- Explained that the universe was composed

Earth
of very small, indivisible, and
indestructible atoms. All of reality
and all the objects in the universe are
composed of different arrangements of these

Science
eternal atoms and an infinite void in which
the atoms form different combinations and
LESSON 1.1: THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN shapes. The Stoic philosophers also believed
OF THE UNIVERSE
_EXPLORING LIFE THROUGH SCIENCE_ that the universe is like a giant living
body, with the sun and the stars as the most
OLD THEORIES important
parts to which everything else was
1. DIVINE CREATION interconnected. What happens in one
- The narrative from Genesis place affects the events that occur
- Described how God separated light elsewhere.
from darkness, created the sky, land,
sea, moon stars, and every living 5. ARISTOTLE AND PTOLEMY
creature in a span of six days. - Geocentric universe
- Explains that the Earth stayed
2. RIGVEDA motionless in the heavens and everything is
- Hindu text revolving around it.
- Describes the universe as an oscillating
universe in which a "cosmic egg" or 6. COPPERNICUS
Brahmanda, containing the whole universe - Theory of heliocentrism
- including the sun, moon, planets, - Demonstrated that the motions of
and space, expands out of a single celestial objects can be explained without
concentrated putting Earth in the center of the universe
point called Bindu, and will eventually
collapse again. 7. GIORDANO BRUNO
- Suggested that even the Solar System is
3. ANAXAGORAS not in the center of the universe - it is
- Primordial universe just another star system among an infinite
- Explained that the original state of multitude of others
the cosmos was a primordial mixture
of all its ingredients which existed in 8. ISAAC NEWTON
infinitesimally small fragments of - 1678
themselves. - Described the universe as a static,
This mixture was not entirely uniform; steady- state, infinite universe. In his
some ingredients were present in higher description of the universe, matter on the
concentrations than others, and the large scale is uniformly distributed, and
distribution of these ingredients vary the universe is gravitationally balanced
from place to place. At some point in time, this but essentially unstable
mixture was set in motion by the action
of the "nous" or mind. A whirling motion 9. RENE DESCARTES
was produced which sifted and separated the - Cartesian vortex model of the universe
ingredients, ultimately producing the - States that the vacuum of space was not
cosmos of separate material objects with empty at all but was filled with matter
different properties that can be seen today. that swirled around in large and small
vortices. His model involved a system of huge
4. LEUCIPPUS AND DEMOCRITUS swirling whirlpools of fine matter,
- Atomic universe
producing what would later be called
gravitational effect.

10. ALBERT EINSTEIN

- Has no difference from Newton's in that
it was a static, dynamically-stable
universe, which was neither expanding nor
contracting. He added a cosmological
constant to his general theory of
relativity equations to counteract the dynamic
effects of gravity, which would have caused
the universe to collapse. He would later
abandon this part of the theory when, in
1929, American astronomer Edwin Hubble showed
that the universe was not static.

MODERN THEORIES

1. BIG BANG THEORY

- The current accepted model on the
formation of the universe
- The big bang theory describes the
universe as expanding, and originated in an
infinitely tiny, infinitely dense point around
14 billion years ago (gigayears ago or Gya).
According to the theory, matter was not
present at the beginning of time; there
was only pure energy compressed in a
single point called singularity.
- Edouard Lemaitre a Belgian Roman
catholic priest in 1927

Big Bang Theory Evidences

1. Galactic Red Shift

- Edwin Hubble
- Result of the expansion of space
- 1929
2. Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation
- Arno Penzias, Robert Wilson
- 1965
- Higher temperature, Higher
radiation
3. Presence/Abundance of Helium and
Hydrogen

2. OSCILLATING UNIVERSE
 - Albert Einstein - About 5 Gya, a rogue star passed close
- A perpetual cycle to the sun and stripped materials (hot gases)
from both the sun and the rogue star. The hot
gases continued to spin in the same direction as
the sun and coalesced into smaller lumps which
BIG
BIG formed the planets
CRUNC
BANG
H
What does it explains about the solar system?
It was able to explain why all the planets
revolve in the same direction and why the density
3. STEADY STATE THEORY of the inner planets are denser than the outer
- Proposed by astronomers Fred Hoyle, ones.
Thomas Gold, and Hermann Bondi
- Predicted a universe that expanded but What is the problem?
did not change its density - matter was Hot gases don't contract
inserted into the universe as it expanded It is very rare for it to happen
in order to maintain a constant density

4. INFLATIONARY UNIVERSE
- Allan Guth an American physicist
- Based on the big bang theory. He
incorporated a short early period of
exponential cosmic inflation in order to
solve the uncertainties of the standard big bang
model, such as horizon and flatness
problem

5. MULTIVERSE
- Andrei Linde
- Sees the universe as just one of many
"bubbles" that grew as a part of
multiverse
LESSON 1.2: THE ORIGIN OF THE OF
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
The age of the Solar System and that of
- States that the entire Solar System
the planet Earth is approximately 4.54 billion
starts as a large cloud of gas that contracted
years old. This is based on the age of meteorites
due to self-gravity. Conservation of angular
which are believed to have been formed the same
momentum requires that a rotating disk form with
time as the rest of the Solar System.
a large concentration at the center, which starts
as the protosun, while planets began forming
ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS within the disk.
What is the problem?
Why 99% of the Solar System's mass is in
the sun but 99% of its angular momentum
is in the planet
How were the planets were formed
PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS
- It is built on the main concepts of the
nebular hypothesis, with added concepts based on
new knowledge on fluids and states of matter.
- According to this hypothesis, the Solar
System began with a fragment from an interstellar
cloud composed of mainly hydrogen, helium, and
trace amounts of light elements. The fragments of
the interstellar cloud then formed the dense
central region of the solar nebula, which
collapsed more rapidly than its outlying parts.
As the solar nebula contracted, it rotated more
rapidly, conserving its angular momentum. It also
grew by accretion as material continued to fall
inward from its surroundings. The solar nebula
eventually evolved into sun.
Gravitational instabilities ruptured the
thin disk into eddies, each containing many small
particles which built up and accreted. As the
accretion continued, larger asteroid-sized
aggregates called planetisimals are formed, which
orbited the center of the solar nebula. The
planetisimals further grew in size due to the
gravitational attraction they exert on to one
another, forming moon-sized bodies that would
later become planets.
The planetisimals differ in chemical
composition, depending primarily on their initial
distance from the sun as they are formed. As a
consequence, the terrestrial planets formed near
the central portion of the solar nebula, where
the temperatures are high enough to vaporize all
compounds in the dust except the high-temperature
metallic and silicate minerals in the inner
portion of the disk. The gas giants, on the other
hand, formed in the outer disk which remained
relatively cooler, allowing them to be rich in
volatile, icy, and gaseous materials.
Difference between Terrestrial Planets and Jovian
Planets
1. While the terrestrial planets are made of solid
surfaces, the Jovian planets are made of gaseous
surfaces.
2. When comparing the size, the Jovian planets
are much larger than the terrestrial planets.
3. While the atmosphere of terrestrial planets is
composed mainly of carbon dioxide and nitrogen,
hydrogen and helium are found in abundance in the
atmosphere of Jovian planets.
4. The core of the Jovian planets is more dense
than the terrestrial planets.
5. The Jovian planets are far away from the sun.
6. The terrestrial planets spin less, and are
therefore less flattened at the poles.
7. The Jovian planets have more moons when
compared to terrestrial ones.
LESSON 1.3: LIFE ON EARTH
HOW COME EARTH IS THE ONLY PLANET THAT CAN
SUSTAIN LIFE?
1. TEMPERATURE
- Movement of atoms or molecules
2. WATER
- Delivers nutrients in plants
- Scientists believe that water on Earth
came from two possible sources: water released
through volcanism and water that came from the
icy meteors of the outer region of the Solar
System that bombarded Earth
3. HEAT
- Two sources: internal heating of Earth
(core and mantle) and external heating from the
sun
4. NUTRIENTS
- Maintain or build living organisms
5. ATMOSPHERE
- Capable of providing heat like in a
greenhouse, the atmosphere is therefore a vital
part of photosynthesis
LESSON 1.3: EARTH'S SUBSYSTEMS
EARTH AS A CLOSED SYSTEM
- The amount of matter within a closed
system is fixed. The resources used can never be
regenerated, and the waste produced cannot really
be disposed. Once used up, the mineral resources
are transformed into something else, maintaining
the amount of matter within this closed system
EARTH'S SUBSYSTEMS
1. GEOSPHERE
- Solid earth
- Composed of naturally-occurring solid
aggregate of minerals, organic material, or
natural glass called rocks, and loose particles
of rocks that blanket the surface of Earth called
regolith.
- Includes geologic landforms such as
mountains and hills
2. HYDROSPHERE
- Totality of Earth's water
- Cryosphere (permanently frozen parts)
- Ice/Cryosphere (solid phase), Water
(liquid phase), water vapor (gas phase)
3. ATMOSPHERE
- The mixture of gases that surround the
planet
- The air in the atmosphere is generally
composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon,
and the remaining 0.10% is made up of different
trace gases.
4. BIOSPHERE
- All life forms and even organic matter
that has not yet decomposed
- It also in this zone that the interaction
between the different subsystems is most dynamic
The four subsystems are closely linked through
the biogeochemical cycles which, as the term
implies, involves biological, geochemical, and
chemical factors.
LESSON 2.1: MINERALS
A mineral is defined as a naturally-
occurring, inorganic solid with a definite
chemical composition and an ordered internal
structure.
COMPOSITION OF MINERALS
1. SILICATES
- Major rock-forming
- Si2 (Silicon) + O2 (Oxygen)
 - Ex.: Quartz and Olivine
2. OXIDES
- O2 (Oxygen) + Metal
- Ex.: Magnetite and Hematite
3. SULFIDES
- S-2 (Sulfur) + Metal
- Ex.: Galena and Pyrite
4. SULFATES
- SO4-2 (Sulfate) + Metal
- Ex.: Gypsum and Barite
- Specific gravity
- Ratio of the mass to its volume
- The weight of a mineral relative to the
weight of an equal volume of water
- Average density of minerals - 2.7
- Density of white gold - 19
5. HARDNESS
- Resistance to scratch according to Mohs
- Mohs Scale of Hardness

5. HALIDES
- Halogens + other elements
- Halogens (F, Cl, Br, At)
- Easily dissolved in water
- Ex.: Halides and Sylvite

6. CARBONATES
- Carbon + Oxygen + Metal
- Easily dissolved in mild acids
- Ex.: Calcite

7. NATIVE METALS
- Metal
- Ex,: Gold, Silver, and Copper

6. CLEAVAGE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
- The tendency of a mineral to break
along planes of weakness
1. COLOR
- A good cleavage will result in small,
- Not reliable
smooth, step-like flat surfaces
- It can be altered by chemical impurities
- Can be classified based on:
1. How it is OBTAINED
2. STREAK
- Perfect cleavage (hardest, ex.:
- Powder form
diamond)
- Streak plate (used to powdered minerals,
2. DIRECTION
can only be used for minerals who has
hardness less than 7)
- More consistent than color

3. LUSTER
- Describes the appearance of light
reflected from a mineral surface
- Can be describe as metallic (like that
of a polished metal), or nonmetallic (which
can be vitreous, resinous, pearlescent, silky,
greasy, earthy, and dull

4. DENSITY
 9. HABIT
7. FRACTURE - Outward appearance
- Uneven, rough, irregular
10. MAGNETISM
8. CRYSTAL FORMATION - Ex.: magnetite
- No crystal structure are called
amorphous 11. TASTE
- Internal structures - Ex.: Halite

12. Effervescence or reaction to acid

- Calcite and other carbonates will react
with weak acid

13. Feel
- Ex.: Talc is greasy

LESSON 2.2: ROCKS AND THE ROCK

CYCLE

Rocks are naturally-occurring, coherent

aggregate of minerals such as natural glass or
organic matter. Rocks are found in the
lithosphere (derived from the Greek word 'lithos'
which means 'stone'). The lithosphere is the
rigid, rocky, outermost part of Earth, composed
of the crust and uppermost part of the mantle.
THE ROCK CYCLE
- A model that describes all the processes
by which rocks are formed, modified, transported,
decomposed, melted, and reformed. These processes
occur both on Earth's surface and underneath.
Essentially it is a dynamic cycle of processes
and products.
Rocks can be classified based on their
differences in texture and composition.. Texture
refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of
mineral grains and other constituents in a rock.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Formation

1. Intrusive or Plutonic Rocks

- Magma cooling under the surface
- Slowly cooling
- Large mineral crystals
- Ex.: Granite and Diorite

2. Extrusive or Volcanic Rocks

- Lava cooling on the surface
- Rapid cooling
- Small or tiny crystals
- Ex.: Basalt and Andesite

3. Pyroclastic
- On the surface
- Hybrid of igneous and sedimentary
- Ex.: Tuff and Volcanic Breccia

IGNEOUS ROCKS - rocks that form from the cooling Crystal Texture
and solidification of molten materials (magma or
lava), Igneous rocks form at much higher 1. Intrusive
temperatures. a. PHANERIC
- Phaneros which means 'visible'
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - are the products of the - 1 - 10 mm (size of crystals)
lithification of particles produced by the - Slowly cooling
weathering of other preexisting rocks. - Ex.: Granite

Sediments - minerals that precipitate from b. PEGMATITIC

solution. The term was derived from Latin - Visible
sedentarius, which means 'sitting' as these - Greater than 2 cm (size of
sediments will eventually be deposited and remain crystals)
until they are transformed into sedimentary - Ex.: Granite and Pegmatite
rocks.
2. Extrusive
METAMORPHIC ROCKS - are formed when preexisting a. Aphanitic
or parent rocks are altered by heat, pressure, - Aphaneros which mean 'not
and the chemical activity of fluids. These visible'
processes are collectively called metamorphism - Less than 1mm (size of crystals)
meaning 'change in form' - Ex.: Rhyolite

b. Glassy
LESSON 2.3: CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS - Rapid cooling
 - No crystals are formed
(Amorphous) 1. Clastic
- Ex.: Obsidian - from sediments

c. Vesicular 2. Bioclastic
- Gas escapes - organic materials
- Holes called 'vesicles'
- Ex.: Pumice 3. Crystalline
- precipitation of minerals
3. Pyroclastic - chemical sedimentary rock
a. Porphyritic (SPECIAL CASE) - Ex.: Halite
- slow cooling which forms large
crystals (Greater than 2mm) Texture
- fast cooling which forms small
crystals (Less than 1 mm) 1. Clastic
- Ex,: Andesite Porphyry a. Conglomerate
- round
b. Pyroclastic Texture - greater than 2 mm
- Lithification - gravel size
- Big, small
b. Breccia
Bowen's Reaction Series - angular
- greater than 2 mm
- sharp edges

c. Sandstone
- 1/16 mm - 2 mm
- sandsize

d. Shale
- less than 1/16 mm
- very fine

2. Bioclastic
a. Peat
- plant fibers/fragments

b. Bituminous Coal
- dense compact

c. Coquina
- Calcite
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - Cytoskeleton

d. Fossiliferous
- Layering of sediments
- Limestone
- Lithification (weathering)
- Fossils
- Sediments from pre-existing rocks
- Organic materials
e. Fossiliferous dolostone
- Minerals

Formation
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
2. Crystalline
- pre-existing / parent rock altered by - heat
"metamorphism" - one mineral only
- heat & pressure
- activity
LESSON 2.4: MINERALS AND ORES
Types (Alter)
Ores are naturally-occuring materials that
1. Regional can be profitably mined. It can be a mineral or
- tectonic/plates rock or metallic or nonmetallic, depending on the
- high heat economic requirement.
- high pressure
A deposit is considered a potential ore
2. Contact body if its localized abundance is greater than
- heat its average abundance or distribution on Earth's
- adjacent to a magma body crust.

3. Dynamic A rock or mineral is considered an ore

- faults based on:
- high pressure
1. overall chemical composition
4. Shock 2. percentage of extractable resource with
- meteorite impact respect to its total volume
- high pressure 3. market value of the resource
- high heat (? maybe)
Profitability determines an ore's value.
Texture The total cost of extraction depends on the
location of the deposit, its concentration, its
1. Foliated depth from the surface, its scope and the
- pressure technologies that must be used to extract and
- platy process minerals
> elongated material parallel to
the axis pressure LOCATING ORES

a. Slaty Ore bodies are unevenly distributed

- minerals and foliation are not throughout Earth's crust
visible Potential ore bodies are located by
recognizing that a geologic process or
b. Phylitic combination of processes can produce a localized
- minerals barely visible enrichment of one or more minerals, and that these
- foliation not defined processes only happen in particular types of
environments.
c. Schistose
- minerals are visible ORE GENESIS
- foliation are defined
1. Hydrothermal fluid circulation
d. Gneissic - most common type of ore mineral
- minerals are visible and deposition process
elongated
- foliation are coarsely branded
 - groundwater/seawater -> heated (by
magma or when hot aqueous solutions are
expelled from a cooling plutonic body
- produces veins that host metals like
gold, silver, and copper
2. Metamorphic processes
- alteration and recrystallization of
minerals
- formation and localization of
economically- important materials like graphite,
marble and asbestos.
3. Magmatic processes
- create ore minerals which are
concentrated due to their premature
recrystallization and separation from
magma
- Chromite
4. Kimberlite
- special type of magma
- originates deep within the mantle and is
the source of diamonds, which only
crystallize at depths greater than 150 km
5. Chemical sedimentary processes
- form evaporate deposits from the
precipitation of saltwater minerals
(halite, gypsum, limestone) and evaporation
of lake water (anhydrite)
6. Placer deposits
- Action of currents – flow of water >
takes sediments.
- Selective sifting – Wave Action/Strength
is constant; Removes sediments, Leave behind
heavy minerals
7. Chemical weathering
- Chemical changes in mineral components
that result in alteration and formation of
other minerals
MINING ORES
Mining refers to a set of processes
through which useful resources are withdrawn from
a stock of any non-renewable resources.
Mining also refers to the extraction of
mineral sources
Mining refers to the extraction of
valuable minerals or other geological materials
from the Earth
CONTREVERSIAL
1. Surface - Open-pit, Strip mining
2. Underground - Shaft, Slope
MINING STEPS
1. Prospecting or Exploration
 Looking for deposit.
2. Drilling
 Extracting a part of ore (result,
quality, grade)
3. Modeling
 Determining ore distribution to
apply appropriate mining methods.
4. Identifying and assessing the potential
impacts.
 Considering social & environmental
aspect.
 Mitigate consequences
 Bringing as close as original
state.
5. Designing and constructing mines
 Creating appropriate mine &
operational design.
 Acquire permit (gov. & local)
 Construction
6. Ore extraction
 Separation of high grade (amount
of ore mineral) ores
7. Milling
 Crushing & concentration of ores
 Released Waste Materials - tailing
8. Mine Site decommissioning
 Closure of the depleted mine
 Site is cleaned up
 Reclaimed or Rehabilitate
The nature of a mineral or metal
determines the type of mining operation needed
and the amount of waste produced in the
extraction, separation, and concentration of the
ore. Upon careful planning and inspection, one of
three possible extraction methods may be used.
1. Sand and Gravel extraction
- Very little waste rock is left
after the milling process
 - Not economically viable.

2. Extraction from buried ore bodies

- Huge quantities of rock are
removed & discarded to recover
small amount of ore.
- Copper grade 2% = 20kg Cu +
980kg waste rock

3. Ore Processing
- Crushing, separating, & purifying

PHILIPPINES

▫ 5th most mineralized country in the world

▫ 3rd – Gold, 4th – Copper, 5th – Nickel
▫ 9M Hec. = metallic deposit
▫ 5M Hec. = nonmetallic deposit
▫ Offshore 2.2M sq.km. placer minerals
▫ 14.5B metric tons of metallic
▫ 68B metric tons of nonmetallic

IMPORTANT METALLIC MINERALS

▫ Gold, Copper, Iron, Chromite, Nickel,

Cobalt, Platinum, sand, gravel, limestone,
marble, clay, others.
▫ Copper & Gold = Baguio, Benguet, Surigao
▫ Nickel – Palawan, Surigao.

NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

- Environment Friendly alternatives for

need of mineral resources

- Conservation, Protection,
Rehabilitation

- Natural Resource Management