STARTING WITH THE NAME OF ALLAH,

THE MOST BENEFICIENT AND THE

MOST MERCIFUL
Presented by
SHARIQ SHAIKH
LECTURER
EED, NEDUET
Reactive power control in transmission system

The issues for the transmission system engineer are:

• Security or reliability of transmission line.

• Development of technically and economically justified compensation schemes.
• Difficulty in acquiring right of way for new transmission circuits.

Bulk amount of power supply is only possible if the following two conditions meet
satisfactorily:

 Major synchronous machine must remain stable in synchronism.

The central concept in maintaining synchronism is that of stability. One of the

limits to the transmission line is that with the increased amount of power
transmitted the stability risk increases. Gradually moving the dynamics we can
lead our system to the limit from where it can get collapse. Here we will refer it as
steady state stability due to gradual increase.
Factors affecting the type of stability are;

 Excitation dynamics of machine.

 Number of transmission channels.
 Number of synchronous machines in the system.
 Power flow pattern in the transmission network.
 The connection and characteristics of the compensating equipments.

In practice, the system should not be operated at the limit. It must have margin to
cater for the minor changes in load and other minor disturbances. This point is
categorized under the dynamic stability of the Power System.

The degree of dynamic stability can be expressed in the form of:

 Rate of damping of the transient voltages.

 Rate of damping of the currents.
 Rate of damping of the load angles.

Another aspect is that of the stability under major disturbances and contingencies.
This is dealt under the category of transient state stability.
 Voltages must be kept near to their rated values.

Under-voltage, which is generally associated with heavy loading and/or a shortage

of generation, causes degradation in the performance of loads, particularly
induction motors. In heavily loaded systems, under-voltage may be an indication
that the load is approaching the steady-state stability limit. Sudden under-voltages
can result from the connection of very large loads.

Overvoltage is a dangerous condition because of the risk of flashover or the

breakdown of insulation. Saturation of transformers subjected to overvoltage can
produce high currents rich in harmonics, and in the presence of sufficient
capacitance there is a risk of Ferro-resonance as well as of harmonic resonances.
Over-voltages arise from several causes. The reduction of load during certain parts
of the daily load cycle causes a gradual voltage rise. Uncontrolled, this overvoltage
would shorten the useful life of insulation even if the breakdown level were not
reached. Sudden overvoltage can result from disconnection of loads or other
equipment, while over-voltages of extreme rapidity and severity can be caused by
line switching operations, faults, and lightning. In long distance transmission
systems, the Ferranti effect (overvoltage at light load) would limit the power
transfer and the transmission distance if no compensating measures were taken.
(a) Loss of entire capability of generating station
 Classification of power system stability
Power system stability issues can be classified based on the following considerations:

 The nature of the instability mode on certain system relevant to parameters.

 The size of the disturbance which leads to the selection of the tools for analysis.
 The time margin needed to assess the system stability.
 The devices, processes and time span involved.

Therefore, power system stability can be classified as:

1. Angle stability
[small disturbance and large disturbance].

2. Frequency stability
[short-term and long-term]

3. Voltage stability
[small disturbance and large disturbance]
Time scale Generator driven Load driven
Rotor angle stability
Short-term Short term voltage stability
Small signal Large signal
Long term Frequency stability Long term voltage stability
Classification of power system stability
Normal: All parameters in limit.
Alert: May lead to collapse due to
disturbance but still in limit (less
margin).
Restorative: Increase in reserve if
succeed then normal otherwise in alert.
Emergency: If severe event hits the
system while in alert situation but still
intact with system extreme limits.
In Extremis: Cascaded tripping and
outages.
 Power System Stability Analogy

Power system operates like cars speeding

around a circular track being linked
together.

If they all are at same speed their ties will

remain intact, while if one of them
tries to speed up following
will happen:

The speedy car will

experience a restoring force i.e it will be
tend to slow down while the other will
experience speed increment.

If the stretch increases beyond the limit tie

will break and cars will move away from
each other.
Under steady state

Due to transient
Stator with three phase
windings

Rotor with field

windings
 ‘E’ DUE TO ‘BR’

‘V’ DUE TO ‘BNET’

LAGGING
CURRENT

BNET
BR LOAD ANGLE
‘δ’
WR
BS
Data:

Vt = 480<0˚ volts , Z = 0.015+j0.1 ohms, I = 692.8 < -36.87˚

Similarly draw the phasor diagrams for the unity and leading power factor
condition.
 Equilibrium/Synchronism

Disturbance in the electrical torque of the machine can be split into two ways:
1. Synchronizing torque.
2. Damping Torque.
 The nature of the system response to
the small disturbance depends upon
the operating conditions, excitation
control and transmission system
strength.

Automatic voltage regulation helps in

providing positive synchronizing
torque which the system lacks if AVR
is absent in excitation control.

In todays power system special

attention is provided to the damping
torque.

• Local Modes.
• Inter-area Modes.
• Control Modes.(poor tuning)
• Torsional Modes.(T-G shaft system
components.
First Swing
case of
instability

Post fault
condition
is small
signal
unstable
Inertia constant is defined as:
H=Stored energy at rated speed in MW/MVA Important terms:
rating
Type of generating unit H J: Moment of inertia
Thermal unit Jw=M=angular
3600 rpm 4.0-7.0 momentum
1800 rpm 6.0-9.0
H:Stored K.E (MJ)/MVA
Hydal unit 2.0-4.0
rating

In general form:

𝑷𝒎 = 𝟑𝑷𝒈 + 𝒅/𝒅𝒕 (𝒘𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄) + 𝑷𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Simple mathematical form:

The angular position of the rotor angle is given by:

The time derivatives can be written as:

So the equation governing rotor dynamics will be:

In the form of power (suitable):

The product of Jw is represented as inertia constant:

H-constant is defined for the machines:

Normalization to the common value:

Calculate the H equivalent of the two units on 100 MVA base:
Mathematically;

𝑬𝑽
𝑷𝒆 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
𝑿

Where;
Pe= Electrical power
E = Generated voltage
V = Terminal voltage
𝜹 = Load angle

δo
 The ability of the synchronous machine to maintain its synchronism after being
subjected to small or large disturbance is referred as the rotor angle stability

 Equal-area criterion is used for a comparatively quick prediction of

stability.
 This method shows graphically the energy dynamics of the rotor
which helps to determine the stability after the generator being
disturbed.

Principle of equal area criteria

“The kinetic energy added to rotor due to fault
occurrence must be removed after the fault to
restore synchronous speed”.
 Pe

A2
Pm2
A1

Pm1

∂max ∂
This method also gives the maximum input power which
can be applied while stability is maintained.
If both the areas are not equal then accelerating
momentum can never be overcome.
The stability limit occurs when ∂max is at the intersection
of line Pm and the power-angle for 900 < ∂ <1800.
 APPLICATION TO SUDDEN INCREASE IN INPUT
Pe POWER

Pm2

Pm1

∂o ∂1 ∂max ∂
 APPLICATION TO SUDDEN INCREASE IN INPUT
Pe POWER

Pm2

Pm1

∂o ∂1 ∂max ∂
 Application of equal area criterion to
various cases

Generator Infinite bus

 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE-FAULT

Fault at the sending end

Generator Infinite bus

Pe

Pm

∂
∂o ∂c ∂max
 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE-FAULT

Fault in the mid of transmission line

Generator Infinite bus

Pe
Pre fault(Both lines in
service)

Post fault(line 2 out

of service)

During fault(fault
Pm on circuit 2 at some
distance)

∂o ∂c ∂max
∂
Pe

Pm

∂o ∂c ∂max
∂
Question:
The single-line diagram of through parallel transmission lines to a large
metropolitan system considered as an infinite bus. The machine is delivering 1.0
p.u and both the terminal and infinite bus voltages are 1.0. The generator
reactance is 0.2 p.u. Draw the power angle curve.
Question:
Calculate the critical clearing angle and time when the system is subjected to
three phase fault at point P on the short transmission line. The initial conditions
are same. H= 5 MJ/MVA.
The most practically available method today for transient stability analysis of complex
interconnected system is time domain simulation which uses non-linear differential
equations solved by step by step numerical integration techniques.
 SOLUTION OF THE SWING
EQUATION

Swing equation is a nonlinear equation therefore cannot be solved

by the ordinary methods.

 Gives the critical clearing time corresponding to the critical value of

the load angle.
 SOLUTION OF THE SWING EQUATION

There are three methods used to relate the critical

clearing angle, time and swing curve:

By using point-by-point solution.

By graphical integration.

By using pre-calculated swing curves.

Point-By-Point Solution
Remarks:

This method is the simple one and

provides good approximate results.

The accuracy of the results can be increase

by taking the time interval small as shown in
the above diagram.
 Graphical Integration Method

In this method we make use of the equation that was derived in
the Equal Area Criteria.

It was derived that the angular speed is given by:

= =

After rearranging this equation we get:

REMARKS:

Now the graph between time and load angle will be the swing curve as
shown below:
 Using pre-calculated swing curves:
The simplest way to find out the critical clearing time is the use of sets of
pre-determined SWING CURVES.

Each curve in the curve family is responding to the constant value of Sin∂o with a
particular value of Power (p) as shown below:
REMARKS:

As we have the set of pre-determined swing curves for a

particular value of sin∂o and range of “p”, therefore by using the
curves one can easily match the operating condition of the
machine with the existing curves.

Now by following the curve up to the value of critical

clearing angle found from Equal Area Criteria, the critical clearing
time “t” can be calculated.
 Steam from Boiler

Lower
Speed To Turbine

Changer Main Valve

Raise
Levers and
Linkages
Fixed
Pivot

Fly ball
Governor
High pressure
oil
Hydraulic
WR
Amplifier
 Steam from Boiler

Speed
Lower
Changer
To Turbine
Main Valve
Raise

Fixed
Pivot

Fly ball
Governor
High
pressure oil Hydraulic
WR Amplifier
Fly-Ball/ Transducer and
Comparator Governor
Gain/Levers and
Linkages
Servo-motor/Hydraulic
Amplifier

Limits
 Double
Cross-over
Power Fractions Flow LPT

HPT

Steam Chest

LPT
IPT
To Re-heater