SPH4U-C

14
Lesson

Interference of Light Waves

Lesson 14 Physics SPH4U-C

Introduction
An increased understanding of the nature of light has allowed for improved communication
and information technologies, but the improvements can sometimes pose challenges of their
own. As mentioned in Lesson 13, modern communication allows for rumours and false
information to be spread quickly and provides tools for crimes, such as identity theft. However,
the same scientific advancements that pose challenges are also being used to protect us. Take
holograms, for instance. The shiny stickers on credit cards, dollar bills, and drivers’ licences
make use of holography to prevent the use and acceptance of counterfeit materials. It is an
understanding of the wave nature of light that makes holography possible.
If you have an item with a hologram on it, or even a CD or DVD, take it out and hold the shiny
side facing up. What do you see? Do you see only white light reflecting, or do you see a more
interesting pattern of colours? How is it that white light reflects as a spectrum of colours?
The answer lies in the fact that light exhibits the wave property of interference. In this lesson,
you will explore the experiment that first demonstrated this. You will also develop and use
equations that allow you to analyze light interference patterns.

Planning Your Study

You may find this time grid helpful in planning when and how you will work through this
lesson.
Suggested Timing for This Lesson (hours)
Light Interference 1
Young’s Double-slit Experiment 1
Mathematical Analysis of Light Interference Patterns 1
Holography: A Technology Based on Interference ½
Key Questions 1

What You Will Learn

After completing this lesson, you will be able to
• describe and explain the interference of light waves
• solve problems related to diffraction and interference of light waves
• explain the application of the wave nature of light to holographic technology

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Lesson 14 Physics SPH4U-C

Light Interference
Does light travel as a wave or as a particle? The debate over how light travels and whether it
behaves as a wave or a particle has been continuing for centuries and was, in fact, a very hot
topic among seventeenth-century scientists. Many, including Sir Isaac Newton, were supporters
of the particle theory of light. There were others, however, who supported the wave theory of
light.

Young’s Double-slit Experiment

There were strong and weak points to both sides of the wave-particle debate of the seventeenth
century. One of the apparent shortcomings of the wave theory of light was that light could not
be seen to diffract or interfere, as other waves are observed to do. It was argued that if light
were a wave, the waves emitted from two light sources held close together should interfere in
such a way that constructive and destructive interference would be visible, just as it is with
water waves. The expected constructive and destructive interference of light waves would result
in a series of bright and dark bands (or fringes) of light being produced on a screen placed some
distance in front of the light sources, but this had never been observed. The particle theory of
light also had its weaknesses—for example, in predicting incorrectly that light sped up when
moving from air into a different medium.
In the early 1800s, wave theory won out. An English scientist named Thomas Young figured
out that it was impossible to create a situation in which two separate light sources would
produce waves that are in phase. Rather than using two different light sources to produce
interference, he used only one source of light shone through two slits in a barrier. These slits
created the effect of two light sources vibrating in phase. When Young did this, he saw what
many people had been waiting for: a series of bright and dark bands of light, thus proving that
the interference of light was possible.
Thomas Young’s double-slit experiment led to further wave experiments. Light travelling
through a narrow slit does diffract, just as a water wave diffracts as it travels through an
opening. This diffraction through the individual slits creates a situation similar to two sources
vibrating in phase, creating a water wave interference pattern. Just like the water waves, the
light waves interfere constructively and destructively. Whether a bright or a dark fringe appears
on the screen in front of the slits depends on whether the rays land on the screen in phase or
out of phase. Whether they are in phase (crest meeting crest or trough meeting trough) or out
of phase (crest meeting trough) depends on the path difference from each source.
In the case of light, the specific wavelength corresponds to a specific colour. Remember that
white light is made up of all colours (called the visible spectrum), and since the formulas we
have used until now are for single-value wavelengths, you can see that each colour will have its
own set of constructive and destructive conditions.
This means that if white light is shone through two slits, it is possible to get a separation of
colours.

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Lesson 14 Physics SPH4U-C

To study just one colour pattern, we need to use a source of light that generates one wavelength
of light (a monochromatic source), and thus a single colour. To accomplish this, we can use a
white light source with filters, or use a laser as the source, since lasers are capable of producing
a single wavelength of light.

Example
Two physics students are attempting to demonstrate light wave interference by holding their
identical flashlights side by side and shining the light on the wall. Do you think they will be
successful? Why or why not? Describe any changes they should make.

Solution
No, they won’t succeed, as the two light sources will not be in phase. To see an interference
pattern, the two light waves must be in phase. In order to guarantee that the light waves are in
phase, one light source should be shone at two small slits in a barrier. This creates the effect
of two sources that are in phase. Interference patterns of different colours may then be visible,
depending on the size of the openings and the distance between them. To see a clear pattern,
they should use a monochromatic light source, in other words, a light source that emits light of
one wavelength, and therefore, one colour.

Thomas Young and the Scientific Method

Thomas Young’s experiment provides an excellent example of the scientific process necessary
for the development of valid and reliable scientific conclusions. First, there must be the
development of relevant scientific questions about a topic (for example, “Is light a particle or
a wave?”). Second, predictions to the answers to these questions must be made so that there is
something specific for which to test (for example, “If light is a wave, then light waves should
interfere as water waves do.”). These predicted behaviours then guide the actual inquiry, or
experimentation, using controlled variables. Finally, an analysis of results enables a conclusion
to be drawn. Results found using Thomas Young’s double-slit experiment actually allow for
calculation of the wavelength of different colours of light, providing significant support for the
wave theory of light.

Support Questions

Be sure to try the Support Questions on your own before looking at

the suggested answers provided. Click on each “Suggested answer” button to check your work.

11. Describe how Thomas Young’s experiment contributed to science and how it
demonstrates good use of the scientific method. Suggested answer

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Young’s Double-slit Simulation

In a regular classroom, a laser can be shone at an apparatus containing a pair of slits to
demonstrate interference patterns. Anyone taking part in such an experiment must take care
to protect their eyes, as lasers can be dangerous. A medium-powered laser shone in the eye can
heat the retina and destroy photoreceptors in a fraction of a second.
Now try this computer simulation called Thomas Young’s Double Slit Experiment, varying
the wavelength of light, distance to the screen, and distance between the slits, to observe the
various effects on the bands of light produced. You will be asked to use this simulation again, at
the end of the lesson.

Young’s Double-slit Interference

Lambda = 400 nm d = 2.00 nm L = 3.00 nm

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Support Questions

12. Using the online simulation you have just done, answer the following questions.
a) What happens to the distance between the dark fringes (nodal areas) when the
wavelength of light is increased?
b) What happens to the distance between the dark fringes when the distance between
the slits is increased?
c) What happens to the distance between the dark fringes when the distance to the
screen is increased? Suggested answer

Mathematical Analysis of Light Interference

Patterns
In this section, you will derive the relevant equations for analyzing light interference patterns.
It is important to know where equations come from, in order to use them properly. As you work
through the derivations, note that although the equations are derived relating to points on a
nodal line, the same steps can be completed to form equations relating to points on antinodal
lines. You will see these equations included later on in the “Summary of Equations” section of
this lesson.

The Variables and Terminology to Know in Light

Interference
The following diagram indicates two slits (S1 and S2) through which light is travelling,
producing an interference pattern on a screen some distance (L) away from the screen. The
paths of light from the two sources to a point, P, are indicated (and, in this case, point P is on
the second nodal line, or minimum).

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Lesson 14 Physics SPH4U-C

∆x

Slits Antinode (m)

S1 Node (n)
Right bisector
d
S2 xn

∆x

Antinode (m)
S1
θm Node (n)
Right bisector
d θn
S2 xn

You will use this diagram to explore several equations and their derivations. To fully
understand the derivations (and to successfully solve related problems), you must know the
variables being used and understand what they represent. Therefore, before exploring the
derivations, take some time to examine the above diagram and locate the variables described
next.

Variables and Terms

• PnS1 = path length from one wave source to a point on a nodal line (minimum)
• PnS2 = path length from a second wave source to a point on a nodal line
• |PnS1 – PnS2| = absolute value of difference in path length from one source to a point on a
nodal line and the second source to the same point (referred to as the “path difference”)
• PmS1 = path length from one wave source to a point on an antinodal line (maximum)
• PmS2 = path length from a second wave source to a point on an antinodal line
• |PmS1 – PmS2| = absolute value of difference in path length from one source to a point on
an antinodal line and the second source to the same point
• n = nodal line number
• m = antinodal line number
• λ = wavelength (m)
• θn = angle between the right bisector and the line connecting the midpoint between the
sources and a point on a nodal line

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• θm = angle between the right bisector and the line connecting the midpoint between the
sources and a point on an antinodal line
• d = distance between the sources
• xn = distance from a point on a nodal line to the right bisector
• xm = distance from a point on an antinodal line to the right bisector
• L = distance from the midpoint between the sources to the point; for light (because the
large distance and small angle make any difference negligible), it is the distance from the
slits to the screen
• Δx = distance between two consecutive nodal or antinodal fringes on a screen
• A bright fringe refers to a bright band of light created by constructive interference, while a
dark fringe refers to the dark areas created by destructive interference.
• The central maximum is the central bright fringe (m = 0).

Equation 1—Relationship Involving Path Difference

From the first lesson in this unit, you know that the equation relating wavelength and
nodal line number to path difference from the sources to the point on a nodal line is:
1
Pn S1 − Pn S2 = (n − ) λ .
2
The equivalent equation for a point on an antinodal line is:
Pm S1 − Pm S 2 = m λ .
These same equations work for light interference patterns.

Example
Two narrow slits are cut into a sheet of paper and set in front of a laser beam, causing an
interference pattern to appear on the wall. If the distance from one slit to the third order bright
fringe from the centre is 0.50000030 m, while the distance from the other slit to the same bright
fringe is 0.50000165 m, calculate the wavelength of the light from the laser.

Solution
Given: m = 3
P3S1 = 0.50000030 m
P3S2 = 0.50000165 m
Required: λ

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Analysis and solution:

PmS1 − PmS 2 = m λ
0.50000030 m – 0.50000165 m = 3 λ
0.00000135 m = 3λ
1.35 × 10–6 m
λ=
3
λ = 4.5 × 10–7 m = 450 nm
Paraphrase: Therefore, the wavelength of the light produced by the laser is 450 nm.

Equation 2—Relationship Involving θ

Watch the following video called Derivation of Interference Equations, then work through the
following examples.
Sometimes, the path length from sources cannot be measured because the interference
is coming from two sources of light situated at a large, unmeasurable distance from the
interference pattern being observed. Therefore, other equations are needed to analyze the
interference pattern.
One way to calculate the wavelength of light that is creating an interference pattern is through
its relationship with the nodal line number, the angle of the nodal area from the line formed by
the right bisector, and the distance between the slits. This relationship, in equation form, is:
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ n − ⎟⎠ λ = d sinθ n
2

Example
A beam of light with a wavelength of 640 nm is directed at two slits, producing a series of
fringes on a screen some distance away. Measurements reveal that the angle to the third dark
fringe, measured from the right bisector of the pattern, is 5°. Calculate the distance between the
two slits.

Solution
Given: λ = 640 nm
θ = 5°
Required: d

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Analysis and solution:

⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ n − ⎟⎠ λ = d sinθ n
2
⎛ 1⎞ λ
d = ⎜n − ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ sinθ n
⎛ 1 ⎞ 640 nm
d = ⎜3− ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ sin5
d = 18 358 nm = 0.0000184 m = 0.0184 mm
Paraphrase: Therefore, the distance between the slits is 1.85 × 10–5 m.

Equation 3—Relationship Involving L and xn

While the equation you used in the previous example can be very useful, it can be very difficult
to measure the angle, θ, in an actual setting. Therefore, another equation that avoids needing
the angle is necessary.

Right bisector
d θn
xn
L
P

Look at the above diagram. Notice that the line connecting the midpoint of the sources (at the
right bisector) to a point, P, on the interference pattern is equal to L (that is, the straight-line
distance from the sources to the screen). This is because, when dealing with light interference
patterns, the distance between the wave sources and the screen is large, and the angle of the
path of light from the sources is so small, that the difference in the length of the path travelled
by the light due to θn is negligible. Applying trigonometry, you can see that: sin θn = opposite/
hypotenuse = xn/L. Substituting this expression into equation 2, you get equation 3:
⎛ 1⎞ dx n
⎜⎝ n − ⎟⎠ λ =
2 L

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Lesson 14 Physics SPH4U-C

Example
Red light with a wavelength of 610 nm passes through two slits, creating an interference pattern
on a screen located 3.0 m away. If the distance from the right bisector to the eighth bright fringe
is 3.5 cm, calculate the distance between the slits.

Solution
Given: Eighth antinodal line
L = 3.0 m
x8 = 3.5 cm = 3.5 × 10–2 m
λ = 610 nm = 6.10 × 10–7 m
Required: d
Analysis and solution:
⎛ 1⎞ dx n
⎜⎝ n − ⎟⎠ λ =
2 L
Lmλ
d=
xm
(3.0 m)(8)(6.10 × 10–7 m)
d=
3.5 × 10–2 m
d = 4.18 × 10–4 m = 0.42 mm
Paraphrase: Therefore, the distance between the slits is 0.42 mm.
In this example we used a minimum. A maximum could also have been used, in which case the
dx
formula becomes mλ = m .
L

Equation 4—Relationship Involving Δx

Finally, when looking at an interference pattern, it is often easier to determine the distance
between fringes, as opposed to determining the centre of the pattern and measuring from that
point. Therefore, an equation incorporating distance between fringes (Δx) is useful.
Consider a point on two consecutive maxima. The first is on the mth line, and the next on the
(m + 1)th line. Thus, the equations for the distances xm and xm+1 are as follows:
dx m
mλ =
L
and
dx m+1
(m + 1)λ =
L

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Lesson 14 Physics SPH4U-C

Now subtract the two equations:

dx m+1 dx m
(m + 1)λ − mλ = −
L L
d
mλ + λ − mλ =
L ( x m+1 − x m )
d
λ=
where Δx is the distance between consecutive maxima.
L ( Δx )
Thus, the final form of the equation is:
Lλ
Δx =
d
When measuring the distance between fringes, it is often easier and more accurate to measure
the distance from one fringe to another one that is a few fringes away, and then calculate the
distance between two consecutive fringes. For example, if the distance between four dark
fringes is 3.0 cm, then the distance between consecutive fringes is 1.0 cm:

3∆x
3Δx = 3.0 cm
Δx = 3.0 cm/3 = 1.0 cm

Example
A beam of light is directed at two slits that have a distance between them of 0.020 mm. If the
distance between the first and seventh dark fringes is 11.5 cm on a screen located 4.5 m away
from the slits, calculate the wavelength of the light.

Solution
Given:
d = 0.020 mm = 2.0 × 10–5 m
6Δx = 11.5 cm; therefore, Δx = 1.92 cm = 1.92 × 10–2 m
L = 4.5 m
Required: λ
Analysis and solution:
Lλ
Δx =
d
dΔx
λ=
L
(2.0 × 10–5 m)(1.92 × 10–2 m)
λ=
4.5 m
λ = 8.53 × 10–7 m = 853 nm
Paraphrase: Therefore, the wavelength of the light is 853 nm.

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Summary of Equations
Knowing where equations come from makes for more meaningful problem solving. Now that
the derivations have been completed, here is a list of the resulting equations to keep handy, as
you start solving related problems.
1
Pn S1 − Pn S 2 = (n − ) λ for minima
2

Pm S1 − Pm S 2 = m λ for maxima

⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ n − ⎟⎠ λ = d sinθ n for minima
2

mλ = d sinθ m for maxima

⎛ 1⎞ dx n
⎜⎝ n − ⎟⎠ λ = for minima
2 L

dx m
mλ = for maxima
L
Lλ
Δx = for either minima or maxima
d

Support Questions

Lλ
13. By looking at the placement of variables in the equation Δx = , determine what
happens to the distance between dark fringes when d

a) the wavelength increases.

b) the distance between the slits is increased.
c) the distance between the slits and the screen increases. Suggested answer

14. A student shines a red laser at two slits in a piece of paper. The slits are 0.080 mm apart.
A screen is placed 2.0 m away from the slits. Upon taking measurements, the student
determines that
• there are 5.0 cm between the first and fourth nodal lines.
• the distance from the centre of the pattern to the third nodal line is 4.2 cm.
• the angle to the eighth antinodal line from the right bisector is 3.8°.
Perform three different calculations to determine the wavelength of this light. Account
for any difference in values. Suggested answer

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Holography: A Technology Based on

Interference
You are most likely aware of holography. Security holograms, used on such things as money,
drivers’ licences, ID cards, and credit cards are made from master holograms and are very
difficult to forge. Holography is also used to create Universal Product Code (UPC) bar codes,
3D ultrasound images, and even convincing ghostly images in the entertainment industry. But
how does holography work?
While a photograph is a two-dimensional image of an object, a hologram is a three-
dimensional image that is visible only when the hologram is properly illuminated. First
developed by Hungarian physicist Dr. Dennis Gabor in 1947, a hologram is essentially a
picture—not just of an object, but also of the pattern of light reflected from the actual object,
when illuminated. When you view the hologram, you see the same pattern of light as you would
if you were viewing the actual object.
While there are different methods of creating holograms, they all operate on the premise of
light interference, which you are learning about in this lesson. The process described here
is that of a basic transmission hologram. The process of creating a transmission hologram
requires specialized precision equipment, including a laser, a beam splitter, lenses, mirrors, and
film.
To create a hologram, an object must be illuminated with a laser. However, one beam from a
laser is not enough. The laser beam must be shone at a beam splitter (a device that uses mirrors
and prisms to split one beam of light into two beams), producing two in-phase beams that
are reflected from mirrors (and focused using lenses), in order to illuminate the same object.
The different, but in-phase light waves reflected from the illuminated object are directed
onto the film. Depending on the difference in lengths of paths travelled, the waves interfere
constructively in some areas and destructively in others. It is this interference pattern—and not
an image of the object—that is recorded on the photographic film. When you look at the film
itself, it simply appears to contain smudges, but when it is illuminated with a laser like the one
that created it, a three-dimensional image of the original object appears.

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Lesson 14 Physics SPH4U-C

How Holograms Work: Basic Setup

Laser

Object beam

Object

Reference beam

The first holograms created by Gabor were a little out of focus, due to the incoherent (multi-
wavelength) light sources used to create them. However, with the development of the laser in
1960, clear, sharply-defined holograms became possible. There are other methods of creating
holograms and other uses of holography are still being explored. In fact, due to the interference
of light, holography may, in fact, be the answer to the ultimate 3D movie experience.

Support Questions

15. Explain why holograms—even very simple ones—are a good form of security for
demonstrating the authenticity of money and documents. Suggested answer

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Lesson 14 Physics SPH4U-C

Key Questions
Now work on your Key Questions in the online submission tool. You may continue to work
at this task over several sessions, but be sure to save your work each time. When you
have answered all the unit’s Key Questions, submit your work to the ILC.

(21 marks)
45. Perform the necessary research to identify three examples of industrial applications that
relate in some way to the interference of light waves. For each example, describe a related
job or career. (6 marks)
46. a) Explain why a pattern of bright and dark fringes is visible on a screen when a light is
shone through a double slit. (4 marks)
b) Upon using Thomas Young’s double-slit experiment to obtain measurements, the
following data were obtained. Use these data to determine the wavelength of light
being used to create the interference pattern. Do this in three different ways.
(6 marks)
• The angle to the eighth maximum is 1.12°.
• The distance from the slits to the screen is 302 cm.
• The distance from the first minimum to the fifth minimum is 2.95 cm.
• The distance between the slits is 0.00025 m.
47. a) Imagine that you are conducting an activity with a laser to create an interference
pattern. Use the appropriate equations to predict two ways (other than the way
described in the following example) to change the interference pattern in order to
have closer fringes. Explain your predictions. (2 marks)
Here’s an example to get you started:
According to the equation
Lλ ,
Δx =
d
the distance between the fringes (∆x) is proportional to the wavelength (since
they are both numerators). This means that increasing one will increase the other.
Therefore, decreasing the wavelength will decrease the distance between the fringes.
(Hint: You can use the “Thomas Young’s Double-slit Experiment” simulation from
this lesson to verify your predictions.)
b) If you were using a hands-on activity to verify your predictions and use
measurements to determine the wavelength of the laser being used, describe any
safety precautions you would take and sources of error that you might encounter. Be
sure to explain how you might reduce the effects of the sources of error. (3 marks)

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Save your answers to the Key Questions in the online submission tool. You’ll
be able to submit them when you’ve finished all of the Key Questions for this
unit. Now go on to Lesson 15!

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