - Lowering relay CA - Cathode
o - Opening relay or contactar CH - Check (Valve)
e - Closing relay or contactor D - Discharge (Valve)
es - Control switch E - Exciter
F - Feeder, or Field , or Filament, or Filler, or Fan
 App.11 · 7

G - Generator, or Ground<z> tion, and that opens when the device assumes the
H - Heater , or Housing opposíte position
L - Line or Logic
M - Motor, or Metering aa - Contact that is open when the operating mech-
N - Network , or Neutral(Z) anism of the main device is in the non-operated
P - Pump or Phase Comparison position and that closes when the operating rnech-
R - Reactor, or Rectifier, or Room anism assumes lhe opposite position
S - Synchronizing or Secondary or Strainer or Sump
or Suction (Valve) bb - Contact that is closed when lhe operating rnech-
T - Transformer, or Thyratron anism of the main device is in the non-operated
TH - Transformer (high-voltage side) position and that opens when the operating mech-
TL - Transformer (low-voltage side) anism assumes the opposite position
TM - Telerneter
U - Unit Standard reference positions of sorne typicaJ devices are as
foUows:
(2) Suffix "N" is genera U y used in preference to "G" for dcvices
connecred in thc secondary neutral of current transforrners, or De vice Standard
in lhe secondary of a current transformer whose primary winding Reference Position
is located in the neutral of a machine or power transformer, ex-
cept in the case of transmission line relaying, where the suffix Power Circuit Breaker Main Contacts Open
"G" is more commonly used for thosc relays which operare on Disconnecting Switch Main Contacts Open
ground fauJts.
Load-break Switch Main Contacts Open
Val ve Closed Position
Main Device Parts Gate Closed Position
These Jetters denote parts of lhe main device, divided in Clutch Discngaged Position
the two following categories: Turning Cear Disengaged Position
Power Electrodes Maximum Gap Position
1. Ali parts, except auxiliary contacts, position switches, Rheostat Maximum Resistance
limit switches, and torque limit swilches. Position
Adjusting Means<I> Low or Down Position
BK - Brake
Relay~ Deenergized Position
C - Coil, or Condenser , or Capacitor
Contactor~ Deenergized Position
CC - Closing Coil
Relay (latched-in type) See 2-9.7.2 (C37.2 • 1970)
I IC - Holding Coil
Contactor (latched-in type) Main Contacts Open
M - Operating Motor
Temperature Relay(3) Lowest Temperature
MF - Fly-Ball Motor
Leve! Detector() Lowest Level
ML - Load-limit Motor
Flow Detector() Lowest Flow
MS - Speed adjusting , or Synchronizing, Motor
Speed Switch() Lowest S'."'eed
S - Solenoid
Vibra tion Detector() Minimum Vibration
SI - Seal-in
Pressure Switch() Lowest Pressure
TC - Trip Coil
Vacuum Switch() Lowest Pressure, i.e.,
V - Valve
Highest Vacuum
2. Ali auxiliary contacts and position and limit switches for
such devices and equipment as circuit breakers, contactors, Note: 1 f severa! similar auxiliary switches are present on the same
valves and rheostats and contacts of relays. These are des- device, they should be designated numerically 1, 2, 3, etc. when
necessary.
ignated as follows:
(i) These may be speed, voltage, current, load, or similar adjusting
a - Contact that is open when the main device is in de vices cornprising rheostat s, springs, levers, or other componcnts
the standard reference position, commonly re- for t he purpose.
ferred to as the non-operated or deenergized posi- (2) These electrically operated devices are of the non-Iatched-in
tion, and that closes when the device assumes the type , whose contact position is dependen! only upon the degree of
opposite position energizatíon of the opcrating or restraining or holding coil or coils
which may or may not be suitable for continuous energization.
b - Contact that is closed when the main d evice is in The deenergized position of the device is that with all coils deen-
the standard reference position, cornmonly re- ergized ,
ferred to as the non-operated or deenergízed posi- ® The energizing influences for these devices are considered to be,
respectively , rising temperature, rising level, iocreasing flow, rising
speed, increasing vibration, and increasing pressure.
App. 11 - 8

The simple designation "a" or "b " is used in all cases where Representation of Device Contacts on Electrical Diagrarns
there is no need to adjust the contacts to change position On electrical diagrarns the "b" contacts of ali devices, in-
at any particular point in the travel of the main device or cluding those of relays and those with suffix letters or
where the part of the travel where the contacts change po- percentage figures, should be shown as closed contacts,
sition is of no significance in the control or operating and ali "a" contacts should be shown as open contacts.
scherne. Hence the "a" and "b" designations usually are
sufficient for circuit breaker auxiliary switches. For those devices that have no de-energized or nonoperated
position, such as manually-operated transfer or control
Other Switches switches (including those of the spring-return type) or auxií-
These Jetters cover ali other distinguishing features or iary position indicating contacts on the housings or enclo-
characteristics or conditions, which serve to describe the sures of a removable circuit breaker unit, the preferred
use of the device or its contacts in the equipment such as: method of representing these contacts is asan "a" switch.
Each contact sho uld, however, be identified on the ele-
A -
Accelerating, or Autornatic mentary diagramas to when it closes.
8 -
Blocking, or Back-up
C -
Close, or Cold In the case of latched-in or hand-reset locking-out relays,
D -
Decelerating, Detonate, or Down, or Disengaged which operate from protective devices to perform the shut-
E - Emergency or Engaged
down of an equipment and to hold it out of service, the
F - Failure , or Forward
contacts should preferably be shown in the normal non-
H - Hot, or High
locking-out position. In general, any devices, such as
H R - Hand Reset
electrically-operated Iatched-in relays, which have no de-
HS - High Speed
energized or non-operated position, and have not been
L - Left, or Local, or Low , or Lower, or Leading
M - Manual
specif'ically covered in the above paragraphs should have
their contacts shown in the position most suitable for the
OFF - Off
ON -On ready understanding of the operation of the devices in the
P - Polarizing equipment, and sufficient description should be present,
as necessary, on the elementary diagrarn to indicate the
R - Right, or Raise, or Reclosing, or Receiving, or
contact operation.
Remete, or Reverse
S - Sending, or Swing
T - Test, or Trip, or Trailing
TDC - Time-delay Closing
TDO - Time-delay Opening
U -Up
 8-1

Bibliography GENERAL REFERENCES

Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book,

Additional information is provided in this selective bibliog-
raphy. Both the IEEE Power System Relaying and Power
System Communication Committees periodically publish
more comprehensive bibliographics. References to these are
included.
This list does not include many excellent papers presented
at the severa! Technical Conferences on Relaying held each
year since they are not generally available at technical li-
braries. These may be available from the author.
The manufacturers frequently provide reprints. At Westing-
house these are the Silent Sentinel RPL's and Conference
Paper reprints.
4th Edition
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
700 Braddock Ave., East Pittsburgh, Pa. 15112
Electric Utility Engineering Reference Book · Distribution
Systems, Vol. 3
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
700 Braddock Ave., East Pittsburgh, Pa. 15112
IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic
Terms. IEEE Standard 100-1972, ANSI C42. I 00 (new cdi-
tion scheduled for 1976).
Elements of Power System Analysis, W. D. Stevenson, Jr.,
2nd Edition 1962 McGraw Hill Book Co., New York

Abbreviations Used in the Bibliography IEEE Standard for Relay and Relay Systems Associated
with Electric Power Apparatus, IEEE Std 313-1971, ANSI
AJEE - American lnstitute of Electr ical Engineers (up C37.90-l 97 I.
through 1962) use IEEE address.
The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, C. R. Mason,
IEEE - lnstitute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers 1956
345 E. 4 7th Street John Wiley & Sons, lnc., New York
New York, N.Y. 10017
Protective Relays, A. R. van C. Warrington, Vol. 1, 1962
P A & S - Power Apparatus & Systems John Wiley & Sons, lnc., New York

ANSI - American National Standards lnstitute Vol. 2, 2nd Edition, l 974

1430 Broadway Chapman and Hall, London
New York, N.Y. 10018
Graphic Symbols for Logic Diagrarns, IEEE Std 91 ( 1973)
Trans · Transactions ANSI Y32.14-1973

IEEE (AJEE) Bibliographies of Relaying and Related Sub-

jects by The Power System Relaying Committee of The
Power Engineering Society.

l. Transactions of The American Institute of Electrical

Engineers

Year Pcriod Refercnce

1927 • 1939 Vol. 60, 1941 pp. 1435-44

1940 - 1943 Vol. 63, 1944 pp. 705-09
1944 · 1946 Vol. 67, Part 1, 1948 pp. 24-27
1947 • 1949 Vol. 70, Part 1, 1951 pp. 247-50
1950 · 1952 Vol. 74, Part 111 1955 pp. 45-48
1953 · 1954 Vol. 76, Part 111 1957 pp. 126-128
1955 - 1956 Vol. 78, Part IIIA 1959 pp, 78-81
1957 · 1958 Vol. 79, Part III J 960 pp. 39-42
1959-1960 Vol. 81, Part lll 1962 pp. 109-112

2. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems

Year Period Reference

1961 - 1964 Vol.85, 1966pp. 1044-53

1965 - 1966 Vol. 88, 1969 pp. 244-250
1967 • 1969 Vol. 90, 1971 pp. 1982-1988
1970 - 1971 Vol. 92, 1973 pp. 1132-1140
1972 - 1973 Vol. 94, 1975 pp. 2033-2041
e-z
Principies and Practices of Relaying in the United States,
E. L. Harder, W. E. Marter
AlEE Transactions Vol. 67, Part 11 1948 pages 1005-
1023
Recent Practices and Trends in Protective Relay ing, AIEE
Relay Committee Report
AlEE Transaction Vol. 78, Part IIJB, 1959 pages 1759-
1779
Supplement to Recent Practices and Trends in Protective
Relaying, IEEE Power Systems Relaying Committee, IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus & Systerns
Vol. 83, 1964 pages 1064-1069
BUS PROTECTION {Chapter 9)
See also references on Relay Input Sources.
Considerations in Applying Ratio Differential Relays for
Bus Protectíon , R.M. Srnith , W. K. Sonnemann and G. B.
Dodds, AJEE Trans., Vol. 58, 1939 pp. 243-9.
Linear Couplers for Bus Protection, E. L. Harder, E. H.
Klemmer, W. K. Sonnemann, E. C. Wentz, AIEE Trans.,
Vol. 61, 1942, pp. 241-8.
The Effect of Current-Transformer Residual Magnetism en
Balanced-Current or Differential Relays, H. T. Seeley, AIEE
Trans., Vol. 62, 1943, pp. 164-8. Discussion, p. 384.
Instantaneous Bus-Differential Protection Using Busing Cur-
rent Transformers, H. T. Seeley and F. V. Roeschlaub,
AIEE Trans., Vol. 67, Part II, 1948, pp. 1709-19.
Directional Relays Provide Differential-Type Protection on
Large Industrial Plant Power Systern, M. M. Gilbert, R. N.
Bel!, AIEE Trans., Vol. 74, Part 11, 1955, pp. 220-27.
A Half Cycle Bus Differential Relay and its Application,
T. Fonford, J. R. Linders, IEEE Transactions on Power Ap-
paratus and Systerns, Vol. 93, 1974, pp, 1110-1120.
FAULT & SYSTEM CALCULATIONS (Chapters 1 and 2)
Symmetrical Components, C. F. Wagner, R. D. Evans,
McGraw Hill Book Co., 1933.
Sequence Network Connections for Unbalanced Load and
Fault Conditions, E. L. Harder, Electric Journal (Westing-
house ) December 1937, pages 481-488.
Method of Symmetrical Coordinates Applied to the Solu-
tion of Polyphase Networks, C. L. Fortescue, AIEE Trans-
actions, Vol. 37 Part 2, 1918 pages 1027-1139.
Analysis of Faulted Power Systems, P. M. Anderson, The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa 1973.
Speed Zero Sequence Impedance Calculations for Transmis-
sion Lines, (A chart) J. L. Blackburn, Electrical World, Vol.
153, March 7, 1960 pp. 60-61.
LINE PROTECTION (Chapter 10)
Fundamental Basis for Distance Relay ing on a 3-Phase Sys-
tem, W. A. Lewis, L. S. Tippett , AJEE Trans., Vol, 66,
1947, pp. 694-708. Original presented but not published at
an AlEE Meeting in 1932.
Application of the OHM and MHO Principie to Protective
Relay ing, A. C. Van C. Warrington, AJEE Trans., Vol. 65,
1946,pp.378-86,490.
A Study of Directional Elements for Phase Relays, W. K.
Sonnemann, AIEE Trans., Vol. 69, Part 11, 1950, pp. 1438-
51.
The How and Why of Ground Fault Protection, J. L. Black-
burn, Electric Light & Power, Novernber 1945, pp. 58-63,
90-91, 127-128.
Principies of lnduction Disc Relay Design, W. E. Glassburn,
W. K. Sonnemann, AIEE Trans., Vol. 72, Part 111, 1953,
pp. 23-27.
Compensator Distance Relaying - 1 - General Principies of
Operation, W. K. Sonnemann and H. W. Lensner, 11 - Design
& Performance - W. E. Rich and H. J. Calhoun, 1!1- Carrier
Control System - H. W. Lensner, P. J. Schwanenflugel, W. L.
Hinman, AIEE Trans., Vol. 77, Part III, 1958, pp. 392-402.
Ground Relay Polarization, J. L. Blackburn, A!EE Transac-
tions, Vol. 71, Part lll, 1952, pp. 1088-1095.
Zone Packaged Ground Distance Relay, 1 - Principie of Op-
eration, G. D. Rockefeller, 11 - Design & Performance, H. J.
Calhoun, L. Husak, IEEE Trans., on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. 85, 1966, pp. 1021-1044, 1128-1134.
Ground Fault Protection of Transmission Lines, J. L. Black-
bum, AIEE Trans., Vol. 71, Part lll, 1952, pp. 685-692.
Llne & Transformer Bank Relaying Systerns, J. L. Black-
burn, G. D. Rockefeller, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 74, Part
rn, 1955, pp. 334-343.
Negative Sequence Directional Ground Relay ing, W. A. El-
more, J. L. Blackburn, Al EE Transaction, Vol. 8 1, Part lll,
1962, pp. 913-921.
Voltage lnduction in Paralleled Transmission Circuits, 1. L.
Blackburn, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 81, Part lll, 1962, pp.
921-929.
Relaying to Detect Ground Faults on Transmission, Sub-
transrnission and Distribution Lines, IEEE Power System
Relay Committee Report, IEEE Trans., on Power Appara-
tus and Systems, Vol. 85, 1966, pp. 524-532.
An Appraisal of Remete and Local Backup Relaying, L. F.
Kennedy, A. J. McConnell, AJEE Trans., on Power Appara-
tus and Systerns, Vol. 76, Part III, 1957, pp. 735-747.
The Application of Relaying on an EHV Systern , H. J. Sut-
ton, IEEE Trans., on Power Apparatus and Systerns, Vol.
86, 1967, pp. 408-415.

Relaying the AEP 765-kV System, S. H. Horowitz, H. T.
Seeley, IEEE Paper 69C28-PWR, IEEE Trans., on Power
Apparatus and Systerns, Vol. 88, 1969, pp. 1382-1389.
Local Back-up Relay ing Protection, IEEE Committee Re-
port, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. 89, 1970, pp. 1061-1068.
Pole Disagreement Relaying for lndependent Pole Circuit
Breakers, C. L. Wagner, E. A. Udren, Westinghouse Engi-
neer, November 1973,pp. 168-173.
Sorne Guidelines for Selecting a Solid State Transmission
Line Relaying Systern, W. A. Elmore, Westinghouse Engi-
neer, March 1973, pp. 50-59.
Considerations in Selecting a Carrier Relaying System,
R. C. Cheek and J. L. Blackburn, AJEE. Trans., on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 71, 1952, pp. 10-18.
Protection of Multiterminal and Tapped Lines, AIEE Corn-
mittee Report, AJEE Trans., on Power Apparatus and Sys-
terns, Vol. 80, Part Ill, 1961, pp. 55-66.
Relay Protection of Tapped Transmission Lines, M. A. Bost-
wick and E. L. Harder, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 62, 1943,
pp. 645-650.
Bibliography on Single Pole Switching, IEEE Transmission
& Distribution Committee Report, IEEE Trans., on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 94, 1975, pp. 1072-1078.
Single Pole Switching on TV A's Paradise-Davidson 500-kV
Line Design Concepts & Staged Fault Test Results, Leo
Edwards, J. W. Chadwick, H. A. Riesch, L. E. Smith, IEEE
Trans., on Power Apparatus and Systerns, Vol. 90, 1971,
pp. 2436-2450.
LOAD SHEDDING ANO FREQUENCY RELA YING
(Chapter 21)
Application of Underfrequency Relays for Automatic Load
Shedding, H. E. Lokay and V. Burtnyk, IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 87, 1968, pp. 776-
783.
Application and Test of Frequency Relays for Load Shed-
ding, L. L. Fountain and J. L. Blackburn, AlEE Transac-
tions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 74, Part III,
1955, pp. 1660-1664.
Frequency Actuated Load Shedding and Restoration, Part
1 · Philosophy , R. M. Maliszewski, R. D. Dunlop, and G. L.
Wilson, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Sys-
tems, Vol. 90, 1971, No. 4, pp. 1452-1459.
Frequency Actuated Load Shedding and Restoration, Part
ll -lmplementation, S. H. Horowitz, A. Politis, and A. F.
Gabrielle, Ibid, pp. 1460-1468.
Optimum Load Shedding Through Programming Tech-
niques, D. K. Subramanian, IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systerns, Vol. 90, 1971, pp. 89-95.
B-3
A Status Report on Methods Used for Systern Preservation
During Underfrequency Conditions, IEEE Committee Re-
port, [EEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. 94, 1975, pp. 360-366.
PILOT CHANNELS {Chapter 15 & 16)
1. IEEE Bibliographies of Carrier, Microwave & Wire Line
Literature.
1920 · 1954 AIEE Trans., Vol. 75, 1956, pp. 1-12.
I 955 · 1964 IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systerns,
Vol. 84, 1965, pp, 216-219.
2. Guide to the Application and Treatment of Channels for
Power-Line Carrier, Committee Report, AJEE Trans., Vol.
73, Part lII 1954, pp. 417-436.
3. A Guide for the Protection of Wire Line Communica-
tions Facilities Serving Electric Power Stations, Committee
Report, IEEE Trans., Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.
85, 1966, pp. 1065-1083.
4. Guide for Measurements on Power Line Carrier Systems,
Committee Report, IEEE Trans., Power Apparatus and Sys-
tems, Vol. 86, 1967, pp. 1587-1592.
5. Commumcation System Engineermg Handbook, D. A.
Hamsher, McGraw-Hill, 1967, Chapter 14.
6. Protective Relay Applications of Audio Tones over Tele-
phone Channels, IEEE Standard #305, 1969.
7. The Isolation Concept for Protection of Wire Line Fa-
cilities Entering Electric Power Stations, an interirn report
of the Power Systems Communications Cornmittee, IEEE
Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systerns, T75 160-7.
8. Audio Tone Tests on Telephone Channels in the Pres-
ence of lnduced Voltages, L. R. Berke, E. W. Greer, Jr., M.
Parente, T. L. Berri, IEEE Power Engineering Facility Con-
ference C72 039-1, Abstract in IEEE Trans., Power Appara-
tus and Systerns, Vol. 91, 1972, p. 1724.
Line Noise
l. A Study of Carrier-Frequency Noise on Power Lines,
Parts 1, II, III, IV, R. C. Cheek, J. D. Moynihan, B. J. Spar-
lin, AJEE Trans., Power Apparatus and Systems.
Part 1 • Vol. 70, Part II, 1951, pp. 1127-33
Part II · Vol. 70, Part Il, 1951, pp. 1325-34
Part IIl · Vol. 72, Part III, 1953, pp. 573-80
Part IV - Vol. 74, Part III, 1955, pp. 795-800
2. Fault Generated Impulse Noise Voltage in a Transmis-
sion Line, Tatsuo Udo and Mikio Kawaí, IEEE Trans.,
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 86, 1967, pp. 678-684.
3. Effects of Noise on Transfer-Trip Carrier Relaying - B.
Bozoki, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. 87, 1968, pp. 173-177.
Transformer Characteristics
1. Carrier-Frequency Characte.ristics of Power Transform-
ers, T. R. Specht and R. C. Cheek, AIEE Trans., Vol. 71,
1952, pp. 442-449.
Carr ier 011 Powcr Cables
1. Loss Mcasurcrnents Made on Undcrground-Cable,
Ovcrhead-Conductor 132-k V. Tra nsm ission Lineal Carrier
Frcqucncies, 11. A. Cornelius and B. Wadc Storcr, AIEL:.
Trans .. Vol. 68, Part 11, 1949, pp. 587-601.
2. A Melhod of Mcasurcment of Carrrer Charactcristics on
Powcr Cables, B. J. Spurlin aud J. V. Moynihan, AIEE
I'rans., Vol. 74, Part 111. 1955, pp. 31-33.
3. The Applicut ion of Power-Line Carrier lo a Combined
Cable and Overhcud Circuit , J. D. Moynihan and E. G.
Ally n , All-:J: Trans., Vol. 75, Par! 111, 1956, pp. 243-'.!48.
4. Operat ing Hxpcrrence with Powcr Line Carrier on Pipe-
Ty pe Cable, 11. G. Lrdman, IEEE Confcrcnce Papcr CP
64-176.
Carr ier 011 lnsulated Sta tic Wirc
l. 1:-.ight.:cn Months Expcr icncc with lnsulalcd Static-Wirc
Trausfer-Trip Schcmc, C. R. l Iarvcy , 11.EE Conf'erence
I'apcr 3 1 CP66- J 04, 1 966.
2. nsulat cd Overhcud Ground Wires - Protect ive Carrier
í Part 111. 1940, pp. 481-488. 1144-1148.
Rclayi11g lnvcstigut ion , J. Reichmun. IFEI·. Trans. Power
Apparu tus und Systcms. Vol. 87, 1968, pp. 1 79-187.
3. Primary u nd Sccondary Fault Protcct ion 011 a 138 k V
Linc, C. D. Rock efcllcr, and J. L. Koepfinger, Trunsrnission
and Dist ribution , May 1973.
Modal Analysis
J. Expcri111cnlal Evaluation uf I'owcr-Linc Carricr Propa-
gation 011 a 500-milc Linc, D. E. Jo nes and 13. Bozok i. ICEE::
Trans., Power Appuratus and Systems, Vol. 83. 1964. pp.
15-23.
2. Natural Modos of Power-Linc Curr ier on Horizontal 3-
phase Lincs, .M.C. Perz .. IEF.F Trans, Power Apparatus and
Syxtcms, Vol. 83, 1964. pp. 679-686.
3. A Method of Analysis of Power-Linc Carricr Problcms
on 3-phasi.: Lines, M. C. Perz. IEEE Trans .• Powcr Apparatus
and Systcms, Vol. 83, 1964, pp. 686-691.
4. Power-Line Coupling l nvest igation on a 500-kV line , B.
Bozok i and IJ. E. Iones. IEEE Trans .. Powcr Apparutus und
Systcms, Vol. 84, 1965, pp, 197-280.
S. Communicat ion Circuits on 500-k V Lincs, T. M. Swingle
and 11. l. Dobson, 1 EEE Tr:111s., Powcr Apparalus and Sys-
tcms, Vol. 85, 1966, pp. l 059-1066.
6. 765-k V Powcr Line Carrier Cornrnunications, A.
Robertson, el al.
l'art 1 • Thcoret ical Considerations. IEEE Trans .. Power
Apparatus and Systcrns, Vol. 91. 1972. pp. 575-
580.
Part 11 - Experimental Detcrrninat ion of Parameters, Vol.
91, 1972, pp. 580-586.
l'art 111 - Equipment Dcvclopmcnt and Design Vol. 91,
1972, pp. 587-591.
PILOT WIRE PROTECTION (Chapter 14)
Pilo! Wire Pro tection Circuits, E. L. l lurder, M. /\. Bostwick ,
AIEE Trans .. Vol. 6 J. 1942. pp. 645-52.
Protection of Pilot Wires from lnduced Poten t ialx, R. B.
Killen, G. G. Law , AJEE Transactions, Vol. 65. 1946. pp.
267,270.
Protection of Pilot Wirc Reluy Círcuits, Al Ll: Co111111ifl..:c
Rcport , AIEE Truns., vet. 78, Part IIIA. 1959, pp. 205-12.
RELA Y INPUT SOURCES (Chapter 5)
Rcquirements Ior lnstrumcnt Transformcrs, ANSI
C57 .13-1968( new revisión schcdulcd for 1976 }.
Currcnt Transformers Ior II igh Spccd Diffcreu t ial Proteo-
tion with Particular Rcf'crence to Offset I'runxicnt Currcnts,
E. C. Wc11t1. W. K. So nnemun , Ali:.!:: Trausacrions. Vol. 59,
Potential Transf'ormer Applkation 011 Unil-Connccled C.:11·
cralor. lrEE Powcr Systcm R..:laying Commillcc. IEl·.E
Transa..:tionson PA & S, Vol. 91, 1972. pp. 24-.18.
rh..: l:.ffr..:l of Curren! íran~form..:r Residual Magn.;tism 011
Balan..:ed Curren! or Diflen:ntial Rclays. 11. T. Sccky,
AIEE TRANSACTIO:-.l, Vol. 62. 1943, Parl 111. pp. 164-
168.
Rcmanenl Flux in Currc;nl Transfurmers, O. W. Jw,111usiw.
Ontario 1 lydro Rescar..:h Quartcrly. 1970. pp. 18-21.
cutral lnversion of a Single Potcntial Transformer Con-
ne..:ted Lim:-to-Cround 011 an lsolated l)dta Systc111. L. L.
Gleason, AJEE Transac;tion, Vol. 70, 1951, l'arl 1, pp. 1 OJ-
1 1 l.
rerrorcson:inee of Groundcd l'otcntial Transformcrs 011 Un-
groundcd Power Systems, R. F. Karli,ck. E. R. Tayl,,r,
AIEE Transat.:lions, Vol. 78, 1959, Parl IIIA, pp. 607-618.
Transient Response of Curren! Transformcrs, IEEE l'uwúr
Systcm Rclaying Comm!ltce R.:port, l'ublic,1tion S..:hedulcd
1976.
Transicnt Rcsponse Characterislics ol Capadt ivc Potcntial
Dcvices, A. Sw..:ctana, IEEE Transactions f>A & S. Vol. 90.
1971. pp. 1989-2001.
Control of Residual Flux in Cum:nt Transformers. E. E.
Connor. R. G. Crcb, E. C. Wentz, IEEE Transac;tions 011 PA
& S, Vol. 92, 1973, pp. 1226-1233.
Transicnt Characteristics of Currcnt Transfonnt~rs During
Faulls, C. Con..:ordia, C. N. Weygandl, and H. S. Shott,
AIEETransa..:tions Vol. 61. 1942. pp. 280-285.

ROTATING MACHINERY PROTECTION - J. R. Mather, P. A. Rusche, IEEE Transaction on PA & S,
GENERATORS (Chapter 6)
Transient Shaft Torques in Turbine Generators Produced
by Transmission Line Reclosing, J. W. Batchelor, Whitehead
and Williams, IEEE Transactions, Vol. 67, 1948, Part 1, pp.
159-165.
Turbine-Generator Rotor Heating During Single-Phase Short
Circuits, Ross and King, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 72, Part
lll, 1953, pp. 40-45.
Generator Negative-Sequence Currents for Line-to-Line
Faults, R. F. Lawrence and Ferguson, AJEE Transactions,
Vol. 72, Part III, 1953, pp. 9-16.
Application of Relays for Unbalanced Faults on Genera-
tors, J. E. Barkle and F. von Roeschlaub, Vol. 72, Part IIJ,
1953, pp. 277-282.
Protection of Generators Against Unbalanced Currents.
J. E. Barkle and W. E. Glassburn, AIEE Transactions.
Vol. 72, Part III, 1953, pp. 282-286.
Loss-of-Field Protection for Synchronous Machines, R. L.
Tremaine and J. L. Blackburn, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 73,
Part lllA, 1954, pp. 765-777.
Protection of Large Steam Turbine Generators During Ab-
normal Operating Conditions, J. Berdy, M. L. Crenshaw and
M. Temochok, CIGRE 11-05, 1972.
Detection of Grounds in Generator Field Windings, J. E.
Barkle, C. C. Sterrett and L. L. Fountain, AIEE Transac-
tions, Vol. 74, 1955, Part III, pp. 467-472.
Effects of Unbalanced Current on Turbine Generators E. l.
King and J. W. Batchelor, IEEE Transactions on PA & S,
Vol.84, 1965,pp.121-125.
Mínimum Excitation Limit for Magnetic Amplifier Regular-
ing Systern, Carleton, Bobo and Burt, AIEE Transactions,
Vol. 73, 1954, Part IIIB, pp. 869-874.
Protective Relaying for Pumped Storage Hydro Units,
Power Systern Relaying Committee, IEEE Transactions on
PA & S. Vol. 94, 1975, pp. 899-907.
Generator Protection with a New Static Negative Sequence
Relay , D. J. Graham, P. J. Brown, R. L. Winchester, IEEE
Transactions on PA & S, Vol. 94, 1975, pp. 1208-1213.
A Study of Loss-of-Excitation Relaying and Stability of a
595 MVA Generator on the Detroit Edison System, C. R.
Arndt, Rogers, IEEE Transactions on PA & S, Vol. 94,
1975, pp. 1451-1456.
Loss of Excitation Protection for Modero Synchronous
Generators, J. Berdy, IEEE Transactions on PA & S, Vol.
94, 1975, pp. 1457-1463, 1481-1483.
Loss of Field Relay Operation During Systern Disturbances,
lEEE Power System Relaying Committee, IEEE Transac-
tion on PA & S, Vol. 94, 1975, pp. 1464-1472, 1481-1483.
The lnfluence of Generator Loss of Excitation on Bulk
Power System Reliability, H. G. Danon, J. L. Koepfinger,
H·.'.>
Vol. 94, 1975, pp. 1473-1483.
ROTATING MACHINE PROTECTION · MOTORS
(Chapter 7)
Thermal Relationships in an lnduction Motor Under Nor-
mal and Abnormal Operation, W. T. Martiny, R. M. McCoy
and H. B. Margolis, AIEE Trans., Vol. 80, 1961, Par! Ill,
pp. 66-76.
Heating of lnduction Motors on Unbalanced Voltages, B. N.
Gafford, W. C. Duesterhoeft, Jr. and C. C. Mosher, 111,
AJEE Trans., 1959, Vol. 78, Part 111, pp. 282-288.
Temperature Protection for lnduction Motors · Today and
Tomorrow, J. K. Howell and J. J. Courtin, Westinghouse
Engineer, Novern ber J 9 59.
lnduction Motor Temperature Characteristics, J. F. Heid-
breder, AIEE Trans., Vol. 77, 1958, Part 111, pp. 800-804.
Reclosing Transients in lnduction Motors with Terminal
Capacitors, F. P. deMello and G. W. Walsh, AIEE Transac-
tions on Power Apparatus and Systerns, Vol. 79, 1960, Part
lll, pp. 1206-1213.
Effect of Unbalanced Voltage on the Operation of Poly-
phase Induction Motors, R. F. Woll, IEEE Conference
Paper PCI 73-35 Presented to IEEE Petroleum and Cherni-
cal lndustry Conference, Houston, Texas, Septernber 1973.
Relaying for Synchronous Motor Pullout Protection, A. H.
Hoffmann, C. Raczkowski, R. F. Squires, AIEE Trans. on
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 78, Part lIIA, 1959, pp.
618-623.
Relay Protection of Motors in Steam Power Stations with
4-kV Grounded Neutral Systerns, W. F. Neff, S. H. Horo-
witz and R. B. Squires, AIEE Trans., Vol. 75, Part Ill,
1956, pp. 573-576.
Selecting A.C. Overcurrent Protective Device Settings for
Industrial Plants, F. P. Brightrnan, AIEE Trans., Vol. 71,
Part u, 1952, pp. 203-21 l.
More About Setting Industrial Relays, F. P. Brightman,
AIEE Trans., Vol. 73, Part lll, 1954, pp. 397-406.
How to Select Overcurrent Relay Characteristics, D. V.
Fawcett, IEEE Trans. on Applications and lndustry, Vol.
82, 1963, pp. 94-104.
Guide for Motor Protection, ANSI C 37.96.
Protection of 3-Phase Motors Against Single Phase Opera-
tion, L. L. Gleason, W. A. Elmore, AIEE·Trans., Vol. 77,
Part lll, 1958, pp. 1112-1120.
SETTING & APPLICATION BY COMPUTERS
(Chapter 12)
Digital Computer Protective Devíce Coordination Program
1 · General Program Description, R. E. Albrecht, M. J. Nisia,
W. E. Feero, G. D. Rock efcllcr, C. L. Wagner. IECE Trans-
actions on Power Apparutus and Systcms, Vol. 83 No. 4,
Apr il 1964, pp. 402-1 O.
SHUNT REACTOR PROTECTION (Chapter 8)
Sensor Coil for lnlernal Fault Protcction of Shunt Reactors,
J. P. Vora, A. E. Ern anuel, IEEE Trans. on Power Appara-
tus and Systerns, Vol. 93, 1974, pp. 1917-1926.
A Re lay for Ungrounded Shunt Reactors, L. E. Eilts, J. W.
Copper , IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systerns, Vol.
92, 1973, pp. 116-126.
A llalf Cycle Static Bus Prolection Relay Using lnstantan-
eous Volt age Mcasurement, S. Mentler, IEEE Trans. on
Powcr Apparatus and Syst erns, Vol. 94, 1975, pp. 939-944.
SYSTEM GROUNDING, DlSTRIBUTION ANO NET-
WORK PROTECTION (Chapter 11)
Recommended Pract ice for Elcct ric Powcr Distribution for
Industrial Plants, IEEE Red Book , IEEE Std. 141-1969.
Recornmended Practice for Crounding Industrial and Com-
mercial Power Systems, IEEE Green Book, IEEE Std.
142-1972.
Recommended Pruct ice for Elcctric Powcr Systcrns in Corn-
mercial Buildings, IEEE Gray Book , JEEE Std. 241-1974.
Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination
Industrial and Corn mcrcial Power Systerns, IEEE Buff
Book , IEEE Std. 242-1975.
Recommcnded Practice for Emerge ncy and Standby Power
Systerns, 11:EE Orange Book, IEEE Std. 446-1974.
Protection Fundarnentals Ior Low Voltage Elcct rical Dis-
tribution System in Commercial Buildings, IEEE BRAB
Book , IEEEJH2112·1.
Standardized Aut om at ic Transfer Controls Sources, S.
Kovacs, Hlcctrical World,June 13, 1966.
SYSTEM ST ABILITY, OUT-OF-STEP PROTECTION
ANO SERVJCE RESTORATION (Chapter 19 & 20)
Transient St abilit y St ud ies ll, Automatic Digital Computa·
tion , C. '.\1. Lanc, R. W. Long, and J. N. Powers, AIEE
Power Apparatus and Systerns, Vol. 77, Part 111. 1958, pp.
1291-1295.
A Power Swing Relay for Prcdict ing Generation lnstability,
Brown & McCly mout , JEEE Tra nsact ions on Power Appara-
tus and Systerns. Vol. 84. 1965, pp. 219-294.
A Mod er n Vicw of Out-of-Step Relaying - G. D. Rock efcl-
ler and W. A. El more. IEEE Confcrence Paper 31 CP 66-34.
lmprovement of Powcr Systcm Stabilit y by ChangL'S in the
Network. Edward W. Kimbark. IEl:I.: Trausact ious on
Power Apparat us and Systcrns, Vol. 88. 1969. pp. 77 J-781.
Sorne Guidelincs for Sclcct ing a Sotid-St at c Transmission
Line Relaying Syst em , W. A. Elmore, West ingho usc l.ngi-
neer , March 1973. pp. 50-59.
Effocts of Future Turbine Cencr at or Charact erisucs en
Transient Stabil it y , H. E. Lok ay a nd P. O. Thoits, JU:F
Transactions on Power Apparatus ami Systcms, Vol. 90.
1971, pp. 2427-2431.
Fast Valving asan Aid to l'ower Systcrn Transicnt Stuhility,
E. W. Cushing et al, IEEE Tr ansactions on Power Apparatus
and Systerns, Vol. 91, 1972, pp. 1624-1636.
lmprovemcnl of Syst em St abilit y by Swit ched Series Ca·
pacitors, E. W. Kimbark , IEEE Transact ions o n Powcr Ap·
para tus and Systcms, Vol. 85, 1966. pp. 180-188.
Are Deionization Times on High Spccd Three l'olc Reclos-
ing, IEEE Working Gr oup un Are Deioniz ing Ti111cs of t he
General Systems Subcommit tee, IEEE Transact ions Special
Supplernent 1963.
Solid State Reclosing Systcms, W. A. Ehnorc. West inghousc
Engineer. 1968. pp. no. 168-174.
SYSTEM TRANSIENTS, POWER ARCS, SURGE
PHENOMENA & PROTECTION (Chapter 4)
of
Transient Performance of Elcct ric Powcr Syst em s. R.
Rudcnberg, McGraw Hill Book Co .. New York, 1950.
Digital Computer Engineering. Chuptcr 9, 11. l!. Gray.
Prcntice Hall. lnc .. Englewood Clifls, N.J., 1963.
The Jnfluence of Station Design on Control Circuit l'ran-
sicnts. W. C. Kotheimcr, Amerka n l'owcr {'011fer,•nci:.
Chicago, lllinois. April 1970.
Cuide for Surge Withstand Capability {SW(') TL'Sls. ANSI
C37 .90a - 1974.
Voltages Jnduced by Arcing Grounds. J. F. l\:ters ami J.
Slcpian. AIEE Transal'lions, Vol. 42, 1923. pp. 478-90.
493.
l'ower System Transienls Caused by Switt:hing and f-aults.
R. D. Evans. A. C. Monteith and R. L. Witzb.-. AlU:. Trans·
actions. Vol. 58, 1939, pp. 389-94, 396.
Power System Faulls to Ground, l'arl 11. Fault ResistanCt\
C. L. Gilkeson. P. A. Jeanne and E. r-. Vaage, AJEE Trans-
actions, Vol. 56, 1937, pp. 428-33, 474.
Long 60-cycle An;s in Air, A. P. Strom. AIEE Tra11sadions.
Vol. 65. 1946, pp. 113-118. 504.

TESTING ANO ANALYSIS (Chapter 22)
1. A survey of Relay Test Methods, Committee Report ,
AIEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.
75, Part 111, 1956, pp. 254-260.
2. A Survey of Relay Test Practices, Report of the Power
System Relaying Committee of the Power Engineering
Society, 1 EEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Sys-
tems, Vol. 91, 1972, pp. 1191-1196.
3. Novel Test Circuits for Protective Relays, W. K. Sonne-
mann, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 68, Part 11, 1949, pp,
1249-54.
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION (Chapter 8)
Cuide for Protective Relay Applications to Power Trans-
formers, ANSI C3 7 .91, 1972.
B-7
Report on Transformer Magnetizing Current and lts Ef-
fect on Relaying and Air Switch Operation, AIEE Commit-
tee Report, AIEE Trans., Vol. 70, Part 11, 1951, pp. 1733-
1740.
Magnetizing lnrush Phenomena in Transformer Bank , W. K.
Sonnemann, C. L. Wagner, G. D. Rockefeller, AlEE Trans.,
Vol. 77, Part 111, 1958, pp. 884-892.
Prolonged lnrush Currents with Parallel Transformers Af-
fect Differential Relaying, C. D. Hayward, AIEE Trans.,
Vol.60, 1941,pp.1096-1101.
A Transformer Differential Relay with Second-Harmonic
Restraint, W. E. Glassburn, R. L. Sharp, AIEE Trans., Vol.
77, Part 111, 1958, pp. 913-918.