1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Hydropower is the dominant source of electricity in Nepal. Bountiful of perennial rivers with
decent discharge and good head, or elevation difference, flowing through North to South are
available. At present, out total installed capacity, by a collective effort of NEA and IPP, is 851MW.
But we have far more potential than this current figure. One of the researches, carried out by
Nepalese experts, showed we have a hydropower potential of 83,000 MW, of which 53,000 MW
of energy is economically feasible for power production.

The annual peak power demand of Integrated Nepal Power System (INPS) was 1291.80 MW in
2014-2015 with 585 MW of load shedding. As compared to the previous year’s figure, the annual
peak hour demand has been increased by 7.56% according to NEA. There has been a power deficit
in the country for a long time, resulting in daily load shedding, with the situation improving in the
wet season and worsening in the dry season. But, the electricity demand has been steadily
increasing in Nepal by 7-9% per year.

Most of the power plants are run-of-river, RoR type with energy available in excess of the demand
during the monsoon season but facing deficit during the dry season. Some of these power plants are
peaking run-of-river, PRoR type, which store water required to satisfy daily peak loads. The solution
to this power deficit we have is to construct storage-type projects in the nation. Only impoundment
projects can relieve the tremendous pressure on the power grid of the nation during dry season and
reduce black outs and moreover add to the total installed capacity of the nation.

Khani Khola 1 Hydropower is a run of river type power station planned for capacity 40 MW and
located at Marbu VDC,Dolakha with an annual design generation of 229.50 GWh. It consists of 3
units. It was developed jointly by Government of Nepal and Greenlife Energy Pvt. Ltd. The public
enchroachment of power canal leading to power house is a concern for normal operation regardless
of the availability of generating units. Khani Khola 1 Hydropower station is scheduled for
generating of first stage of 25 MW plant at the beginning of the year 2075. Canal for which the
water comes from end of the Khani river called as Damsite in Dolakha. It is going to have 3 units
and annual design generation of 229.50 GWh. It was assistance from the Government of Nepal.
Some of the works completed in this fiscal year are construction of compound wall, stop log gate
and head from Hanbu river upto the head box. Construction of power canal is also being carried
out.

1.2 Objectives and Scope of Work

o
To identify the possible hydropower sites for development in the given river basin

catchments and find out the various alternatives sites for development.
o
To work out a comparison chart based on head, flow, length etc. for the various

sites as identified on the map.
 o To choose a viable site from comparison list and prepare detail scheme layouts
 and estimates of the storage project on a feasibility level.


o To analyze existing hydrological and meteorological data.

o
To study the feasibility of storage plant in the Sunkoshi river basin.

o
To prepare the layouts of the project at the feasibility level.

o
To gain the skill on the design of hydropower projects.
o
To familiarize the practical problems likely to face while designing and
 undertaking such projects.
o
To design different components of a storage hydropower project.

o
To prepare a comprehensive project report.

We have carried out this investigation in partial fulfillment of the course curriculum of the final
semester in Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering. As the title of the project,
"FEASIBILITY STUDY OF KHANI KHOLA 1 HYDROPOWER PROJECT”,
suggests, this report is a compilation of the detailed studies involved in the feasibility stage of
a real life hydropower project development cycle.

Topographic maps, were also acquired which were used to identify possible alternatives and their
headworks’ site for later determination of respective catchment areas of the alternatives. The
economic analysis has been conducted in approximation in the study. The cost of major items of
works were calculated in bulk according to the available data and assumptions made

The data collected from DHM contained sufficient flow data from the gauging station at Melamchi
river. Therefore we used various direct methods for hydrological analysis. These various methods
include: catchment area method for hydrologically similar basins, Gumbel’s method, flood duration
curve, etc.
Furthermore, reservoir planning has been discussed which includes design discharge
determination, reservoir routing, reservoir operation or simulation with energy calculation in the
same.
Next, hydraulic design of major components of the project has been completed as per proper
references and guidelines from various reliable sources. Detail drawings have been sketched for
proper presentation of the design outputs.

Economic and financial analysis of the whole project was carried out to identify important
economic parameters.
1.3Climatic Conditions
Nepal receives overall temperate climate and there are two major seasons; wet and dry. Wet season
starts from June and extends till September and receives sample monsoon rainfall brought from
the Bay of Bengal.

Climate of Nepal is divided into five zones: sub-tropical, warm temperate, cool temperate, alpine
and artic zones. Terai and Siwalik falls in sub-tropical zone, with ample rainfall in the monsoon
period of June to September. The middle mountain is in the warm zone with occasional snowfall
in the winter in higher areas. The climate of cool temperate zone extends in the high mountains.
Snow falls in the winter and stays on the mountaintops throughout the winter. Alpine climate
appears in the higher mountain regions with low temperature in summer and extremely frosty
conditions in winter. Artic climate is above snowline where there is perpetual frost.

1.4Approach Methodology

To fulfill the above objectives of the project, certain methodologies have been adopted by us. Such
methodologies are: desk study and reconnaissance, review of previous studies, field survey and
investigations, data analysis, hydrological analysis and topographic mapping.

1.4.1 Study Desk

1.4.2 Site Study

Six days of site visit was conducted for reconnaissance study. General layout regarding alignment,
space and characteristics of major components such as dam site, intake site, and powerhouse station
was conducted. Topographical survey was conducted of the area, from 500 m u/s to 250 m d/s, to
collect accurate data and verify secondary survey data available from sources like satellite
imageries and digital elevation models. The scope of the topographical survey was limited due to
the terrain restrictions at the site.

1.4.3 Hydrological and Meteorological Study

Hydrological and meteorological study were executed and the calculation and evaluation of flood
discharge for different return periods were carried out.

1.5 Literature Review/Guidelines

Khani Khola 1 Hydropower station is a run-of-river type power station having an installed capacity
of 40 MW erected at coverging point of Khani River and Hanbu River. Khani Khola 1 hydropower
station is located at Marbu VDC, Dolakha district with an annual design generation of 229.50
GWh. It consist of 3 units each 750 rpm turbine speed. It was commissioned in 1969 ADD and
developed jointly by Government of Nepal and Greenlife Energy Pvt. Ltd. The public
enchroachment of power canal leading to power house is a concern for normal operation regardless
of the availability of gernerating units. One of the Canal starts from Khani Khola and Hanbu Khola
which is located at Gaurishankar VDC of Dolakha.

2. DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT AREA

2.1 Location of Project Site

We propose “Khani khola 1 Hydropower Project” to be constructed on Khani River and Hanbu
River, located at Dolakha district of Janakpur Zone, in the Central Development Region of Nepal.
The proposed catchment area of headworks site is 52 sq.km.

2.2 Topography and Basin Physiography

Khani khola 1 catchment area is elongated in North-South direction. It is a perennial, snow-fed

river and its catchment is in hilly and mountainous regions thus has contribution of snow for its
discharge pattern. The catchment area of Khani Khola at proposed headwork site is 52 sq. km.

The northern most part of the catchment contains a part of the Tibetan plateau, and gradually has
the Himalayan mountain range around the Nepal-China border area. The middle and lower reaches
of the basin is mainly covered by fairly-dense and dense mixed forest and small portion is worked
on as agricultural land. The basin extends from 86°20’00”E to 86°22’00”E longitude and from
27°47’48”N to 27°50’28°N latitude.

2.3 Accessibility

2.4 Climatic Characteristics

Its basin has non-uniform climatic conditions and is much affected by change in elevation. Both
snow and precipitation characteristics are prevailing factor for its discharge pattern.
2.5 Availability of Construction Materials

Construction materials such as sand, stones, boulders, aggregates, etc. are available around the
construction site. Other important construction materials like cement, steel can be transported from
Udayapur and near by terai district to the construction site through the access roads.

2.6 Geology of Project Site

Much of the project area lies in the Lesser Himalaya zone but the northern areas of the catchment
lie on the Greater Himalaya zone. The major fault plane of the region is Main Central Thrust
(MCT). The rocks in this zone are highly folded into anticlines and synclines fragile and the rock
types found are mostly low grade metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks such as phyllite,
mudstone, shale, siltstone etc.

The river is in the boulder stage and the subsurface formation cannot be judged through the surface
investigation only. It is recommended to carry out detailed geological studies at the site in later
stage of the hydropower development process i.e. feasibility study

2.7 Seismicity
 3. SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVES

3.1 Introduction

In this project, it is desired to construct a dam structure to hold back water, creating a reservoir,
which allows to storage of water during excess or wet season and production of hydropower
smoothly at appropriate capacity during the dry season. The project area is suitable as the site for
the dam as it has many narrow valleys with good geological conditions.

By following prevalent norms and fulfilling general criteria, three alternatives were identified,
followed by hydrological and economic analysis to select the best alternative.

3.2 Criteria for Selection of Type of Dam

I. Topographical conditions

Thumb Rules:

 For narrow valleys, concrete dams are the suitable choice.


 For wide valleys, embankment dams are economical and safe and hence preferred.

Canyon Shape Factor:

Canyon Shape factor is the ratio of length of the valley (L) to the height of the valley up to
dam crest (H). Based on the value of L/H, type of dam that is preferred can be known.

Table 2: Selection of type of dam based on canyon shape factor

Canyon Shape Factor (L/H) Dam Type

1.5 – 5.0 Arch dam
> 5.0 Concrete Gravity
10-15 Rockfill/Earthfill
*Despite being economically feasible, embankment dams (earthfill dams) are not suitable in
narrow valleys because of the significant differential settlements.

II. Geological conditions

The geology at the project site must meet certain conditions before finalization of the type of
dam to be selected.
1. Sound rock at foundations are a must for concrete dams (no rock, no concrete dams)
2. Sound rock should be present at both the foundations and abutments for arch dam.
3. If the valley is wide, geological conditions at foundation and/or abutment do not matter.

III. Material availability

1. Rock material of acceptable quality should be available for concrete dams,
mainly for strength and durability of concrete.
2. Rock material should be in abundant quantity for rock-fill dams. Usually any
type of rock is acceptable.
 3. Impervious material such as clay should be accessible in the vicinity for rockfill
and especially for earthfill dams. In case of unavailability of core material,
concrete face rockfill dam, CFRD, may be preferred.
4. Sand/silt and soil of any type may be used for hydraulic fill earth dams.

IV. Layout possibilities of major structures

 River diversion possibilities

 Spillways
 Outlets
 Combination of structures


V. Technical and technological conditions
 
 Availability of experienced personnel and labour


Provision of construction infrastructures


Appropriate and required technology


Type of construction technique used (capital intensive vs. labour intensive)

Schedule of construction

For narrow valleys in the project area, concrete dams are selected as the appropriate choice among
other types of dams and for wide valleys, embankment dams are chosen over concrete dams.

4. HYDROLOGICAL AND
METEOROLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

4.1 Introduction

Hydrology is the science associated with the occurrence, circulation and distribution of water on
land, atmosphere and underground. It also studies about the physical and chemical properties of
water and their reaction with the environment. The various processes involved are precipitation,
evaporation, infiltration, runoff, groundwater flow and stream flow.

A hydropower project is fundamentally dependent on the hydrological inputs of that location and it
becomes necessary that the hydrological processes and characteristics required for the project such as:
precipitation, runoff, stream flow, area of catchment, snow clad zone, vegetation cover, slope of land
in catchment etc. be prudently studied and analyzed. The design of a stable, economic and deftly
functioning project is excessively reliant on the water characteristics or the flow. The installed capacity
at which the project is understood to run for the entirety of the project span, bases on the mean monthly
flow whereas the physical aspects of project rely on the flood flow analysis of the river. Here in our
study as per the location, the type of river and data available, we carried out some hydrological
calculations based on the following items such as: stream flow, precipitation data, and area of
catchments, land slope, ground cover coefficients, etc.
Meteorology is defined as the science associated with the earth's atmosphere, especially its patterns of
climate and weather. It is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. The sheer diversity
of parameters that comes to play in deciding the meteorological event renders it difficult in its
understanding. Since it is evident that a hydropower project relies on meteorological data of that
location, it becomes necessary that the meteorological processes and characteristics required for project
such as precipitation, monsoon pattern, etc. be duly understood and analyzed.

4.2 Objectives of the Investigations

Hydrological and meteorological investigations are performed for design of headworks of

storage hydropower projects and are aimed at achieving the following objectives:
 Providing input for the selection of return period for inflow design flood, construction
spillway, low flows and precipitation.
 Developing flow duration curves, mean monthly hydrographs, rating curves and water
surface profiles at the headworks.

4.3 Importance of the Investigations

Integrated analysis of hydrological and meteorological records is important to establish following

parameters of the river.
 Flow duration curve of the watershed at the intake site which is useful to determine the
design discharge.
 Frequency analysis of the flood that can be expected in the future which is useful to
determine the maximum design flood.
 Parameter such as annual hydrograph showing long term mean monthly flows which is
useful to determine the firm and secondary energy that can be produced.
 Stage discharge relationship curves at the intake site and tailrace site.

4.4 Drainage Basin Characteristics

The primary sources of flow in Khani Khola are the monsoon rains during the wet season and springs
during the dry season. It originates from the Gaurishankar mountain range from the elevation of about
7134masl.
4.5 Hydro-Meteorological Network and Availability of Data

We obtained hydrological data from the hydrometric station existing in the Melamchi river basin
and precipitation data from 12 meteorological stations existing in and around the river basin from
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM), GoN. The long term precipitation analysis is
carried out to obtain the average and extreme precipitation for the catchment area for the useful
life of the project.
4.6 Meteorological Settings

Climatic condition of the project area is mostly temperate. The project area lies in the high
mountainous region of Nepal. Since, the climate is dominated by the topographical variations, the
catchment area experiences sub-tropical to temperate climate like in the southern part of the basin
and temperate to alpine climatic conditions in the upper, northern regions. The region is also
influenced by the effect of monsoon and receives 80~90% of annual precipitation during June,
July, August and September.

4.7 Long Term Stream Flow Analysis

The long term flow analysis is carried out to obtain the average discharge that will be available for
us in the river during the useful life of the project. This analysis provides us with the average
monthly discharge and then these values can be used to obtain the flow duration curve and design
discharge of the project.

4.7.1 Importance

The long term flow analysis is critical as it provides the design discharge of the project. The
optimization of the installed capacity of any hydropower project is done with the help of long term
stream flow data. These data are used to formulate the flow duration curve, and the discharge
exceeding certain percentage of time is used for the optimization between the cost of the project
and the benefit from the power revenue. This eventually facilitates for the healthy economics of
the project.

4.7.2 Flow Duration Curve

The flow duration curve is a cumulative frequency curve that show the percent of time specified
discharges were equaled or exceeded during a given period. It combines in one curve the flow
characteristics of a stream throughout the range of discharge, without regard to the sequence of
occurrence. If the period upon which the curve is based represents the long-term flow of a stream,
the curve may be used to predict the distribution of future flows for water-power, water-supply,
and pollution studies.

It is simply obtained by plotting the discharge as ordinate and the percentage of time duration for
which that magnitude or more is available as abscissa. In hydropower project, flow duration curves
are widely used to assess the dependability of the discharge. Basically these are used in assessing
the dependable power in runoff river plant with or without pondage.

4.7.3 Methods Used for Long Term Flow Analysis



Catchment Area Ratio Method

WECS/DHM Method (WECS/DHM, 1990)

Catchment Area Ratio Method

If two basins are hydro-meteorologically similar, data extension may accomplished simply by
multiplying the available long term data at the hydrologically similar catchment with the ratio of
the basin areas of the base station (proposed site under study) and the index station.

Where, Qb and Qi are the discharges at the base and index stations respectively, and Ab and Ai are
the corresponding basin areas. For river basins of Nepal, the value of ‘n’ is taken as 1.

WECS/DHM Method

This method is developed for predicting the river flows for catchment areas larger than 100 sq. km.
of ungauged rivers based on hydrological theories, empirical equations and statistics. In this
method, the total catchment area, areas between 5000 masl to 3000 masl are required as input.
Flow contribution per unit area for 5000 masl to 3000 masl and from lower elevations i.e. below
3000 masl is assumed to be in different proportion during flood. However, for long term average
monthly flows, all areas below 5000 masl are assumed to contribute flows equally per sq. km. area.
The average monthly flows can be calculated by the equation.
Where, C, A1, A2, A3 are constants derived from the regression analysis, the catchment area are in
km2 and Q is discharge in m3/sec. The monsoon wetness index for the catchment area is taken
from isohyetal map of Nepal.

4.8 Flood Flow Analysis

In hydropower projects, high floods are required to be computed for designing the headwork
structures as well as the powerhouse complex. Flood hydrology is analyzed in two parts – design
floods for the design of headworks and other hydraulic structures and construction floods for
diversion of flood during construction period.
Calculation of the design flood for different return periods is important for the evaluation and
design of any water resource projects such as hydropower, culverts and bridges, etc. The flood
flow analysis is carried out to obtain the worst flood that can occur for a return period of 10,000
years, so that we can design the structures accordingly for their safety and safety of the whole
project.

Justification for return period: Financial institutions, who can be potential investors of the project,
advocate for risk minimization in their investments. Hence, risk analysis studies are carried out to
properly optimize return period for floods. Usually, high return periods are desired for safety, but
they can increase the overall costs, hence the requirement of optimization.
For storage type hydropower projects, a return period 10,000 years is considered the norm among
experts.
4.8.1 Importance of Flood Flow Analysis

The flood flow analysis is of supreme importance as failure to predict the flood flow correctly may
cause the immature demise of the whole project. Reliable flood estimates are essential as the
viability of a project depends on the economy of hydraulic structures.

4.8.2 Methods Used for Flood Flow Analysis

A. For ungauged basins:

1. Rational Method

Rational method is commonly used method for computing peak discharge for small basins. The
idea behind this method is that if a rainfall of intensity, ‘i’ begins instantaneously and continues
indefinitely, the rate of runoff will increase until the time of concentration (tc), when all of the basin
is contributing to flow at the outlet. After tc, runoff becomes constant for the period of rainfall
excess (t-tc). Rational method is useful for small catchments with areas up to 50 sq.km. The peak
discharge is given by

=
.

Where,
Qp = Peak flood discharge (m3/s)
C = Coefficient of runoff
i = Intensity of rainfall (in mm/hr)
A = Area of catchment (in km2)
Assumptions:

 The computed peak rate of runoff at the outlet point is a function of average rainfall rate
 during tc.
 Time tc employed is the time for runoff to flow from the most remote part of the basin to the
 outlet.
 Rainfall intensity is constant throughout the storm duration.

Table 6: Values of coefficient of runoff

Types of basin C
Rocky and permeable 0.8 – 1.0
Slightly impermeable, bare 0.6 – 0.8
Cultivated or covered with vegetation 0.4 – 0.6
Cultivated absorbent soil 0.3 – 0.4
Sandy soil 0.2 – 0.3
Heavy forest 0.1 – 0.3

2. Empirical Methods

Empirical formulae shall be used only when a more accurate method for flood prediction cannot
be applied because of lack of data. For flood prediction in ungauged basins of Nepal, the empirical
formulae discussed in the following sections may be used with great caution and proper
justification. Empirical formulae can be epitomized as,
 = ()

WECS/DHM Method (Water and Energy Commission Secretariats)

The WECS/DHM method (WECS/DHM, 1990) may be used for flood prediction for small
hydropower project located in ungauged basins of Nepal. Using this method, 2-year (medium
flood) and 100-year floods for maximum daily and maximum instantaneous flood peaks shall be
computed from regression equations of the form
= ( + )

Where, Qaby is the discharge in m3/s, A3000 is the basin area in km2 below 3000m elevation.
Constant ‘α’ is either a daily or an instantaneous flood peak, constant ‘β’ is either a 2-year or a
100-year return period.

. − ={ . −

. − ={ . −

For other return periods,

= ( + )

Where,

QT = Flood discharge for a return period of T years, in m3/s

S = Standard normal variate

Modified Dicken’s Method

Using Dicken’s method, the T year flood discharge QT in m3/s shall be determined as
= .

Where, A is the total basin area in km2 and CT is the modified Dicken’s constant proposed by the
Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee, India, based on frequency studies on Himalayan Rivers.
This constant shall be computed as
= .× ( . )×( )+

+=×+

Where, ‘a’ is the perpetual snow area in km2 and T is return period in years.

Fuller’s Method

Although developed for basins in the United States of America, Fuller’s method may be used to
estimate food discharges in the ungauged basins of Nepal for comparison purposes. Using this
method, the maximum instantaneous flood discharge Qmax in m3/s shall be estimated as:
 −.

= ×{ + ( ) }
.

Where, QT is the maximum 24-hour flood with frequency once in T years in m3/s and A is the
basin area in sq.km.

QT shall be given by:

= ( + . )

In which Qav is the yearly average 24-hour flood over a number of years, in m3/s, given by
= .

Where, Cf is Fuller’s coefficient varying from 0.18 to 1.88. For Nepal, Cf may be taken as the
average of those values, i.e. 1.03.

B. For gauged basins:

Gumbel’s Method
This extreme value distribution was introduced by Gumbel (1914) and is commonly known as
Gumbel’s distribution. It is one of the most widely used probability- distribution functions for
extreme values in hydrologic and meteorological studies for prediction of flood peaks, maximum
rainfalls, maximum wind speed, etc.

Gumbel defined a flood as the largest of the 365 daily flows and the annual series of flood flows
constitute a series of largest values of flows.

The value of variate X with a recurrence interval T is used as

Where,

In which,
 =
tor ̅
+

− − ̅
=

σ
n YT = reduced variate, a function of T is given by
- =−( )
−
1 ̅n = reduced mean, a function of sample size N

=
s Sn = reduced standard deviation, a function of sample size N
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
d
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
t
h
e
s
a
m
p
l
e
s
i
z
e
n
,

∑
(
−
)̅
−
=
√
−

K
=
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
f
a
c
Procedure:
1. Assemble discharge data and note the sample size N. Here, annual maximum flood data is the variate x.
We find ̅ and σn-1 for the given data.
2. Using tables of ̅ and Sn appropriate to given N.

3. Find T for a given T from above equation.

4. Find K from above equation.
5. Determine required discharge value.

As per the calculations for 10000 year return period the flood is
8363.30 m3/s.

Log-Pearson Type III Distribution

In this method the variant is first transformed into logarithmic form

(base10) and the transformed data is then analyzed. If ‘x’ is variant of
random hydrologic series, then the series of ‘z’ varies as
=

For series, for any recurrence interval T

= ̅+

Where, kz = Frequency factor is function of recurrence interval T and

coefficient of skew Cs

ϭz= standard deviation of the Z variant sample

∑
(
−
̅
)
=
√
−

Cs = Coefficient of skew of variant z

∑
(
−
̅
)
=
(
−
)
(
−
)

The variation of Kz = f (Cs, T) is given in the table.

The corresponding value of xT,

= ( )

Table 7: Flood discharges for different return period obtained using Log
Pearson III method

Log Normal type distribution

Chow (1954) reasoned that the distribution is applicable to the

hydrological variables formed as the product of other variables since if
= + + +⋯+
Then,

== ∑= ∑
= =

which tends to normal distribution. The distribution for large ‘n’

provided that the xi are independent and identically distributed. The
lognormal distribution has found to describe the distribution of
hydraulic conductivity in a porous medium, the distribution of raindrop
sizes in storm, and other hydrological variables.

1. First transform all of X values .i.e. variate of random

variate of random hydrological series into logarithmic
form (base10)
=

2. For this y series, recurrence in interval is given by

= ̅+

3. Calculate probability of the exceedance p by

=
 4. The value of z corresponding to probability of exceedance, p can be calculated by
calculating an intermediate variable w as
=√

.+ .+ .=−+ .+ . + .

5. Now find yT where, frequency factor KT for the normal distribution is equal to z.

6. After finding the yT by the above equation, find the xT as

4.9 Rating Curve

In hydrology, rating curve is the plot of discharge vs. stage (elevation) at a point in the stream. The
development of a rating curve involves two steps. In the first step the relationship between stage
and discharge is established by measuring the stage and corresponding discharge in the river and
in the second part, stage of river is measured and discharge is calculated by using the relationship
established in the first part. Stage is measured by reading a gauge installed in the river. If the stage-
discharge relationship doesn’t change with time, it is called permanent control. If the relationship
does change, it is called shifting control. Shifting control is usually due to erosion or deposition of
sediment at the stage measurement site. Bedrock-bottomed parts of rivers or concrete/metal weirs
or structures are often, though not always, permanent controls.

However, due to the lack of field measurement availability, we have developed rating curve using
Manning’s equation.

The value of Manning’s roughness coefficient ‘n’ is assumed according to the type of soil at the
outlet. The cross sectional area for the different stages can be obtained from manual calculation
from the plot of the cross section. Similarly, the wetted perimeter and hence hydraulic radius were
calculated. The average bed slope was also obtained from the Google Earth Pro.

Thus, the discharge Q for the particular stage is obtained and hence rating curve can be plotted.

4.10 Estimation of Areal Precipitation

A single point precipitation measurement is quite often not representative of the volume of
precipitation of the given catchment area. So we have to apply different methods which can provide
a better representation of the true volume over a given area. A network of precipitation
measurements can be converted to an estimates using any of a number of techniques which are:

1. Arithmetic Mean: This technique calculates areal precipitation using the arithmetic mean of
all the point or areal measurement considered in the analysis. If P 1, P2,…,Pn are the rainfall
 magnitudes recorded by the stations 1,2,….., n respectively then average precipitation P of
the catchment is given by
+ + ⋯+
̅=

2. Isohyetal Analysis: This is a graphical technique which involves drawing estimated lines of equal
rainfall over an area based on point measurements. The magnitude and extent of the resultant
rainfall areas of coverage are then considered versus the area in question in order to
estimate the areal precipitation value. The average value of the rainfall indicated by
twoisohytes is assumed to be acting over the inter-isohyetal area. Thus, P1, P2,…,Pn are the
values of isohytes and a1, a2,….., an-1 are the inter-isohyetal areas respectively, then the mean
precipitation over the catchment of area A is given by
̅ ( + )+ ( + )+⋯+ − ( − + )

3. Thiessen Polygon: This is another graphical technique which calculates station weights based
on the relative areas of each measurement station in the Thiessen polygon network. The
individual weights are multiplied by the station observation and the values are summed to
obtain the areal average precipitation.
If P1, P2,…,Pn are the rainfall¬ magnitudes recorded by the stations 1,2,….., n respectively,
and A1, A2, …., An are the respective areas of the Thiessen polygons, then the average rainfall
over the catchment P is given by
̅=+ +⋯+ + +⋯+

We have adopted this method, since the Thiessen polygon method of calculating the average
precipitation over an area is superior to the arithmetic-average method as weightage is given
to the various stations on a rational basis. Once the weightage factors are determined, the
calculation of P is relatively easy for the fixed network of stations.

5. RESERVOIR PLANNING

5.1 Introduction

When a barrier is constructed is any river in the form of dam, water gets stored on the upstream
side of the barrier, forming a pool of water, called a dam reservoir or an impounding reservoir.
Any collected water in the form of pool or lake hence created can be termed as reservoir.

5.1 Reservoir Storage Capacity

6. HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF COMPONENTS
AND STRUCTURES

6.1 Dam

6.1.1 Introduction

Dam is a barrier across the river to store water in upstream side and to raise water level. Storage
dams are constructed to impound water during periods of surplus supply for use during the period
of deficiency. In the upstream side, a reservoir is formed. Storage dam usually have greater height
and may be constructed by concrete, stone, earth and rockfill.

6.1.2 Selection Criteria for Dam

The choice of the dam type depends upon the topography, geological conditions, suitable location
of site for spillway, availability of materials, height of dam etc. Refer to heading 3.2 of this report
for detailed information about various factors involved in selection of type of dam.

In our context, gravity dam has been selected over earth fill dam and embankment dam. The
selection criteria in favor of gravity dam are as follows:


Geological conditions at the dam site is good.


Narrow valley supports the construction of dam of required height and capacity.


Marginal cost and benefit analysis favors gravity dam.

Available foundation is sound, having less faults and fissures.

The height of the dam is fixed by optimizing the dam cost, consequent benefit earned and
considering several other factors influencing the stability of dam.

The detailed design and relevant drawings have been shown in Annex D and Annex F respectively.

6.1.3 Dam Height Optimization

The optimum height of a dam refers to that specific height for which net benefit exceeds total cost
(of dam construction) by the largest margin among the several possible heights of the dam.
Benefit/Cost ratio method is the most effective method for determining the optimum height.

Though the height of dam can be increased to store more water, it is limited to a height that can
store water up to 740 masl.

Justification: The tailrace of Sunkoshi I Hydropower Project lies at an elevation of 745 masl which
has power generating capacity of 10 MW. To avoid its submergence, the water level in the dam is
limited to 740 masl which ultimately limits the dam height. The dam can store 1143.27 MCM
water with a longitudinal fetch of 46 km in full condition.
6.1.4 Loadings on Gravity Dam

Figure 19: Gravity dam loading diagram

1. Weight of the dam: Weight of the dam is the main stabilizing force on the dam. The weight
of the dam per unit length is equal to the product of the area of the cross section of the dam
and the specific weight of the dam material. Structure self-weight is accounted for in terms of
the resultant, W, which acts through the centroid of the cross-sectional area.
=

Where, γc is the unit weight of concrete.

A is the cross-sectional area of the structure.
The unit weight of concrete may be assumed to be 24 kN/m in the absence specific data from
laboratory test trials.
2. Water pressure: Water pressure is the major force acting on the dam. This is also called
hydrostatic pressure force and acts horizontally.
I. Horizontal component of water pressure
This is the largest external force acting on the dam. It has the largest capacity of
disturbing the stability of dam. It is horizontal force which acts at the C.G. of the
pressure distribution diagram. The pressure distribution diagram is always triangular
with zero value at the surface.

Where, H is the depth of the water from the base of the dam and the pressure force due to water acts at 3 from the base of the dam.

II. Vertical component of water pressure

Vertical component of load will exist in the case of an upstream face batter.
3. Uplift pressure: Uplift occurs when pore-water pressure under a structure or a low
permeability confining layer becomes larger than the mean overburden pressure. Uplift at the
foundation-concrete interface for structures having no foundation drains or an unverified
drainage system should be assumed to vary as a straight line from the headwater pressure at
the upstream face (heel) to the tail water pressure at the downstream face (toe) applied over
the base area.
4. Silt pressure: Silt carried by the river gets deposited on the upstream of the dam and exerts
pressure on the dam.
5. Earthquake Load: The effect of earthquake is equivalent to the imparting acceleration to the
foundation of the dam in the direction in which the wave is travelling at that moment.
6. Hydrodynamic pressure: Horizontal acceleration acting towards the reservoir causes a
momentary increase in the water pressure at the foundation and dam when it accelerates
towards the reservoir and the water body has to resist the moving owing to its inertia. This
extra pressure developed is called hydrodynamic pressure.

6.1.6 Foundation Drainage Gallery

There may be leakage through the body of the dam due to the pressure of water from the upstream.
In order to remove this water, vertical formed drains to trap the seeping water through the
contraction joint is recommended. These vertical drains convey the drainage water to a drainage
gallery at some lower level within the dam body. The formed drain is provided not only at the
transverse contraction joint between two adjacent blocks of a concrete gravity dam, they are also
placed at an equal interval of about 3 m center-to-center in all the dam blocks, as recommended by
the Bureau of Indian Standard code IS 10135-1985: “Code of practice for drainage system for
gravity dams, their foundations and abutments”. These drains are required to intercept any seeping
water from the reservoir through the upstream face of the concrete dam.

The foundation drainage gallery is connected to all the vertical drains passing through the body of the
dam. This gallery, of a size large enough for a person to walk comfortably, extends throughout the
length of the dam at about the same height above. The foundation drainage gallery should have a small
slope, about 1 in 1000 to drain away the collected water in the side drain up to a sump at the lowest
level from where the water may be pumped out to the downstream side of the dam.

6.1.7 Foundation Treatment and Grouting

Another important location of water seeping through is the bottom of a concrete gravity dam. This water
seeps through the foundation material, like through the joints of a fractured rock upon which the dam
is founded. This seepage water also causes uplift at the base of the dam and produces an upward force
that must be countered by the weight of the dam apart from countering other forces. Thus drainage of
foundation material is an important consideration in concrete dam design.

The drainage holes are drilled once the foundation gallery base has been constructed and the
foundation grouting is completed. The size, spacing and the depth of these holes are assumed on
the basis of physical characteristics of the foundation rock, foundation condition and the depth of
the storage reservoir. The diameter of the hole may be kept at 38mm and the spacing of holes may
be kept at 3 m center-to-center

Another function of the foundation gallery is to provide a space for drilling holes for providing
what is called grout curtain, which is nothing but a series of holes drilled in a line deep inside the
foundation and filled with pressurized cement mortar. The purpose of providing these holes and
injecting them with cement mortar is to create a barrier in the foundation rock at the heel of the
dam which will prevent leakage of water from the reservoir and thus reduce uplift pressure at the
bottom of the dam.

The depth of the grout curtain holes depends upon the nature of the rock in foundation and in
general, it may range from 30 to 40 percent of the head of the water on good foundation and to 70
percent of head on poor foundations.

According to IS: 11293 (Part2)-1993 “Guidelines for the design of grout curtains”, the following
empirical criteria may be used as a guide:
= +

Where D is the depth of the grout curtain and H is the height of the reservoir water, in meters. The grout
holes may be either vertical or inclined. The orientation, plan and inclination of grout holes depend
upon the type of joints and the other discontinuities in the foundation rock. The most common practice
is to drill holes inclined towards the upstream at 5 to 10 degrees to the vertical.

6.2 River Diversion

6.2.1 General Overview

The main dam of the project is the gravity dam which requires several years for construction. In
this period the river has to be diverted in order to create dry environment for the construction of
the dam to prevent the failure of the main dam during the construction phase. One of the common
methods of river flow diversion involves construction of the diversion tunnel and the coffer dams.
The cost of diversion works depends on factors such as the tunnel dimensions and the intended
tunneling support measures during and after excavation, quality and the characteristics of the rock
through which the tunnel should be excavated, the dimensions of the upstream (and the
downstream) cofferdams, and the magnitude of the river flood the system is designed to divert.

Methods of Diversion:
The method or scheme of diverting floods during construction depends on:
a. Magnitude of the flood to be diverted.
b. Physical characteristics of the site.
c. Type of dam to be constructed.
d. Nature of the appurtenant works such as the spillway, pressure shafts.
e. Probable sequence of construction operations.

The objective is to select the optimum scheme considering practicability, cost, and the method
involved. The diversion works should be such that they may be incorporated into the overall
construction program with minimum loss, or delay.
Construction diversion may be achieved using one or a combination of the following methods:
a. Tunnels driven through the abutments.
b. Conduits through or under the dam.
c. Temporary channels through the dam.
d. Multiple-stage diversion over the top of alternate construction block of a concrete dam.
e. Coffer dams.

6.2.2 Diversion Tunnel

The diversion tunnel are constructed to convey flood discharge from the upstream coffer dam site
to the downstream into the river or other appropriate channel. The size of diversion tunnel generally
governed by the geology of the site and design flood discharge. In our case, four diversion tunnels
of 854.149 m length and 11 m diameter must be constructed on both sides. We have designed the
diversion tunnel for discharge of return period of 200 years for which the flood discharge is
5520.36 m3/s. which was calculated by optimizing the cost of construction.

6.2.3 Coffer Dam

A coffer dam is a temporary enclosure built within or on pairs across a body of water to allow the
water in the enclosed area to be pumped out, creating a dry work environment for the major work
to proceed. In our dam construction, two cofferdams are built, one on the upstream side and the
other on the downstream side of the proposed construction site, after diversion tunnels have been
provided for the river flow to bypass the dam site. These cofferdams are conventional embankment
dam of rockfill, but concrete or some sheet piling also may be used but the earthen material. Rocks
are locally available hence embankment dams are preferred.

Upon the completion of the dam and associated structures, the downstream coffer dam is removed
and the upstream coffer is flooded as the diversion tunnels are closed and the reservoir begins to
fill. Height of the upstream coffer dam will be of 29.3 m with top and bottom width of 8.9 m and
125.9 m respectively whereas height of the downstream coffer dam will be of 13.69 m with top
and bottom width of 5.83 m and 62.43 m respectively.

6.3 Spillway and Energy Dissipating Structures

6.3.1 General Perspective

Spillway is a structure at or near the dam site for effective disposal of surplus water from upstream to
downstream. It acts as a safety valve for a dam because as soon as the water level reaches the
predetermined level, excess water is discharged safely to the downstream channel, hence protecting the
dam. Spillway must be of adequate capacity to pass the designed maximum flood without causing any
damage to dam. The 10000 year’s flood discharge of Sunkoshi River has been calculated to be 8363.3
m3/s, but the peak flood discharge obtained after reservoir routing is 7875.8 m3/s, which was opted as
flood discharge for the design of the spillway. The location of spillway has been fixed on the dam body
itself and the excess water will be flowing through this.
 Ogee spillway has been chosen in our case because of following reasons:

i. Dam is gravity type concrete dam.

ii. Height and width of dam is sufficiently high.
iii. River bed can be protected from scouring at moderate cost.
iv. Maximum flood can be disposed safely to the downstream.

Design of structure:

The design of the spillway structure has carried out as per IS 6934:1998.

Shape for uncontrolled ogee crest:

Discharge (Design flood):

= ⁄

Approach velocity:

Velocity head:
= ( +)

Where, C = Coefficient of discharge

L = Length of the spillway crest

H = Static head

Effective length of crest:

= − ( + )

Where, L = Effective length

L0 = Net length of the weir crest,

N = Number of piers,

Kp = Pier contraction coefficient

Ka = Abutment contraction coefficient

He = Total head on crest

Downstream shape of the spillway:

=

Where, H = Design head on crest during design flood.

K = Constant depending on velocity of approach.

6.3.2 Energy Dissipator

Energy dissipator is used to disperse immense energy of water which is produced when the water
flows through the spillway at high discharge and at a high head, which may cause catastrophic
results like damage of life and property, erosion, scouring, etc. if unchecked.
6.3.3 Ski-Jump Type Energy Dissipator

The deflector bucket shall be used to dissipate the energy in situations where the tail water depth is
insufficient for the formation of hydraulic jump. It shall consist of an upturned solid bucket that throws
away the incoming flow to a considerable distance downstream of the overflow section as a free
discharging upturned jet which falls into the river channel directly, thus avoiding excessive scour
immediately downstream of the overflow section. If required, a plunge pool with side and bottom
riprap or concrete lining may be excavated in the river bed to prevent severe scour at the point of
jet impingement.

Design criteria of ski-jump bucket:

The principle features of hydraulic design of trajectory bucket consists of determining

a. Bucket Shape: Bucket shape we used is circular.

b. Radius: The radius of ski-jump bucket is given by:

= .√

Where, H = Geometric mean depth of flow over the spillway

H5 = Total fall between upstream reservoir pool elevation and jet surface
on bucket.

c. Bucket Invert Level: The bucket invert level is given by,

= + −

Where, Ø is the lip angle. The bucket invert level is at RL of 562.84 masl.
d. Lip Elevation: Lip elevation of bucket is at bed level of ogee, RL of 570 masl.

e. Trajectory Length
Trajectory length is given by equation,

=+√ +

ʋ ʋ

Where, X = Horizontal throw distance from bucket lip to the center point of
impact with tail water in m.
Y = Difference between lip level and tail water level
ʋ= velocity head of jet at bucket lip, in m
Ø = bucket lip angle

6.3.4 Estimation of Depth of Scour below Tail Water

The depth of scour below tail water is given by equation,

= √

Where, m = Constant (0.36 for minimum expected scour, 0.54 for probable scour under
sustained spillway operation, 0.65 for ultimate scour)
ds = Depth of scour
6.4 Pressure Shaft

A pressure shaft is an embedded pipe which conveys the flow from the surge tank or the fore bay
to the turbine. When powerhouse is installed at the toe of dam as in our context, it carries water
directly from intake to the turbine and surge tank is deemed unnecessary. Pressure shafts are
designed to carry water to the turbines with the least possible loss of head consistent with the
overall economy of the project.

Pressure shaft optimization:

Design of pressure shaft includes choosing of suitable diameter and thickness. For determining
suitable diameter of pressure shaft, we considered the velocity of flow to be 4 m/s.
The method we applied to find out the suitable diameter was by economic analysis. We calculated
the total revenue loss due to head loss for different diameters of pressure shaft. Also the installation
cost of pressure shaft was calculated. From the graph between diameter and total cost, the most
economical diameter was found to be 9.27 m. We calculated total cost of this pressure shaft to be
Rs. 0.25 million for unit length.
Thickness of pressure shaft for above diameter i.e. 9.27 m and velocity of 4 m/s, thickness of
pressure shaft was calculated to be 40 mm.

6.5 Electromagnetic Installation

6.5.1 Turbine and Draft Tube

The hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy are called
hydraulic turbines and consists of a wheel called runner supplied with a number of curved vanes
on its outer surface. It also consists of a guiding equipment to direct the flow of water at inlet in a
particular track

The water at inlet of turbine possesses both kinetic as well as potential energy. As the water flows
through the runner the water is under pressure energy which is converted into kinetic energy. The
turbine runner is submerged and completely enclosed in air tight casing. Water is taken up to the
tailrace by means of draft tube and whole passage of water is totally enclosed.

6.5.2 Turbine Selection Criteria

The factors to be considered may be pointed out as follows:

 
 The head variation existing at the site.
 
 Turbine efficiency varies with the load.
 
 Cost considerations in the overlapping head ranges.
 
Most effective to include a minimum number of units at a specified installation.

 
 Increase in the efficiency of the plant when there is increase in turbine size.

 Geological characteristics and availablespace for construction and operation determines the
smaller or larger units to be installed.
 
 Transportation limitation of large runners may make it obligatory to limit their sizes.
 
Isolated arrangement may need additional number of units.

6.5.3 Francis Turbine and Its Features

The Francis Turbine operates under medium head and medium quantity of water is an inward
mixed flow reaction turbine. The water entering the runner from the guide vanes is under pressure.
The water flows towards the center in radial direction and discharge out axially.
In our project, the gross head of project is 196m and the design discharge is 539.90 cumec. So for
high discharge and medium head we select Francis turbine. From the design procedure, we can
see that 10 units of turbines are necessary, each generating power from 53.99 cumec of flow. The
head varies with the operation of the plant hence, we computed rated head (172.71 m) and used it
in the design of turbine.
Rated head is the head or elevation difference which the turbine will be subjected to highest
amount of time in its operation and is obtained as the weighted average between fluctuating head
during operation and corresponding energy obtained.
Justification: With the turbine designed for rated head, it is ensured that the turbine runs at
maximum efficiency for most of the operation period as compared to when the turbine is designed
for gross head or net head.

6.5.4 Turbine Scroll Case

A scroll case is the conduit directing the water from the intake or pressure shaft to the runner in
reaction-type turbine installations (in the case of impulse wheels a casing is usually provided only
to prevent splashing of water and to lead water to the tail race). A spiral-shaped scroll case of the
correct geometry ensures even distribution of water around the periphery of the runner with the
minimum possible eddy formations. The shape and internal dimensions are closely related to the
design of the turbine.

The scroll casing has been designed as per recommended dimension of Novak et. al., 2007 for full
spiral case, which entirely encloses the turbine with a nose angle of 320°~340° and ensures most
perfect flow conditions. The coverage angle we have used for the casing is 320°.

6.5.5 Draft Tube

Draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area which connect the outlet of the runner to the
tailrace. It is used for discharging water from the exit of turbine to tailrace. In addition to its
service as a passage for water discharge it solves the following purposes:
1. The draft tube permits a negative head to be established at the outlet of the runner and
thereby increase the net head of the turbine.
2. The draft helps to recover the velocity head of the water out of the runner.
The draft tube has been designed as per recommended dimensions for an elbow-type draft tube
given by Mosonyi, 1988.

6.5.6 Generator
Generators mainly transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. Based on the method of
network supply, there are two types of generators.
a. Synchronous generators: In these generators, a mechanism of voltage and phase angle
control prior to the generator being coupled to grid is implemented. Isolation from the
main grid is possible with synchronous generators and they are able to produce power
independently.
b. Asynchronous generator: In these generators there is no provision for controlling voltage
and phase angle prior to the generator being coupled to the grid. Isolation from the main
grid is not possible in these type of generators because they draw their excitation current
from the grid itself and thus grid-dependent. They run at a speed directly associated to
system frequency.

6.5.7 Transformer

A transformer can be defined as a static electrical device which transfers power from one circuit
to another by means of electromagnetic induction. The transfer is accompanied without any change
in the frequency. The term power transformer is generally used to refer to transformers with a
rating of 500kVA or greater. Power transformers are used in distribution systems wherever there
is a need to interface between different voltage levels i.e. to step up or step down voltages. Based
on the size ranges, transformers can be classified into three types.
i. Small power transformers – 500 to 750 kVA
ii. Medium power transformers – 750 to 1000 kVA
iii. Large power transformers – 1000 kVA and beyond

6.5.8 Switch Gear

Hydropower plants place special demands on the generator switchgear when compared with other
types of power station, especially in terms of frequent switching operations, load switching and easy,
flexible retrofitting. In power plants, generator switchgear will ensure dependable synchronization and
maximum operating reliability. Installed between the generator and the transformer, the switchgear
can synchronize various quantities like frequency, voltage, and phase with the network. The integrated
circuit breaker immediately interrupts the flow of electrical energy in the event of a short circuit in the
generator or the transformer. This protection prevents secondary faults which could impair the entire
power plant operation. In addition, the generator can be switched on and off within milliseconds
with a corresponding control command allowing it to be coupled into the grid with high precision.
With renewable energy sources and smart grids driving the trend toward decentralized energy
centers with several small generators, this function will become increasingly important in the
future.

6.5.9 Control Room

A control room, or operations center, is a room serving as a central space where a large physical
facility or physically dispersed service can be monitored and controlled. Control rooms for vital
facilities are typically tightly secured and inaccessible to the general public. Multiple electronic
displays and control panels are usually present, and there may also be a large wall sized display
areas visible from all locations within the space. Some control rooms are themselves under
continuous video surveillance and recording, for security and personnel accountability purposes.
Control rooms are usually equipped with elaborate fire suppressions and security systems to
safeguard their contents and occupants, and to ensure continued operation in emergencies.
Ergonomic considerations determine the placement of humans and equipment to ensure that
operators can easily move into, out of, and around the control room, and can interact with each
other without any hindrances during emergency situations; and to keep noise and other
distractions to a minimum.

6.6 Intake

6.6.1 Selection of Intake

To ensure good quality of water in proper quantity the location and arrangements of intake structure
must be chosen with the great considerations. Our intake structure is designed such as to tap the
required amount of water for the fulfilment of design discharge required to operate the turbines
with their maximum capacity.

Since our powerhouse is located at the toe of concrete dam with the water passing to turbine through
the embedded pressure shaft and the minimum depth of water above the center line is more than 0.8 of
entrance height, the intake structure for such pressure shafts is of semi-circular type.

The main components of an intake structure are:

1. Bell mouth entrance and transition from rectangular to circular opening

2. Trash rack supporting structure
3. Gate slot enclosure with air vents, and
4. Anti-vortex devices

6.6.2 Hydraulic Design of Components of Intake

6.6.2.1 Bell-mouth Opening and Transition

1. Shape and Size of Opening:
The pressure shaft and conduit entrance is designed to produce an acceleration similar to that
found in jet issuing from a sharp edged orifice. The surface is formed to natural contraction
curve and the pressure shaft or conduit is assumed to be the size of orifice jet at its maximum
contraction.
2. The normal contraction of 40% (Cc=0.7) is used for the low head installations.
3. Opening Area:
 Where, ɸ=angle of inclination of pressure shaft center line to
horizontal; and
Cc=co-efficient of contraction, as defined in 1.2
4. Height and width of Opening:
The height is calculated from the distance above and below the
intersection of the pressure shaft center line with the face of the
entrance.
5. Shape of Opening:
The inlet is streamlined to minimize the losses. The profile of the roof
and floor should approximate to that of jet from the horizontal slot. We
have used an equation of ellipse for the profile:

+ =

(. ) (. )

6. The profile of sides is such that it should generally be followed by

equation:

+ =

( .) ( .)

While providing side flaring it is ensured that the size of opening at entry
does not create any
structural problems with the size of dam block or structure.
7. Transitions:
In order to obtain hydraulically efficient design of intake we have
designed transitions from rectangular section to a circular section
conduit, the transition is designed in accordance with the following
requirements:
a) Transition or turns is made about the center line of mass flow
and is gradual.
b) Side walls are not expanded at a rate greater than 5° from
the center line of mass flow.
c) All slots or other necessary departures from the neat
outline are outside the transition zone.
8. Criteria for minimum submergence:
The minimum submergence required is given by

Where, he = H + ht
H = Head loss in orifice
ht = Loss in trash rack
Submergence for vortex free flow:
For the vortices at the intake
> . ( )
√
≥ . ( )
 √

Where, S = Submergence depth

V = Velocity at intake

6.6.2.2 Centre Line of Intake

1. Formation of vortices at the intake depends upon the number of factors such as approach geometry,
flow conditions, velocity at the intake, geometrical features of the trash rack structure relative
submergence depth and withdrawal Froude number, etc.
2. To prevent vortices, we have choose the center line of intake such that it can ensure submergence
requirements, which has been developed by an evaluation of minimum design submergence at
prototypes operating satisfactorily.
For large intakes at power plants:

= ≤
√

6.6.3 Trash Rack Structures

1. A trash rack structure is provided in front of the intake to prevent the entrance of any trash that would
not pass easily through the smallest opening in the turbine runner.
2. The shape of trash rack structure is adopted in such a way to meet the requirements of the head works
layout and head loss.
3. Since our intake is a high pressure intake, so the velocity up to 3 m/s on the gross area of racks may be
permitted where serious clogging of trash racks is not expected.
4. Losses at Trash Racks:

Where, K = Trash rack loss coefficient (1.45 – 0.45 R –R2)

ℎ ℎ ℎ

=
ℎ

V = Velocity of flow through trash rack, computed on gross area

g = Acceleration due to gravity

5. The structural arrangements of racks generally consist of equally spaced trash rack vertical bars
supported on horizontal members connected to end vertical member.
6. Spacing of Trash Bars:
 For Francis type turbines, the spacing of trash bars is determined using the value of diameter of the
runner. Trash rack bars are spaced so that the net opening between them is not greater than the minimum
opening between turbine runner buckets.
7. Thickness of Trash Bars:
Since our racks is deeply submerged, the minimum thickness should be kept as 12mm. The ratio to
thickness of bar can be taken between 5 and 12.

6.7 Tailrace

Tailrace is the final civil structure that conveys the design flow from the powerhouse back to the river where
it is disposed. The tailrace can either be open channel or buried tunnel. The powerhouse is underground so
tailrace tunnel was used. We have ten units of turbines and the tailrace tunnel is designated for each unit
separately. The length of tailrace tunnel is not long since powerhouse is constructed at the toe of dam in
river.

6.8 Installed Capacity

The plant capacity which is economically viable is known as installed capacity. It is also defined as the
maximum power, which can be developed by all the generators of the plant at the normal head and with
full flow. The installed capacity can be computed from the formula:

Where, P = Installed capacity in KW

η = Overall efficiency in %

ϒ = Specific Weight of water = 9.81 m/s2

Q = Design Discharge in m3/s

H = Net head in m.

From calculation, the installed capacity of our plant was found out to be 934 MW. The detail calculation
of installed capacity is shown in Annex.

6.9 Powerhouse
6.9.1 General

Powerhouse is constructed to accommodate the electro mechanical equipment such as the turbine, generators,
control units etc. The main function of the building is to protect the electromechanical equipment from adverse
weather as well as the mishandling by unauthorized persons. The basic requirement of the powerhouse is
functional efficiency along with the aesthetic beauty.

The size of the powerhouse is strictly governed by the size and type of the turbine and generators used. The
arrangement and the number of units also govern the size of the powerhouse. The size of powerhouse should
be sufficient to arrange all equipment with the clear space for the installation and maintenance of this large
equipment. The center to center distance for one unit is taken as (5D + 2.5) m for the vertical arrangements,
where D is the diameter of the runner with the casing while in the case of the horizontal arrangements, the
length is determined with the minimum clear spacing of 2m between 2 units.

Height of the powerhouse is fixed by the dimension of lower turbine block and its superstructure. Height of the
lower turbine block from the foundation to the floor of the machine hall is to be determined by the thickness of
foundation plate, dimensions of the turbine. The height of the powerhouse is fixed by the dimension of the lower
turbine block and its super structure. Height of the lower turbine block from the foundation to the floor of the
machine hall is to be the determined by the thickness of the foundation plate, dimensions of the turbine. The
height of the powerhouse should be sufficient for the installation of the turbine, generator, and shaft and gear
mechanism.

6.9.2 Components of Powerhouse

The structure of the powerhouse basically include:


Sub-structure: It is a part of the powerhouse which is situated below the turbine level. This portion
includes draft tube,
tail water channels. The substructures transmits the load of structure above it to the
 foundation strata.

Intermediate Structure: The intermediate structure extends from top of the draft tube to the top of the
generator foundation. The turbine including its casing,
the galleries for the auxiliary machines and the
 governor survo-meter system are located in this part.

Super structure: The superstructure of the powerhouse is the portion extending from the generator
floor, called main floor, up to roof top. It consists of the generators and governors, control room, the

exciters and the auxiliary equipment such as needed for ventilation and cooling.

6.9.3 Selection of Powerhouse

Various options for the layout of works, which included length of pressure shaft/penstock and the location
site for powerhouse, were identified prior to the design of the same components. The options included:

(a) Having the powerhouse at the dam toe,

(b) Constructing the powerhouse at either banks of the river, nearby but not as an integral part of the dam
and
(c) Constructing the powerhouse further downstream from the dam to gain additional head.

Economic feasibility study was performed among the different viable options, whose results showed that
options (a) was the most practicable alternative, i.e. constructing the powerhouse at the dam toe and more
specifically in our case, having an embedded powerhouse inside the dam body itself.
Regarding other options, as the slope of river was considerably mild, travelling further downstream for
gaining of additional head turned futile. Only a few meters of additional head, 6 m, was gained when a
tunnel, 6.67 km long, was constructed. Similarly, an additional head of 21m could be achieved when tunnel
of 11.27 km length was constructed.
After the economic analysis of the options, the powerhouse located at toe of dam was found more feasible
from the B/C ratio, IRR method and payback period method.

As the type of dam under consideration in our study is concrete gravity dam, the stability would be further
increased with the installation of the powerhouse at the toe of the dam.

7. POWER AND ENERGY CALCULATIONS