Problem 3.

1:

The one property that cannot be disputed is toughness.

Toughness – the ability to withstand a blow. Tank armor certainly will be subject to projectiles,
explosives, and other attacks that it must withstand. Toughness is the primary physical property
that addresses these issues.

Toughness is measured through an impact test.

Impact Test Toughness defines a material’s resistance to a blow. In an impact test, a

hammer is secured to a pendulum at some initial height and released. The
orientation of the sample varies depending on specific testing techniques.

The impact energy (eI)of the sample is the same as the loss in potential energy between the initial and

final states.

eI = mg(ho – hf)

Strength-to-weight ratio: The heavier the armor, the lower the performance of the tank (speed,
fuel efficiency, maneuverability). A goal would be to obtain a high tensile strength with low
weight. Tensile strength is measured through a tensile test:

Tensile Test The material sample is secured between a pair of clamps. The upper clamp is
attached to a fixed bar and a load cell. The lower grip is attached to a
moveable bar that slowly pulls the material downward. The load cell records
 force and an extensiometer records the elongation of the sample.

The key equation is   A0 ,

F

The third property could be a wide range, but chemical resistivity would seem a likely choice. If acids or
other corrosive materials deteriorated the performance of the armor, it would be of little practical value.
Problem 3.2

Hardness is resistance to penetration by a static force. It is particularly important to tank

treads because it correlates directly with wear resistance. Tank treads must survive the
application of great weight while sliding across hard rocks and other difficult terrain. Materials
with insufficient hardness will rapidly grind away, leaving the tank helpless.

Toughness is the ability to withstand a blow. It is particularly important to tank treads

because tanks are routinely subjected to impact from bullets, shrapnel, and other projectiles.
Having impenetrable armor on the body of the tank would be pointless if the treads failed on
impact.
 Problem 3.3:

Equations 3.12 and 3.13 define flexural strength and flexural modulus, respectively.

3F f L F f L3
F  and E F 
2 wh 2 4wh 3

Given:

L = 10 inches; h=1 inch, F=10 psi and EF = 1000 psi

3F f L 3(10inches) F f Ff
F   10 psi = 2 or  0.667 lbf/in
2 wh 2 2 w(1inch) w

Now, equation 3.13 can be rewritten in terms of deflection () as

4h 3 E F F f
 3
· = 4(1 in)3(1000psi)(0.667 lbf/in)/ (10in)3
L w

= 2.668 inches

Problem 3.4:

a. Ductile Material

b. Brittle Material

No plastic deformation until failure.

Problem 3.5

The two data sets must be characterized first:

Original Samples Treated Samples

N N

 i
= 2909 (mean)  i
= 3385 (mean)
 i 1
 i 1

N N

N N

 ( i   ) 2 = 245  ( i   )2
= 261
s i 1
s i 1

N 1 N 1
N = 6 samples N = 6 samples

We must calculate the square root of the pooled variance to determine whether the means are
significantly different.

Equation 3.26 Provides:

2 2
( N1  1) * S 1  ( N 2  1) * S 2 2 2
(6  1) * (245)  (6  1) * (261)
S  =
12
N N1 2
2 662

S 12
 253.2

Now we can use this value to determine the standard difference using equation 3.27:

N N 66
S S 1 2
= 253.2 = 146
D
N *N 12
1 2
6*6

Now equation 3.28 may be used to determine whether the significance threshold has been reached

For 12 samples (10 degrees of freedom) and F=.975 (95% confidence) t = 2.228 so statistical significance
would be achieved if and only if equation 3.28 is satisfied.

X  X  t * S D which yields (3385-2909)> (2.228)*(146)]

1 2

476 > 325

She has proven her claim.

Problem 3.6:

The first step requires converting load to stress (by dividing by area) and length to stress

Force Length stress strain

Lb in ksi
0 2 0 0
3000 2.00167 27.3 0.000835
6000 2.00383 54.6 0.001915
7500 2.00617 68.3 0.003085
9000 2.009 81.9 0.0045
10500 2.04 95.6 0.02
12000 2.26 109.2 0.13
12400 2.5 112.9 0.25
11400 3.02 103.8 0.51

The resulting plot is then

a) Offset yield strength = 81.9 ksi

b) Tensile strength = 112.9 ksi

c) Modulus = 28,510 ksi

d) Breaking strength = 103.8 ksi

e) Material was ductile

 eE
f) E r

y
= (81.9 ksi/2)/.0045 = 9210 ksi

g) 50.9%

Problem 3.7:

A) Because there is no formal onset of plastic deformation, the yield strength has little
meaning for most polymers and cannot be measured through a tensile test.

B)

No plastic deformation until failure.

Modulus is the initial slope of the line.

 Problem 3.8

The Brinell hardness equation is

F
HB 

( ) D( D  D 2  Di2 )
2

We are given:

F = 3000 kg
D = 10mm
Di = 9.75 mm

So
(3000kg )
HB 
 = 24.55 kg/mm2
( )(10mm)((10  (10) 2  (9.75) 2
2
This value corresponds to a Moh hardness of just under 2.
Problem 3.9:

The Brinell hardness equation is

F
HB 
 which can be rewritten as
( ) D( D  D 2  Di2 )
2
2 F
D 2  Di  D 
 or
( ) D ( HB)
2
F
Di  D 2  ( D  )2

( ) D( HB )
2

We are given
D = 10 mm
F = 3000 kg
HB = 420

3000
Di  (10) 2  (10  )2
 =2.98 mm
( )(10)( 420)
2
Problem 3.10

a) y = 900 MPa
b) s = 930 MPa

c) E  = 600 MPa/.01 = 60 GPa

d) B = 820 MPa
e) The failure was ductile
eE
f) E r  = (900 MPa/2)/.016 = 28.1 MPa
y
g) 2.6%
Problem 3.11:

a) y = 390 MPa
b) s = 540 MPa

c) E  = 190 MPa/.025 = 76 GPa

d) B = 325 MPa
e) The failure was ductile
eE
f) E r  = (390 MPa/2)/.045 = 4.3 GPa
y
g) 2.3%
Problem 3.12:

a) y = 78 MPa
b) s = 78 MPa

c) E  = 78 MPa/.05 = 1.56 GPa

d) B = 78 MPa
e) The failure was brittle
eE
f) E r  = (78 MPa/2)/.05 = 780 MPa
y
g) 5%
Problem 3.13:

a) y = 94 MPa
b) s = 94 MPa

c) E  = 94 MPa/.045 = 2.09 GPa

d) B = 94 MPa
e) The failure was brittle
eE
f) E r  = (94 MPa/2)/.045 = 1.04 GPa
y
g) 4.5%
Problem 3.14:

a) y = 720 MPa (based on offset-yield)

b) s = 890 MPa

c) E  = 730 MPa/.014 = 52.1 GPa

d) B = 540 MPa
e) The failure was ductile
eE
f) E r  = (720 MPa/2)/.014 = 25.7 GPa
y
g) 4.0%
Problem 3.15:

The S-N plot will look like

The fatigue life is simply the point on the curve at any stress level.
Problem 3.16:

Given
Ao = (0.505 in)2 *  = 0.80 in2
Ai = (.460 in)2 *  = 0.67 in2
F = 50 ksi

F
t  = 50 ksi *(.67)/(.80) = 41.5 ksi
Ai
% reduction in area = 100% * (Af – A0)/A0 = 100% * (.67 - .80)/.80 = - 16.3%
Problem 3.17:

We are given:

At T=473K, t=200 min and at T=573K, t=145 min: and LM=100

Equation (3.17) provides

T
LM  ( A  B ln t )
1000

If we take the ratio of this equation at both temperatures, we get:

473
100 ( A B ln( 200 ))
 1000
573
100 1000
( A B ln(145 ))

Solving for A in terms of B provides

A = -3.48B

The relationship between A and B can be plugged into the LM equation at either temperature to solve
for B

T 473
LM  ( A  B ln t )  100 = ( 3.48 B  5.30 B )  B = 116.2
1000 1000

A = -3.48B = -404.21
Problem 3.18:

The two data sets must be characterized first:

Los dos conjuntos de datos se debe caracterizar primero:

Fresh Samples Year Old Samples

N N

 i = 46.9 (mean)  i
= 44.0 (mean)
 i 1
 i 1

N N

N N

 ( i   ) 2 = 2.184  ( i   )2
= 2.261
s i 1
s i 1

N 1 N 1
N = 10 samples N = 10 samples

We must calculate the square root of the pooled variance to determine whether the means are
significantly different.

Se debe calcular la raíz cuadrada de la varianza combinada para determinar si las medias son
significativamente diferentes.

Equation 3.26 Provides:

2 2
( N1  1) * S 1  ( N 2  1) * S 2
S  =
12
N N 1 2
2
2 2
(10  1) * (2.184)  (10  1) * (2.261)
10  10  2

S 12
 2.223

Now we can use this value to determine the standard difference using equation 3.27:

N N 10  10
S D  S12 1 2
= 2.223 = 0.994
N *N
1 2
10 * 10

Now equation 3.28 may be used to determine whether the significance threshold has been reached
For 20 samples (18 degrees of freedom) and F=.975 (95% confidence) t = 2.101so statistical significance
would be achieved if and only if equation 3.28 is satisfied.

X  X  t * S D which yields (46.9-44.0)> (2.101)*(0.994)[2.089]

1 2

But 2.9 is less than 2.089, so the samples have been proven to be different.
Problem 3.19:

F
c   (50,000 lbf)/[ (0.505 in)2 * ksi
A0
Problem 3.20:

Flexural strengh is defined as and Flexural modulus as

3F f L F f L3
F  EF 
2 wh 2 4wh 3

We are given:

L = 10 in
w = 1 in
h = 0.5 in
Ff = 2000 lbf
 = 0.05 in

So

3F f L
F  2
= 3 (2000 lbf)(10 in)/[ 2(1 in)(0.5in)2] = 120 ksi
2 wh

F f L3
EF  = (2000 lbf)(10 in)3/[4 (1 in) (0.5 in)3(.05 in)]= 8.0 x 1010 psi
4wh  3
Problem 3.21:

Flexural modulus is defined as

F f L3
EF  and we are given EF = 400; L = 20 cm; w = 4 cm; h = 2 cm; d = 0.08 cm
4wh 3

So we know everything in the equation except F f.

4 E F wh 3 
Ff  3
 4*(400 GPA)* (4 cm) * (2cm)3 *(0.08 CM)/(20 cm)3= 0.512
L

Now we can solve for the flexural strength directly

3F f L
F  2
= 3*(0.512)*(20 cm)/(2 * 4cm * 4 cm2) = 0.96 GPa.
2 wh
Problem 3.22:

For a tensile test to operate, the sample must be secured into rigid grips that prevent slippage.
Particularly brittle materials will break under the pressure of the grips making a tensile test impossible.
Problem 3.23:

The hardness of the ball alters the outcome of the test. Harder materials will penetrate
materials more deeply. To insure uniform standards, ASTM specifies specific materials for the balls.
Copper is too soft to make a reasonable choice. Diamond is certainly hard enough, but would be
prohibitively expensive and difficult to shape into a sphere.
Problem 3.24:

During primary creep, dislocations slip and move past obstacles. The creep rate starts rapidly but
then slows. During secondary creep, the rate of propagation and blockage are nearly equal,
resulting in a linear creep rate. When tertiary creep begins, the rate accelerates rapidly and
results in rupture.
Problem 3.25:

The stress concentration factor is defined by equation (3.30) as

k = 1 + 2a/b

For a circular flaw: a = b so k = 3 and the local stress at the flaw is three times the applied
stress. For an elliptical flaw with b=1, a=6.

k = 1 + 6 = 7. Thus the localized stress would be 7 times the applied stress at the
elliptical flaw compared to three times at the circular flaw.
Problem 3.26

A. Automobile bumpers – toughness would be a likely candidate for the most important
property. Bumpers are designed to receive the first impact in a crash and must
withstand minor impacts and distribute the momentum away from the passenger
cabin in larger impacts.

B. Climbing ropes – Tensile strength is the most important property. The rope must
support the weight of the climber as he/she climbs upward.

C. Bookcase Shelves – The shelves will experience significant compressive stress from
the weight of the books, so compressive strength would dominate behavior.

D. Airplane wings – These need a variety of tests. The wings must be able to withstand
both tensile and compressive forces during takeoff and landing, but also must undergo
significant fatigue testing because the wings pass through many loading and
unloading cycles during their useful life.

E. Brake Pads – Hardness would be the most important test. Hardness correlates
directly to wear resistance, which will control both the useful life and the
effectiveness of the pads.
Problem 3.27:

Performing numerous trials will improve the accuracy of measurement, but comes
with costs of both time and money. Crash testing high-end luxury cars would make
little sense if thousands had to be destroyed during testing. In addition to the lost
material, there are issues with the time needed to run the tests. If performing an
additional hundred tests reduced the error bars by a fraction of a percent, but put
production back 3 months, it would be a major problem unless the additional
accuracy was essential.
Problem 3.28:

A stress concentration factor describes the enhancement of stress at a crack tip for
an elliptical flaw. But when the crack becomes extremely thin such that a>>b, the stress
concentration factor would approach infinity and lose meaning. In such cases, a stress
intensity factor that contains a dimensionless geometric factor to account for shape is
used to represent the local concentration.
Problem 3.29:

Accelerated aging studies are used to estimate the long-term impact of a specific
variable on a material, by exposing the material to a much larger dose of the variable for
a short time.
Problem 3.30:

The ratio of force to ball size is a critical factor in hardness testing. Softer materials can
be tested using much lower forces.
Problem 3.31:

Even below the official yield stress, many materials experience very small amounts of
plastic deformation. When multiple cycles pass, the deformation in the material increases until
failure can result. The process is known as fatigue.
Problem 3.32:

Glass is highly susceptible to crack formation and experiences brittle failure,

while metals are more resistant to the initial formation and experience ductile failure
which allows them to “adapt” to the crack without failing.
Problem 3.33:

This is an accelerated aging study using equation 3.35

dG
dt  Ao exp( RTEA )
Given:

dG
dt  0.75 MPa/hr at T=673 K

dG
dt  1.25 MPa/hr at T=773 K. and A0, EA, and R are constants. By taking the ratio of the equation
applied at the two data points, we get

A0 exp( R( 673

EA
))
.75 EA
=  E A => R
= 2657 K
1.25 A0 exp( )
R (773)

That result can be used in equation 3.35 to calculate A 0 = 38.87

E
Now that we know A0 and RA , we can apply 3.35 to find dg/dt for the new conditions:

dG
dt
 Ao exp( RTEA ) = 38.87*exp (-2657/423) = .0727
850 x
2000  .0727
x  704.6 MPa
Problem 3.34:

There are hundreds of possible answers to this question. Any application in which the polymer is
exposed to continued applied stresses would fit, especially (though not exclusively) coupled with
elevated temperature. Representative application would include polymers used in structural
composites such as reinforced concrete or in artificial wood used in decks.
Problem 3.35:

The presence or inclusion of dust or other impurities disrupt the lattice and serve as
“flaw” sites. Stress concentrates in the region of the sites causing failure below the
inherent tensile strength of the pure metal. Reducing the size and number of
impurities minimizes this effect.
Problem 3.36:

The level of applied stress for a crack to propagate is given by

E s
c2


For Steel, E = 200 GPa; s = 0.32 j/m2,

E s (200GPa )(0.32 j / m 2 )
c2 =2 = 9.02
 

For Aluminum, E = 70 GPa; s = 0.29 j/m2

E s (70GPa)(0.29 j / m 2 )
c2 =2  5.08
 

Thus, steel can withstand a crack nearly 80% longer without failing because of its superiority in tensile
modulus.