TENSILE STRENGTH, BREAKING LENGTH, TENSILE INDEX,

STRETCH, TENSILE ENERGY ABSORPTION, AND TENSILE STIFFNESS

Introduction

Tensile strength: The tensile strength of paper is measured by applying a tensile

force parallel to the plane of the paper and great enough to induce failure or rupture. In

the case of paper or other thin webs, tensile strength is then defined as the breaking force

(load) per standard width of the specimen; in the present experiment, for example, the

tensile strength of paper is determined in units of kN/m. This practice differs from that

adopted in other engineering fields and material science where one defines the tensile

strength as breaking force per unit cross-sectional area.

The tensile strength of paper and paperboard, being defined as the breaking force

per standard width, will still depend on basis weight. All else being the same, the tensile

strength will be greater for paper of higher basis weight. Tensile strength is, therefore, not

a material property and tells us nothing about the inherent strength of a particular paper

grade. A simple measure of inherent strength is obtained by dividing tensile strength by

basis weight. In this way we get the tensile strength per unit basis weight. Different

paper grades can be compared on this basis as to their inherent strength.

Breaking length: It turns out that this quantity, the tensile strength per unit basis

weight, has the significance of "breaking length". The notion of breaking length is as

35
follows. Imagine a paper strip so long that its weight equals its tensile strength. Such a

strip, if vertically suspended from one end, would break of its own weight. The length of

this strip is called the breaking length of the paper.

Breaking length is generally used in the paper trade to characterize the inherent

strength of paper. It affords an excellent basis for comparing the strength of papers made

from different furnishes and having different basis weight.

The tensile tester used in this course, the "Alwetron TH-1" of Lorentzen and

Wettre (Sweden), automatically calculates the breaking length and prints it out in units of

km.

Tensile index: The tensile index is also a measure of inherent strength of paper

and is similar to the notion of breaking length. Although it does not have quite the

graphic significance that breaking length has, the tensile index has been increasingly used

in the literature following the conversion to SI units. The tensile index is calculated

according to

The tensile index is neither calculated nor printed out by the tensile instrument. One

easily obtains the tensile index, however, by multiplying the breaking length, given in km,

by 9.81 (Nm/gf)/km.

Stretch: The percentage elongation of a paper at the instant of failure is called

36
stretch. Stretch is measured in this experiment at the same time the tensile strength is

determined. A paper specimen of initial span l 0 will increase in length when a tensile

force acts on it. Suppose that, at the instant the specimen breaks, its length has

increased to l0 + ΔlB. Then the percent elongation at failure, or stretch, will be ( ΔlB /

l0 )  100. Papers differ greatly in the amount of stretch they will undergo when stressed

to failure. Rather rigid papers such as glassine and bond paper have low stretch, typically

2%. Compliant papers such as creped paper have relatively high stretch, often more than

10%.

Tensile energy absorption (TEA): In a tensile test, the tensile force applied to the

specimen is steadily increased. At the same time, the specimen elongates under the

influence of this tensile force. It is clear that work is being done on the specimen. The

work done up to the instant of tensile failure is called the "work to rupture". Let the

tensile specimen have initial span l 0 and width b. One then defines the tensile energy

absorption (TEA) as

Thus, TEA is the work to rupture per unit lateral area of the specimen.

The TEA is automatically computed and printed out by the instrument, in units of

Joule/m2. The printout uses the term "work" instead of TEA.

Tensile stiffness: The instrument also determines the tensile stiffness, D. With

reference to Figure 1, this can be defined as follows. Shown in Figure 1 is a typical curve

37
of tension T

(tensile force divided by specimen width) versus strain ε (relative elongation, Δl/l0).

Notice the initial straight-line part of the curve. The tensile stiffness, D, is the slope, tan

α, of this initial straight-line part. In mathematical language we have D = tan α, or

The tensile stiffness is printed out by the instrument in units of kN/m. Tensile stiffness is

related to Young’s modulus, E, which we encountered above in our discussion of bending

stiffness (see page 5 - 12):

38
where t is the caliper. As t can be defined and measured only in an arbitrary way, paper

technologists prefer to state Young’s modulus in length units, L E:

The ratio D/W can be obtained unequivocally.

Significance

The breaking length is greatly influenced by the kind and quality of the fiber

constituents, by their pulping, bleaching, and refining pretreatment, and by the way the

sheet is formed on the paper machine. Various additives to the furnish can affect

breaking length dramatically.

Weak spots and defects such as slime spots, hair cuts, and calender cuts in the

39
sample may initiate failure, but it is the lack of inherent strength in the structure that

permits the crack to continue.

The tensile test is far superior to the bursting test in every way. The bursting

strength is a complicated function of both tensile strength and stretch, lumping these

different aspects of tensile behavior together in a confusing way. The tensile test, in

addition to giving tensile strength and stretch separately, has the great advantage that it

detects differences in the machine and cross direction of paper. Finally, modern tensile

test equipment such as the Alwetron TH-1 is at least as easy and convenient to use as a

burst tester.

Tensile strength correlates well with the durability and serviceability of many

papers, such as bag, wrapping, gummed tape, and others subjected to direct tensile

stresses in converting or in use. In printing papers, tensile strength indicates the potential

resistance to breaking when the web is subjected to tensile forces during travel from the

roll through the press mechanism in the web-fed printing systems.

High elongation to break together with low bending stiffness is indicative of the

ability of paper to conform to a desired contour and therefore is important for creped

papers, towels, and bagging.

High TEA is particularly important in shippping sack papers. The greater the TEA,

40
the more likely a sack filled with cement or the like will survive intact when dropped from

a certain height.

Young’s modulus, and therefore tensile stiffness, have an effect on bending

stiffness, see equation (1) on page 5 - 12. In bond paper, the desirable “rattle” is largely

due to high tensile stiffness. Tensile stiffness is also important because it is related to the

performance of paper and board in many converting operations.

Outline of the Test Procedures

Given below are two different test procedures, and both have been stored in

computer memory as programs that can readily be called up and used.

The first, program # 55, is used for testing machine-made paper and board and

incorporates all the recommendations of TAPPI standard T-494 (“Tensile breaking

properties of paper and paperboard, using constant rate of elongation apparatus”): The

width of the sample strip must be 1 inch; the span, i.e. the initial length of the specimen

between clamps, must be 180 mm; the clamp speed has been programed for 25

mm/min.

The second, program # 100, is used for testing handsheets. Accordingly, the

recommendations of TAPPI standard T-220 (“Physical testing of pulp handsheets”) have

been included in this program: The width of the sample strip must be 15 mm; the span

must be 100 mm; and the clamp speed is 25 mm/min.

41
 Clearly, these two programs should not be confused with one another.

The general test procedure is quite similar in both programs, consisting of a

preliminary test to be done on one sample strip, and the actual test series to be done on

n sample strips. The purpose of the preliminary test is to obtain a good estimate of the

breaking force of the sample. Based on this result, optimal test parameters can then be

determined for the actual test series.

TAPPI standard T-494 for machine-made paper and board stipulates that in the

actual test series, n=10 strips be tested in either principal direction. In this course,

however, only five strips should be tested in either direction so as to conserve sample.

This means that you should cut six strips in MD (one for the preliminary test and 5 for the

actual test series) and six strips in CD. The strip width should be 1 inch, the length at

least 230 mm.

TAPPI standard T-220 for handsheets requires that 5 n  10. Using six strips for

tensile testing, you have one strip for the preliminary test and five strips for the actual test

series. As noted above, the strip width is 15 mm.

Reject readings from individual strips if the strip slips in the jaws or breaks within

the clamping area.

Turn on the power to the Alwetron TH-1 by pushing the toggle switch on the rear

panel from "0" (off-position) to "1" (on-position). Allow 30 minutes for warm up. Notice

42
that this instrument has a load limit of 1 kN and a basis weight limit of 500 g f/m2. The

clamp pressure of the instrument can be adjusted. Normally, use 0.5 M Pa as indicated

on the outer black scale of the pressure gage located under the printer on the left-hand

side of the instrument’s front panel. As you begin testing, the window display initially

shows "Program rev. 6.5". To proceed, the operator must press the key "YES" on the

keyboard. The entire measurement procedure consists of a dialog between instrument

and operator. The instrument poses questions that are displayed in the window, and the

operator responds by pressing appropriate keys and by inserting specimens at certain

stages of the procedure.

Test Procedure for Machine-Made Paper and Board, Program #55

43
Preliminary test with one sample in either direction:

STEP WINDOW DISPLAY PRESS COMMENT

KEY

1 Program rev. 6.5_ YES

2 PAPER IN PRINTER?_ YES The clamp moves; wait until it stops.

3 CHOOSE PROGRAM_ PF2

4 SPEC No ?_ 55

5 SPEC No ? 55_ YES

6 No OF TEST PIECES?_ 1

7 No OF TEST PIECES? 1_ YES

8 trig F % ?_ 0 Set 0 for preliminary test only.

9 trig F %? 0_ YES

10 delta F %?_ 0 Set 0 for preliminary test only.

11 delta F %? 0_ YES

12 RESOLUTION micro meter?_ 10

13 RESOLUTION micro meter? 10_ YES

14 GAIN 1?_ YES

15 STIFFNESS EVALUATION?_ NO In the preliminary test NO.

16 GRAMMAGE g/m2 ?_ W Enter the grammage W of your sample.

17 GRAMMAGE g/m2 ? W_ YES

18 SAMPLE No ?_ nnn Assign an identifying number to your sample

and enter it here.

19 SAMPLE No ? nnn YES

20 * MACHINE DIRECTION?_ YES

21 TEST PIECE No 1 ?_ YES Insert your sample between the clamps

before you press “YES”. Upon pressing
“YES”, the tensile test starts.

22 F=6.018k I=1.69 W=60.49 t=7.5 OK?_ YES/NO After the sample has broken, the window dis-

44
 plays data such as those shown at the left.
F is papermaker’s tensile strength in kN/m.
I is the stretch in %.
W is the tensile energy absorption in J/m2.
t is the time to rupture in seconds.
On pressing YES (accept) or NO (reject), the
MD data are printed out.

23 * CROSS DIRECTION ?_ YES

24 TEST PIECE No 1 ?_ YES Insert your sample between the clamps

before you press “YES”. Upon pressing
“YES”, the tensile test starts.

25 F=5.703 k I=1.67 W=57.15 t=7.4 OK ?_ YES/NO On pressing YES (accept) or NO (reject), the
CD data are printed out. This completes the
preliminary test.

26 No OF TEST PIECES ?_ The instrument has returned to step 6 and is

ready for the actual test.

This concludes the preliminary test. A comment on steps 22 and 25 is in order.

Notice that the window displays, in addition to certain test data, the question “OK?”. The

meaning of this question is this: Do you, the operator, accept this test as valid or not? If

the sample slipped or broke in the clamp, reject the test as invalid and press the NO key;

otherwise, press YES. The data of a rejected test are printed out but not used in the

calculation of average values for tensile strength, stretch, etc.

Before continuing, you should now calculate the parameter values to be entered in

the course of the actual test.

First, on the printout obtained during the preliminary test, find the breaking force for

both the machine direction and the cross direction. On the printout, the breaking force is

designated Fmax and given in Newtons (N). Choose the greater of the two forces.

45
Determine a gain factor (GF) for the actual test according to the following rule:

Fmax, N Gain Factor

250 to 1000 1

125 to 250 4

0 to 125 8

Next, calculate the parameters P1 and P2 as follows:

P1 = Fmax / 500 (5)

P2 = 0.018  Fmax (6)

You are now ready to continue with the actual test, outlined below.

Actual test with n samples in each direction:

STEP WINDOW DISPLAY PRESS COMMENT

KEY

26 No OF TEST PIECES?_ n Enter the number of samples, n, to be tested

in either direction.

27 No OF TEST PIECES? n_ YES

28 trig F % ?_ P1 Enter the value calculated according to

equation (5).

29 trig F %? P1_ YES

30 delta F %?_ P2 Enter the value calculated according to

equation (6).

31 delta F %? P2_ YES

46
32 RESOLUTION micro meter?_ 10

33 RESOLUTION micro meter? 10_ YES

34 GAIN 1?_ YES/NO When the gain factor determined above

appears in the window, press “YES”.
35 GAIN 4?_ YES/NO Otherwise, press “NO”.

36 GAIN 8?_ YES/NO

37 STIFFNESS EVALUATION?_ YES/NO Decide whether or not you wish to obtain the
tensile stiffness. If you decide against it and
press “NO”, then statements # 38 to 41
will not appear in the display window.

38 dF/dL LOWER END % ?_ 2

39 dF/dL LOWER END % ? 2 _ YES

40 STIFFNESS POINTS ?_ 18 The value 18 is predicated on a resolution of

10 μ. In general, enter 180/(resolution in μ).

41 STIFFNESS POINTS ? 18_ YES

42 GRAMMAGE g/m2 ?_ W Enter the grammage W of your sample.

43 GRAMMAGE g/m2 ? W_ YES

44 SAMPLE No ?_ nnn Assign an identifying number to your sample

and enter it here.

45 SAMPLE No ? nnn YES

46 * MACHINE DIRECTION?_ YES

47 TEST PIECE No 1 ?_ YES Insert your sample between the clamps

before you press “YES”. Upon pressing
“YES”, the tensile test starts.

48 F=6.018k I=1.69 W=60.49 t=7.5 OK?_ YES/NO After the sample has broken, decide whether
you accept (“YES”) or reject (“NO”) the test.
The window displays data such as those
shown at the left, where
F is papermaker’s tensile strength in kN/m;
I is the stretch in %;
W is the tensile energy absorption in J/m2;
t is the time to rupture in seconds.
On pressing YES/NO, these data and others
are immediately printed out.

47
 49 TEST PIECE No 2 ?_ YES Insert your sample between the clamps
before you press “YES”. Upon pressing
“YES”, the tensile test starts.

50 F=5.98k I=1.73 W=63.71 t=7.4 OK?_ YES/NO

Continue until n samples have been tested in the machine direction.

51 * CROSS DIRECTION ?_ YES

52 TEST PIECE No 1 ?_ YES Insert your sample between the clamps

before you press “YES”.

53 F=5.703 k I=1.67 W=57.15 t=7.4 OK ?_ YES/NO

Continue until n samples have been tested in the cross direction.

Upon completion of all tests, the means, coefficients of variation, values of the set of parameters chosen for the test, sample number,
and program number are printed out.

54 No OF TEST PIECES ?_ The instrument has returned to step 6 of the

program. You can run a new sample, first the
preliminary test, then the actual test.

This completes the test procedure for machine-made paper.

If at any stage of testing the instrument functions in unexpected ways, see the last
section on “Contingencies”.

48
Test Procedure for Handsheets, Program #100

Preliminary test with one sample:

STEP WINDOW DISPLAY PRESS COMMENT

KEY

1 Program rev. 6.5_ YES

2 PAPER IN PRINTER?_ YES The clamp moves; wait until it stops.

3 CHOOSE PROGRAM_ PF2

4 SPEC No ?_ 100

5 SPEC No ? 100_ YES

6 No OF TEST PIECES?_ 1

7 No OF TEST PIECES? 1_ YES

8 trig F % ?_ 0 Set 0 for preliminary test only.

9 trig F %? 0_ YES

10 delta F %?_ 0 Set 0 for preliminary test only.

11 delta F %? 0_ YES

12 RESOLUTION micro meter?_ 10

13 RESOLUTION micro meter? 10_ YES

14 GAIN 1?_ YES

15 STIFFNESS EVALUATION?_ NO In the preliminary test NO.

16 GRAMMAGE g/m2 ?_ W Enter the grammage W of your sample.

17 GRAMMAGE g/m2 ? W_ YES

18 SAMPLE No ?_ nnn Assign an identifying number to your sample

and enter it here.

19 SAMPLE No ? nnn YES

20 TEST PIECE No 1 ?_ YES Insert your sample between the clamps

before you press “YES”. Upon pressing
“YES”, the tensile test starts.
 21 F=6.018k I=1.69 W=60.49 t=7.5 OK?_ YES/NO After the sample has broken, the window dis-
plays data such as those shown at the left.
F is papermaker’s tensile strength in kN/m.
I is the stretch in %.
W is the tensile energy absorption in J/m2.
t is the time to rupture in seconds.
On pressing YES (accept) or NO (reject), the
data are printed out.

22 No OF TEST PIECES ?_ The instrument has returned to step 6 and is

ready for the actual test.

This concludes the preliminary test. Before continuing, you should now calculate

the parameter values to be entered in the course of the actual test.

First, on the printout obtained during the preliminary test, find the breaking force,

which is designated Fmax and given in Newtons (N). Determine a gain factor (GF) for

the actual test according to the following rule:

Fmax, N Gain Factor

250 to 1000 1

125 to 250 4

0 to 125 8

Next, calculate the parameters P1 and P2 according to equations (5) and (6), which are

repeated here for convenience:

P1 = Fmax / 500 (5)

 P2 = 0.018  Fmax (6)

You are now ready to continue with the actual test, outlined below.

Actual test with n samples:

STEP WINDOW DISPLAY PRESS COMMENT

KEY

24 No OF TEST PIECES?_ n Enter the number of samples, n, to be tested.

25 No OF TEST PIECES? n_ YES

26 trig F % ?_ P1 Enter the value calculated according to

equation (5).

27 trig F %? P1_ YES

28 delta F %?_ P2 Enter the value calculated according to

equation (6).
29 delta F %? P2_ YES

30 RESOLUTION micro meter?_ 10

31 RESOLUTION micro meter? 10_ YES

32 GAIN 1?_ YES/NO When the gain factor determined above

appears in the window, press “YES”.
33 GAIN 4?_ YES/NO Otherwise, press “NO”.

34 GAIN 8?_ YES/NO

35 STIFFNESS EVALUATION?_ YES/NO Decide whether or not you wish to obtain the
tensile stiffness. If you decide against it and
press “NO”, then statements # 36 to 39
will not appear in the display window.

36 dF/dL LOWER END % ?_ 2

37 dF/dL LOWER END % ? 2 _ YES

38 STIFFNESS POINTS ?_ 10 The value 10 is predicated on a resolution of

10 μ. In general, enter 100/(resolution in μ).

39 STIFFNESS POINTS ? 10_ YES

40 GRAMMAGE g/m2 ?_ W Enter the grammage W of your sample.

41 GRAMMAGE g/m2 ? W_ YES

42 SAMPLE No ?_ nnn Assign an identifying number to your sample

and enter it here.

43 SAMPLE No ? nnn YES

44 TEST PIECE No 1 ?_ YES Insert your sample between the clamps

before you press “YES”. Upon pressing
“YES”, the tensile test starts.

45 F=6.018k I=1.69 W=60.49 t=7.5 OK?_ YES/NO After the sample has broken, decide whether
you accept (“YES”) or reject (“NO”) the test.
The window displays data such as those
shown at the left, where
F is papermaker’s tensile strength in kN/m;
I is the stretch in %;
W is the tensile energy absorption in J/m2;
t is the time to rupture in seconds.
On pressing YES/NO, these data and others
are immediately printed out.

46 TEST PIECE No 2 ?_ YES Insert your sample between the clamps

 before you press “YES”. Upon pressing
“YES”, the tensile test starts.

47 F=5.98k I=1.73 W=63.71 t=7.4 OK?_ YES/NO

Continue until n samples have been tested.

Upon completion of all tests, the means, coefficients of variation, values of the set of parameters chosen for the test, sample number,
and program number are printed out.

48 No OF TEST PIECES ?_ The instrument has returned to step 6 of the

program. You can run a new sample, first the
preliminary test, then the actual test.

This completes the test procedure for handsheets.

If at any stage of testing the instrument functions in unexpected ways, see the

section on “Contingencies” below.

Contingencies

Window displays “OVERLOAD! RETURN?”

If you have chosen a gain factor of 1, this message means that your sample

exceeds the load cell capacity of 1000 N. Such a sample cannot be tested on this

instrument.

If you have chosen a gain factor of 4 or 8, the message means that your gain

factor is too high and should be reduced: from 4 to 1, or from 8 to 4. In this case it is

best to discontinue the present test series and start over. To do so, proceed as follows:

Window display Press key Comment

OVERLOAD! RETURN? YES Data are printed out. Ignore

these.

TEST PIECE No x? CTRL + 9 Press both keys simultaneously.

TEST PIECE No x? EXIT? YES

SAVE AS SPEC No? NO

PRINT SPECIFICATION? NO

CHOOSE PROGRAM

As the last window display indicates, the instrument has returned to step 3 of either
program # 55 or program # 100. You need not repeat the preliminary test. Instead,

start over with the actual test, keeping the previous parameter estimates but using a lower

gain factor.

You run out of sample before completing all n tests

Suppose you had entered n=5 at the beginning of the actual test; therefore, the

instrument expects 5 accepted tests. Further suppose that in the course of testing, the

third sample broke in the clamp, so you rejected that test. If you don’t have enough

paper or board left to cut another sample, you will have to exit after only four accepted

tests. Here is how to accomplish this and obtain the average values on only four tests.

The display window asks for TEST PIECE No 6, and you respond as follows:

Window display Press key

TEST PIECE No 6?_ NO

No OF TEST PIECES?_

After you press NO, you immediately get all means and coefficients of variation printed

out. With the display “No OF TEST PIECES?”, the instrument has returned to the

beginning of the actual test and is ready for a new test series.

Error message: “WARNING: SOME POINTS NOT RECORDED”

The condition indicated by this error message can occur if either your sample has
unusually high stretch or you have entered too small a “resolution”. The resolution of 10

suggested in the above programs should be adequate in most cases. If the error

message does occur, then the remedy is to choose a greater resolution, perhaps 20.

Error message: “INTERNAL COMMUNICATION ERROR Z8 - 80"

If this error message occurs, simply press the small red reset button on the back

panel. The instrument returns to the very beginning of the program, and you can start

over.

Report

Report the average value of tensile strength in kN/m (kilonewtons per meter) and

in kgf/15 mm for both principal directions. Similarly, report the breaking length in km, the

tensile index, the stretch in %, the tensile energy absorption in J/m 2 and lb/in, the tensile

stiffness in kN/m, and L E in km. Also, give a 95% confidence interval for each mean.

The 95% confidence interval for the breaking length, L B, and the other quantities that are

indirectly determined should be obtained by the method of error propagation.

References

TAPPI T 220

TAPPI T 494