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23 Dry-Air Modde
R&activity of dry air is cxpre~~Aby
wherethe nondispersiveterm is
of 60-GHzabSorptionby
? Abestfittothesdata
cHabli8hednew coefficients4 and k for the microwave
linm. Still, the valuesliistedfor a, and %,6 in Table 1 arc
different from Ref+ 5. Indirect evidence from the data
~ugg&.~that all microwavewidthsx arc multipliedby 1,05,
Dry C
10
kf = 0.0145 8 4p5 (1.0% rms). WhereQ,i = 1 and 0,916 @./cm3 ) are specificweights,and
G,i complexpermittiviticsof WOW and ice, respe~tivcly.~
Similar data closer to the 18%GHzline canterl7 yielded For the sizespectra(r 5 50 pm) of suqn~~Wwaterdroplets,
initially a fitting error of 14.6% rms, which improved m Fq. (8) is valid up to about300GIIz. Fog or cloudconditions
4.5% rms when the theoreticalI2 strengthvalue b, w are specifiedby a watermassdensityw. Waterdroplets form
increasedby 5 percent.A theoreticalapproximationof the whenthe relativehumidity exceeds saturation, u = la - 101
real part? percent, wherebyl can be 85 low as - WC (sumIed
Ni = eB2’50.791x106$ ppm, state).Propagationeffects caused by ice crystals(needlesand
plates)are primarily depckizing and scatteringin nature,
was also considtxd in the fitting exercise.
wt- F’ 1 ’ r - I
Itr) 1
I
..t , -8 ‘_---. --- .--- i., .- .._.__
_...-.. -.--
i
I
TemwzratureT. K
Figure 2, Abwrption data IN’ versus t@rnperature T in k&in: LB/ m&t eir at 137.8 GHz @ = 1013 mb, u = 80%) le ) SWAMI
(& mixture of water vepor and nitragen IlS6.3 end 190,3 GWz,p = 1000 mb, u = 10%) ‘If, - MPMg3,
1CKKKI
E
x 1000
Tci?
TY
100
10
01+
0.01
Frequency Y, GHr
Figure 4. Attenuation rate a and continuum of moist air {U = 43.4%) and of dry sir (u = 0) BS predicted by MPM93 for
standard sea-level conditions (p = 1013 mb, f = 2CPC). Data points are from Ref, 19.
TABLE 1.
u
01c establisbcdapplications(S 30 GHz) can be translatedto
(fnqumcy skiing) or combined with new schemesand
uxmomical assssmentsof feasibletrade-offsand adaptive
0.01 measurescanbemade.
0 500 loo0
~~=ww, a-i2 3.1 T’rmmbion and EmIssIon Formulations
Figure6. Attenuation a af m&t air (U = 100%) for E’mpagation through the non~tteting and nonturbuknt
frequencies below 1000 GHr at mea-levd inhomogeneous atmosphereis described by the line inkgral
@ = 1013 rnM and temperaturesk 4WC: 1 Nds, whereds is a pathdif’krenti andthe M?actkity N
- MPM93, ma+Continuum.
l was discussedin Sect, 2. Height profiles of N are the basis
Complexpcrmittivity of purewateris txpm by 1 double- fix calcuIatiagdelayand kiss along the path. Excess delay,
Bebye rncxkJz D = 3,3356 j (N, 4 N’)ds ps,
Ew= %I- p cc%- Clw + i Tl) + (q * 9 w + i ~~1,(9)
which provideda bestfit to measuredeWdata.The static and A = 0,182Ov j W ds ds,
high-frequencypermittivitkx arc (11)
co = 77.66 + lo3.3 (8 - 1), to the imaginwy part.% The transmissionfactor,
r = 1fpl A, (12)
evaluates the energy transfer. A path is said to be opaque
whenlessthan 0.1% of the original energyis passed
71 = 20.20 - 146(@- 1) + 316 (8 - 1)2 , (T S 0.001, A 2 30 dB). The abwtiing atmosphere
maintains, up to approximately 90 km height, tkrmal
72 = 39.8 y1 cm.
equilibrium and emits nok radiation at the equivalent
The slight temperaturedqer&wc of e2 (repottedin Ref. 22) blackb&y temperature,
ww eliminatedto avoid nonphysic&behaviorfor wiled
(-20 to -40°C) water at fnquenciea&ove 100 GHz, T3 = 4.191~10-’ Y j T(s) N”(s) I&s) ds K. (13
Ikaasing transmissionkads to increasingemission, The
A permittivity modelfor ice was reportedby Hufford,23 weightiflgfunction,
W(s) = 4.191 x lct2 Y rV(s) F(s,,s), (14)
where determines the height range from where the emission
ai = (8 - 0.171)exp(l7.0 - 22.18) originates.Two casescan be madebasedon the integration
and limits for A. III the first one, A is evaluatA ‘upwards”,
bi = ([0.233/(1 - O.PP3/#)]’ + 6.33/d * 1.31) lQw5* startingat the initial height, h, ; secondly,the start is at the
final height, h, , and move ‘downwanh?. Reciprocity
The MPM for fog/cloudcasesis N = ND + Nv + NW. WW~ pathattenuationAi ad brightnessTB i WM assumed
Relatedattenuation(a) anddelay(7) raw up to 12UGHz arc fa potization-msitive computations b& &I the matrix N.
plottedin Fig. 6 for 8 ncsmalized massdensity,w = 1 g/m3
(heavyfog, about50 m visibility) suspendedin saturated,sea- 3,2 Atmcspherk RadbPbtth Model
level air (& 30°C). Below freezing, liquid propertieswere The MPM code(seeSect,2) is q@ied in 8 tiio-path model
changed to thoseof ice, Above freezingone noticesthat the which simulates pnqagation through M inhomogeneous
combinedattenuationis almostindependentof ~~~EIWUIE. medium.Theatmosphere is spherk-ally stratified in concentric
layers betwm h = 0 and 130 km separated by I-km
3, RADIO-PATH CE!CARAC~~~ increments(Ah). Valuesfor N(h) arc enumer&d by height
The electromagnetic spectrum between 100 and loo0 GHz is profiles of p(h), a)* and @I). T’he U.S. Standard
avail&lc to expandradio scrvices~This bandoffers fkvorable Atmosphm and the mid-latitudemean water-vapor profile ;”
altcmatives to both micfuwave and ir/optical systems. art the defaultsof the path model. All computedexamples
Applicationsin communication,r&r, rurdremotesensingcan given below are for the default case. It is not difficuIt to
profit from kger bandwidth,smallerantennasizesfor a implement different modelatmosphere or radiosonde data.
Fmqumcy Y, GHt Frequency Y, GHz
Figure 8. Attenuation rate a(u) and delay rate T(P) up to 120 GHz at temperatures + 3CPC:
(8j Moist air at 3ea-level, u = 100 %, (I) water droplets or ice crystals, w = 1 g/m’ , added ta (8).
TA8LE 3.
The pathdifferentialds of 8 slantpath is computedby means Total Attenuation A and Emission Ts ot 21 and 45 GHz
of the rules of qhxid geometry. For elevation angles,
Through a Model Atmosphere.24
p 2 lOa, the secant law ds = Ahhin v follows. In fact,
both the curvatureof the Earth and refractiondeterminethe Surfiw value3at lq 1013mb, WC, q = 3.57 g/m3
path extensionof Ah. At very low elevationangles(p --cO), ( j q&m = 10.6 mm for zenith, 9 = 90”)
the height intad Ah is subdividedinto I~X~.l-km and 1
further, if weded, into 1OXO.Wkm groupsto approximate V A : Ts cp hem L.
mart nearly a continuumof N V&EL When a maximum dB : K
GHZ deg km km
change of A, - A,, 2 0.1 dB is detectedwoss an 1
integration lqcr, the linear in&erplation initiates 21.0 0.28 ! 19.2 90 11 11
&Uto~dlY.
I
0.56 t 34+9 3u 13 26
I
The numerkal integrationof A (Eq* 11) stopsat heights h, 0.32 j 48s 20 15 44
when increments AA become smaller than 0.01 dB (fw a limb 1.60 ! 35.1 10 17 94
pth &er advancingpast the tangentialheight). The path I
lengthL is that betweenh, and b, ti A numericalintegration 15.7 ! 274.4 0 26 577
1 ‘..” ”
of T, @q, 13)for emissionradiatingto theheightb, follows 45.0 0.66 1 39.2 90 17 17
TB - W303 ch r(h)& - Ah-,)rm)l + 2.7 r(=), (15) 1.32 i 71.1 30 19 38
where 2,7 r(m) is the cosmicbackgroundterm. Superfluow 1.93 ! 96.4 20 22 64
I
cmmputatims are stopped when W(h) 5 lad . The radio-path 3.74 i 154.9 10 21 115
model operatesat any frequencybetween 1 and loo0 GHz,
and Table 3 summarks rcsult~for 21 and 45 GHz, Listed 32.0 : 2856 0 31 650
3-8
are the path attenuationof a ground-to-spacelink and the Attenuationsperm arc plottedin Fig. 7 over the range,
noiseemissionrecekd at groundlevel (e,g*, for p = 0 and ye & 2 MHz. F’athattcnutim 4 dcptnds on the initial
21 GHz the absorbingair massis 56 timesthe zenithvidue)~ pcdarizatiun (i - HL, VL, RC, LC), The tin featuresof
the Zeernaneffect are exposedwhencorn@ with the case
3.3 Mewspheric Radkd’uh Model B= a
The intensity of O2 microwave lines under mewspheric
conditions (2 40 km) is location-, ditectiorr-, and 354 MillimWWave Limb So~ndiq
polarization-sensitive,Anisotropictransmition andemission The microwavelimb munder MLS on the LIARS satellitc~
effectsarerecognizd, Undertheseconditionstheatmoqheric andthe millimeter-waveatmosphericsounderMAS 27 on the
path model programsubstitutesfor N the rcfnctivity matrix spaceshuttle(ATLAS Missions I, II, m.) Bath are very
l
N (vl, & 10 MHz, . 4), and becomesZPM (Zeern~ refined atmosphericspectrometers.They measureglobally
Propagation, Model).8~9 This routine requires numerou3 thefmalemission spectraof atmosphericmole&s at a&it-u&
additionalpathparamckn to petiorm a numericalinkgmtiom as high as 150km. The resulti cab be intqr&ed in prufUes
of the path atknuatIonAi : of molecular&~ndances,temperature,pressure,ad mqn&ic
l A ray is traced in geodetic coordinatesmarking field. Line emissionis meawed againsta 3 K backgrowd
altitudeh abovesealevel, LA titudemd LO ngitude over path lengthswhich are up to thm of magnitude
[heightsin N-S directionsarhijusted to &unt for longer than available for laboratory spect~~~y~ A
the fiat&kg (1/298.25)of the Earth] previouslyunhewn dewtim sensitivitybringsanswersto old
a The waw directionis specifiedby AZ-imuth and problemsand raisesmanynew questions.
elevation angle p
+ Magnitudeanddirectionof thevectorB* arecomputed The MAS radiometers 27 mewwe thed emissionfrom 02
using the Int. G~magnetic ReferenceField (IGRP- (61. l1 63.0, 63.6 GHz) and %O (183 GHz), and from the
MAGFIN) = trace gasesCl3 (184 GHz) and Cl0 (204 GHz), An HL
+ PoIarizationof launchedwaveor emittednoisepower plariz.4 gwlcil-beamis scanneddowrlwwdsfrom the shuttle
is selected(HWLinw or R&Circular) orbit (300 km) thruugh the limb. Tn normal operation, the
+ A frequuency rangeis set in tem~sof deviationfrom mtinuous vertical scan is calibrated(2.7 and 300 K) and
the selectedCl2 line cxxter (Au = pl & u), repeats every 12.8 seconds.The radbmcten are super-
heterodyfierewive~tith double-sideband (DSB)d&&ion. A
Two characteristicWBWSa~ representedby normalized filter bank follows, which qarates the receivedJI&IGpower
St&es pamctm and combined to pduce tie initial into 10x ~&MHZ, 20x ~-MHZ, and20x 0,2-M& outputs.
pularizati~n.~ This combinationis then tmed through the
propagaticmdistanceL. Eige~~values and eigenvector~of the Emissiondataof the threeC&lines centwedat 61,15, 63.00,
2X2 plaewave refractivity matrix arc calculatedfor the and 63,57 GHz have been ~alyned.~ The tangentiaI heights
mkmtation angle tj~betweenwave vector E* and magnetic ranged from 125 to 10 km. Two 1otWionswere slated:
VectcK The propagating field is %linear combinationof
If l 70”N, 7O*W (shuttle at 57ON, antenna loob north) andat the
two charactistic wwes. equat.or. The data are grouped in 5&m height increments and
av4xagedover five scans(I .2 s inkgfation).
Individual intqration stepsof ZPM at tie line center,
ti = 61.150 GHz, are detailed in Table 4: A ray originatxz The examplegiven here is for the 6lJ50 GHZ line. The
at the 300&m orbital height (h, LA, LO, AZ, and p) and upper sideband (image) at 71,630 GHz respondsto cosmic
passesthrough the atmosphereto a minimum, tangentiaI background radiation (2,7 K). The measured meanis to tit
height, 4 = 90 km. order about half the theor&& singlesidebandlevel.
I
1 PT deli! I’1I km
:I 0 67.8 K (ZPM) 63&2 K (IdAS)
II I!
4 + T#SB) = 13L2 l74+5 153-O 153.0K
I i 1
129 65.2 -70 0 -6.39 ~ 55.1 78.4 :, 954 o,MJ 0.00 : ml AXKI 0.00 0.00
I
4 : 4 : : t i
I I
91 70.4 -70 0 -1.14 55.4 35.6 i 1548 l*xl 2.92 1 .060 .094 2.03 2.03
I
90 71.0 -70 0 -0.53 55,4 86.2 : 1616 1.97 4.45 f .a99 m126 3.w 3*w
I 1
91 72.1 -70 0 OS 55.3 37-3 : 1736 3.39 7,66 : .lS I127 5.02 m2
I I
92 72.7 -70 0 1,14 55.2 88.4 : 1805 4.06 9.20 : .061 ,042 ! 5.91 5.91
4
i-
I
! c II
i
I
! :
129
130
77.7
-7x8
-70
-70
0
0
6.15
6,23
53.7
53.7
94.9 1 2371
1
95.0 i 2380 I 5.15
5,15
11.68 1 Am
11,68 1 .ooo
Am
+ooo I 7.29 7.29
7.29 7.29
3-9
Linear Pdarization
vh(9+)=61.15 Gt-k; h,=90 km
II._-_.--, --ff,L--
--_ Y- ------
-- a -R-
-m
- / -- --- --FeT -__- - \ i. \ II -
Lx \
cxt
Thedata~~minFig.8 and2wveasatcstciucfor
2PM prcdicticms.~~25 Limb-emissionwas meawred fa
tangmtial heightsranging~FCMII
30 to 120km at the noticrr~
kmtim 71*N/7O”W. T&k 4 lists the vuhbles that enter a
computatia of T&J& Very height-&&e (Ah 5 1 km)
temperaturesoundingbetween115and MI km is indicatedby
the weightingfunctionW(h), Eg. (14), At b = 78 km, the
pathabruptlykoomts opaqueandTB assumesabouthalf the
physical terqwratllre of the 78&m kvel(93 K), Below
I+ = 40 km, the uppersidebandat 71.63 GHz *wam~ up’
due to abscxptio~by water vqor and dry air, which is
ccmptcd by meansof MPM.
4* CONCLCUSIONS Figura 8. DS&emis.sion of ttw 9+ Cine (ull; * ,3 MHz)
IWpgatim cbaracteristies of the atmosphere zue ptiickd by from a limb scan, I+ = 30 to 120 km,
the generalr&activity N, andfor Zeeman-broadening by the approximatly centerecl over 70 CJ
N, 70 QW:
q&al r&activity matrix IV. Transmissionand emission (al ZPM predictions for HI. pdariration and
propertiesof the inhamogerwwsatmosphere(eg., excess lb, MAS data-.
path delay, total attemtaticm,opacity, sky noise, eta) were
modeledfrom knownpath profiles of physicalvafiakks.
ACKNOW
The work was supported in part by the U, S, Army At- 14, Ma, Q* and Tipping, R.H.,*Water Vapor Continuumin
mospheric Sciences Laboratory, ARL, SLCAS~BA under theMillimeter SpectralRegionw,J. Chem.Phys., 93,
ReferenceNu, ASL 92-8058. Sqt 1990,pp 61274139.
51 RE-CB 15. Becker, GE and Au&%, S.H.,*WaterVapor Absorption
1, Liebe, H.J,,“An UpdatedModel for Millimeter Wave uf EhictmmagneticRadiationin the Cm Wave-k@
Propagatimin Moist Air, ’ Radio Sci., 2U, May 1985, Range”, Phys, Rev., 70, Jan. 1946, pp 300-307.
pp 1069-1039,
16. Liebe, H-J,, ’ A Contributionto Modeliqg Atmosphdc
2. Liebe, H.J. ,“MPM - An AtmosphericIklilimeter-Wave Millimcter-Wave Prcq~rties” BFrequent, 41, Jan./Feb.
PropagationMc&l”, Int. J. Infrwed and Millime@ 1937, pp X-36.
waves, 10, July 1989, pp 631-650.
17. Bauer,A. and Godon,M.,“TemperatweDependence of
3, Robz, P.W.,“Absorption of Microwaves by Water Vapour Absorption in Line-Wings at 190 GHz”,
Atmospheric Gm*, in *Atmcxpkric RemoteSensing J. Quant. Speztx. Rad, Tr. I 46, 3, 1991,pp 21l-220.
By Microwave Radiometry”;Jawen, MA,, ed,; J.
Wiley & sons, Inc., 1993 (‘HEN 0 471 62891 3), 18. Gudm, M., Cwlier, J. and Bauix, A.,“Laboratory
Chapter2, pp 37-90. Studies of WaterVaplorAbsorptionin theAtmospheric
Window at 213 GHz”, J. t&ant. Speck Radiat.Tr.,
4. Liebe, R.J., Manabe, T, andHuf’ford, G+A.,‘Millimeter- 47, 4, 1992, pp 2X-285.
Wave Attenuaticmand Delay Rates Due to FogKhud
Conditions”, IEEE Trans. AntennasPw., AP-37, 19, Furashw, N.I,, Katkov, V.Yu. and Svertlov, B.A,,
December 1989, pp 1617-1623. ‘Submillimetre Spectrumof the AtmosphericWater
Ikpor Absorption-SomeExperimentalResuks”, ICAP
5. Lick, H-J., Rose~~kranz, P.W. and Hufford, G.A., 89, IFS Conf. Publ., No. 301, 1989, pp 310-311.
uAtmosphtxic 6&GHz Oxygen Spectn~m: New
Mttasummts and Line Parameters”, J. Quant, 20. Hill, R.J.,“Dispersionby Atnmphcric Water Vapor at
Spcctr.FkGat. Tr., 43, Nw.K&. 1992,pp 629-643. FrequenciesLRssThan 1 THz’, IEEE Trans, Anten-
nas Ftropag., AP-36, 3, Mazch 1988,pp 423-430.
6, Crawfd, A.B. and Hogg D.C,,“Meawement of
Atmospheric Attenuationat Millimeter Wave1engt.h~“~ 21, ~senkranz, P.W.,‘presSm Bnxdening of Rotational
Bell Syst. Techn.J., 35, July 1956,pps907-916. EmkII. Water Vapor f?om 300 to 1100cm-l H,
J. Chem,Phys,, 87, July 1987,pp 163-170,
7. Rose&ran P.W. and Staeh, D.H.,*PolarizedThermd
Emissicm from Oxygen in the Mesosphere”, Radio 22. Liebe, H.J., Huffbrd, G.A. and M&be, &*A Model
Sci., 23, May 1988,pp 721-729. for the ComplexPermittivity of Wat4xat Frquencies
Below 1 THY, Int. J. Infrwed and Millimeter Waves,
3. Hufford G.A, and Liebe, H.J.,“Millimeter-Wave 12, July 1991,pp 659-675.
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DC, Smithonian Inst., 19&S)* 1985, pp 641-645.
Comment/Question :
How did you achieve your 25Ommeasurementpath length in the laboratory?
Author/Presenter’s reply :
A Fabxy-Perot resonator with a loaded Q-value of 400 000 yields by means of multiple
r~~fl~tions over a 30 cm path in semiconfocalarrangementthe effective path length