Foundation Engineering

Table of Contents
Page
Table of Contents 1
1.0 Introduction 4
Strip Footing 5
Spread or Isolated Footing 6
Combined Footing 7
Strap or Cantilever Footing 7
Mat or Raft Foundations 8
2.0 Soil Investigation 9
Introduction 9
2.1.1 Guideline 10
Soil Profile 10
Soil Type 10
Visualization of soil Profile Using Software 12
Soil Parameter 14
List Of Tables Using For Finding Soil Parameter 17
2.6.1 Correlation SPT For Unit Weight 17
2.6.2 Correlation SPT for Undrain Shear Strength Cu. 17
2.6.3 Using Peak et al 1974 to correlate for finding 17
Reduction Factor 20
2.7.1 Correction in layer 1 Example 21
Critical Soil Profile 24
Procedure to finding the soil Parameter (Sample Based On the Layer 1 in BH1) 27
3.0 Factor Affecting the depth of Shallow Foundation 31
4.0 Bearing Capacity 32
5.0 Elastic Settlement 33
1
Calculation Depth Of Foundation 33
Sample Calculation 33
Elastic Settlement 49
Angular Distortion 62
6.0 Method Of Statement 65
Justification for Method of Statement 65
General Requirements of a Building Foundation 67
Steps on Constructing Shallow Foundation 67
6.3.1 Site Investigation 67
Exploration of Construction Site 69
Site Clearance 71
Site Layout 72
Excavation 73
Lean Concrete 75
Footing 75
Installed Reinforcement Rebar and Pour Concrete. 76
Set up Stump Reinforcement 77
Curing of Concrete 77
Summary of Method of Statement 78
7.0 Costing 79
8.0 Ranking Matrix 89
9.0 Construction Drawing 90
10.0 Additional Information 93
General 93
10.1.1 Basic Requirements 93
Rational Design Method 94
Compatibility Of Design And Construction 94
2
Corrosion Protection Of Foundations 95
10.4.1 General 95
10.4.2 Concrete Foundations 95
Ground Investigation 96
10.5.1 General 96
10.5.2 Supervision For Ground Investigation Works 96
10.5.3 Depth Of Ground Investigation 96
Shallow Foundations 97
10.6.1 General Requirements 97
10.6.2 How To Use Vislog 98
NouvoSPT Software 99
Black Cotton Soil 100
Refrences 102
3
1.0 Introduction
Exora Consult SDN. BHD is highly recognized company in term of analyzing,

designing and construction of the foundation of a structure. On 4/8/2017 client proposed to
construct a huge automobile factory in industrial area in Shah Alam, Selangor.
For this project Exora Consult Sdn Bhd was giving task to design shallow foundation
based on the 2 borehole results provided. Factory column loading shows that there is two 0.5m
square columns with desugn loads of 1000KN (square footing) and 2000 KN (rectangular
footing) are located as shown in figure number 1. To fulfill all the requirement of the perfect
design, we need to consider that allowable footing differential settlements or limiting angular
distortion, βmax ≤ 1/300.
Figure 1.1
For the construction of the design, knowledge of the existing soil is required. For this
reason, a S.I contractor was appointed to conduct the soil investigation by the client. Using data
of the two boreholes as it shown is figure number 1, helps us to get detail of the soil profile
which is necessary in designing shallow foundation.
4
In this project, we are required to clearly shows the derivation of soil parameters and
design procedure used in the design. In the same time, it is necessary to have detail design
calculation (including shallow foundation capacity and settlement).
Figure 1.2
Basically, the depth of shallow foundations are less than 3m below the finished level
unless otherwise specified. The depth of shallow foundation are generally less than its width.
There are different types of shallow foundation which are:
i. Strip footing
ii. Spread or isolated footing
iii. Combined footing strap or cantilever footing
iv. Mat or raft foundation
Strip Footing
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also

provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings
overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a case, it is more economical to provide a
strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is
also known as continuous footing.
5
Figure 1.3
Spread or Isolated Footing
A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual

column. A spread footing is circular, square, or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.
Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.
Figure 1.4
6
Combined Footing
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are
so close to each other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing
is also provided when the property line is so close to one column that a spread footing
would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By
combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed. A combined
footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
Figure 1.5
Strap or Cantilever Footing
A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with
a structural strap or a lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave
as one unit. The strap is designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so
designed that their combined line of action passes through the resultant of the total load.
A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the allowable soil
pressure is relatively high and the distance between the columns is larger.
7
Figure 1.6
Mat or Raft Foundations
A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and

walls under the entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when
the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close that
individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other.
Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on no-

homogeneous soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual
columns.
8
2.0 Soil Investigation
Soil Investigation is the process of establishing the type of soil strata at a specific area, by
drilling holes into the earth to obtain samples. In this project, basically there are total 2
boreholes was carried out for the purpose of testing the properties of soil. The parameter of soil
was corralate with the thory to find the most important parameter to include in the design. With
SPT value. The corrected SPT also need to carry out like N60, N1(60). This corrected value
need to use for finding the soil parameter.
BH
1
BH
2
Figure 2.1 : Location from Proposed Borehole In Shah Alam
Introduction
Soil profile and site invetigation is very important for every building. This is
because for ensure the soil is not failure when load is placed on the top of the soil. In
this project the visualization of soil profile is using VisLog. And the Corrolation of soil
parameter Using the graph and NovoSPT.
9
2.1.1 Guideline
a) Authority
i. Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia (JKR)
ii. Pejabat Tanah dan Galian Selangor
b) Standards and Code of Practice

i. BS 6031:1981 Code of Practice for Earthwork
ii. BS 5930:1999 Code of Practice for S.I
iii. BS 8004:1986 Code of Practice for Foundations
iv. BS 1337 British Standard Methods of Testing of Soil for Civil
Engineering
Soil Profile
The soil profile is one of the most important concepts in soil science. It is a key
to understanding the processes that have taken in soil development and is the means of
determining the types of soil that occur and is the basis for their classification. The soil
profile is defined as a vertical section of the soil from the ground surface downwards to
where the soil meets the underlying rock. The soil profile can be as little as 10 cm thick
in immature soils and as deep as several metres in tropical areas where the climate is
conducive to rapid alteration of the underlying rock to form soil. In temperate areas, the
soil profile is often around a metre deep and in arid areas somewhat shallower than this.
Soil Type
Many natural bodies, such as plants and animals, are discrete entities which can
be classified and guidelines for their identification followed. Soils are much more
difficult to identify and classify than these discrete bodies for two main reasons: (i) soil
is more or less a continuum covering the land surface of the earth, not a set of discrete
entities; and (ii) most of the soil is below ground and therefore not readily visible. Soils
grade into one another across the landscape usually without sharp boundaries between
10
one type of soil and another. Soil surveyors who make maps of soils have to use their
skills in reading changes in the landscape coupled with auger borings in the soil to
identify the nature of the soil.
There are several ways of classifying a soil, from the simple to the complex. A
soil type may be as simple as ‘a sandy soil’ or ‘a clayey soil’ and this is often the
perception of many land users, such as farmers or civil engineers, who see it as material
they have to deal with to achieve an end result, such as the growing of a crop of wheat,
or the building a road. Simple classifications tend to be of local and restricted relevance
only. At the other end of the spectrum is the soil scientist who needs to understand how
soils have formed, which types occur where, and for what the different types of soil can
be used. The soil scientist seeks a much broader understanding, with the aim of
underpinning the use and preservation of this important natural resource, and this has
manifested itself in a number of detailed soil classification systems worldwide
11
Figure 2.2 : Soil Classifications Group Symbol ASTM Standard
Visualization of soil Profile Using Software
Vislong is the software to visualize the soil profile below the ground. VisLog is
a program that has been designed to assist all geoscience engineers of generating
subsurface soil layers. Generally, VisLog import most of our existing data and run the
model. The main usage of VisLog is to visualize the boreholes in the site. Input data
that essential for this application comprises of: Borehole Name, Total depth,
Coordinates, Water Level and other information. VisLog illustrates all boreholes in a
project and indicates the ground and water surface. Moreover, it’s automatically draw
the soil profiles through selected boreholes. Visualization of soil below the ground
using VisLog.
12
2. Classified
4. Pick The
the Soil Using 3.
Critical Soil
1. Data From The Group Visualization
Profile for
Bore log Symbol of Soil Profile
Using In The
ASTM Using VisLog
Design
Standard
Figure 2.3 : Flow Chart To find The Soil Profile
Figure 2.4 : Soil Profile Visualization between BH1 and BH2
13
Soil Parameter
Soil Parameter is very important to design the building. This is for estimating
the soil bearing capacity, to check settlement etc. the soil parameters for finding the
bearing capacity of the soil are;
i. Undraind Shear Stregth = Cu

ii. Cohesion = C’
iii. Friction angle = Φ
iv. Unite Weight = γ
v. Modulus of elasticity = Es
vi. All consolidation Parameter.
All parameters above is determined using the N Value from SPT.
2. Finding 4. Pick The

Corelation Critical Soil
1. N value 3. Visualization
Using Graph of Profile for
From Bore log Using VisLog
Each Using In The
Parameters Design
Figure 2.5 : Flow Chart To find The Soil Parameter
14
Based on the soil profile, the soil parameter can be determined by using
correlation table and equation. And software also need to be used. List for all table
involved for soil parameter determination is list down below based on the
correlation made from scantiest. Mostly the correlation is made up differently mean
for example, if the type of soil is sand so the friction angle is for pure sand not for
mixture of soil. So the adjustment of the soil parameter need to be done using the
range value.
i. Correlation based on the NovoSPT software.
NovoSPT is a computer program for interpretation of Standard Penetration

Test (SPT/ DCPT) and correlating blow counts (N) to soil properties based on more
than 300 formulas. It is gINT, Excel and Microsoft Access database compatible and
provides several reporting and additional features. Using this software the
correlation can be determined straightly by entering N value.
ii. Correction N value Based on The Water Table
The groundwater level affects the calculation of effective overburden stress

(σ'v) used in the correlations. In addition to find the parameter, it must be apply the
water level correction on SPT blow counts, as proposed by Terzaghi. This
correction is recommended for N≥15 in silty sands:
N correction =15+0.5(N60-15)
15
N Value From SPT/
N Value From SPT 300 mm
Finding Using
Corrected N value = Correlation Based
N60 and N1(60) on Graph
Ɣ, Unit weight of Φ’, Cu and C’

soil and Es
Figure 2.6 : Finding The Unit Figure 2.7 : Finding The Others
Weight Of the Soil Parameter Of Soi
N60 is a method of "standardizing" N values based upon the drilling methods
𝑁 × 𝑛𝐻 × 𝑛𝐵 × 𝑛𝑆 × 𝑛𝑅
60 N1(60)
N Value
NovoSPT software N60, N1(60)
Figure 2.8 : Finding The Corrected N value
N60 = Standard Penetration

number for field Condition
N = Measure Penetration number
nH = Hammer Efficiency
nB = Correction For Borehole Diameter
nS = Correction sampler
nR = Correction for road length
16
List Of Tables Using For Finding Soil Parameter
2.6.1 Correlation SPT For Unit Weight
2.6.2 Correlation SPT for Undrain Shear Strength Cu.
2.6.3 Using Peak et al 1974 to correlate for finding
17
Figure 2.9 : For Finding Modulus of Figure 2.10 : For Finding The
Elesticity Cohesio
Table 2.1 : Soil Properties In borehoe 1 (Water Table was Consider Calculated by
NovoSPT)
Thickness Cu Es C’
N60 N1(60) Ɣ Ɣ*z Φ’
(m) (kN/m²) (Mpa) (kN/m²)
(kN/m3)
1 5 9 19.2 19.2 28.3 38.28 0.9 19.14

1 6 10 19.3 19.3 28.3 43.75 1 21.875
1 10 17 20.4 20.4 28.8 143.02 1.8 71.51
1 15 24 20.4 20.4 29.1 202.98 2.5 101.49
1 27 38 20.4 20.4 29.9 371.96 4.2 185.89
1.5 46 57 20.4 30.6 30.7 620.86 4.2 310.43
1.5 47 48 20.4 30.6 30.8 167.02 23.6 83.51
1.5 48 47 20.4 30.6 30.8 170.25 29.1 85.125
1.5 49 46 20.4 30.6 30.8 172.42 24.3 86.21
0.5 49 44 20.4 10.2 30.8 173.83 24.5 86.915
1. Φ’Avg = 29.95°
2. EsAvg (Mpa) = 12.56
3. C’Avg (kN/m²) = 112.29
4. ƔAvg (kN/m3) = 20.2
18
Table 2.2 : Soil Properties In borehole 2 without Reduction Factor
Depth,
Cu Es C’
SPT z N60 N1(60) Ɣ Ɣ*z Φ’
(kN/m²) (Mpa) (kN/m²)
(m) (kN/m3)
1 3 5 18.2 18.2 27.9 10.625 2.9 5.3125

1 4 7 18.7 18.7 28.1 13.285 3.4 6.64
1 6 10 19.3 19.3 28.3 43.75 1 21.875
1 5 8 18.9 18.9 28.2 17.595 2.5 8.798
1 6 9 19.2 19.2 28.4 21.84 3.1 10.92
1.5 6 8 18.9 28.35 28.4 22.67 4.9 11.335
1.5 20 23 20.4 30.6 29.4 70.285 9.9 35.142
1.4 48 49 20.4 20.4 30.8 170.295 24 85.148
1.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1. Φ’Avg = 28.711°
2. EsAvg (Mpa) = 6.56
3. C’Avg (kN/m²) = 23.156
4. ƔAvg (kN/m3) = 20.427
19
Reduction Factor
Redution factor if very important when using correlation. This is because the
correlation that used in this software or Graph is purly Sand or clay. This mean in every
soil layer, the soil was mix between sand clay gravel or silt. So we cannot take the 100
% value based on sapretly correlation graph to used in the design. For exmple In Layer
2. BH 1
The Φ value is 28.3 and the C value is 39.28 Kpa. This mean the friction angle
for the soil is higher and the undrained shear strength is also higher. This because the
correlation is used saperetly, so it will be cause in higher for the both value. In other
words, using N value on that soil layer, we find the friction angle and at the same time
used same N value in same layer to find the Undrain shear starain Cu also.
Method for solving this Problem

i. Find the most dominent soil in that particular layer. Exmple in that layer
most dominent is clay so the undrain shear strength is higher and friction
angle value is lower.
ii. Used the reduction factor for estimating the new friction angle
20
2.7.1 Correction in layer 1 Example
Mostly in this soil layer is sandy silt sand. So the fiction angle is lower
due to the most dominent soil in this layer was silt. The new friction angle may
reduced using reduction factor and Cu was remind based on the correction using
graph or Software.
21
Figure 2.11 : Soil Correlation and all Parameter in BH1
22
Figure 2.12 : Soil Correlation and all Parameter in BH2
23
Critical Soil Profile
BH2 BH1
Figure 2.13 : Side View of Soil Profile with Top soil
Based on the analysis on the borehole 1 and 2. Borehole 1 is the most critical
borehole because the most fine grain in this type. Strength depends principally upon the
content of water, clastic materials and plastic materials. Soils are primarily of two types
cohesionless soils in which the strength is produced mainly by the friction of clastic
particles against one another, and cohesive soils in which the strength, among other
things, is influenced by forces between clay particles.
These kinds of soils in BH 1 are geotechnically problematic due to their high

compressibility or high settlement and low shear strength Fine grained soil like clay
soil is a consolidating soil. When the clay soil dries, it contracts, pulling away from the
foundation. The Primary Consolidation occurs due to gradual dissipation of pore
pressure induced by external loading and consequently expulsion of water from the soil
mass, hence volume change.
24
A clayey soil will not change its volume unless the water content changes.
Structural damage may occur if the change in moisture content is relatively rapid (say
over a few weeks or months) or if it affects only part of a building. Not only that,
situations which can cause this include changes in subsurface drainage (such as a water
leak from a burst or blocked pipe or drain), localized drying of a soil (due to plant
growth or proximity of trees), or a sudden change in the water regime (due to the
removal or pruning of a tree which was sheltering the soil and keeping it relatively dry,
for example).
In Malaysia, Quaternary erosion accentuated by climatic and sea level changes

has produced widespread thick deposits of soft clays in the coastal areas and major river
valleys, of varying thickness, ranging from 5 m to 30 m. Not only that, soft clay deposits
are widespread, and they present special problems.
Based on this justification. We used all properties or parameters in BH1 to

consider in all design of shallow foundation in this area.
Figure 2.14 : Top View of Soil Profile Without Top soil
25
26
Procedure to finding the soil Parameter (Sample Based On the Layer 1 in BH1)
1. Using the soil soil profile visualize in the software and SPT value in the Borelog
Soil Soil N
Type Value
Figure 2.15 : Sample Of The Bore Log
2. Using N value 1. Need to find the Unit Weight Of The Soil (In BH1 Layer 2 N
value Is 7/300 mean N blow per 300mm
Figure 2.16 : The value get it from this graph in (pcf) / Lb/ft3 , so we need to
convert to kN/m3
27
3. To find the Undraind Shear Strength ( Graph Terzaghi and Peck or Sower)
The Cu value in the first layer is 38.28 kPa. this exact value is getting from
NovoSPT software by using Sower 1979 correlation. The range is from the graph.
4. Friction angle
The Value got from this graph is around 27.9°. This exact value also we got
from NovoSPT software. The range is from the graph ( Reduction Factor need to Apply
in this value. Because of most dominent soil was Silt)
28
5. Modulus of Elesticity is determined by using the formula above or by also
NovoSPT software.
Es approximatly ≈ 5 × 𝑁60 × 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.9 𝑀𝑝𝑎
6. The cohesion was half of the undrain shear strength
C’ = Cu/2 = 19.14 kPa
This step was repeated for the every layer until end of the soil layer in BH1
29
Figure 2.17 : Critical Soil Profile Without Reduction Factor
Figure 2.18 : Critical Soil Profile With Reduction Factor
30
3.0 Factor Affecting the depth of Shallow Foundation
Before calculating depth of shallow foundation, the following factors have to be considered
well in advance.
1. Foundation should be placed at such a depth so that it is safe against damages due to
swelling, shrinkage or freezing of sub soil.
2. Bearing capacity of soil beneath the foundation must be adequate to support the load
coming from foundation.
3. If foundation has to be placed on cohesive soil then the settlement due to consolidation
should not be excessive.
4. Never place foundation on loose or disturbed soils which have a tendency to erode by
wind or flood.
5. If possible then foundation should be placed above ground water table as this can avoid
cost of pumping, and can prevent instability of soil due to seepage of water into the
bottom of an excavation.
6. Make an investigation on foundation soil to know its physical and chemical properties,
because presence of sulphate can damage foundation.
31
4.0 Bearing Capacity
The soil must be capable of carrying the loads from any engineered structure placed
upon it without a shear failure and with the resulting settlements being tolerable for that
structure. The bearing capacity of a shallow foundation can be defined as the maximum value
of the load applied, for which no point of the subsoil reaches failure point or else for which
failure extends to a considerable volume of soil.
Seldom has a structure collapsed or tilted over from a base shear failure in recent times.
Most reported base failures have occurred under embankments or similar structures where a
low factor of safety was deemed acceptable. Most structural distress attributed to poor
foundation design is from excessive settlements. Even here, however, structural collapse
seldom occurs. This may in part be due to settlements being time-dependent, so that when
cracks or other evidence first appears, there is sufficient time to take remedial measures.
It is necessary to investigate both base shear resistance and settlements for any
structure. In many cases settlement criteria will control the allowable bearing capacity;
however, there are also a number of cases where base shear (in which a base punches into the
ground usually with a simultaneous rotation) dictates the recommended bearing capacity.
32
5.0 Elastic Settlement
Calculation Depth Of Foundation
The minimum depth of shallow foundation for a soil can be calculated using the
following formula as suggested by Rankine. This is called Rankine’s Formula.
Dmin = (q/g) * [(1 – sinØ) / (1 + sinØ)]2
Where,
Dmin = Minimum depth of foundation in m
g = Density of unit weight of soil in kN/m3
Ø = Angle of repose in Degrees
q = Intensity of load or Safe bearing capacity of soil in kN/m2
q = Assume 2 x 2 Footing
Sample Calculation
𝟐𝟓𝟎
Dmin = × ((1 − sin 28.3) ÷ (1 + sin 28.3))2
𝟏𝟗.𝟐
Dmin = 52.08 × 0.129 = 1.49 m
33
1000 kN 2000 kN
1.5m
2.4m WT
Effective Depth H or
5B which one is
Effective Depth H or
smaller
5B to find the
average of the soil
parameter
Note: JKR standart maximum 1.5 meter from foundtion to soil this is because we need to
maintain the coloum stump. Coloum stump need to be 1.5 meter from the foundation to the
top soil.
34
Figure 5.1 : Soil Profile and Soil parameter with Placement of Foundation
Explanation:
For this case we use reduction factor for the friction angle. This is because of the most
of the soil layer stated in the bore long is majority was clay. So the undrained shear strength
value we maintained got from correlation and friction angle we need to reduce it. No specefic
way to reduce because we do not know how many percent of them is clay and how many
percent is sand. So the best way we look for the strength value get from correlation for example
if undrain shear strength is high so we reduce more on the friction angle but when undrain shear
is low so we reduce less from the friction angle.
35
Title: Trial 1. Square footing 2.0 m x 2.0 m
No Calculation Reference
19.2𝑥0.5+19.3+20.41+20.41+20.41+20.41𝑥1.5+20.41𝑥1.5+2−.41𝑥1
γavg = 10
γ΄ = 17.17 − 9.81 γ΄ = 7.36KN/𝑚3

𝑑
γ̅ = γ΄ + 𝐵 (γ − γ΄ )
2.4
= 7.36 + (17.17 – 7.36)
2
= 19.13 KN/𝑚3
36
𝑐 ΄ avg =
19.14𝑥0.5+21.88+71.51+101.49+195.98+310.43𝑥1.5+83.51𝑥1.5+85.13𝑥1.5+86.21
10
= 120.524 KN/𝑚2
22.64𝑥0.5+19.81+11.52+6+4.5+3𝑥1.5+9.24𝑥1.5+9.5𝑥1.5+8.9
ϕ avg = 10
= 9.466̊
q = (1.5)(19.13) = 28.695 KN/𝑚2
𝑒𝐿 0.3 𝑒𝐵 0.2
= = 0.15 = =0.1
𝐿 2 𝐵 2
T
his case is similar to case II
𝐿1
≈ 1.0; 𝐿1 = (1.0)(2) = 2 𝑚
𝐿
And
𝐿2
≈ 0.25; 𝐿2 = (0.25) (2) = 0.5 m
𝐿
1 1
𝐴΄ = 2(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝐵 = 2(2+ 0.5)(2) = 2.5 𝑚2
𝐿΄ = 𝐿1 = 2 m
𝐴΄ 2.5
𝐵΄ = = = 1.25 m
𝐿1 2
1
𝑞 ΄ 𝑢 = 𝑐 ΄ 𝑁𝑐 𝐹𝑐𝑠 𝐹𝑐𝑑 𝐹𝑐𝑖 +q 𝑁𝑞 𝐹𝑞𝑠 𝐹𝑞𝑑 𝐹𝑞𝑖 + 2 γ 𝑁γ 𝐹γ𝑠 𝐹γ𝑑 𝐹γ𝑖
for ϕ΄ = 9.466̊,
𝑁𝑐 = 8.120, 𝑁𝑞 = 2.35 and 𝑁γ = 1.11 thus,
𝐵΄ 𝑁𝑞 1.25 2.35
𝐹𝑐𝑠 = 1 + =1+ = 1.180
𝐿΄ 𝑁𝑐 2 8.120
37
𝐵΄ 1.25
𝐹𝑞𝑠 = 1 + ( 𝐿΄ ) tan ϕ΄ = 1+( ) tan 9.466̊ = 1.1
2
𝐵΄ 1.25
𝐹γ𝑠 = 1 – 0.4 ( 𝐿΄ ) = 1 – 0.4 +( ) = 0.75
2
𝐷𝑓
𝐹q𝑑 = 1 + 2 tan ϕ΄ (1 − sinϕ΄ )2 𝐵
1.5
=1 + 2 tan 9.466 (1 − sin9.466)2 1.25 = 1.32
1−𝐹q𝑑 1−1.32
𝐹c𝑑 = 𝐹q𝑑 − 𝑁 ΄
= 1.32 - 8.120 tan 9.466 = 1.55
𝑐 tan ϕ
𝐹γ𝑑 = 1
So
1
𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝐴΄ 𝑞 ΄ 𝑢 = 𝐴΄ (𝑐 ΄ 𝑁𝑐 𝐹𝑐𝑠 𝐹𝑐𝑑 +q 𝑁𝑞 𝐹𝑞𝑠 𝐹𝑞𝑑 + 2 γ 𝑁γ 𝐹γ𝑠 𝐹γ𝑑 )
1
= 2.5 ( 120.524x8.120x1.180x1.55x1+ 28.695x2.35x1.1x1.32x1 + 2
x19.13x1.25x1.11x1x1)
= 4752 KN
𝟒𝟕𝟓𝟐
= 4.75 > 3.0 OK
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
38
Title: Trial 2. Square footing 1.8 m x 1.8 m
19.2𝑥0.5+19.3+20.41+20.41+20.41+20.41𝑥1.5+20.41𝑥1.5+2.41𝑥1.5
γavg = 9
γ΄ = 20.21 − 9.81 γ΄ = 10.41 KN/𝑚3

𝑑
γ̅ = γ΄ + 𝐵 (γ − γ΄ )
2.4
= 10.41 + 1.8 (20.21 – 10.4)
= 23.48 KN/𝑚3
39
𝑐 ΄ avg =
19.14𝑥0.5+21.88+71.51+101.49+195.98+310.43𝑥1.5+83.51𝑥1.5+85.13𝑥1.5
9
2
= 124.3 KN/𝑚
22.64𝑥0.5+19.81+11.52+6+4.5+3𝑥1.5+9.24𝑥1.5+9.5𝑥1.5
ϕ avg = 9
= 9.53̊
q = (1.5)(23.48) = 35.22 KN/𝑚2
𝑒𝐿 0.3 𝑒𝐵 0.2
= 1.8 = 0.167 = 1.8 =0.11
𝐿 𝐵
This case is similar to case II

𝐿1
≈ 0.95; 𝐿1 = (0.95)(1.8) = 1.71 𝑚
𝐿
And
𝐿2
≈ 0.2; 𝐿2 = (0.2) (1.8) = 0.36 m
𝐿
1 1
𝐴΄ = 2(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝐵 = 2(1.71+ 0.36)(1.8) = 1.863 𝑚2
𝐿΄ = 𝐿1 = 1.71 m
𝐴΄ 1.863
𝐵΄ = = = 1.08 m
𝐿1 1.71
1
for ϕ΄ = 9.53̊,
𝑁𝑐 = 8.15, 𝑁𝑞 = 2.37 and 𝑁γ = 1.13 thus,
𝐵΄ 𝑁𝑞 1.08 2.37
𝐹𝑐𝑠 = 1 + = 1 + 1.71 8.15 = 1.18
𝐿΄ 𝑁𝑐
𝐵΄ 1.08
𝐹𝑞𝑠 = 1 + ( 𝐿΄ ) tan ϕ΄ = 1+(1.71) tan 9.53 = 1.10
𝐵΄ 1.08
𝐹γ𝑠 = 1 – 0.4 ( 𝐿΄ ) = 1 – 0.4 (1.71) = 0.74
𝐷𝑓
𝐹q𝑑 = 1 + 2 tan ϕ΄ (1 − sinϕ΄ )2 𝐵
1.5
=1 + 2 tan 9.53 (1 − sin9.53)2 1.08 = 1.32
40
19.2𝑥0.5+19.3+20.41+20.41+20.41+20.41𝑥1.5+20.41𝑥1.5+2.41𝑥1.5
γavg =
9
γ΄ = 20.21 − 9.81 γ΄ = 10.41 KN/𝑚3

𝑑
γ̅ = γ΄ + 𝐵 (γ − γ΄ )
2.4
= 10.41 + 1.8 (20.21 – 10.4)
= 23.48 KN/𝑚3
41
1−𝐹q𝑑 1−1.32
= 1.32 - 8.15 tan 9.53 = 1.55
𝑐 tan ϕ
𝐹γ𝑑 = 1
So
1
1
= 1.863 (124.3x8.15x1.18x1.55+35.22x2.37x1.10x1.55+2x
23.48x1.13x0.74x1)
= 3735 KN
𝟑𝟕𝟑𝟓
= 3.735 > 3.0 OK
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
42
Title: Trial 1. Rectangular footing 1.8 m x 3.5 m
19.2𝑥0.5+19.3+20.41+20.41+20.41+20.41𝑥1.5+20.41𝑥1.5+2.41𝑥1.5
γavg = 9
γ΄ = 20.21 − 9.81 γ΄ = 10.41 KN/𝑚3

𝑑
γ̅ = γ΄ + 𝐵 (γ − γ΄ )
2.4
= 10.41 + 1.8 (20.21 – 10.4)
= 23.48 KN/𝑚3
𝑐 ΄ avg =
19.14𝑥0.5+21.88+71.51+101.49+195.98+310.43𝑥1.5+83.51𝑥1.5+85.13𝑥1.5
9
43
= 124.3 KN/𝑚2
22.64𝑥0.5+19.81+11.52+6+4.5+3𝑥1.5+9.24𝑥1.5+9.5𝑥1.5
ϕ avg = 9
= 9.53̊
q = (1.5)(23.48) = 35.22 KN/𝑚2
𝑒𝐿 0.2 𝑒𝐵 0.1
= 3.5 = 0.05 = 1.8 =0.05
𝐿 𝐵
This case is similar to case IV

𝐵2
≈ 0.5; 𝐵2 = (0.5)(1.8) = 0.9 𝑚
𝐵
And
𝐿2
≈ 0.29; 𝐿2 = (0.29) (3.5) = 1.01 m
𝐿
1
𝐴΄ = 𝐿2 B + 2 (B + 𝐵2)(L - 𝐿2 )
1
=1.01x0.9 + 2 (1.8+0.9)(3.5 – 1.01)
= 4.27 𝑚2
𝐿΄ = L = 3.5 m
𝐴΄ 4.27
𝐵΄ = = = 1.22 m
𝐿 3.5
1
for ϕ΄ = 9.53̊,
𝑁𝑐 = 8.14, 𝑁𝑞 = 2.36 and 𝑁γ = 1.13 thus,
𝐵΄ 𝑁𝑞 1.22 2.36
𝐹𝑐𝑠 = 1 + =1+ = 1.10
𝐿΄ 𝑁𝑐 3.5 8.14
𝐵΄ 1.22
𝐹𝑞𝑠 = 1 + ( 𝐿΄ ) tan ϕ΄ = 1+( 3.5 ) tan 9.53 = 1.05
𝐵΄ 1.22
𝐹γ𝑠 = 1 – 0.4 ( 𝐿΄ ) = 1 – 0.4 ( 3.5 ) = 0.86
𝐷𝑓
𝐹q𝑑 = 1 + 2 tan ϕ΄ (1 − sinϕ΄ )2 𝐵
1.5
=1 + 2 tan 9.53 (1 − sin9.53)2 1.22 = 1.32
1−𝐹q𝑑 1−1.32
𝐹c𝑑 = 𝐹q𝑑 − 𝑁 = 1.32 - 8.14 tan 9.53 = 1.55
𝑐 tan ϕ΄
𝐹γ𝑑 = 1
44
So
1
1
= 4.27 (124.3x8.14x1.10x1.55+35.22x2.36x1.05x1.32x1+ 2
x23.48x1.22x1.13x0.86 )
= 7917 KN
𝟕𝟗𝟏𝟕
= 3.95 > 3.0 OK
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
45
Title: Trial 2. Rectangular footing .0 m x 3.5 m
γavg =
19.2𝑥0.5+19.3+20.41+20.41+20.41+20.41𝑥1.5+20.41𝑥1.5+2.41𝑥1.5+20.4𝑥1.5+20.4𝑥4.5
15
γ΄ = 20.286 − 9.81 γ΄ = 10.458 KN/𝑚3

𝑑
γ̅ = γ΄ + 𝐵 (γ − γ΄ )
2.4
= 10.458 + (20.286 – 10.458)
3
= 18.32 KN/𝑚3
46
𝑐 ΄ avg =
19.14𝑥0.5+21.88+71.51+101.49+195.98+310.43𝑥1.5+83.51𝑥1.5+85.13𝑥1.5+86.21𝑥1.5+86.915𝑥4.5
15
2
= 109.29 KN/𝑚
22.64𝑥0.5+19.81+11.52+6+4.5+3𝑥1.5+9.24𝑥1.5+9.5𝑥1.5+8.9𝑥1.5+8.6𝑥4.5
ϕ avg = 15
= 9.187̊
q = (1.5)(18.32) = 27.48 KN/𝑚2
𝑒𝐿 0.2 𝑒𝐵 0.1
= 3.5 = 0.06 = =0.0333
𝐿 𝐵 3
This case is similar to case IV

𝐵2
≈ 0.15; 𝐵2 = (0.15)(3) = 0.45 𝑚
𝐵
And
𝐿2
≈ 0.7; 𝐿2 = (0.7) (3.5) = 2.45 m
𝐿
1
𝐴΄ = 𝐿2 B + 2 (B + 𝐵2)(L - 𝐿2 )
1
=2.45x3 + 2 (3+0.45)(3.5 – 2.45)
= 9.16 𝑚2
𝐿΄ = L = 3.5 m
𝐴΄ 9.16
𝐵΄ = = = 2.61 m
𝐿 3.5
1
𝑞 ΄ 𝑢 = 𝑐 ΄ 𝑁𝑐 𝐹𝑐𝑠 𝐹𝑐𝑑 𝐹𝑐𝑖 +q 𝑁𝑞 𝐹𝑞𝑠 𝐹𝑞𝑑 𝐹𝑞𝑖 + γ 𝑁γ 𝐹γ𝑠 𝐹γ𝑑 𝐹γ𝑖
2
for ϕ΄ = 9.187̊,
𝑁𝑐 = 8, 𝑁𝑞 = 2.29 and 𝑁γ = 1.06 thus,
47
𝐵΄ 𝑁𝑞 2.61 2.29
𝐹𝑐𝑠 = 1 + =1+ = 1.21
𝐿΄ 𝑁𝑐 3.5 8
𝐵΄ 2.61
𝐹𝑞𝑠 = 1 + ( 𝐿΄ ) tan ϕ΄ = 1+( 3.5 ) tan 9.187 = 1.12
𝐵΄ 2.61
𝐹γ𝑠 = 1 – 0.4 ( 𝐿΄ ) = 1 – 0.4 ( 3.5 ) = 0.70
𝐷𝑓
𝐹q𝑑 = 1 + 2 tan ϕ΄ (1 − sinϕ΄ )2 𝐵
1.5
=1 + 2 tan 9.187 (1 − sin9.187)2 2.61 = 1.31
1−𝐹q𝑑 1−1.31
= 1.31 - 8 tan 9.187 = 1.54
𝑐 tan ϕ
𝐹γ𝑑 = 1
So
1
1
= 9.16 ( 109.2x8x1.21x1.54x1+27.48x2.29x1.120x1.31+ 2
x18.32x1.06x0.70)
= 15819 KN
𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟏𝟗
= 7.90 > 3.0 OK
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
48
Elastic Settlement
Elastic settlement may happen in corner or center of foundation so based on that

we check for both of situation.
Load
Df
Δz
Center area of settlement
∑ 𝐸𝑠𝑖 Δz
Es =
𝑧
Esi = soil modules
Z = H or 5B whichever is smaller
The information requires to solve the problem

B × L = area of foundation Z = thickness of each layer Esi = soil modules
49
Title: Checking settlement for 1.8 m x 1.8 m
Foundation, H =9m
Width of foundation, B = 1.8 m
Length of foundation, L = 1.8 m
Settlement at center of foundation:
m' = L/B
=1
n' = H/(B/2)
= 10
A =4
Aₒ = m' In(((1+√(m'² +1)) (m'² + n'²))/(m'(1+√(m'²+n'²+1))

= 0.782033338
A₁ = In(((m'+√(m'²+1))*(√1+n'²))/(m'+(√(m'²+n'²+1)))
= 0.782033338
A₂ = m'/(n'(√(m'²+n'²+1))
= 0.009901475
F₁ = (1/P) (Aₒ + A₁)

= 0.497857886
F₂ = (n'/2P)*(tanh A₂)
= 0.015758173
µs = 0.5
50
Is = F₁+(((1-2µs)/(1-µs)) *F2)
= 0.545132404
Depth Factor, If (Fox,1948)
If = 0.76
Average Modulus of Elasticity of the soil under the foundation from (extracted
from Table
Z = 0 to Z = 5B ,Es
17.5 in
textbook)
Elasticity
Depth, Δz
Soil Type modulus of soil, Δz*(Esi)
(m)
Es(i)
CL 0.5 900 450
CL 1 1000 1000
CH 1 1800 1800
CH 1 2500 2500
CH 1 4200 4200
CH 1.5 4200 6300
SC 1.5 23600 35400
ML 1.5 29100 43650
TOTAL 9 95300
Z = H or 5B, whichever is smaller

=9m
Es = (∑Es(i) x Δz) /(z)

Es = 10588.88889 KN/m²
51
Elastic Settlement Based on Theory of Elasticity (Drained Soil),
Se (mm)
qₒ = net applied pressure on the foundation in KN/m²

= 308.64 KN/m²
B' = B/2
= 0.9 m
Se(flexible) = qₒ(aB’) * ((1-µs²)/Es)*IsIf

= 0.0326 m
= 32.6048 mm
Se(rigid) = 0.93(Se(flexible))
= 30.3224 mm
52
Foundation, H = 9m
Width of foundation, B = 1.8 m
m' = L/B
= 1.944444444
n' = H/(B/2)
= 10
A =4
Aₒ = m' In(((1+√(m'² +1)) (m'² + n'²))/(m'(1+√(m'²+n'²+1))
= 0.769899155
A₁ = In(((m'+√(m'²+1))*(√1+n'²))/(m'+(√(m'²+n'²+1)))
= 1.226218378
A₂ = m'/(n'(√(m'²+n'²+1))
= 0.018995667
F₁ = (1/P)(Aₒ + A₁)
= 0.635383945
F₂ = (n'/2P)*(tanh A₂)
= 0.030228907
µs = 0.5
Is = F₁+(((1-2µs)/(1-µs))*F2)
= 0.726070667
53
If = 0.821 (extracted
from Table
17.5 in
textbook)
Average Modulus of Elasticity of the soil under the foundation from

Z = 0 to Z = 5B, Es
Elasticity
Soil Type Depth, Δz (m) modulus of soil, Δz*(Esi)
Es(i)
CL 0.5 900 450
CL 1 1000 1000
CH 1 1800 1800
CH 1 2500 2500
CH 1 4200 4200
CH 1.5 4200 6300
SC 1.5 23600 35400
ML 1.5 29100 43650
Total 9 95300

=9m
Es = (∑Es(i) x Δz) /(z)

= 10588.88889 KN/m²
54
Se (mm)

= 317.46 KN/m²
B' = B/2
= 0.9 m
Se(flexible) = qₒ(aB')*((1-µs²)/Es)*IsIf
= 0.04825 m
= 48.253 mm
= 44.8753 mm
55
Foundation, H = 10 m
Width of foundation, B =2m
Length of foundation, L =2
m' = L/B
=1
n' = H/(B/2)
= 10
a =4
Aₒ = m' In(((1+√(m'² +1)) (m'² + n'²))/(m'(1+√(m'²+n'²+1))

= 0.782033338
A₁ = In(((m'+√(m'²+1))*(√1+n'²))/(m'+(√(m'²+n'²+1)))
= 0.782033338
A₂ = m'/(n'(√(m'²+n'²+1))
= 0.009901475
F₁ = (1/P)(Aₒ + A₁)
= 0.497857886
F₂ = (n'/2P)*(tanh A
= 0.015758173
µs = 0.5
Is = F₁+(((1-2µs)/(1-µs))*F2)
= 0.545132404
56
Depth Factor, If (Fox,1948)\
(extracted
If = 0.78 from Table
17.5 in
textbook)

Z = 0 to z = 5B , Es
Elasticity
Depth, Δz
Soil Type modulus of soil, Δz*(Esi)
(m)
Es(i)
CL 0.5 900 450

CL 1 1000 1000
CH 1 1800 1800
CH 1 2500 2500
CH 1 4200 4200
CH 1.5 4200 6300
SC 1.5 23600 35400
ML 1.5 29100 43650
SM 1 24300 24300
Total 10 119600

= 10 m
Es = (∑Es(i) x Δz) /(z)

= 11960 KN/m²

Se (mm)
57
= 250 KN/m²
B' = B/2
=1m
= 0.02666 m
= 26.6641 mm
= 4.7976 mm
58
Foundation , H = 15 m
Width of foundation , B =3m
m' = L/B
= 1.166666667
n' = H/(B/2)
= 10
a =4
Aₒ = m' In(((1+√(m'² +1)) (m'² + n'²))/(m'(1+√(m'²+n'²+1))

= 0.790424318
A₁ = In(((m'+√(m'²+1))*(√1+n'²))/(m'+(√(m'²+n'²+1)))
= 0.878628993
A₂ = m'/(n'(√(m'²+n'²+1))
= 0.011531327
F₁ = (1/P)(Aₒ + A₁)
= 0.531276169
F₂ = (n'/2P)*(tanh A₂)
= 0.018351864
µs = 0.5
Is = F₁+(((1-2µs)/(1-µs))*F2)
= 0.586331761
59
(extracted
If = 0.868 from Table
17.5 in
textbook)

Z = 0 to Z = 5B, Es
Elasticity
Soil Type Depth, Δz (m) modulus of soil, Δz*(Esi)
Es(i)
CL 0.5 900 450

CL 1 1000 1000
CH 1 1800 1800
CH 1 2500 2500
CH 1 4200 4200
CH 1.5 4200 6300
SC 1.5 23600 35400
ML 1.5 29100 43650
SM 1.5 24300 36450
SM 4.5 24500 110250
Total 15 242000

= 15 m
Es = (∑Es(i) x Δz) /(z)

= 16133.33333 KN/m²

Se (mm)
60
= 190.48 KN/m²
B' = B/2
= 1.5 m
= 0.02704 m
= 27.03396 mm
= 25.1469 mm
61
Angular Distortion
i. First design
1.8*1.8 3*3.5
44.8 − 30.32
= 2.91 × 10−3
5000
ii. Economical design
1.8*1.8 1.8*3.5
30.32 − 25.15
= 1.034 × 10−3
5000
62
iii. Optimum design
2*2 1.8*3.5
25.15 − 24.79
= 7.5 × 10−5
5000
63
64
6.0 Method Of Statement
Justification for Method of Statement
The types of foundation used can be classified into two categories:
a) Deep Foundation - High rise building
Figure 6.1 : Shows Deep Foundation
b) Shallow Foundation - Small building, terrace house
Figure 6.2 : Shows Shallow Foundation.
65
Foundation is an important part of every building, which interfaces the
superstructures to the adjacent soil or rock below it. The superstructure loads will be
transferred to the underlying soil or rock. Without a proper design and construction of
foundation, problems such as cracking, settlement of building may occur and even to
the extent, the whole building may collapse within its design life. Therefore, a proper
foundation system is required to maintain the safeness of a building.
Shallow foundations are used when the soil formation has adequate strength for
a safe bearing support. However, if the soil has lower shear strength or is highly
compressible, shallow foundations may not be a suitable option. Under such
circumstances, deep foundation may be used. The loads will be transmitted to a greater
depth or to a stiffer stratum or to rock by deep foundation.
The selection of foundation is based on consideration of the type, nature and

availability of the information required, its collection and its validity. Since the client’s
proposed to construct a large electronic factory then shallow foundation are
recommended. Both of the types of foundation has their own advantages. Shallow
foundation is much easier to construct, meanwhile for deep foundation will involve
pile, pier and caissons.
However, using piled foundations would increase the bearing capacity but
possibly use more materials and at a higher cost. Since the bearing capacities we
calculated using shallow foundations were adequate, it would be considered a waste
and unjustified increased of risk in construction to use deep foundation.
66
General Requirements of a Building Foundation
i. The foundation, including the underlying soil and rock, must be safe against a
structural failure that could result in collapse. For example, the foundation for a
skyscraper must support the great weight of the building above on a relatively
narrow base without danger of overturning.
ii. The foundation must be feasible, both technically and economically, and
practical to build without adverse effects on surrounding property.
iii. During the life of the building, the foundation must not settle in such a way as
to damage the structure or impair its function.
Steps on Constructing Shallow Foundation
6.3.1 Site Investigation
A thorough understanding on the ground conditions of a site is a pre-

requisite to the success of a foundation project. The overall objective of a site
investigation for foundation design is to determine the site constraints,
geological profile and the properties of the various strata. The geological
sequence can be established by sinking boreholes from which soil and rock
samples are retrieved for identification and testing. In situ tests may also be
carried out to determine the mass properties of the ground.
These investigation methods may be supplemented by regional

geological studies and geophysical tests were justified by the scale and
importance of the project, or the complexity of the ground conditions. The
importance of a properly planned and executed ground investigation cannot be
overemphasized. The information obtained from the investigation will allow an
appropriate geological model to be constructed.
67
Figure 6.3 : Shows the site investigation
This determines the selection of the optimum foundation system for the
proposed structure. It is important that the engineer planning the site
investigation and designing the foundations liaises closely with the designer of
the superstructure and the project coordinator so that specific requirements and
site constraints are fully understood by the project team. An oversimplified site
investigation is a false economy as it can lead to design changes and delays
during construction and substantial cost overruns. The investigation should
always be regarded as a continuing process that requires regular reappraisals.
For large projects or sites with a complex geology, it is advisable to

phase the investigation to enable a preliminary geological assessment and allow
appropriate amendments of the study schedule in response to the actual sub-
surface conditions encountered. Significant cost savings may be achieved if
development layouts can avoid areas of complex ground conditions. In some
cases, additional ground investigation may be necessary during, or subsequent
to, foundation construction. For maximum cost-effectiveness, it is important to
ensure that appropriate tests are undertaken to derive relevant design
parameters.
The stage will all be interested and may occur in different sequences for
different types of site and project. The overall process may be recursive such as
Desk Study, Site Reconnaissance, Detailed site exploration, Laboratory testing
of sample and Reporting results.
68
Exploration of Construction Site
i. Core Cutter Test
Figure 6.4 : Shows the core cutter test and apparatus
Purpose: To determine the bulk density of soil that have been placed by
compaction, or of natural soil. After measuring the water content the dry density
can be calculated.
ii. Sand replacement test
Figure 6.5 : Shows the sand replacement test
69
Purpose: Determine the in-situ density of natural or compacted soils using sand
pouring cylinders.
iii. Standard penetration test
Figure 6.6 : Shows the standard penetration test
Purpose: This test is use during the course of sinking test boreholes as a means of
estimating the relative density and shear strength characteristic.
iv. Pore water pressure measurements
Figure 6.7 : Shows the pore water pressure measuring apparatus
70
Purpose: Pore water pressure refers to the pressure of groundwater held within a soil
or rock, in gaps between particles (pores). Pore water pressures in below the phreatic
level are measured in piezometers.
Site Clearance
The site should be in a cleared and graded condition. It involves the removal of
trees, demolishing buildings, removing any and all old underground infrastructure, and
any other obstacles that might affect the construction process in the future or hinder the
project to be done.
Figure 6.8 : Shows a picture of site clearance
The site shall be cleared of vegetation, brushwood, stumps of trees etc. Roots
of the trees shall be removed to at least 30 cm below the foundation level. The pits
formed due to roots of trees, old foundations shall be filled up with soil and compacted.
71
Figure 6.9 : Shows a picture of site after clearance
Site Layout
Construction site layout involves layout site identifying, perimeter, sizing, and
placing temporary facilities within the boundaries of construction site. These temporary
facilities range from simple laydown areas to warehouses, fabrication shops,
maintenance shops, batch plant, and residence facilities. Required temporary facilities
and their areas are depending in many factors including project type, scale, design,
location, and organization of construction work.
72
Figure 6.10 : Shows a layout plan of construction site
Excavation
For small buildings, excavation is carried out manually by means of pick axes,
crow bars and spades. In case of large buildings and deep excavation, mechanical earth
cutting equipment can be used. Meanwhile, for hard soils when the depth of excavation
is less than 1.5 m, the sides of the trench do not need any external support. If the soil is
loose or the excavation is deeper, some sort of shoring is required to support the sides
from falling. Planking and strutting can be intermittent or continuous depending on the
nature of soil and the depth of excavation.
73
In general, foundations shall be excavated to the levels and dimensions as shown
on the drawings, with sides trimmed and bottoms levelled and stepped as required. All
excavation shall be carried down to required level. On no account shall shallow
foundations rest on made up or filled ground. Unless otherwise shown on the Drawings,
the depths of foundation shall be decided on the site. A good over excavation below the
required depth with suitable granular material or concrete should executed.
Figure 6.11 : Shows the excavation
74
Lean Concrete
Lay a layer of lean concrete to prepare a clean and firm for base footing.
Figure 6.12 : Shows the lean concrete
Footing
i. Construct Formwork
Formwork in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which

fresh concrete is poured only to harden subsequently. Types of formwork for concrete
construction depends on formwork material and type of structural element. Formwork
for the foundations will be used to provide the mould for the concrete pour to the 7 x
1.5 m dimensions.
75
Figure 6.13 : Shows the constructed formwork
Installed Reinforcement Rebar and Pour Concrete.
Spacer blocks are placed before reinforcement been laid. This is to provide
sufficient concrete cover for rebar. Rebar’s were bent and tied before the whole thing
been lowered and placed inside the formwork. Ensure the steel is place properly on
spacer blocks. Avoid touching the lean concrete below. After completed, then concrete
will poured into it followed with the compaction process.
Figure 6.14 : Shows the installed rebar and concrete pouring
76
Set up Stump Reinforcement
Stump reinforcement are then erected. The length of rebar should be extended
beyond the stump level and act as the starter bars for column. Provide the addition ties
to formwork. If it were necessary.
Figure 6.15 : Shows the set up stump reinforcement
Curing of Concrete
Concrete will set and curing shall be performed to avoid excessive lost water
during hardening. When the concrete has gained sufficient length, then formwork can
be dismantled.
77
Figure 6.16 : Shows the curing of concrete
Summary of Method of Statement
i. Site Investigation
ii. Site Clearance
iii. Site Layout
iv. Excavation
v. Lean Concrete
vi. Footing
a. Construct Formwork
b. Installed Reinforcement Rebar and Pour Concrete.
v. Set Up Stump Reinforcement
vi. Curing of Concrete
78
7.0 Costing
COST ESTIMATION FOR DESIGN

Type : Shallow foundation (Square)
Length : 1.8 m
Width : 1.8 m Thickness : 0.3m
Total Cost : RM 21,743.00
Rate/Day Days of Amount

No Description Quantity Unit
(RM) Usage RM/day (RM)
Labour
(Skilled Workers) Person/
1 4 60 7 1680.00
- for the site clearing, construction of the Day
formwork and concreting job.
Labour Cost Surveyor
Person/
2 - to pack the coordinate of the proposed designed 2 120 3 720.00
Day
foundation.
Plant/Equipment Operator
- operate heavy machinery for the purpose of Person/
3 2 100 5 1000.00
earthwork, construction of the form work. Day
79
Project Supervisor
Person/
4 - supervising the progress of the work according to 1 100 7 700.00
Day
the proposed design.
TOTAL 4100.00
80
Rate/Day Days of Amount RM/day
No. Description Quantity Unit
(RM) Usage (RM)
Excavator
1 - to excavate the soil for earthwork 2 Nos 1200 3 7200.00
purpose.
Plant and Machinery
Cost Lorry 3 tonnes
2 - transporting the excavated soil. 3 Nos 500 3 4500.00
Crane
3 - to assist in the concreting of the 1 Nos 750 4 3000.00
foundation.
TOTAL 14700.00
81
No Description Quantity Unit PerRate (RM) Amount (RM)
Ready Mix Concrete Grade 30

1 - premixed from the batching plant according to the gred required. 0.972 m³ 250 243.00
Material Cost
Plywood
2 60 piece 35 2100.00
- for the construction of the formwork.
Vibrator
3 2 Nos 300 600.00
- vibrate the concrete.
TOTAL 2943.00
Total cost for design , which is 14 days of work:

Labour Cost : 4100.00
Plant and Machinery Cost : 14700.00
Material Cost : 2943.00
TOTAL : RM 21743.00
82
Type : Shallow foundation (Rectangular)
Length : 3.5 m

Labour (Skilled Workers)
Person/
1 - for the site clearing, construction of the 4 60 7 1680.00
Day
Surveyor
Person/
Labour Cost Day
foundation.
Plant/Equipment Operator
Person/
3 - operate heavy machinery for the purpose of 2 100 5 1000.00
Day
earthwork, construction of the form work.
Project Supervisor
Person/
Day
TOTAL 4,100.00
83
(RM) Usage (RM)
Excavator
Plant and Machinery purpose.
Cost Lorry 3 tonnes

2 - transporting the excavated soil. 3 Nos 500 3 4500.00
Crane
foundation.
TOTAL 14,700.00
84
1 5.25 m³ 250 1312.50
- premixed from the batching plant according to the gred required.
Material Cost Plywood
2 60 piece 35 2100.00
Vibrator
3 2 Nos 300 600.00
TOTAL 4,012.50

TOTAL : RM 22,812.50
85
Type : Shallow foundation (Rectangular)
Length : 3.5 m

Labour (Skilled Workers)
Person/
1 - for the site clearing, construction of the 4 60 7 1680.00
Day
Surveyor
Person/
Labour Cost Day
foundation.
Plant/Equipment Operator\
Person/
3 - operate heavy machinery for the purpose of 2 100 5 1000.00
Day
earthwork, construction of the form work.
Project Supervisor
Person/
Day
TOTAL 4100.00
86
(RM) Usage (RM)
Excavator
Plant and Machinery purpose.
Cost Lorry 3 tonnes
2 3 Nos 500 3 4500.00
- transporting the excavated soil.
Crane
foundation.
TOTAL 14,700.00
87
1 - premixed from the batching plant according to the gred required. 1.89 m³ 250 472.50
Material Cost
Plywood
2 60 piece 35 2100.00
Vibrator
3 2 Nos 300 600.00
TOTAL 3,172.50

TOTAL : RM 21972.50
88
8.0 Ranking Matrix
Table 8.1 : Ranking matrix for design 1
Table 8.2 : Ranking matrix for design 2
89
9.0 Construction Drawing
90
91
92
10.0 Additional Information
General
10.1.1 Basic Requirements
Foundations of any building or structure shall be designed and

constructed to withstand safely all the dead, imposed and wind loads without
impairing the stability or inducing excessive movement to the building or of any
other building, street, land, slope or services.
The allowable capacity of the soil/rock under working loads where any
foundation is founded shall be the lesser of :
a. The ultimate capacity for bearing, bond or friction with an adequate

factor of safety against failure; or
b. The value in relation to bearing, bond or friction such that the maximum
deformation or movement induced to the foundation under working
loads can be tolerated by the building, any other building, structure,
land, street and services.
The allowable capacity may be increased by 25% when such increase is

solely due to wind effects. In determining the said factor of safety against
failure, due consideration shall be given to the form and depth of the foundation,
loading characteristics, the general geological conditions of the ground and its
surrounding including the presence of dissolution features, jointing conditions
and any other relevant characteristics for rock.
93
Rational Design Method
Rational design method for calculating the ultimate capacity should be based on
sound engineering approach and should include :
a) The reasonable interpretation of the results of site investigation;

b) The assessment of test results obtained in situ or from samples in the laboratory;
and
c) An analysis based on the laws of physics and recognized engineering principles
taking into account the ground conditions and foundation geometry, or an
established empirical method proven with adequate correlation.
Normally, the allowable capacity is estimated by applying a factor of safety of

3 to the calculated ultimate bearing capacity. However, other factors of safety may be
adopted having regard to the nature of the soil or rock, its variability over the site and
the reliability of the design method.
Compatibility Of Design And Construction
In choosing the method for the determination of the ultimate capacity or for the
estimation of settlement, care must be taken to ensure that the site investigation, testing,
derivation of parameters, computations, method of construction and standards of
acceptance are mutually compatible and consistent with such method.
94
Corrosion Protection Of Foundations
10.4.1 General
Foundations should be provided with adequate protections against

corrosion, or alternatively, they should be suitably designed to allow for the
effect of corrosion which may take place during their designed working life. To
ensure effective and economical designs for protection against corrosion,
information on the presence of any corrosive material in the ground and the
range of fluctuation of ground water table should be obtained.
10.4.2 Concrete Foundations
Provisions for corrosion protection of concrete foundations should be

given in the foundation plans where :
a) Sulphate, chloride, aggressive chemical or other agents causing

deterioration is present in the ground;
b) Alkali are present in the concrete and a high moisture content
environment exists;
c) The foundations are constructed on a landfill site; or
d) Damage by abrasion may occur.
To avoid the alkali-aggregate reaction occurring in reinforced concrete

structures, the reactive alkali of concrete expressed as the equivalent sodium
oxide per cubic metre of concrete should not exceed 3.0 kg.
95
Ground Investigation
10.5.1 General
Ground investigation works involve the field works carried out to obtain
information on the ground conditions, such as exploratory drilling, excavation
and probing of land, installation of instruments, sampling and field testing, and
the laboratory works for the testing of samples obtained from such operations.
All ground investigation field works, except field density tests, should
be carried out by a Registered Specialist Contractor (Ground Investigation Field
Works), whereas all laboratory testing of samples and field density tests should
be carried out by laboratories accredited. Sufficient ground investigation works
should be carried out to ensure that adequate information on the subsurface
conditions within and nearby the site can be obtained prior to the design of the
foundation.
10.5.2 Supervision For Ground Investigation Works
Proper supervision should be provided for the carrying out of all ground
investigation works. To ensure quality of the works, supervision for the
different stages of pre-design ground investigation field works should comply
with the requirements set out in the relevant PNAP or code of practice issued
by the Buildings Department.
10.5.3 Depth Of Ground Investigation
Boreholes and trial pits should be carried out to sufficient depth such
that all strata that are likely to be affected by the foundation loads will be
adequately explored. The depth of ground investigation will depend on the type
of the structure, the size, shape and disposition of the loaded areas and the nature
of the strata. following should be considered :
96
In general, the
a) Care should be taken to ensure that boulders are not mistaken for
bedrock, particularly on sites where borings are made through highly
weathered rock. Where bedrock is encountered, it should be proved by
coring to a minimum depth of 5 m.
b) Where compressible cohesive soils are likely to contribute significantly
to the settlement of the foundations, the investigation should reach such
depth where stress increase would cause insignificant strain or
displacement.
c) For the design of a pile foundation or for the settlement analysis of the
foundation, the exploration should be deep enough to cover the
characteristics of the underlying strata.
d) For spread footings, the investigation depth should be :
i. 5m into rock; or
ii. A depth that can be readily demonstrated that the induced strain
and displacement are negligible.
Shallow Foundations
10.6.1 General Requirements
A shallow foundation should be structurally adequate to sustain all the

applied loads and transmit them safely to the ground without undue settlement.
It should generally be constructed of reinforced concrete, and rest on a rock or
soil stratum with adequate bearing capacity at a shallow depth from ground
level.
A shallow foundation should neither overload the foundations or

structures of adjacent buildings or the ground supporting such foundations or
structures, nor render any instability to any hillside or slope, nor interfere with
any drain, nullah, sewer or other services in its vicinity.
97
10.6.2 How To Use Vislog
Vislog is a program that has been designed to assist all geoscience

engineers of generating subsurface soil layers. Generally, VisLog import most
of our existing data and run the model. The main usage of VisLog is to visualize
the boreholes in the site. Input data that essential for this application comprises
of: Borehole Name, Total depth, Coordinates, Water Level and other
information. VisLog illustrates all boreholes in a project and indicates the
ground and water surface. Moreover, it’s automatically draw the soil profiles
through selected boreholes.
First of all, new borehole data needs to fill in by clicking on "Add new
borehole" icon on the toolbar; a new empty row will be added to the end of the
boreholes and soil layers table.
Secondly, the Field Test table on the right hand-side of the page will be
empty as well. After that, we entered borehole data in the new row and then
entered our soil layers and field test data on corresponding tables.
98
Once our soil profile is defined, it is updated in the viewer. Each soil
layer along the profile showed with corresponding texture image. Similar soil
layers in adjacent boreholes will be automatically connected together.
NouvoSPT Software
NovoSPT is a computer program for interpretation of Standard Penetration Test

(SPT/ DCPT) and correlating blow counts (N) to soil properties based on more than
300 formulas. It is gINT, Excel and Microsoft Access database compatible and provides
several reporting and additional features. This software need to up-to-date by visiting
the program's web page. Although all efforts have been undertaken to ensure that this
software is of the highest possible quality and that the results obtained are correct, the
authors do not warrant the functions contained in the program will meet your
requirements or that the operation of the program will be uninterrupted or error-free.
The authors are not responsible and assume no liability for any results or any use made
thereof, nor for any damages or litigation that may result from the use of the software
for any purpose. All results to be verified independently by user.
A lot of correlation can be used by various reference to finding the all shear
parameter including bearing capacity etc. this software very helpful in oder to find the
good foundation design.
IMPORTANT TO TAKE NOTE IN DESIGN
99
Black Cotton Soil
Black cotton soil has a tendency to shrink and swell excessively. When these
type of soil come in contact with water, they swell and when becomes dry, it shrinks.
This alternate process of swelling and shrinking results in the differential
settlement of foundation which in turn causes cracks in building. The cracks thus
formed are sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide and 2.5 to 4.5 m deep.
Therefore necessary precautions need to be taken during construction to avoid

any damage to building foundation. Following precaution should be employed during
construction on black cotton soil.
i. The maximum load on black cotton soil should be limited to 5 tonnes/m2. If

there is a chance for water to come in contact with foundation, then the load
should be limited to 4.9 tonnes/m2.
ii. Foundation should be placed at a depth where the cracks cease to extend. The
minimum depth of foundation should be at least 1.5 m.
iii. The main wall of the building must be provided with all round reinforced
concrete ties or bands.
iv. Reinforced concrete ties or bands having 10 to 15 cm deep should be placed
at plinth level, lintel level and eaves level.
v. In case the depth of black cotton soil is only 1 m to 1.5 m, then completely
remove the entire black cotton soil and place the foundation below that depth.
vi. Try to avoid direct contact of black cotton soil with foundation material.
This can be achieved by making wider trenches for foundation and filling spaces
on either side of the foundation masonry with sand or morroum.
vii. Ram the bed of the foundation trench to make it farm and hard. On this rammed
bed, spread a thick layer of morroum (i.e. 30 cm) in two layers, each layer being
15 cm. each layer should be water and rammed properly to get highest possible
density. On this compacted layer of morroum, place either sand or stone upto
desired height where concrete foundation bed has to be made.
viii. In case of important structures, raft foundation should be provided.
100
ix. For less important structures (such as boundary wall construction), the
foundation should preferably taken at least 15 cm below the depth at which
cracks in soil cease to occur.
x. Construction should be done in dry season.
xi. For main walls or for load bearing walls, the width of the trench should be dug
40 cm wider than width of foundation. Then fill the space on either side of the
trench (i.e. 20 cm in each side) with coarse sand. This is done to separate the
foundation masonry from direct contact with black cotton soil. In case of
compound wall this width of sand filling can be reduced to 15 cm on each side.
xii. Under reamed pile foundation is also a good choice of foundation in black
cotton soil.
101

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Table of Contents

Spread or Isolated Footing 6

Strap or Cantilever Footing 7

Mat or Raft Foundations 8

2.0 Soil Investigation 9

Visualization of soil Profile Using Software 12

List Of Tables Using For Finding Soil Parameter 17

2.6.1 Correlation SPT For Unit Weight 17

2.6.2 Correlation SPT for Undrain Shear Strength Cu. 17

2.6.3 Using Peak et al 1974 to correlate for finding 17

2.7.1 Correction in layer 1 Example 21

Critical Soil Profile 24

3.0 Factor Affecting the depth of Shallow Foundation 31

4.0 Bearing Capacity 32

5.0 Elastic Settlement 33

6.0 Method Of Statement 65

Justification for Method of Statement 65

General Requirements of a Building Foundation 67

Steps on Constructing Shallow Foundation 67

6.3.1 Site Investigation 67

Exploration of Construction Site 69

Installed Reinforcement Rebar and Pour Concrete. 76

Set up Stump Reinforcement 77

Summary of Method of Statement 78

8.0 Ranking Matrix 89

9.0 Construction Drawing 90

10.0 Additional Information 93

10.1.1 Basic Requirements 93

Rational Design Method 94

Compatibility Of Design And Construction 94

10.4.2 Concrete Foundations 95

10.5.2 Supervision For Ground Investigation Works 96

10.5.3 Depth Of Ground Investigation 96

10.6.1 General Requirements 97

10.6.2 How To Use Vislog 98

Black Cotton Soil 100

Exora Consult SDN. BHD is highly recognized company in term of analyzing,

A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also

Spread or Isolated Footing

A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual

Strap or Cantilever Footing

Mat or Raft Foundations

A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and

Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on no-

Figure 2.1 : Location from Proposed Borehole In Shah Alam

b) Standards and Code of Practice

Visualization of soil Profile Using Software

Figure 2.3 : Flow Chart To find The Soil Profile

Figure 2.4 : Soil Profile Visualization between BH1 and BH2

i. Undraind Shear Stregth = Cu

All parameters above is determined using the N Value from SPT.

2. Finding 4. Pick The

Figure 2.5 : Flow Chart To find The Soil Parameter

i. Correlation based on the NovoSPT software.

NovoSPT is a computer program for interpretation of Standard Penetration

ii. Correction N value Based on The Water Table

The groundwater level affects the calculation of effective overburden stress

Ɣ, Unit weight of Φ’, Cu and C’

N60 is a method of "standardizing" N values based upon the drilling methods

NovoSPT software N60, N1(60)

Figure 2.8 : Finding The Corrected N value

N60 = Standard Penetration

2.6.1 Correlation SPT For Unit Weight

2.6.2 Correlation SPT for Undrain Shear Strength Cu.