50999721ZT4A - Pulse and Digital Circuit - Solution Manual

1 Linear Wave Shaping
Solutions of Examples for Practice
Example 1.3.11
Solution : The % tilt in the output is given by the equation,
p f1
%P = ´ 100 where f1 is lower 3-dB frequency
f
p f1
0.038 =
10´ 103
10 ´ 10 3 ´ 0.038
\ f1 = = 120.95 Hz
p
1
Now f1 =
2p RC
1
120.95 =
2p´ R ´ 0.47´ 10-6
\ R = 2.8 kW
Example 1.3.12
Solution : The % tilt in the output is given by the equation,
p f1
%P = ´ 100 where f1 is lower 3-dB frequency
f
Let f min be the minimum i.e. lowest frequency that can be passed.
f1 = 5 Hz
% P = 2 % = 0.02 this is the maximum allowable tilt.
p´ 5
\ 0.02 =
f min
p´ 5
\ f min = = 785.39 Hz
0.02
(1 - 1)
TM
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Pulse and Digital Circuits 1-2 Linear Wave Shaping
Example 1.3.13
Solution : Symmetrical square wave with A = 2
1
f = 10 Hz, T = = 0.1 sec
f
f1 = 5 Hz
1
Now f1 =
2 p RC
1
\ RC = = 0.0318 sec
2 p´ 5
For symmetric square wave, when applied to high pass RC circuit,
A 2
A1 = = = 1.6562 V
1+ e - T /2RC 1+ e - (0.1/2 ´ 0.0318)
A 2
V1¢ = = = 0.3437 V
1+ e T /2RC 1+ e + (0.1/2 ´ 0.0318)
A2 = – A1 = – 1.6562 V
V2¢ = – V1¢ = – 0.3437 V
The output response is shown in the Fig. 1.1.
A1
1.6562 Input
V'1 =
0.3437 V
0V
t
A=2 Output V'2 =
–0.3437 V
A2 = –1.6562
T/2 T/2
Fig. 1.1
Key Point In particular the peak to peak amplitude of the output is 2 ´ 1.6562 = 3.3124 V
Example 1.3.14
Solution : For the period T1 ,
V1¢ = V1 e - T1 / RC = V1 e - 0.1 = 0.905 V1 ... (1)
V2¢ = V1¢ = 0.905 V2 due to symmetry ... (2)

For the period T2 there is a ramp of slope 2 V / T2 .
TM

2V
\ a =
T2
2 V RC
V2 = V1¢ - a RC (1 - e - T2 / RC ) = V1¢ - (1 - e - 0.1 )
T2
(10 T2 )
\ V2 = V1¢ - 2 V (1 - e - 0.1 ) = V1¢ - 1.903 V ... (3)
T2
And V1 = V2¢ + a RC (1 - e - T2 / RC ) = V2¢ + 1.903 V ... (4)
Using equation (1) in (3),

V2 = 0.905 V1 - 1.903 V
\ 1.903 V = 0.905 V1 - V2 ... (5)
Using equation (2) in (4),
V1 = 0.905 V2 + 1.903 V
\ 1.903 V = V1 - 0.905 V2 ... (6)
Solving equation (5) and (6),
V2 = – 0.99 V, V1 = + 0.99 V
\ V1¢ = 0.8959 V, V2¢ = – 0.8959 V
The output is shown in the Fig. 1.2.
V1
V1'
V2'
V2
Fig. 1.2
Example 1.4.8
Solution : The rise time of the output is given by the equation,
2.2
tr = where f 2 is upper 3-dB frequency
2p f 2
2.2 2.2
\ f2 = =
2p t r 2p 200´ 10-3
= 1.75 kHz
TM

1
Now f2 =
2p RC
1
1.75 kHz =
2p´ R ´ 0.47´ 10-6
\ R = 193.5 W
Example 1.4.9
Solution : i) High pass RC circuit :
The general response of high pass RC circuit to square wave input is described by the
equations,
V1¢ = A1 e - T1 /RC
A2 = V1¢ – A
V¢2 = A2 e - T2 /RC
A1 = V2¢ + A
For symmetrical square wave,
A1 = –A2
V1¢ = –V2¢
T1 = T2 = T/2
Substituting this into above equations and solving for A1 and V1¢ we get,
A
A1 =
1 + e T /2RC
-
A
V1¢ =
1 + e T /2RC
For a given square wave,
1 1
T = = = 1 msec
f 1 ´ 10 3
RC = 1 msec
and A = 10 – (– 10)
= 20 = peak to peak of input
20
\ A1 = = 12.45 V
1 + e - 0.5
20
and V1¢ = = 7.55 V
1 + e+ 0.5
\ V2¢ = – V1¢ = – 7.55 V

and A2 = –A1 = – 12.45 V
TM

Hence the output can be shown as in the Fig. 1.3.
A1 12.45 V
Input Scale
10 V 1' = 1 cm = 4 V
7.55 V
A
0 = 20 V t
Output
–7.55 V
V2'
–12.45 V
A2
T/2 T/2
Fig. 1.3
ii) Low pass RC circuit :

A e 2x - 1
V2 =
2 e 2x + 1
T
where x = and V1 = –V2
4 RC
1 ´ 10 -3
\ x = = 0.25
4 ´ 1 ´ 10 -3
20 e 0.5 - 1
\ V2 = × = 2.45 V and V1 = – 2.45 V
2 e 0.5 + 1
The response is shown in the Fig. 1.4.
Input Scale
3 cm = 10 V
V2
2.45 V
0V t
–2.45 V V1 Output
T/2
T/2
Fig. 1.4
TM

Example 1.4.10
Solution : 1) RC integrating circuit
TON = T1 = 0.1 sec, TOFF = T2 = 0.3 sec, RC = 0.3 sec
During positive swing, when input is + 2 V, the output voltage is,
vo1 (t) = 2 – (2 – V2) e– t/RC
– 0.1/0.3
At t = T1 = 0.1 sec, vo1(t) = V1 = 2 – (2 – V2) e
\ V1 = 2 – (2 – V2) (0.7166) i.e. V1 – 0.7166 V2 = 0.5668 …(1)
During the negative swing, when input is – 2 V, the output voltage is,
vo2(t) = – 2 – (– 2 – V1) e– (t – 0.1)/RC
– 0.3/0.3
At t = 0.4, vo2(t) = – 2 – (– 2 – V1) e = V2
\0.3678 V1 – V2 = 1.2642 …(2)
Solving (1) and (2), V1 = – 0.4605, V2 = – 1.4335
The waveform is shown in the Fig. 1.5 (a).
2) RC differentiating circuit
T1 = 0.1 sec, T2 = 0.3 sec, RC = 0.3 sec, A = 4 V
V1¢ = A1 e - T1 / RC , A2 = V1¢ – A, V2¢ = A2 e - T2 / RC , A1 = V2¢ + A

– 0.1 / 0.3
\ V1¢ = (V2¢ + 4) e i.e. V1¢ – 0.7165 V2¢ = 2.8661 …(3)
– 0.3 / 0.3
\ V2¢ = (V1¢ – 4) e i.e. 0.3678 V1 – V2¢ = 1.4715 …(4)
Solving (3) and (4), V1¢ = 2.46 V, V2¢ = – 0.566 V
\ A1 = – 0.566 + 4 = 3.434 V, A2 = 2.46 – 4 = – 1.54 V
The waveform is shown in the Fig. 1.5 (b)
A1 = 3.434 V
+2
V1' = 2.46 V
0V T1 T2
V1 0V
V2 V2' = – 0.566 V
–2
0.1 0.3
sec sec A2 = –1.54 V
(a) RC integrating circuit (b) RC differentiating circuit
Fig. 1.5
TM

Example 1.9.5
Solution : From the circuit we can write,
R1 = R2 = 1 M W
C2 = 100 pF
For bridge balance,
R2
C1 = C = 100 pF = Cp
R1 2
Case i) C1 = 50 pF
The capacitor C1 < Cp, hence it is under compensated.
The input step is of magnitude A = 10.
+ A C1 10 ´ 50
\ Vo(0 ) = = = 3.33 V
C1 + C2 (50 + 100)
R2 1
while Vo(¥) = A = ´ 10 = 5 V
R1 + R 2 1 +1
The rise from Vo(0+) to Vo (¥) is exponential in nature.
R1 R 2
R = = 0.5 MW
R1 + R 2
C = C1 + C2 = 150 pF
\ t = RC = 75 msec
Input
10 V
Perfect compensation
5V
3.33 V Output vo(t) Vo (¥) = 5 V
t
0
Fig. 1.6
Case ii) C1 = 150 pF

The capacitor C1 > Cp, hence it is over compensated
+ A C1 10 ´ 150
\ Vo (0 ) = = = 6V
C1 + C2 (100 + 150)
and Vo(¥) = 5 V
R1 R 2
R = = 0.5 MW
R1 + R 2
TM

C = C1 + C2 = 250 pF
\ t = time constant = RC = 125 msec
+
Output decays exponentially from Vo (0 ) to Vo(¥) as shown in the Fig. 1.7.
1 cm = 2.5 V
Input
10 V
6V
5V
t
0
Fig. 1.7
Example 1.9.6
Solution : Refer section 1.3.3 for theory analysis.
A
V2 = tanh x
2
T
where x =
4 RC
T
Now RC =
2
T
i.e. x = = 0.5
T
4´
2
And A = 2V
2
\ V2 = tanh 0.5 = 0.4621 V
2
\ Peak to peak amplitude of output
= 2 ´ V2 = 2 ´ 0.4621 = 0.9242 V
qqq
TM

2 Nonlinear Wave Shaping
Example 2.3.2
Solution : Use linear piecewise model with rf = 0 W . + –
Replace diode by a battery of voltage Vg for silicon 0.7 V
equal to 0.7 V. Forward resistance is neglected. Hence +
+ I
circuit becomes as shown in the Fig. 2.1. 10 V R L = 1 kW
–
–
Applying KVL we get 10 – 0.7 – I R L = 0
i.e. 9.3 = I ´ 1 ´ 10 3
Fig. 2.1
\ I = 9.3 mA
The voltage across diode is 0.7 V
The voltage across R L = I R L = 9.3 ´ 10 –3 ´ 1 ´ 10 3 = 9.3 V
Diode power = I ´ Voltage across diode = 9.3 ´ 10 –3 ´ 0.7 = 6.51 mW

Load power = Voltage across R L ´ I = 9.3 ´ 9. 3 ´ 10 –3 = 86.49 mW
Example 2.3.3
Solution : From the
circuit, it seems that both
the diodes are forward +10 V I
biased. But cut in voltage of Vo 9.8
(Ge)
Ge is 0.2 V and that for Si is I V
+ + 0.2
0.7 V. Thus Ge diode will 0.7
Vg = 0.2 V 0.2 V
start conducting first. And – – (Si)
as drop across parallel
branches has to be same, the Vo
4.7 kW
voltage across Si diode will
be 0.2 V once Ge diode
conducts. Thus the Si diode
will never conduct and will
remain in OFF state. Fig. 2.2
TM
(2 - -1)An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS
Pulse and Digital Circuits 2-2 Nonlinear Wave Shaping
\ Vo = 10 – 0.2 = 9.8 V
Example 2.3.4
Solution : Due to 18 V supply, both D1 and D2
0.7 V
are forward biased and conducting. The drops + – A I1 2.7 kW
across D1 and D2 are 0.7 V with polarities as + –
shown in the Fig. 2.3. + +
18 V 0.7 V
Now VA = 0.7 V –
ID2 –
This is same across R1.
– +
V 0 .7 5.6 kW I2
\ I1 = A = = 0.259 mA
R1 2 . 7 ´ 10 3
Fig. 2.3
Applying KVL to the loop,
– 0.7 – 0.7 – I 2 (5.6 ´ 10 3 ) + 18 = 0
\ I2 = 2.96 mA
Now ID2 = I2 – I1 = 2.96 – 0.259 = 2.701 mA
Example 2.6.2
Solution : This is a shunt vo
clipper. Now the reference
voltage VBIAS is 4 V. When vin 12 V
is greater than 4 V, the diode is
reverse biased and the output VBIAS = 4 V
is equal to vin. But when vin is t
less than 4 V, the diode is
forward biased and the output vin
is equal to VR to 4 V. Hence –12 V
the output waveform can be
shown as in Fig. 2.4. Fig. 2.4
Example 2.6.3
75 W
Solution : In the positive half cycle, + +
diode will be reverse biased. And
circuit will become as shown in the
Fig. 2.5 (a). Vin 1 kW Vo
I
So, output will follow the input
waveform. – –
Fig. 2.5 (a)
TM

–
(Vin ) m
Im =
(R s + R L )
–
25 Vin D 0.6
+ V 1 kW Vo
= = 23.25 mA
(75 + 1 ´ 10 3)
–3 3 +
\ (Vo)m = Im ´ RL = 23.25 ´ 10 ´ 1 ´ 10
Fig. 2.5 (b)
= 23.25 V.
\ Peak value of output voltage will be 23.25 V.
In negative half cycle, when input voltage will cross the value 0.6 V, diode will be forward
biased and circuit will be as shown in the Fig. 2.5 (b).
Vin Vo
Input Output
+25 V 23.25 V
2p
0 p wt 0 p wt
2p
–0.6 V
Fig. 2.5 (c)

As seen from the Fig. 2.5 (b) drop across conducting diode will be 0.6 V and hence the
output will be also constant equal to 0.6 V with reverse polariry. Hence we will get
negative cycle of the input clipped off and hence the given circuit is negative clipper
circuit. The input and output waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.5 (c).
Example 2.7.10
Solution : The drop across the diode is 0.7 V in the forward biased state.
Now VA = – VR + 0.7
And as – VR is more negative than 0.7, the overall reference clipping level VA becomes
negative.
So as long as Vin > – VR + 0.7, the diode is forward biased and the output voltage
V o = V A.
\ Vo = VA = -VR + 0.7 ... Vin ³ VA ... (1)
When Vin is less than VA, the diode becomes reverse biased and acts as an open circuit.
And output is same as input assuming R1 << RL.
\ Vo = Vin ... Vin < VA ... (2)
TM

Key Point As (– VR + 0.7) is negative, not only the positive half cycle of the input gets
clipped but part of negative half cycle up to level of VA gets clipped.
This is shown in the Fig. 2.6.
Vin
t1 t2
t
0
VA = –VR+0.7 Clipping level
Vo
Portion
above VA
t is clipped off
0
VA = –VR+0.7
Vo = V A
Vo = Vin
Transmitting
as Vin < VA
region
Fig. 2.6 Input-output waveforms
The shaded portion is the Vo

Transmitting
transmitting region. region
The equations (1) and (2) are
the transfer characteristic
VA = –VR + 0.7
equations, from which the
transfer characteristics can Vin
0
be shown in the Fig. 2.7. VA = –VR + 0.7
Vin > VA
Key Point Thus by D OFF
D ON
varying magnitude and
direction of VR , any part of Vin < VA Clipping region
the input is clipped off as Vo = Vin
per the requirement. Fig. 2.7 Transfer characteristics
TM

Example 2.7.11
Solution : When Vin is less than 0 i.e.
+ 10 k W
negative, both the diodes D1 and D2 +
are reverse biased and act as an open
circuit. The circuit reduces as shown Vin 10 k W Vo
in the Fig. 2.8 (a). +
– 10 V
No current can flow in the circuit. The – –
output voltage Vo is zero. Fig. 2.8 (a)
As Vin becomes positive, the diode D1 10 k W VA

becomes forward biased. Hence circuit D1
becomes as shown in Fig. 2.8 (b). ON D2
Vin 10 k W Vo
+
But for D2 to be ON, VA must be i – 10 V
greater than 10 V. But VA = Vo i.e. for
D2 ON Vo must be greater than 10 V. Fig. 2.8 (b)
Now under this condition,

Vin
i =
(10 + 10) ´ 103
Vin Vin
\ Vo = 10 ´ 10 3 ´ = \ Vin = 2 Vo
20 ´ 103 2
When Vo = 10 V, D2 is forward biased
+ 10 k W
i.e. when Vin is 2 Vo i.e. 20 V D2 is
D1
forward biased. Thus both D1 and D2
Vin D2 Vo
are forward biased for Vin greater 10 k W
+
than 20 V. The circuit becomes as – 10 V
shown in Fig. 2.8 (c). –
Fig. 2.8 (c)
It can be seen that when both the
diodes are forward biased, the output
is constant equal to 10 V.
Thus the transfer characteristic equations can be written as,
Vo = 0, for Vin < 0
Vin
Vo = , for 0 < Vin < 20 V
2
Vo = 10 V, for Vin > 20 V
The transfer characteristics can be shown as in the Fig. 2.9 (a) while the input-output
waveforms can be shown as in the Fig. 2.9 (b).
TM

Vin Vo
Vo D1 ON
D2 OFF +50 V input
D1 ,D2
Slope 0.5 20 V output
ON
D 1, D 2 10 V 10V
10 V
OFF t
0 Vin 0
20 V
Vin < 0
–50V
(a) Transfer characteristics (b) Input and output

Fig. 2.9
Example 2.7.12
Solution : For 0 < Vin < 10 V, the diode D 1
D1 10 k W 10 k W
conducts while the diode D 2 is OFF. Hence the a
circuit reduces to as shown in the Fig. 2.10 (a). D2
Vin 10 k W Vo
Now Vo is the voltage across 10 k W resistance
I
connected between points a and b.
Vin b
\ Vo = Vab = ´ (10 k)
(10 k + 10 k) Fig. 2.10 (a)
Vin
\ Vo =
2
Now diode D 2 remains OFF till Vab is less than 10 V.
For Vab ³ 10 V, D 2 also conducts.
Vin
Vab =
2
Vin
\ 10 =
2
\ Vin = 20 V to get Vab = 10 V to have D 2 ON.
But Vin = 40 sin w t
Let at t = t 1 , Vin = 20 V and D 2 conducts.
\ 20 = 40 sin w t 1
\ sin w t 1 = 0.5
\ w t 1 = 30°
At w t 1 = 30° , D 2 conducts hence both D1 10 k W 10 k W
D 1 , D 2 are conducting and circuit reduces to

D2
as shown in the Fig. 2.10 (b). Vin 10 k W Vo
+
Hence, Vo = 10 V –10 V
Fig. 2.10 (b)
TM

This continues till Vin again becomes

Vo
less than 20 V i.e. Vab again less than
10 V. So D 2 again becomes OFF and 10 V
we get,
Vin
Vo =
2
For negative half cycle both the
Vi
diodes are OFF and output is zero. –40 0 20 V 40 V
\ Vo = 0 V for
negative half cycle of Vin Fig. 2.10 (c)
Thus the transfer characteristics is
shown in the Fig. 2.10 (c).
The input and output waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.11 (a) and (b).
Vi
40 V
20 V
wt
0º 30º 150º 180º 360º
(a) Input
– 40 V
Vo
10 V
wt
0º 30º 150º 180º 360º
(b) Output
Fig. 2.11
Example 2.7.13
Solution : From the given information the reference voltage VR is obtained by potential
divider circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.12 (a). Its Thevenin equivalent is shown in the
Fig. 2.12 (b) which can be used for the further analysis.
9 kW (9 k||1 k) = 900 W
+ +
100 V 1 kW 10 V 10 V –
–
(a) Potential divider (b) Equivalent

Fig. 2.12
TM

R
Case 1) Replacing VR by its equivalent circuit
we get, the circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.13. 1 kW D
When Vin is less than 10 V, the diode D is
reverse biased and circuit reduces as shown Vin Vo
900 W
in the Fig. 2.14 (a). We get Vo = Vin in this
case. While when Vin ³ 10 V then the diode D +
10 V
–
is forward biased and the circuit becomes as
shown in the Fig. 2.14 (b). Fig. 2.13
R R
1 kW 1 kW
D D
Vin Vo=Vin Vin Vo

900 W 900 W
+ +
10 V 10 V
– –
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.14
R
The forward resistance of diode is 50 W so circuit +
1 kW
becomes as shown in the Fig. 2.15. 50 W
Vin - 10 V - 10
\ I = = in
1k + 950 1950 Vin Vo
900 W
\ Vo = 10 + drop across 950 W = 10 + I ´ 950 I
+
( Vin - 10) 950 –
10 V
\ Vo = 10 +
1950 –
Fig. 2.15
This is the required expression for output when
Vin
Vin ³ 10 V. At maximum value of Vin = 20 V
the output is, 20 V
( 20 - 10) 950
Vo = 10 + 10 V
1950
t
= 14.871 V 0
For negative half cycle the diode is reverse
biased and Vo = Vin .
Hence input and output waveforms are as
Vo
shown in the Fig. 2.16.
14.871
10 V
t
0
Fig. 2.16
TM

Case 2) Replacing VR by its equivalent we get, the

circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.17. D
R 1 kW
For negative half cycle of Vin the diode is reverse biased
and the output is 10 volts. Vin Vo
900 W
\ Vo = 10 V for Vin < 0 V +
10 V
In positive half ycle till Vin is less than 10 V, the diode –
D is reverse biased and output is 10 volts. Fig. 2.17

\ Vo = 10 V for Vin < 10 V 50 W
For Vin ³ 10 V, the diode D is forward biased. Replacing

R 1000 W
diode by its forward resistance we get,
Vin - 10 Vin Vo
I = 900 W
50 + 1000 + 900
I
+
and Vo = 10 V + drop across 1900 W 10 V
–
= 10 + I ´ 1900 Fig. 2.18
( Vin - 10) 1900 Vin
\ Vo = 10 +
1950
20 V
This is the required expression of the
output. 10 V
180º 360º
t
At Vin = 20 at its maximum the output is, 0º 90º
( 20 - 10) 1900
Vo = 10 +
1950
= 19.743 V Vo
Hence input and output waveforms are as 19.743
shown in the Fig. 2.19. 10 V
t
0º 90º 180º 360º
Fig. 2.19
R
+ +
Example 2.7.14
Solution : When Vin < VR i.e. 10 V, the
diode is reverse biased and the circuit Vin Vo=Vin
reduces as shown in the Fig. 2.20 (a). +
V
– R
– –
Fig. 2.20 (a)
TM

Pulse and Digital Circuits 2 - 10 Nonlinear Wave Shaping
It can be seen that

R
Vo = Vin for Vin < 10 V +
100 W
… (1)
100 W Rf
When Vin > VR i.e. Vin > 10 V then the diode
becomes ON. It has Rf = 100 W. So circuit Vin Vo
Vg= 0
reduces as shown in the Fig. 2.20 (b). I
+
Applying KVL to the loop, 10 V V
– R
Vin = 100 I + 100 I + 10 –
Vin - 10
\ I = Fig. 2.20 (b)
200
And Vo = I R f + VR
é V - 10 ù Vin - 10
= ê in ´ 100 + 10 = + 10
ë 200 úû 2
= 0.5 Vin + 5 … (2)

For Vin = Vp(in) = 30 V we get,
Vo = 0.5 Vin + 5 = 0 . 5 ´ 30 + 5
= 20 V (max)
When Vin < 0, D is OFF and Vo = Vin.
Hence the input-output waveforms are as shown in the Fig. 2.20 (c).
Vin
+30 V
+10 V
t
0
–30 V
Vo
20 V
10 V
t
0
D ON
–30 V
Fig. 2.20 (c)
TM

Example 2.9.4
Solution : There are two clipping levels V1 = 10 V and V2 = 5 V hence two way
parallel clipper is necessary.
Let diodes have R f = 200 W and R r = 200 k W
R = R f ´ R r = 6.324 kW
Choose R = 6.8 kW standard resistor
The frequency of the input must be same as output.
1 1
f = = = 1 kHz
T 1 ´ 10 - 3
The designed circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.21.
R = 6.8 k W
+ +
10 V
D1 D2
Vin Vo
+ + 5V
V1 10 V V2 5V
– –
– –
Fig. 2.21
Example 2.9.5
Due to 5.3 V battery, D 1 is 10 kW A
reverse biased and D 2 is also
reverse biased till V i is less than 6 IR
D2
V. Thus current I R is zero and V o D1 +
OFF
– 0.7 V Vo = 6 V
= Vi . Vi ON +
5.3 V
–
For Vi = + 6 V, D 1 gets forward
biased and circuit is as shown in the
Fig. 2.22 (a). Fig. 2.22 (a)
\ Vo = + 6 V
10 kW
Applying KVL to the loop, – –
Vi – 6 IR
IR = A and –
10 ´ 10 3 D1 0.7 V
+ Vo = 8 V
at Vi = 10 V, I R = 0.4 mA Vi –
OFF 7.3 V
Thus I R increases as Vi increases +
from 6 to 10 V and
+ +
IR decreases as Vi Fig. 2.22 (b)
decreases from 10 to 6 V.
In negative half cycle, when Vi = – 8 V then D 2 conducts and circuit is as shown in the
Fig. 2.22 (b).
TM

Vo = – 8 V D1 ON D2 ON
Vi D2 OFF D1 OFF
Applying KVL to the loop,
( V – 8)
IR = – i A + 10 Input
10 ´ 10 3 6V
And at Vi = – 10 V, I R = – 0.2 mA Time
– 8V
– 10
Negative sign indicates that it is in
opposite direction to that assumed. Vo
Output
+6 V
As Vi decreases towards – 10 V, I R
Time
increases in other direction.
–8V
For Vi greater than – 8 V in negative half

cycle, I R = 0 and Vo = Vi .
IR
The waveforms of Vi , Vo and Current
IR are shown in the Fig. 2.22 (c). 0.4 mA IR
Time
0.2 mA
Fig. 2.22 (c)

Example 2.14.1
Solution : For a diode differentiator comparator the output is given by,
vo = A a t x e- x
where A = Amplifier gain, a = Slope of ramp

t = Time constant, x = (t - t ¢) / t
For peak value of v o , x = 1
Vo( max ) = A a t e –1 = 0.3678A a t = 0.3678 ´ 10 ´ 0.1 ´ 100 ´ 10 - 6 = 3.678 ´ 10 - 5 V
Example 2.16.5
Solution :
Key Point The output waveform for first two cycles i.e. transient behaviour is required
and not the steady state values. Hence equations of V1 , V1¢ , V2 and V2¢ can not be used.
TM

At t = 0, the input suddenly changes from Rs C

0 to 10 V. But voltage across capacitor can
not change instantaneously. The diode D +
conducts. The circuit reduces as shown in vs Rf R || Rf » Rf vo
the Fig. 2.23 (a). The capacitor behaves as –
short circuit, assuming initial capacitor
voltage zero, at t = 0 + . Fig. 2.23 (a) Equivalent circuit at t = 0+
Rf 100
\ vo = ´ 10 = ´ 10 = 5 V
Rs + Rf 100 + 100
So output jumps to 5 V at t = 0 + .
T
Then during 0 < t < , capacitor charges exponentially and the output reduces. The
2
charging time constant
t = (R f + R s ) C = ( 200) ´ 1 ´ 10 - 6 = 2 ´ 10 - 4 s
1 T
f = 5 kHz, T= = 2 ´ 10 - 4 s, = 1 ´ 10 - 4 s
f 2
-4 -4
v o = 5 e - ( T / 2) t = 5 e - 1 ´ 10 / 2 ´ 10
T
At t = , = 3.032 V
2
At this time voltage across R s = 3.032 V
as R s = R f . Hence the voltage across Rs C
+ – –
capacitor is,
vC –
v C = 10 - 2 ´ 3.032
= 3.936 V ... At t = T/2 vs= 0 R vo
+
At t = T/2, input drops to zero, diode
becomes cut-off. So circuit reduces as +
shown in the Fig. 2.23 (b).

Fig. 2.23 (b) Equivalent circuit at t = T/2
R
\ vo = - vC ´
R + Rs
10 ´ 10 3
= - 3.936 ´
(10 ´ 10 3 + 100)
= – 3.936 V
During T/2 to T, the capacitor discharges and output starts increasing towards zero. The
time constant is t = ( R + R s ) C = 10.1 ´ 10 - 3 s. This time constant is 100 times more than T/2
hence capacitor hardly discharges during T/2 to T. Hence output remains almost constant
at – 3.936 V during T/2 < t < T. This completes first cycle. At t = T, input increases from 0
to 10 V and diode conducts. The capacitor voltage can not change instantaneously.
TM

Rf
\ v o = (10 - 3.936) ´ = 3.032 V
Rs + Rf
v o = 3.032 e - ( T / 2) / t = 1.839 V
3T
At t = ,
2
At t = 3T/2 when input changes to zero, then diode becomes cut-off.
v C = 10 - 2 ´ 1.839 = 6.322 V
R
\ vo = - vc ´ = – 6.322 V ... at t = 3T/2
R + Rs
This remains constant for 3T/2 < t < 2 T Vo
as discharging time constant is large.
This completes the second cycle. 5V 3.032 V 3.032 V
1.839 V
The output is shown in the Fig. 2.24.
t
0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T
Key Point After each cycle, the output
approaches towards the steady state and –3.936 V
finally positive waveform is clamped to
–6.322 V
almost zero.
Fig. 2.24
qqq
TM

4 Multivibrators
Example 4.3.10
Solution : The circuit diagram is similar to that shown in the Fig. 4.3.2.
Assume Q1 OFF and Q2 ON, as the stable state.
For ON transistor i.e. Q2,
VCE (sat) = VBE (sat) = 0 V ... as given
\ VC2 = VB2 = 0 V
a) Consider the equivalent circuit shown in the Fig. 4.1 (a), from collector of Q2 to base of
Q 1.
VCC = 5 V
I1 R C = 1 kW
I2
IC1 = 0 VC2 = 0 V
R 1 = 5 kW
ICBO = 0 IC2
VB1
Q1 OFF Q2 ON
R2
25 kW
–VBB = –5 V
Fig. 4.1 (a)
As VC2 = 0 V, it is at ground potential hence VB1 can be directly obtained as,

æ R1 ö æ 5 ö
VB1 = – VBB ç ÷=–5ç ÷ = – 0.833 V
è R1 + R 2 ø è 5 + 25 ø
This negative VB1 ensures that the transistor Q1 is indeed OFF.
V 5
I1 = CC = = 5 mA
RC 1
(4 - 1)
TM

Pulse and Digital Circuits 4-2 Multivibrators
VBB - ( -5)
I2 = – = = 0.167 mA
R1 + R 2 5 + 25
\ IC2 = I1 – I2 = 5 – 0.167 = 4.833 mA

I C2 4.833
\ (I B2 ) min = = = 0.2416 mA
(h FE ) min 20
To calculate actual IB2, consider the equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig. 4.1 (b).
VCC = +5 V
RC
1 kW I3
I3 R 1 = 5 kW
VC1
IC1 = 0
IB2
Q1 OFF VB2 = 0 V Q2 ON
I4 R2 = 25 kW
–VBB = –5 V
Fig. 4.1 (b)

VCC 5
I3 = = = 0.833 mA
R1 + R C 5 +1
VB2 - VBB - ( -5)

I4 = = = 0.2 mA
R2 25
\ IB2 = I3 – I4 = 0.833 – 0.2 = 0.6333 mA

As IB2 > ( IB2)min, the transistor Q2 is indeed ON.
VC1 = VCC – I3RC = 5 – 0.833 ´ 1 = 4.167 V
Hence stable state currents and voltages are :
I C1 = 0 mA I C2 = 4.833 mA I B1 = 0 mA I B2 = 0.6333 mA
VC1 = 4.167 V VC2 = 0 V VB1 = – 0.833 V VB2 = 0 V
b) To find ICBO Maximum

Consider the circuit shown in the Fig. 4.1 (c) on next page.
Obtain Thevenin’s equivalent across terminal A and ground.
Thevenin’s voltage is VA = VB1 with respect to ground.
TM

VCC = 5 V
RC 1 kW
R1
5 kW
ICBO VB1
A
R2
RTH 25 kW
–VBB = –5V
Fig. 4.1 (c)
\ VTH = VB1 = – 0.833 V already calculated.

Looking into terminals A and ground,
RTH = ( R1 + RC ) R2 = 6 25 ICBO VB1
6 ´ 25
=
6 + 25 RTH = 4.838 kW
= 4.838 kW
ICBO –
Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in the Fig. 4.1 (d). VTH = –0.833 V
+
For Q1 OFF, which is npn silicon transistor
VBE £ 0 V Fig. 4.1 (d)
For (ICBO)max, VBE(cut-off) = VB1 = 0 V
VB1 - VTH 0 - ( - 0.833)
\ (I CBO ) max =
R TH
=
4.838 ´ 10 3
= 0.1722 mA
\ ICBO maximum is 172.21 mA, up to which circuit will function satisfactorily.
Example 4.3.11
Solution : Assume Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON.
\ VCE(sat) = VCE2 = 0.3 V
and VBE(sat) = VBE2 = 0.7 V
a) Calculation of stable state voltages and currents

The equivalent circuit from base of Q1 to collector of Q2.
TM

VCC = 6 V
R C = 1 kW
R1
Q1 OFF
+ +
9.1 kW IC2
VCE2 = 0.3 V
+ + IB2 –
VBE1 = 0 V VCN2
+
– R2 RE
VBN1
20 kW 0.43 kW VEN
VEN
– – –
N
Fig. 4.2
Another equivalent circuit from collector of Q1 to base of Q2 is shown in the Fig. 4.3.
VCC = +6 V
RC
1 kW
R1
+
9.1 kW
IB2
Q2 ON
+ +
VCN1 VBE2
Q1 OFF +
VBN2 – RE
R2
+ VEN
20 kW 0.43 kW
– VEN
– – –
N
Fig. 4.3
To obtain IC2 and IB2 let us obtain Thevenin’s equivalent across collector of Q2 and ground
as shown in the Fig. 4.4 (a) while Thevenin’s equivalent across base of Q2 and ground as
shown in the Fig. 4.4 (b).
Referring to Fig. 4.4 (a),
VCC
VOC = I(R1 + R2) = (R + R2)
(R1 + R 2 + R C ) 1
6 ´ 29.1
=
30.1
= 5.8 V
TM

VCC = 6 V VCC = 6 V
RC
RC
1 kW I
I 1 kW
R1 R1 B2
9.1 kW C2 9.1 kW
R2 VOC = VTH R2
RTH VOC = VTH
20 kW RTH 20 kW
I I
N N
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.4
29.1 ´ 1
RTH = (R1 + R2) RC = 29.1 1 = = 0.9667 kW
29.1 + 1
Referring to Fig. 4.4 (b),
VCC 6 ´ 20
VOC = IR2 = R2 = = 3.9867 V
R1 + R 2 + R C 30.1
20 ´ 10.1
RTH = R2 (R1 + R2) = 20 10.1 = = 6.7109 kW
20 + 10.1
Hence the Thevenin’s equivalent of ON transistor Q2 using calculated values of VOC and
RTH is as shown in the Fig. 4.5.
0.9667 kW IC2
6.7109 kW +
+
VCE2 = 0.3 V 5.8 V
+ –
IB2 VBE2 Q2 ON
+ –
= 0.7 V –
3.9867 V RE
–
0.43 kW
(IB2 + IC2)
N
Fig. 4.5
Applying KVL to base-emitter loop,

– 6.7109 IB2 – 0.7 – (IB2 + IC2) 0.43 + 3.9867 = 0
\ 7.1409 IB2 + 0.43 IC2 = 3.2867
TM

\ IB2 + 0.0602 IC2 = 0.46026 … (1)
Applying KVL to collector emitter loop
– 0.9667 IC2 – 0.3 – 0.43 (IB2 + IC2) + 5.8 = 0
\ 0.43 IB2 + 1.3967 IC2 = 5.5
\ IB2 + 3.2481 IC2 = 12.7906 …(2)
Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2),

\ 3.1879 IC2 = 12.3303
\ IC2 = 3.868 mA and IB2 = 0.2274 mA
I C2 3.868
Now (IB2)min = = = 0.1289 mA
(h FE ) min 30
As IB2 > (IB2)min, the transistor Q2 is indeed ON. The various voltages are,
VEN = (IB2 + IC2) RE = 1.761 V
VCN2 = VCE2 + VEN = 0.3 + 1.761 = 2.061 V
VBN2 = VBE2 +VEN = 0.8 + 1.761 = 2.561 V
æ R2 ö
VBN1 = VCN2 ç ÷ = 1.4164 V
è R1 + R 2 ø
VBE1 = VBN1 – VEN = 1.4164 – 1.761 = – 0.344 V
As VBE1 < VBE(cut-off), the transistor Q1 is indeed OFF,
VCC R1 V R
VCN1 = + BN2 C = 5.6595 V
R1 + R C R1 + R C
Thus the stable state is,
IC1 = IB1 = 0 mA IC2 = 3.868 mA IB2 = 0.2274 mA
VCN1 = 5.659 V VCN2 = 2.061 V VBN1 = 1.4164 V VBN2 = 2.561 V
and VEN = 1.761 V
b) Calculation of the heaviest load

Consider that load is connected as shown in the Fig. 4.6.
For heaviest load, IB2 = (IB2)min = 0.1289 mA
Now VBN2 = 2.561 V
VBN2 2.561
\ I4 = = = 0.12805 mA
R2 20
\ I2 = I4 + (IB2)min = 0.2569 mA
Now VCN1 is going to change due to RL, it no longer remains same as calculated earlier.
TM

VCC = 6 V
I1 R C = 1 kW
IL I2 R
VCN1 1
9.1 kW
VBN2
RL
Q2 ON
(IB2)min
Q1 OFF
I4 R2
20 kW
Fig. 4.6
VCN1 - VBN2 VCN1 - 2.561

I2 = i.e. 0.2569 =
R1 9.1
\ VCN1 = 4.8992 V
But VCN1 = VCC – I1 RC
\ I1 = 1.1 mA
Now (IL)max = I1 – I2 = 1.1 – 0.2569 = 0.8438 mA
This is the heaviest load current
V 4 . 8992
\ RL = CN1 = = 5.805 kW
IL 0 . 8438
This is the minimum value of RL.
Example 4.3.12
Solution : Junction voltages are to be neglected.
\ VCE(sat) = VBE(sat) = 0 V
\ VCE2 = VBE2 = 0 V
Assuming Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON.
Consider the circuit shown in the Fig. 4.7
VCN2 = VCE2 + VEN = VEN … (1)
VBN2 = VBE2 + VEN = VEN … (2)
\ VCN2 = VBN2 = VEN …(3)
For OFF Q1, VBE(cut off) = – 1 V
\ VBN1 = VBE1 + VEN
\ VBN1 – VEN = – 1 …(4)

TM

+VCC = 18 V
I1 I3 I2
RC RC
R1 I1 R1
+ + +
IC1 = 0 IC2
IB1 = 0 IB2
Q1 I3 Q2
+ + VCE2 = 0 V
R2 I3 I4 R2
VCN1 VCN2
–
+ +
VBN1 VBN2
VEN RE VEN
IE2
– – – – – –
N
Fig. 4.7
Now current I3 flows through R1 and R2 both, as IB1 = 0

VCN2
\ I3 = but as R1 = R2
R1 + R 2
VCN2
\ I3 =
2R1
VCN2
Now VBN1 = I 3 R2 = × R2 but R1 = R2
2R1
VCN 2
\ VBN1 = … (5)
2
VEN
\ VBN1 = … (6)
2
Substituting in equation (4)
VEN
– VEN = – 1 i.e. – 0.5 VEN = –1 V
2
\ VEN = 2 V
\ VCN2 = VBN1 = VEN = 2 V
Calculate RE :
VEN = IE2 RE = (IB2 + IC2) RE » IC2 RE neglecting IB2
Now IC2 = IC(sat) = 20 mA given
TM

\ 2 = 20 ´ 10 -3 RE
2
\ RE = = 100 W
20 ´ 10 - 3
Calculate RC : VCC - VCN2

I2 =
RC
Neglecting I3, I2 = IC2 = 20 mA
18 - 2
\ RC = = 0.8 kW
20
\ RC = 800 W
Calculate R1 and R2
Let R1 = R 2 = R
I C2 20
Now (IB2)min = = = 1 mA
(h FE ) min 20
IB2 = 2 (IB2)min = 2 ´ 1
= 2 mA
VBN2
I1 = IB2 + I4 i.e. I1 = IB2 +
R2
2
\ I1 = 2 + …(7)
R
V - VBN2
Now I1 = CC as IC1 = 0
R C + R1
18 - 2
= … (8)
0.8 + R
16 2 2 + 2R
\ = 2+ =
0.8 + R R R
\ 16 R = 1.6 + 2R + 1.6 R + 2 R2
\ 2R2 – 12.4 R + 1.6 = 0
12.4 ± (12.4) 2 - 4 ´ 2 ´ 1.6

R = = 6.068, 0.1318
2´ 2
To keep I3 low, R must be high, as I3 is neglected,
\ R = R1 = R2 = 6.068 kW
This is the required design.
TM

Pulse and Digital Circuits 4 - 10 Multivibrators
Example 4.3.13
Solution : The circuit diagram of the multivibrator is shown in the Fig. 4.8.
+VCC = +12 V
RC RC
1 kW 1 kW
R1 R1
+ +
5 kW 5 kW
Q1 Q2
VC1 + + V = VCE(sat)
OFF ON C2
VB1 R2 R2 VB2
– 10 kW 10 kW –
– –
–VBB = – 3 V
Fig. 4.8
Assume Q1 OFF and Q2 ON, as the stable state.
For ON transistor i.e. Q2,
VCE(sat) = 0.3 V and VBE(sat) = 0.7 V.
a) Let us find steady state voltages and currents.

Consider the equivalent circuit from base of Q1 to collector of Q2, as shown in the
Fig. 4.8 (a).
VCC
+12 V
RC
I1 1 kW
I2
VC2 = VCE(sat) = 0.3 V

IC1 = 0 R 1 = 5 kW IC2
ICBO = 0
Q1 OFF VB1 Q2 ON
R2
10 kW
–3 V
Fig. 4.8 (a)
As Q1 is OFF, IC1 = IB1 = 0 mA.
TM

VB1 is due to the effect of VC2 and VBB, hence applying superposition principle we can
write,
æ R1 ö æ R2 ö
VB1 = – VBB ç ÷ + VC2 ç ÷
è R1 + R 2 ø è R1 + R 2 ø
VC2 = 0 VBB = 0
= - 3 æç ö÷ + 0.3 æç ö÷ = – 0.8 V
5 10
è ø
15 è 15 ø
This negative voltage at B1 ensures that Q1 is indeed OFF.
VCC - VC2 12 - 0.3
I1 = = = 11.7 mA
RC 1
VC2 + VBB 0. 3 + 3
I2 = = = 0.22 mA
R1 + R 2 5 + 10
\ IC2 = I1 – I2 = 11.7 – 0.22 = 11.48 mA

I C2 11.48
\ (I B2 )min = = = 0.574 mA
(h fe )min 20
Let us calculate actual IB1. For this, consider equivalent circuit from collector of Q1 to base
of Q2 , as shown in the Fig. 4.8 (b).
VCC = 12 V
RC
1 kW
I3 R1
IC1 = 0 5 kW
IB2
Q1 OFF VB2 Q2 ON
R2 VB2 = VBE(sat)
I4 10 kW
= 0.7 V
–VBB = –3 V
Fig. 4.8 (b)

VCC - VB2 12 - 0 . 7
I3 = = = 1.83 mA
R C + R1 1 +5
VB 2 - VBB 0 .7 - ( - 3)
I4 = = = 0.37 mA
R2 10
\ IB2 = I3 – I4 = 1.883 – 0.37 = 1.51 mA

As IB2 > ( IB2 )min, the transistor Q2 is indeed ON.
TM

\ VC1 = VCC – I3RC = 12 – 1.883 ´ 1 = 10.167 V

Hence the stable state currents and voltages are :
I C1 = 0 mA IC2 = 11.48 mA IB1 = 0 mA IB2 = 1.51 mA
VC1 = 10.67 V VC2 = 0.32 V VB1 = – 0.8 V VB2 = 0.7 V
b) To calculate the heaviest load

For heaviest load, consider RL connected as shown in the Fig. 4.9.
VCC = 12 V
RC 1 kW I1
IL VC1 R 1 = 5 kW
I2
VB2 = 0.7 V
RL
Q2 ON
(IB2)min
Q1 OFF R2
I4
10 kW
–VBB = –3 V
Fig. 4.9
For heaviest load, IB2 be (IB2)min = 0.574 mA

V - VBB 0.70 - ( -3)
\ I4 = B2 = = 0.37 mA
R2 10
\ I2 = I4 + (IB2)min = 0.37 + 0.574 = 0.944 mA

Now VC1 = VCC – I1RC … (1)
VC1 - VB2
and I2 = … (2)
R1
VC1 - 0.7
From equation (2) 0.944 =
5
VC1 = 5.42 V due to the load VC1 changes
Substituting in equation (1),
5.42 = 12 – I1 ´ 1 i.e. I1 = 6.58 mA
\ (IL)max = I1 – I2 = 6.58 – 0.944 = 5.636 mA
This is the heaviest load current.
TM

VC1 5.42
\ RL = = = 961.7 W
IL 5.636 ´ 10 - 3
This is the minimum RL corresponding to heaviest load.
c) To find maximum ICBO

Note : The current ICBO is the collector to base current when the emitter is open.
Practically emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse
biased. Now if emitter is open i.e. VCC = 12 V
emitter-base junction is not biased and
still collector-base junction is reverse R C = 1 kW
biased, then a reverse current flows.
R1
This current is nothing but ICBO. It is VC2 = 0.3 V
very small of the order of micro 5 kW
amperes. ICBO V
B1
In the example Q1 is OFF i.e. cut-off. A
So both the junctions of Q1 are reverse
R2 = 10 kW
biased. So ICBO flows in Q1 from its RTH
collector to base. This is shown in the
Fig. 4.10 (a). –VBB = –3 V
Let us obtain Thevenin’s equivalent Fig. 4.10 (a)

across point A and ground.
\ VTH = VB1 with respect to ground
= – 0.8 V already calculated.
Looking into terminals A and ground,
RTH = (R1 + RC)|| R2 with VCC and VBB short.
6 ´ 10
\ RTH = = 3.75 kW
( 6 + 10)
ICBO VB1
\ Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in the Fig. 4.10 (b).
For Q1 OFF which is npn silicon transistor,
VBE(cut-off) £ 0 for cut-off. RTH = 3.75 kW
For (ICBO)max, VBE(cut-off) = VB1 = 0 V ICBO –

– 0.8 V
VB1 - VTH 0 - ( - 0.8) +
\ (ICBO)max = =
R TH 3.75 ´ 10 3
= 0.2133 mA Fig. 4.10 (b)

This is the required (ICBO)max.
TM

Example 4.9.7
Solution : The saturation voltages are to be neglected.
\ VCE(sat) = 0 V
and VBE(sat) = Vs = 0 V
VBE(cut in) = Vg = 0.5 V

VCC - VCE (sat) - Vs + Vg
\ I ¢B =
R C + r ¢bb
3 - 0 - 0 + 0.5
= = 9.45 mA
270 + 100
The overshoot in VB2 :
d = I¢B r ¢bb + Vs - Vg = 9.45 ´ 10 - 3 ´ 100 + 0 - 0.5 = 0.45 V
VC1 = VCC – I ¢B RC = 3 – 9.45 ´ 0.27 = 0.4485 V
The width of output pulse :
T = 0.69 RC = 0.69 ´ 2.7 ´ 10 3 ´ 0.01 ´ 10 - 6 = 18.63 msec
Overshoot in VC1 is d¢ and is same as d.
\ d¢ = d = 0.45 V
VBB R1 V R
In stable state, VF = VB1 = - + C2 2 where VC2 = VCE(sat)
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
9´1
= - = – 0.5625 V
16
VCC R1 Vs R 2 3´1
In quasi-stable state, VC2 = + = = 2.3622 V
R1 + R 2 R1 + R C 1.27
The waveforms are shown in the Fig. 4.11. (See Fig. 4.11 on next page)
Example 4.9.8
Solution : Assume Q2 ON and Q1 OFF. Refer example 4.3.2 for the procedure and verify
the answers :
RC = 1.14 kW, R = 21.2 kW assuming IB = 1.5 I B( sat ) ,
C = 0.683 mF, R2 = 13.2 kW, R1 = 15.9 kW, C1 = 62.89 pF.
TM

Stable Quasi-stable
Q1 OFF Q1 ON
Q2 ON Q2 OFF
t=0 t=T
VB2
Vg = 0.5 V
d = 0.45 V
Vs = 0
0V t
VCC–VCE (sat) t = RC
=3V
VC1 T = 18.63 msec
VCC = 3 V
d’ = 0.45V
0V t
VCE (sat)
=0V
VC2
2.3622 V
VCE (sat) 0 V VCE (sat) 0 V

0V t
t=0V t=T
VB1
Vs = 0V
0V t
–0.5625 V –0.5625 V
VF VF
Fig. 4.11
Example 4.9.9
Solution : Assume Q 2 ON and Q 1 OFF
VCC - VCE (sat) 6 - 0.3
I C2 = I C (sat) = 6 mA and I C2 = =
RC RC
6 - 0.3
\ RC = = 950 W (select 1 kW)
6 ´ 10 -3
IC 6 ´ 10 -3
I B2 (min) = = = 3 ´ 10 -4 A
h fe (min) 20
\ I B1 (sat) = 3 ´ 10 -4 A
VCC - VBE (sat) 6 - 0.7
Now, I B2 = i.e. R = = 17.67 kW
R 3 ´ 10 -4
TM

In Quasi-stable state, Q 1 is ON and Q 2 +VCC = 6 V

is OFF
T = 0.69 RC
RC
i.e. 140 ´ 10 -6 = 0.69 × 17.67 × 10 3 × C I3
R1
\ C = 11.484 nF Q1 ON VC2
Consider the equivalent circuit in IB1 VB1 = Vs

quasi-stable state, Q2 OFF
As Q 2 is OFF, VC2 » VCC
R2
V - Vs 6 - 0.7 5.3 I4
\ I3 = CC = = …(1)
R1 R1 R1
V - VBB 0.7 - ( -1.5) –VBB = – 1.5 V
and I4 = s =
R2 R2 Fig. 4.12
2.2
= …(2)
R2
Assume I 4 = I B1 (sat) = 3 ´ 10 -4 A
2.2
\ 3 ´ 10 -4 = i.e. R 2 = 7.33 kW
R2
5.3
Now, I 3 = I B1 + I 4 = 6 ´ 10 -4 hence R 1 = = 8.833 kW
6 ´ 10 -4
For speed-up capacitors choose R 1 C 1 = 1 µs
1 ´ 10 -6
\ C1 = = 113.21 pF
8.833 ´ 10 3
The designed circuit is shown in the Fig. 4.13.
Q1 OFF Q2 ON +VCC
normal stable state
I1
IR
RC I1 R = 17.67k W C1 = 113.21 pF
C1 = 113.21 pF RC
+ –
C1 VA R1 C2
+ +
B1
Q1 Q2
+ + B2
VC1 VC2
E1 VB1 VB2
C2 R2 = 7.33 k W E2
– – – –
Input –VBB
trigger
pulse
Fig. 4.13 Collector coupled monostable multivibrator
TM

Example 4.23.8 :
Solution : Kept this unsolved example for student's practice.
Example 4.12.9
Solution : The amplitude of the square wave is 15 V i.e.,
VCC = 15 V and TA = 0.5 msec, TB = 0.4 msec
Use the same procedure as used earlier. Assume Q1 OFF and Q2 ON with npn germanium
transistors,
\ VBE(sat) = VB2 = 0.3 V and VCE(sat) = VC2 = 0 V
VCC - VC2
\ I2 =
RC
Neglecting current through C1, I2 = IC2 = 5 mA ... given

15 - 0
\ 5 ´ 10 3 =
RC
\ RC = 3 kW
VCC - VB 2
Then IB2 =
R2
(I C2 ) 5
But IB2 = 1.5 (IB2)min = 1.5 = 1.5´ = 0.375 mA
(h FE ) min 20
15 - 0.3
\ 0.375´ 10 -3 =
R2
\ R2 = 39.2 kW
Let C1 = C2 = C
\ TA = 0.69 R1C and TB = 0.69 R2C
\ 0.4 ´ 10 -3 = 0.69 ´ 39.2 ´ 10 3 ´ C
\ C = 0.0148 mF
Now TA = 0.69 R1C
\ 0.5 ´10 - 3 = 0.69 R1 ´ 0.0148 ´ 10 - 6
\ R1 = 49 kW
As output is unsymmetrical, R1 ¹ R2.
Example 4.12.10
Solution : Each pulse width is 2 msec
\ T1 = 2 msec and f = 75 kHz
TM

1 1
\ T = = = 13.33 msec
f 75 ´ 10 3
Now T = T1 + T 2
\ T2 = T – T1 = 13.33 – 2 = 11.33 msec
T1 = 0.69 R1C1 i.e. 2 ´ 10– 6 = 0.69 ´ 10 ´ 10 3 C 1
\ C1 = 289.85 pF
T2 = 0.69 R2 C2 i.e. 11.33 ´ 10 - 6 = 0.69 ´ 10 ´ 10 3 C2
\ C2 = 1.642 nF
Example 4.12.11
Solution : Refer example 4.12.10 for the procedure and verify the answers as :
C1 = 144.92 pF and C2 = 0.5797 nF.
Example 4.12.12
Solution : From given values,
T1 = 0.69 R1C1 = 0.69 ´ 10 ´ 10 3 ´ 0.1 ´ 10 - 6 = 0.69 msec
and T2 = 0.69 R2C2 = 0.69 ´ 5 ´ 10 3 ´ 0.1 ´ 10 - 6 = 0.345 msec
\ T = T1 + T2 = 1.035 msec
1 1
\ f = = = 966.18 Hz
T 1.035 ´ 10 - 3
T2 0. 345
Duty cycle = = = 0.333 = 33.3 %
T1 + T2 0.69 + 0. 345
Example 4.12.13
Solution : VCC = 5 V, I C (on) = 2 mA , h fe (min) = 70, f = 1 kHz
T =
1 1 +VCC
= = 1 ms
f 1 ´ 103
T
\ T1 = T2 = = 0.5 ms
2
RC I1 R2 R1 I2 RC
... Square wave C2 C1
The circuit is shown in the Fig. 4.14. IC2
C1 VC1 VC2 C2
Assume Q 2 ON and Q 1 OFF VB1 B2
Q1 Q2
For ON transistor, assuming n-p-n B1 VB2
OFF ON
silicon transistor, IB2
VCE (sat) = VC2 = 0.3 V,

Fig. 4.14
VBE (sat) = VB2 = 0.7 V
TM

VCC - VC2
\ I2 =
RC
Now, I C2 (on) = I 2 = 2 mA ... Neglecting current through C 1

5 - 0.3
\ 2 ´ 10 -3 = i.e. R C = 2.35 kW
RC
I C2 (on) 2 ´ 10 -3
Now I B2 = 1.5 I B2 (min) = 1.5 ´ = 1.5 ´ = 42.857 mA
h fe (min) 70
V CC - V B2 5 - 0.7
But I B2 = i.e. 42.857 ´ 10 -6 =
R2 R2
\ R 2 = 100.33 kW
Assume C1 = C2 = C
Now T1 = 0.69 R 1 C 1 and T2 = 0.69 R 2 C 2
\ 0.5 ´ 10 -3 = 0.69 R 1 C 1 and 0.5 ´ 10 -3 = 0.69 ´ 100.33 ´ 10 3 ´ C 2
\ C 2 = 7.22 nF = C 1
0.5 ´ 10 -3
\ R1 = = 100.33 kW
0.69 ´ 7.222 ´ 10 -9
For square wave output R 1 = R 2 .
Example 4.12.14 :
Example 4.12.15 :
Example 4.17.5
Solution : UTP = 5 V, LTP = 3 V, VCC = 10 V
Vi = VB2 = UTP = 5 V when Q2 is ON
\ VE = Vi – VBE1 = VB2 – VBE2 = 5 – 0.7
= 4.3 V …Assume VBE = 0.7 V
IC2 = IE2 = 1mA … In ON state
VE 4 .3
\ RE = = = 4.3 kW
I E2 1 ´ 10 -3
Now IC2 RC2 = VCC – VE – VCE2 (sat) … Assume VCE2 (sat) = 0.2 V
–3
\ 1 ´ 10 RC2 = 10 – 4.3 – 0.2
TM

\ RC2 = 5.5 kW
I E2 1 ´ 10 -3 –4
Now I2 » = = 1 ´ 10 A
10 10
VB2 5
\ R2 = = = 50 kW
I2 1 ´ 10 -4
I C2 1 ´ 10 -3
IB2 = = = 10 µA
h fe(min) 100
VCC - VB2
\ I2 + IB2 =
R C1 + R 1
10 -5 3
\ RC1 + R1 = = 45.4545 × 10 …(1)
1 ´ 10 -4 + 10 ´ 10 -6
Now VB2 = VB1 = LTP = 3 V and Q1 is ON
VB2 3
\ I1 = = = 60 µA
R2 50 ´ 10 3
V - VBE1 3 - 0 .7 –4
and IC1 » IE1 = B1 = = 5.348 × 10 A
RE 4 . 3 ´ 10 3
\ VCC = RC1 (IC1 + I1) + I1 (R1 + R2) …(2)
Using equation (1) in equation (2),
\ VCC = IC1 RC1 + I1 (R1 + RC1) + I1 R2
\ 10 = 5.348 ´ 10– 4 RC1 + 60 × 10– 6 ´ 45.4545 ´ 103 + 60 ´ 10– 6 ´ 50 ´ 103
\ RC1 = 7.98 kW
3 3
\ R1 = 45.4545 ´ 10 – 7.98 ´ 10 = 37.465 kW
Thus when Q2 is ON,
Vo = VCC – IC2 (on) RC2 = 10 – 1 × 10– 3 ´ 5.5 ´ 103 = 4.5 V
And when Q2 is OFF,
Vo = VCC = 10 V
Thus input and output waveforms are,
Vi
UTP = 5 V
LTP = 3 V
t
Vo
10 V
4.5 V
t
Fig. 4.15
TM

Example 4.17.6
Solution : Obtaining Thevenin's equivalent between base of Q 2 and the ground,
VCC R 2
VTH = = 7.5 V
R C1 + R 1 + R 2
R 2 (R C1 + R 1 )
R TH = = 7.5 k W
R C1 + R 1 + R 2
The equivalent circuit is shown in the Fig. 4.16 (a).
VCC=12 V
IC2 = hFE IB2 RC2

1.5 k W
Rs RTH IB2
+ Q2
+ Q1OFF +
10 k W 7.5 k W
Vg1 – – VBE2
+
UTP V =7.5 V
– TH
Re
IC2+IB2
2 kW
= (1+hFE)IB2
–
N
Fig. 4.16 (a)
Applying KVL to the base circuit of Q 2 .
VTH - VBE2 = [R TH + R e (1 + h FE )] I B2 ... (1)
and VEN2 = (I C2 + I B2 ) R e ... (2)
\ I B2 = 77.09 mA,
VEN2 = 6.32 V
\ UTP = VEN2 + Vg 1 = 6.32 + 0.5 = 6.82 V
For LTP, assume Q 2 just at cut-off and equivalent circuit is as shown in the Fig. 4.16 (b).
The voltage Vt and R are Thevenin's equivalent parameters.

VCC (R 1 + R 2 )
Vt = = 11.25 V
R C1 + R 1 + R 2
R C1 (R 1 + R 2 )
and R = = 1.875 kW
R C1 + R 1 + R 2
TM

Vt VCC
R
IC2 = 0 A
Rs
+ Q1 + Q2 OFF
10 k W +
Vg2
IB1 –
Re1 = 0
LTP
Re aVCN1
(1+hFE)IB1
2 kW
–
–
N
Fig. 4.16 (b)
R2
a = = 0.6667
R1 + R2
Applying KVL to the base circuit of Q 2 ,
- a VCN1 + Vg 2 + (1 + h FE ) I B1 R e = 0
where VCN1 = Vt - I C1 R = Vt - h FE I B1 R
a Vt - Vg 2 VTH - Vg 2
I C1 = =
a R + R¢e a R + R¢e
æ 1 ö
where R¢e = R e ç 1 + ÷ = 2.05 k W
è h FE ø
R¢e + R s / h FE
Then, LTP = VBE1 +
a R + R¢e
(VTH - Vg 2 )
é 3 10 ´ 10 ù
3
ê2.05 ´ 10 + 40 úú
êë û
= 0.6 + (7.5 - 0.6)
[
0.666 ´ 1.875 ´ 10 + 2.05 ´ 10 3
3
]
= 5.41 V
Example 4.17.17
Solution : Refer example 4.17.5 for the procedure and verify the answers as, R E = 1.1
k W, R C2 = 2.833 k W, R 2 = 13.33 k W, R C1 = 5.56 k W, R 1 = 17.296 k W
qqq
TM

50999721ZT4A - Pulse and Digital Circuit - Solution Manual

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1 Linear Wave Shaping

Solutions of Examples for Practice

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

V2¢ = V1¢ = 0.905 V2 due to symmetry ... (2)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

And V1 = V2¢ + a RC (1 - e - T2 / RC ) = V2¢ + 1.903 V ... (4)

Using equation (1) in (3),

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

\ V2¢ = – V1¢ = – 7.55 V

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Hence the output can be shown as in the Fig. 1.3.

ii) Low pass RC circuit :

The response is shown in the Fig. 1.4.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

T1 = 0.1 sec, T2 = 0.3 sec, RC = 0.3 sec, A = 4 V

V1¢ = A1 e - T1 / RC , A2 = V1¢ – A, V2¢ = A2 e - T2 / RC , A1 = V2¢ + A

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

3.33 V Output vo(t) Vo (¥) = 5 V

Case ii) C1 = 150 pF

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Solutions of Examples for Practice

Diode power = I ´ Voltage across diode = 9.3 ´ 10 –3 ´ 0.7 = 6.51 mW

(2 - -1)An up thrust for knowledge

– 0.7 – 0.7 – I 2 (5.6 ´ 10 3 ) + 18 = 0

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Fig. 2.5 (c)

\ Vo = VA = -VR + 0.7 ... Vin ³ VA ... (1)

\ Vo = Vin ... Vin < VA ... (2)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

This is shown in the Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6 Input-output waveforms

The shaded portion is the Vo

per the requirement. Fig. 2.7 Transfer characteristics

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

As Vin becomes positive, the diode D1 10 k W VA

Now under this condition,

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

(a) Transfer characteristics (b) Input and output

D 1 , D 2 are conducting and circuit reduces to

Fig. 2.10 (b)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

This continues till Vin again becomes

(a) Potential divider (b) Equivalent

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Vin Vo=Vin Vin Vo

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Case 2) Replacing VR by its equivalent we get, the

D is reverse biased and output is 10 volts. Fig. 2.17

For Vin ³ 10 V, the diode D is forward biased. Replacing

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

It can be seen that

= 0.5 Vin + 5 … (2)

Fig. 2.20 (c)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

The designed circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.21.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

For Vi greater than – 8 V in negative half

Fig. 2.22 (c)

where A = Amplifier gain, a = Slope of ramp

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

At t = 0, the input suddenly changes from Rs C

shown in the Fig. 2.23 (b).