(W. H. Kearns (Eds.) ) Welding Handbook Volume 3 R (B-Ok - Xyz)

Welding Handbook
Seventh Edition, Volume 3
Resistance and Solid-State

Welding and Other Joining
Processes
The Five Volumes of the
Welding Handbook, Seventh Edition
1 Fundamentals of Welding
2 Welding Processes-
Arc and Gas Welding and Cutting,

Brazing, and Soldering
3 Welding Processes-
Resistance and Solid-State Welding

and Other Joining Processes
4 Metals and Their Weldabilitya
5 Engineering, Quality Assurance,

and Safe Practicesb
a. Scheduled to replace Sec. 4, 6th Ed., in 1982.

b. Scheduled to replace Sec. 5, 6th Ed., in 1984.
Welding Handbook
Seventh Edition, Volume 3
Resistance and Solid-State Welding

and Other Joining Processes
W. H. Kearns, Editor
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY

2501 Northwest 7th Street
Miami, Florida 33125
European Edition Distributed by

THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Published in the U.K. and distributed in Europe 1980 by
THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD.
London and Basingstoke
ISBN 978-1-349-04963-9 ISBN 978-1-349-04961-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-04961-5
American Welding Society, 2501 N. W. 7th Street, Miami, FL 33125
© 1980 by American Welding Society.

All rights reserved.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 7th edition 1980
Note: By publication of this handbook, the American Welding Society does not
insure anyone utilizing this handbook against liability arising from the use of such
handbook. A publication of a handbook by the American Welding Society does not
carry with it the right to make, use, or sell patented items. Each prospective user
should make an independent investigation.
Contents
Welding Handbook Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface.............................................................. xi
Chapter 1, Spot, Seam, and Projection Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Fundamentals of the Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Spot Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Seam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Projection Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Metals Welded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Weld Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Supplementary Reading List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Chapter 2, Flash, Upset, and Percussion Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Flash Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Upset Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Percussion Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Chapter 3, Resistance Welding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Spot and Projection Welding Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Roll Spot and Seam Welding Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Flash and Upset Welding Machines .................................... 105
Resistance Welding Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Electrical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Electrodes and Holders ............................................. 124
Power Supply ..................................................... 138
Safety ........................................................... 140
Supplementary Reading List ......................................... 143
v
CONTENTS
Chapter 4, High Frequency Welding ..................................... 145

Fundamentals of the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Process Variations ................................................. 150
Advantages and Limitations .......................................... 153
Applications .................................................... .. 154
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Welding Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Weld Quality .................................................... . 163
Safety .................................................... ....... 165
Chapter 5, Electron Beam Welding ...................................... 169

Characteristics of Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Welding Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Selection of Welding Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Metals Welded .................................................... 20 I
Applications .................................................... .. 204
Weld Quality .................................................... . 206
Safe Practices .................................................... . 213
Chapter 6, Laser Beam Welding and Cutting .............................. 217

Laser Welding .................................................... 223
Laser Beam Cutting and Drilling ...................................... 232
Safety .................................................... ....... 236
Chapter 7, Friction Welding ............................................ 239

Fundamentals of the Process ......................................... 240
Friction Welding Machines .......................................... 246
Welding Procedures ................................................ 253
Weld Quality .................................................... . 255
Applications .................................................... .. 257
Safety .................................................... ....... 258
Chapter 8, Explosion Welding .......................................... 263

Applications .................................................... .. 268
Welding Procedures ................................................ 272
Process Variables .................................................. 273
Joint Quality .................................................... .. 274
vi
Contents
Safety .................................................... ....... 277

Chapter 9, Ultrasonic Welding .......................................... 279

Fundamentals .................................................... . 280
General Applications ............................................... 284
Equipment .................................................... ... 289
Joining Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Process Variables .................................................. 298
Weld Quality .................................................... . 300
Safety .................................................... ....... 309
Chapter 10, Diffusion Welding and Brazing ............................... 311

Fundamentals of the Processes ........................................ 312
Surface Preparation ................................................ 316
Diffusion Welding ................................................. 317
Diffusion Brazing .................................................. 324
Applications .................................................... .. 325
Inspection .................................................... .... 334
Chapter 11, Adhesive Bonding of Metals .................................. 337

Fundamentals of the Process ......................................... 338
Adhesives .................................................... .... 344
Joint Design .................................................... .. 350
Sandwich Construction ............................................. 355
Surface Preparation ................................................ 356
Assembly and Cure ................................................ 358
Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Safe Practices .................................................... . 363
Chapter 12, Thermal Spraying .......................................... 367

Flame Spraying ................................................... 369
Plasma Spraying ................................................... 372
Arc Spraying .................................................... . 375
Detonation Flame Spraying .......................................... 377
Preparation for Spraying ............................................ 378
Fused Spray Deposits ............................................... 379
Post-Treatments ................................................... 381
Surface Finishing .................................................. 382
Quality Control ................................................... 383
Properties .................................................... .... 384
vii
CONTENTS
Applications .................................................... .. 388

Safety .................................................... ....... 390
Chapter 13, Other Welding Processes .................................... 395

Thennit Welding .................................................. 396
Cold Welding .................................................... . 405
Hot Pressure Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Carbon Arc Welding ................................................ 427
Bare Metal Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Atomic Hydrogen Welding .......................................... 431
Index of Major Subjects ................................................. 433

Index .................................................... ............ 445
viii
Welding Handbook Committee
W. L. Wilcox, Chairman Scott Paper Company

J. R. Condra, Vice-Chairman E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company
W. H. Kearns, Secretary American Welding Society
I. G. Betz Department of the Army
R. L. Frohlich Westinghouse Electric Corporation
J. R. Hannahs Bowser-Morner Testing Laboratories
A. F. Manz Union Carbide Corporation
A. W. Pense* Lehigh University
L. J. Privoznik Westinghouse Electric Corporation
D. D.Rager Reynolds Metals Company
R. E. Somers Welding Consultant
*Term expired May 31, 1979
ix
Preface
This is the third of five volumes planned for the Seventh Edition of the Welding Hand-
book. Volume I, Fundamentals ofWelding, was published in I976. It contains much of the
basic information on welding, including the physics of welding, heat flow, welding metal-
lurgy, testing, residual stresses, and distortion. Volume 2, Welding Processes-Arc and
Gas Welding and Cutting, Brazing, and Soldering, was published in I978. In addition to
the subjects named in the title, that Volume covers electroslag and electrogas welding, stud
welding, surfacing, and arc welding power sources.
Volume 3 covers the newer welding processes as well as resistance welding, thermal
spraying, and adhesive bonding. Certain other processes that have rather limited appli-
cations are also included. Volumes 2 and 3 of the Seventh Edition include all of the processes
originally discussed in Sections 2, 3A, and 3B ofthe Sixth Edition.
Some of the material in Section I of the Sixth Edition has not yet been covered in the
Seventh Edition. Consequently, this Section should be retained, as well as Sections 4 and
5 of that Edition. Safe practices for welding, cutting, brazing, and soldering is one very
important subject discussed in Section I, Sixth Edition. That subject is handled differently
in this Edition. Safety considerations for each process are included in the respective chapter.
The material on safety in the chapters is not all-inclusive. The reader should determine for
himself the safe practices that are adequate and appropriate for each of the processes.
An index of major subjects precedes the index for this volume. It enables a reader to
quickly locate the current information on major subjects in both the Sixth and the Seventh
Editions.
Metric equivalents in this volume are handled in a manner different from that used in
Volumes 1 and 2. Appropriate conversion factors have been placed at the end of each chapter
in this volume instead of the arbitrary conversion of US Standard units to SI units and the
dual dimensioning used previously. The Welding Handbook Committee considered that
information in the Handbook would be presented better if it were given in units of the
particular system in which the measurements themselves were taken or reported. The in-
formation may be converted to units in the system other than the one shown by using the
appropriate conversion factors.
This volume was a voluntary effort by the Welding Handbook Committee and the
Chapter Committees. The Chapter Committee Members and the Handbook Committee
Member responsible for a chapter are recognized on the title page of that chapter. Other
individuals also contributed in a variety of ways, particularly in chapter reviews. All par-
ticipants contributed generously of their time and talent, and the American Welding Society
expresses herewith its appreciation to them and to their employers for supporting the work.
The Welding Handbook Committee expresses its appreciation to Richard French,
Patricia Hoel, and Hallock Campbell for their assistance in the production of this volume.
The Welding Handbook Committee welcomes your comments on the Handbook.
Please address them to the Editor, Welding Handbook, American Welding Society, 2501
N.W. 7th Street, Miami, FL 33125.
W L. Wilcox, Chairman W H. Keams, Editor

Welding Handbook Committee Welding Handbook
xi
1
Spot, Seam, and Projection Welding
Fundamentals of the Processes . . . . . . . . . . 2 Projection Welding ................... 28
Equipment .......................... 11 Metals Welded ....................... 38
Surface Preparation ................... 14 Weld Quality ........................ 43
Spot Welding ........................ 76 Quality Control ...................... 47
Seam Welding ....................... 23 Safety ............................. . 53
Supplementary Reading List ............ 55
Chapter Committee
W. G. EMAUS, Chairman A. E. LOHRBER

Anderson Automation, Inc. Swift-Ohio Corporation
R.A.GRENDA R. MATTESON
Weltronic Company Taylor-Winfield Corporation
P. G. HARRIS F. PARKER
Centerline (Windsor) Ltd. Newcor, Inc.
D. ROTH
KirkhofTransformer Division,
FLX Corporation
Welding Handbook Committee Members
A. F. MANZ D. D. RAGER
Union Carbide Corporation Reynolds Metals Company
1
1
Spot, Seam, and
Projection Welding
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCESSES
DEFINITION AND A series of separate spot welds may be
GENERAL DESCRIPTION made with a seam welding machine and wheel
electrodes by suitably adjusting the travel speed
Spot, seam, and projection welding are and the time between welds. Movement of the
three resistance welding processes in which work may or may not be stopped during the
coalescence of metals is produced at the faying spot weld cycle. This procedure is known as
surfaces by the heat generated at the joint by the
roll spot welding.
resistance of the work to the flow of electric
current. Force is always applied before, during,
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
and after the application of current to prevent
arcing at the faying surfaces and, in some appli- Spot, seam, and projection welding opera-
cations, to forge the weld metal during postheat- tions involve a coordinated application of electric
ing. Generally, melting occurs at the faying current and mechanical pressure of the proper
surface during weld time. Figure 1.1 Illustrates magnitudes and durations. The welding current
the three processes. must pass from the electrodes through the work.
In spot welding, a nugget' of weld metal is Its continuity is assured by forces applied to the
produced at the electrode site, but two or more electrodes or projections which are shaped to
nuggets may be made simultaneously using provide· the necessary current density and pres-
multiple sets of electrodes. Projection welding sure. The sequence of operation must first de-
is similar except that nugget location is deter- velop sufficient heat to raise a confined volume
mined by a projection or embossment on one of metal to the molten state. This metal then
faying surface, or by the intersection of parts in cools while under pressure until it has adequate
the case of wires or rods (cross-wire welding). strength to hold the parts together. The current
Two or more projection welds can be made density and pressure must be such that a nugget
simultaneously with one set of electrodes. is formed but not so high that molten metal is ex-
Seam welding is a variation of spot welding pelled from the weld zone. The time of current
in which a series of overlapping nuggets is pro- flow (weld time) must be sufficiently short to
duced to obtain a continuous gastight seam. One prevent excessive heating of the electrode faces.
or both electrodes are generally wheels that Such heating can bond the electrodes to the work
rotate as the work passes between them. A seam and greatly reduce their life.
weld can be produced with spot welding equip- The heat required for these resistance weld-
ment but the operation will be much slower. ing processes is produced by the resistance to
the passage of electric current through the work-
I. A nugget is the weld metal joining the parts in spot, pieces. Because of the short electric current
seam, and projection welds. path in the work and limited weld time, high
2
Fundamentals ofthe Process /3
Projection
Electrodes or
Electrodes or
.-..-----......w•ld• ~
IAI
After
Before we lding
Spot welding Seam welding welding
Projection welding
Fig. 1.1-Spot, seam, and pTojection welding pTocesses
welding currents are required to develop the the circuit regardless of the instantaneous resis-
necessary welding heat. tance at any location in the circuit, but the heat
generated at any location will be directly propor-
Heat Generation tional to the resistance at that point.
In an electrical conductor, the amount of An important characteristic of resistance
heat generated depends upon three factors : (l) welding is the rapidity with which welding heat
the amperage, (2) the resistance of the conduc- can be produced. The temperature distribution
tor, and (3) the time of current flow. These three in the work and electrode tips in the case of spot,
factors affect the heat generated as expressed in seam, and projection welding is illustrated in Fig.
the formula 1.2. There are , in effect, at least seven resis-
tances connected in series in a weld that account
Q = J2Rt for the temperature distribution. For a two-
where
thickness joint, these are:
Q = heat generated, joules
(l) 1 and 7, the electrical resistance of the
I = current, amperes
electrode material.
R = resistance of the work, ohms
(2) 2 and 6, the contact resistance between
t = time of current flow, seconds
the electrode and the base metal. The magnitude
The heat generated is proportional to the of this resistance depends upon the surface con-
square of the welding current and directly pro- dition of the base metal and the electrode, the
portional to the resistance and the time. Part of size and contour of the electrode face, and the
the heat generated is used to make the weld and electrode force . (Resistance is roughly inversely
part is lost to the surrounding metal. proportional to the contacting force .) This is a
The welding current required to produce a point of high heat generation , but the surface of
given weld is approximately inversely propor- the base metal does not reach the fusion tem-
tional to the square root of the time. Thus, if the perature during the current passage due to the
time is extremely short, the current required will high thermal conductivity of the electrodes (1
be very high. A combination of high current and and 7) and the fact that they are usually water-
short time may produce an undesirable distribu- cooled.
tion of heat in the weld zone, resulting in severe (3) 3 and 5, the total resistance of the base
surface melting and rapid electrode deterioration. metal itself, which is directly proportional to its
The secondary circuit of a resistance weld- resistivity and thickness, and inversely prc;;>por-
ing machine and the work being welded are a tional to the cross-sectional area of the current
series of resistances , and the arithmetical total of path.
the resistance path affects the flow of current. (4) 4, the base metal interface is the loca-
The current flow will be the same in all parts of tion of weld formation. This is the point of
4/ SPOT, SEAM, AND PROJECTION WELDING
Water
At end of
of weld time
__;..~~~-~-..;;;-;...;-;.~_ -- - - - - _~,....: _.,._.!0'-o

- - - - - - - - - _L
- ....
'Lil~,.;_,.,...
__ - - - - - - - - L ___ _
I
Welding I Initial
temperature~ temperature
Water Temperature
Fig. 1.2-Temperature distribution at various locations during spot, seam,

and projection welding
highest resistance and, therefore, the point of

greatest heat generation. Also, since heat is
[....--
generated at points 2 and 6, the heat generated / ~ """' '
at this interface is not readily lost to the elec- / \
trodes. /
Heat is generated at all of these locations,
not at the base metal interface alone. The flow of
1\
heat to or from the base metal interface is gov-
I \
erned by the temperature gradient established by 1\
the resistance heating of the various components \
Expulsion begins....l
in the circuit. This in turn assists or retards the
creation ofthe proper localized welding heat.
Heat will be generated in each of the seven
locations in Fig. 1.2 in proportion to the resis-
tance of each. Welding heat, however, i.s required
' Current
only at the base metal interface, and the heat Fig. 1.3-Effect of welding current on
generated at all other locations should be mini- spot weld shear strength
mized. Since the greatest resistance is located at ing temperature is indicated by the vertical dotted
4, heat is most rapidly developed at that loca- line. In a well-controlled weld, the welding tem-
tion. Points of next lower resistance are 2 and 6. perature will first be reached at numerous point
The temperature rises rapidly at these points also, contacts at the interface that melt and quickly
but not as fast as at 4. After about 20 percent grow into a nugget with time.
of the weld time, the heat gradient may conform Factors that affect the amount of heat gener-
to the profile shown in Fig. 1.2. Heat generated ated in the weld by a given current for a unit of
at 2 and 6 is rapidly dissipated into the adjacent weld time are: (l) the electrical resistances of
water-cooled electrodes I and 7. The heat at 4 is the metal being welded and the electrodes, (2)
dissipated much more slowly into the base metal. the contact resistances between the workpieces
Therefore, as the welding current continues to and between the electrodes and the workpieces,
flow, the rate of temperature rise at plane 4 will and (3) the heat loss to the workpieces and the
be much more rapid than at 2 and 6. The weld- electrodes.
Fundamentals of the Process /5
Effect of Welding Current. In the formula,

Q = f2 Rt, current has a greater effect on the gen-
_J L-.......
eration of heat than either resistance or time.
Therefore, it is an important variable to be con- ,...-
I
trolled. Two factors that cause variation in weld-
ing current are (I) fluctuations in power line i
I
I
voltage and (2) variations in the impedance of
the secondary circuit with ac machines. Imped- .c
b., I I
ance variations are caused by changes in circuit c:: I
I
)
~ Optimum
geometry or by the introduction of varying t:
masses of magnetic metals into the secondary ~
Vi I I
I
loop of the machine. Direct current machines
are not significantly affected by magnetic metals
in the secondary loop and are little affected by i II
circuit geometry. In addition to variations in
welding current magnitude, current density may
I
vary at the weld interface. This can result from
shunting of current through preceding welds and
J I I
contact points other than at the weld. Increase in Weld t1me
electrode face area or projection size in the case Fig. 1.4-Relationship between weld
of projection welding will decrease current time and spot weld shear strength
density and welding heat. This may cause a sig-
nificant decrease in weld strength. The temperature distribution curves in Fig.
A minimum current density flowing for a I. 2 show that the temperatures at the seven lo-
finite time is required to produce fusion at the cations are increasing with time. Some mini-
interface. Sufficient heat must be generated to mum time is required to reach melting tempera-
overcome the losses to the adjacent base metal ture at some suitable current density. If current
and the electrodes. Weld nugget size and strength flow is continued, the temperature at plane 4 will
increase rapidly with increasing current density. far exceed the melting temperature, and the in-
Excessive current density will cause weld metal ternal pressure may expel weld metal from the
expulsion, cavitation, weld cracking, and lower joint. Generated gases or metal vapor may cause
mechanical strength properties. Typical varia- the expulsion of minute metal particles, called
tions in shear strength of spot welds as a func- "spitting." If the work surfaces are scaly or
tion of current magnitude are shown in Fig. 1.3. pitted, the same thing may happen at 2 and 6.
In the case of spot and seam welding, excessive Excessively long weld time will have the same
current will (I) overheat the base metal and result effect of excessive amperage on the base metal
in deep indentations in the parts and (2) cause and electrodes. Furthermore, the weld heat-
overheating and rapid deterioration of the elec- affected zone will extend farther into the base
trodes. metal. In most cases, the heat losses at some
Effect of Weld Time. The rate of heat genera- point during an extended welding interval will
tion must be such that welds with adequate equal the heat input; temperatures will stabilize.
strength will be produced without excessive An example of the relationship between weld
electrode heating and rapid deterioration. The time and spot weld shear strength is shown
total heat developed is proportional to weld time. in Fig. 1.4, all other conditions remaining
Essentially, heat is lost by conduction into the constant.
surrounding base metal and the electrodes; a To a certain extent, weld time and am-
very small amount is lost by radiation. These perage may be complementary. The total heat
losses increase with increases in weld time and may be changed by adjusting either the amperage
temperature of the metal, but they are essentially or the weld time. Heat transfer is a function of
uncontrollable. time, and the development of the proper nugget
size requires a minimum length of time, regard- which the contact resistance remains uniform at
less of amperage. room temperature. In most applications, the elec-
When spot welding heavy plates, welding trode material is softer than the workpieces.
current is commonly applied in several relatively Consequently, the application of a suitable
short impulses without removal of electrode electrode force will produce better contact at the
force. The purpose of pulsing the current is to electrode-to-work interfaces than at the interface
gradually build up the heat at the interface be- between the workpieces.
tween the workpieces. The amperage needed to Influence of Electrodes. Electrodes play a
accomplish welding can rapidly melt the metal vital role in the generation of heat because they
if the heat time is too long, resulting in expul- conduct the welding current to the work. In the
sion (spitting). Welding temperature can best be case of spot and seam welding, the electrode
achieved in thick plates of moderate thermal contact area largely controls the welding current
conductivity such as steels by a series of heat density and the resulting weld size. Electrodes
pulses. must have good electrical conductivity, but they
Effect of Welding Pressure. The resistance R must also have adequate strength and hardness
in the heat equation is influenced by welding to resist deformation caused by repeated appli-
pressure through its effect on contact resistance cations of high electrode force. Deformation or
at the interface between the workpieces. Weld- "mushrooming" of the electrode face increases
ing pressure is produced by the force exerted on the contact area and decreases both current den-
the weld by the electrodes. Electrode force is con- sity and welding pressure. Weld quality will de-
sidered to be the net dynamic force of the elec- teriorate as tip deformation proceeds. Conse-
trodes upon the work, and i't is the resultant quently, the electrodes must be reshaped or
pressure produced by this force that affects the replaced at intervals to maintain adequate heat
contact resistance. generation for acceptable weld properties.
Pieces to be spot, seam, or projection When the electrodes are slow in following
welded must be clamped tightly together at the a sudden decrease in total work thickness, a
weld location to enable the passage of the current. momentary reduction in pressure will occur. If
Electrode force has a significant effect on the this happens while the welding current is flowing,
total resistance between the electrodes and, interface contact resistance and the rate of heat
therefore, the amperage flowing through the generation will increase. An excessive heating
weld. Everything else being equal, as the elec- rate at the contacting surfaces tends to cause
trode force or welding pressure is increased, the overheating and violent expulsion of molten
amperage will also increase up to some limiting metal. Molten metal is retained by a ring of un-
value. The effect on the total heat generated, fused metal surrounding the weld nugget at the
however, may be the reverse. As the pressure is interfaces. A momentary reduction in electrode
increased, the contact resistance and the heat force permits the internal metal pressure to rup-
generated at the interface will decrease. To in- ture this surrounding ring of unfused metal. In-
crease the heat to the previous level, amperage ternal voids or excessive electrode indentation
or weld time must be increased to compensate may occur. Weld properties may fall below ac-
for the reduced resistance. ceptable levels and electrode wear will be greater
The surfaces of metal components are a than normal.
series of peaks and valleys on a macroscopic Influence of Surface Condition. The surface
scale. When they are subjected to light pressure, condition of the parts influences heat generation
the actual metal-to-metal contact will be only at because contact resistance is affected by oxides,
the contacting peaks, a small percentage of the dirt, oil, and other foreign matter on the sur-
area. Contact resistance will be high. As the faces. The most uniform weld properties are
pressure is increased, the high spots are de- obtained when the surfaces are clean.
pressed and the actual metal-to-metal contact The welding of parts with a nonuniform
area is increased, thus decreasing the contact coating of oxides, scale, or other foreign matter
resistance. There is a limiting pressure above on the surfaces causes variations in contact re-
quently, the heat loss into the electrodes and

surrounding metal is greater with aluminum. Be-
Water-cooled copper cause of these factors, the welding current for
alloy electrode
aluminum must be considerably greater than that
for stainless steel.
Base Heat Balance
metal
Heat balance occurs when the depths of
Base fusion (penetration) in the workpieces are approx-
metal imately the same. The majority of spot and seam
welding applications are confined to the welding
of two equal thicknesses of the same metal with
Water-cooled copper
electrodes of the same alloy, shape, and size.
alloy electrode Heat balance in these cases is automatic. How-
ever, in many applications, the heat generated in
the parts is unbalanced.
Heat balance may be affected by:
(I) Relative electrical and thermal conduc-
Fig. 1.5-Heat flow from spot, seam, and tivities of the metals to be joined
projection welds (2) Relative geometry of the parts at the
joint
(3) Thermal and electrical conductivities of
sistance. This produces inconsistencies in heat the electrodes
generation. Heavy scale on the work surfaces (4) Geometry of the electrodes
may also become embedded in the electrode Heating will be unbalanced when welding
faces, causing rapid electrode deterioration. Oil pieces of significantly different compositions,
and grease will pick up dirt which also will con- different thicknesses, or both. The unbalance can
tribute to electrode deterioration. be minimized in many cases by part design,
Influence of Metal Composition. The electrical electrode material and design, or projection
resistivity of a metal directly influences resis- location in the case of projection welding. Heat
tance heating during welding. In high-conduc- balance can also be improved by using the short-
tivity metals such as silver and copper, little heat est weld time and lowest current that will pro-
is developed even under high current densities. duce acceptable welds.
The small amount of heat generated is rapidly
transmitted into the surrounding work and the
Heat Dissipation
electrodes.
The composition of a metal determines its During welding, heat is lost by conduction
specific heat, melting temperature, latent heat into the adjacent base metal and the electrodes
of fusion, and thermal conductivity. These prop- as shown in Fig. 1.5. This heat dissipation con-
erties are related to the amount of heat required tinues at varying rates during current application
to melt the metal and produce a weld. The and afterward until the weld has cooled to room
amounts of heat necessary to raise unit masses temperature. It may be divided into two phases:
of most commercial metals to the fusion tem- (I) during the time of current application and (2)
perature are very nearly the same. For example, after the cessation of current flow. The extent of
stainless steel and aluminum require the same the first phase depends upon the composition and
Btu's per pound to reach fusion temperature, mass of the workpieces, the welding time, and
even though they differ widely in spot welding the external cooling means. The composition and
characteristics. The electrical and thermal con- mass of the workpieces are determined by the
ductivities of aluminum are about ten times design. External cooling depends upon the weld-
greater than those of stainless steel. Conse- ing setup and the welding cycle.
Welding
Squeeze Squeeze
process
times b
Welding
current
Electrode
r-a
force
Solenoid valve
coil voltage
Timer
Timer
Squeeze+ Weld --1- Hold -+-1---- Off ---~-Squeeze+Weld
initiated
a. Machine operating time

b. Welding process "times" differ from timer "times" due to machine operating time
Fig. 1.6-Basic welding cycle for spot and projection welding
The heat generated by a given amperage is solidify the large weld nugget while under pres-
inversely proportional to the electrical conduc- sure. It is usually best, therefore, to have the
tivity of the base metal. The thermal conduc- electrodes in contact with the work until the weld
tivity and temperature of the base metal deter- cools to a temperature where it is strong enough
mine the rate at which heat is dissipated or to sustain any loading imposed when the pressure
conducted from the weld zone.2 In most cases, is released.
the thermal and electrical conductivities of a The cooling time for a seam weld nugget
metal are similar. In a high-conductivity metal, is short when the electrodes are rotated contin-
such as copper or silver, high amperage is needed uously. Therefore, welding is commonly done
to generate the heat that is dissipated rapidly into with water flowing over the workpieces to. re-
the adjacent base metal and the electrodes. Spot, move the heat as rapidly as possible.
seam, and projection welding of these metals are It is not always good practice to cool the
very difficult. weld zone too rapidly. With quench-hardenable
If the electrodes remain in contact with the alloy steels, it is usually best to retract the elec-
work after current flow ceases, they rapidly cool trodes as quickly as possible to minimize heat
the weld nugget. The rate of heat dissipation dissipation to the electrodes and, thus, the cool-
into the surrounding base metal decreases with ing rate of the weld.
longer welding times because a larger volume of
base metal is heated. This reduces the tempera- WELDING CYCLE
ture gradient between the base metal and the
The welding cycle for spot, seam, and pro-
weld nugget. For thick sheets of metal where
jection welding consists basically of four phases:
long welding times are generally employed, the
(I) Squeeze time-the time interval between
cooling rates will be slower than with thin sheets
timer initiation and the first application of cur-
and short weld times.
rent. This time interval is to assure that the elec-
If the electrodes are removed from the weld
trodes contact the work and apply a force before
too quickly after the welding current is turned
welding current is applied.
off, problems may result. With thin sheets, this
(2) Weld time-the time that welding cur-
procedure may cause excessive warpage. With
rent is applied to the work in making a weld in
thick sheets, adequate time is needed to cool and
single-impulse welding.
2. Heat flow in welding is discussed in the Welding (3) Hold time-the time during which force
Handbook, Vol. I, 7th ed.: 80-98. is maintained to the work after after the last im-
Welding
current
Postheat
_j
-- --
Initial current
current
l l
Upslope time -1 Downslope_l+-----+1

time
1+----- Weld interval heat time------o..j.--
1+-----------Weld interval-------------+!
Fig. 1.7-Multiple-impulse welding with slope control and postheat
pulse of current ceases to flow. During this time, WELDING CURRENT

the weld nugget solidifies and is cooled until it
Types
has adequate strength.
(4) Off time-the time during which the Both alternating current (ac) and direct cur-
electrodes are off the work and the work is moved rent (de) are used to produce spot, seam, and
to the next weld location. The term is generally projection welds. The welding machine trans-
applied where the welding cycle is repetitive. forms line power to low voltage, high amperage
Figure 1.6 shows a basic welding cycle. welding power. Most applications use single-
One or more of the following features may be phase ac of the same frequency as the power
added to this basic cycle to improve the physical line, usually 60 Hz. Direct current is used for
and mechanical properties of the weld zone: applications that require high amperage because
(l) Precompression force to seat the elec- the load can be balanced on a 3-phase power
trodes and workpieces together line. Its use also reduces the power losses in
(2) Preheat to reduce the thermal gradient secondary circuit. Direct current flow may be
in the metal at the start of weld time essentially constant for a timed period or in the
(3) Forging force to consolidate the weld form of a high-peaked pulse. The latter is
nugget normally produced from stored electrical energy.
(4) Quench and temper to produce the de-
Current Programming
sired weld strength properties in hardenable
alloy steels With direct energy machines, the rate of
(5) Postheat to refine the weld grain size in current rise and fall can be programmed. The
steels current rise period is commonly called upslope
In some applications, the welding current is time and the current fall period is called down-
supplied intermittently during a weld interval slope time (see Fig. 1. 7). These features are
time; it flows during heat time and ceases during available on machines equipped with electronic
cool time, as shown in Fig. 1.7. control systems.
10 / SPOT, SEAM, AND PROJECTION WELDING
1---- Preweld----1+---- Weld------<~-----<~Postweld

Welding
process times
Current
Electrode force
Solenoid valve
voltage
Forge solenoid
I
valve voltage
Delay
after
precom-
I
Preheat -+---
pression ----+-~----~
1---~Precom
Timer functions pression

1-+---~1-Squeeze
and times
Y - Machine operating time

1 - Heat Weld interval
2 -Cool
Note. When weld delay is required, it occurs before the start of weld time;
forge delay time then will be initiated at the beginning of weld delay time.
Both preheat and weld delay are not used in the same sequence.
Fig. 1.8-A complex weld cycle-multiple impulse
Upslope is generally used to avoid over- interval, as shown in Fig. 1.7, or a separate appli-
heating and expulsion of metal at the beginning cation of current following a quench time period.
of weld time when the base metal interface re-
sistance is high. Downslope is used to control
weld nugget solidification to avoid cracking in
WELD TIME
metals that are quench-hardenable or subject to The time of current application or weld time
hot tearing. for other than stored energy power is controlled
Prior to welding, the base metal can be by electronic, mechanical, manual, or pneumatic
preheated using a low current flow. Following means. Times commonly range from one half
the formation of the weld nugget, the current can cycle (60Hz) for very thin sheets to several sec-
be reduced to some lower value for postheating onds for thick plates. For the capacitor or mag-
of the weld zone. This may be part of the weld netic type of stored energy machines, the weld
Equipment /ll
time is determined by the electrical constant of mechanical devices. The pressure developed at
the system. the interfaces depends upon the area of the
electrode faces in contact with the workpieces.
Single-Impulse Welding
The functions of this force or pressure are to (1)
The use of one continuous application of bring the various interfaces into intimate contact,
current to make an individual weld is called (2) reduce initial contact resistance at the inter-
single-impulse welding (see Fig. 1.6). Up or faces, (3) suppress the expulsion of molten weld
down current slope may be included in the time metal from the joint, and (4) consolidate the
period. weld nugget.
Forces may be applied during the welding
Multiple-Impulse Welding
cycle as follows:
Multiple-impulse welding consists of two or (I) A constant weld force.
more pulses of current separated by a preset cool (2) Precompression and weld forces-a
time (see Fig. 1.7). The basic application of this high initial level to reduce initial contact resis-
sequence is for spot welding relatively thick steel tance and bring the parts into intimate contact,
sheet to control the rate of heating at the interface. followed by a lower level for welding.
(3) Precompression, weld, and forging
forces-the first two levels as described in (2)
ELECTRODE FORCE
followed by a forging force near the end of the
Completion of the electrical circuit through weld time. Forging is used to reduce porosity and
the electrodes and the work is assured by the hot cracking in the weld nugget. This combina-
application of electrode force. This force is pro- tion is shown in Fig. 1.8.
duced by hydraulic, pneumatic, magnetic, or (4) Weld and forging forces.
EQUIPMENT
Spot, seam, and projection welding equip- Alternating Current
ment consist of three basic elements: an electrical
circuit, the control equipment, and a mechanical Most resistance welding machines produce
system.' single-phase alternating current (ac) of the same
frequency as the power line, usually 60Hz. The
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT machine contains a single-phase transformer that
provides the high welding currents required at a
This consists of a welding transformer, low voltage, normally in the range of I to 25
a primary contactor, and a secondary circuit. volts. Depending upon the thickness and type of
The secondary circuit includes the electrodes material to be welded, currents may range from
that conduct the welding current to the work and 1000 to 100 000 amperes. The typical electrical
the work itself. In some cases, a means of storing circuit design for this type of machine is shown
electrical energy is also used in the circuit. Both in Fig. 1.9.
alternating current and direct current are used for
Direct Current
resistance welding. The welding machine con-
verts 60Hz line power to low voltage, high am- Welding machines may produce direct cur-
perage power in the secondary circuit of the rent of continuous polarity, pulses of current of
welding machine. alternating polarity, or high-peaked pulses of
current. The latter type is produced by stored
3. Resistance welding equipment is covered inCh. 13. electrical energy.
Welding Horn
transformer~
Contactor r - -,
T
Electrode
holders
Electrodes
Single Horn
phase power spacing
Electrodes
Electrode
holders
Throat area
l
(shaded)
Fig. 1.9-Typical single-phase spot welding circuit
Rectifier Type Machines. These machines are over a relatively long time between welds, de-
direct energy type in that ac power from the plant livering it to the electrodes during a short weld
distribution system passes through a welding time.
transformer and is then rectified to de power. The equipment for electrostatic stored en-
Silicon diode rectifiers are widely used in the ergy welding consists primarily of a bank of
secondary circuit because of their inherent relia- capacitors, a circuit for charging these capacitors
bility and efficiency. The system can be single to a predetermined voltage, and a system for
phase. However, one of the advantages of direct discharging the capacitors through a suitable
current systems is the ability to use a three-phase welding transformer. High voltage capacitors
transformer to feed the rectifier system in the are generally used, the most common varying
secondary circuit. This makes it possible to use from 1500 to 3000 volts.
balanced three-phase line power.
Frequency Converter Machines. This type of Electrodes

machine has a special welding transformer with Resistance welding electrodes• perform
a three-phase primary and a single-phase sec- four functions:
ondary. The primary current flow is controlled (I) Conduct the welding current to the work
by ignitron tubes or silicon-controlled rectifiers and, with spot and seam welding, determine the
(SCRs). Half cycles of three-phase power, either current density in the weld zone. In projection
positive or negative, are conducted to the trans- welding, the current density is determined by
former for a timed period that depends upon the the size, shape, and number of projections.
transformer design. The transformer output is a (2) Transmit a force to the workpieces.
pulse of direct current. By switching the polarity (3) Dissipate part of the heat from the weld
oft he primary half cycles, the polarity of the sec- zone.
ondary current is reversed. A weld may be made (4) Maintain relative alignment and posi-
with one or more de pulses. tion of the workpieces in projection welding.
Stored Energy Machines. Stored energy ma- If the application of pressure were not in-
chines are of electrostatic design. They draw volved, electrode material selection could be
power from a single-phase system, store it, and
then suddenly discharge it to make the weld. 4. Resistance welding electrodes are discussed more
These machines draw power from the supply fully inCh. 3.
Equipment/13
made almost entirely on the basis of electrical (I) Initiate and terminate the flow of current
and thermal conductivity. Since the electrodes to the welding transformer
are subjected to forces that are often of consider- (2) Control the magnitude ofthe current
able magnitude, they must be capable of with- (3) Actuate and release the electrode force
standing the imposed stresses at elevated temper- mechanism at the proper times
atures without excessive deformation. Proper They may be divided into three groups
electrode shape is important because the current based on their functions: welding contactors,
must be confined to a fixed area to achieve timing and sequencing controls, other current
needed current density. controls and regulators.
When only one spot or seam weld is to be The welding contactor connects and dis-
made at a time, only one pair of electrodes is connects the primary power to the welding trans-
required. In this case, the force and current are former. It may be mechanical, magnetic, or
applied to each weld by shaped electrodes. Sev- electronic in operation. Mechanical contactors
eral closely spaced projection welds can be made are operated with a foot pedal or a motor-driven
with one pair of welding dies (electrodes). cam. Magnetic contactors are actuated by an
Electrodes of several copper alloys with electromagnet operating against a spring and
satisfactory physical and mechanical properties gravity that open the contactor when the electro-
are available commercially. Generally speaking, magnet is de-energized. Electronic contactors
the harder the alloy, the lower its electrical and use silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) or igni-
thermal conductivities. The choice of a suitable tron or thyratron tubes to control the flow of
alloy for any application is based on compro- primary current to the welding transformer.
mise of its electrical and thermal properties The timing and sequence control establishes
with its mechanical qualities. Electrodes selected the welding sequence and the duration of each
for aluminum welding, for instance, should have function of the sequence. This includes applica-
high conductivity at the expense of high com- tion of electrode force and current as well as the
pressive strength to minimize electrode sticking time intervals following each function.
to the work. Electrodes for welding stainless The welding current output of a machine is
steel, on the other hand, should sacrifice high controlled by transformer taps or an electronic
conductivity to obtain good compressive strength heat control, or both. An electronic heat control
to withstand the required electrode force. is used in conjunction with ignitron tubes or
Resistance to deformation or mushrooming SCRs. It controls current by delaying the firing
depends upon the proportional limit and the of the ignitron tubes during each half cycle (60
hardness of the electrode alloy. The proportional Hz). Varying the firing delay time can be used
limit is largely established by heat treatment. to gradually increase or decrease the primary rms
The temperature of the electrode face is the gov- amperage. This provides upslope and downslope
erning factor because this is where softening control of welding current.
takes place. lfansformer taps are used to change the
The size and shape of electrodes are usually number of primary turns connected across the
determined by the sheet thickness and the metal ac power line. This changes the turns ratio of the
to be welded. Spot welding electrodes for steel transformer with an increase or decrease in open
should have flat faces of the proper diameter circuit secondary voltage. Decreasing the turns
for the sheet thickness and should be of suffi- ratio will increase the open circuit secondary
cient size to carry electrical, thermal, and me- voltage, the primary current, and the welding
chanical loads. current.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Welding controls may provide one or more Spot, seam, and projection welding ma-
of the following principal functions: chines have essentially the same types of me-
chanica! operation. The electrodes approach and form between the electrodes and the work. The
retract from the work at controlled times and arc will bum or pit the electrode faces and
rates. Electrode force is applied by hydraulic, cause them to stick to the work. In some cases,
pneumatic, magnetic, or mechanical means. The the parts being welded may vaporize from the
rate of electrode approach must be rapid but very high arc energy.
controlled so that the electrode faces are not The electrode force used during the melt-
deformed from repeated blows. The locally ing of the weld nugget may not be adequate to
heated weld metal expands and contracts rapidly consolidate the weld metal and prevent internal
during the welding cycle and the electrodes must porosity or cracking. Multilevel force machines
follow this movement to maintain welding pres- may be employed to provide a high forging
sure and electrical contact. The ability of the pressure during weld solidification. The magni-
machine to follow motion is influenced by the tude of this pressure varies with the composi-
weight of moving parts, or their inertia, and by tion and thickness of the metal and the geometry
friction between the moving parts and the ma- of the parts. The forging pressure is often two to
chine frame. three times the welding pressure. Since the weld
If the pressure between the electrodes and cools from the periphery inward, the forging
work drops rapidly during weld time, exces- pressure must be applied at or close to the cur-
sive surface heating may occur and an arc may rent termination point.
SURFACE PREPARATION
For all types of resistance welding, the The methods used for preparing surfaces
condition of the surfaces of the parts to be for resistance welding differ for various metals
welded is of prime importance if consistent and alloys.' A brief description of surface con-
weld quality is required. The contact resistance ditions and methods of cleaning follows.
of the faying surfaces has a significant influence
on the amount of welding heat generated; hence, Aluminum
the electrical resistance of these surfaces must
The chemical affinity of aluminum for
be nearly uniform for consistent results. They
oxygen causes it to become coated with a thin,
must be free of high resistance materials such
invisible film of oxide whenever it is exposed to
as paint, scale, thick oxides, and heavy oil and
air. The thin oxide film that forms on a freshly
grease. If it is necessary to prime paint the fay-
cleaned aluminum surface does not cause suffi-
ing surfaces prior to welding, as is sometimes
cient resistance to be troublesome for resistance
done, the welding operation must be performed
we)ding. The permissible holding period, or
immediately after applying the primer or special
elapsed time between cleaning and welding,
conducting primers must be used. For best re-
may vary up to 48 hours or more, depending
sults, the prime coat should be as thin as pos-
upon the cleaning process used, cleanliness of
sible so that the electrode force will displace it
the shop, the particular alloy, and the appli-
and give metal-to-metal contact.
cation.
Paint should never be applied to outside
An aluminum surface may be mechanically
surfaces before welding, because it will reduce
cleaned for resistance welding with a fine grade
electrode life and produce poor surface appear-
ance. Heavy scale should be removed by me-
chanical or chemical methods. Light oil on
5. Methods for cleaning some metals and alloys are
steel is not harmful unless it has picked up dust described in the appropriate chapters in Sec. 4, Weld-
or grit. Drawing compounds containing mineral ing Handbook, 6th ed. (This information may be re-
fillers should be removed before welding. vised in Vol. 4, 7thed.)
Surface Preparation /15
of abrasive cloth, fine steel wool, or a fine, storage, and processing. This oil film has no
motor-driven scratch brush. Clad aluminum harmful effects on the weld, provided the oily
may also be cleaned by mechanical means but surfaces are not contaminated with shop dirt or
care must be taken not to damage the cladding. other poorly conductant or dielectric materials.
Numerous commercial chemical cleaners are Steels are supplied with various surface
available for aluminum. Chemical cleaning is finishes. Some of the more common are (l) hot-
usually preferred in large volume production rolled, unpickled; (2) hot-rolled, pickled, and
for reasons of economy as well as uniformity and oiled; and (3) cold-rolled with or without an
control. anneal. The unpickled, hot-rolled steel must be
pickled or mechanically cleaned. The hot-
Magnesium rolled pickled steel is weldable in the as-
Cleaning is particularly important since received condition except for possible wiping
magne3ium alloys readily alloy with copper at to remove loose dirt. The cold-rolled steel pre-
elevated temperatures. The contact resistance sents the best welding surface and, if properly
between the electrode and the work must be protected by oil, requires no cleaning prior to
kept as low a possible. The alloys are supplied welding other than wiping to remove any loose
with either an oil or a chrome-pickle coating dirt.
to protect the metal from oxidation during ship- The high alloy and stainless steels are non-
ment and storage. For resistance welding, the corrosive and usually require no involved clean-
protective coating must be removed to facilitate ing before welding. When exposed to elevated
the oxide removal operation if sound and con- temperatures, stainless steels will acquire an
sistent welds are to be obtained. oxide film; the thickness depends upon the tem-
perature and time of exposure. The scale is an
Copper oxide of chromium which is effectively removed
by pickling. Oil and grease should be removed
Cleaning of copper alloys is important. The
by solvent or vapor degreasing prior to welding.
beryllium-coppers and aluminum-bronzes are
particularly difficult to clean by chemical means. Coated Steels
Mechanical means are preferred. In some in-
stances, a flash coating of tin is employed to The coatings and platings applied to carbon
produce a uniformly higher surface resistance steel for the purpose of corrosion resistance or
than pure copper would have. decoration lend themselves satisfactorily to re-
sistance welding with few exceptions. In gen-
Nickel eral, good results may be obtained without
The maintenance of high standards of ma- special cleaning processes. Welding of alum-
terial cleanliness is of major importance in the inized steel gives less difficulty with expulsion
resistance welding of nickel and its alloys. The and pickup if the surfaces are wire brushed.
presence of grease, dirt, oil, and paint increases Phosphate coatings increase the electrical resis-
the probability of sulfur embrittlement during tance of the surfaces to a degree that welding
welding and will result in defective welds. current cannot pass through the sheets with low
Oxide removal is necessary if heavy oxides are welding pressures. Higher pressures will pro-
present from prior thermal treatments. Machin- duce welds, but slight variations in coating
ing, grinding, blasting, or pickling may be em- thickness may prevent welding.
ployed. Wire brushing is not stisfactory.
Surface Preparation Control
Steels
Surface preparatipn control can be main-
Plain carbon and low alloy steels have tained by periodically measuring the room
relatively low resistance to corrosion in ordi- temperature contact resistance of the workpieces
nary atmosphere. Hence, these metals are usually immediately following cleaning. The measure-
protected by a slushing oil during shipment, ment is most readily taken from electrode tip to
tip through two or more thicknesses of metal. test conditions must be specified for the mea-
Unit surface resistance varies inversely with surements to have significance in control of
pressure, temperature, and area of contact. The surface cleanliness.
SPOT WELDING
APPLICATIONS steel plates up to 1/4-in. thick. However, load-

ing of joints is limited and the joint overlap
Spot welding is used for the fabrication of adds weight and cost to the assembly when
sheet metal assemblies up to about 0.125-in. compared to an arc welded butt joint.
thickness when the design permits the use of lap
joints and gastight seams are not required. The
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
process is used in preference to mechanical
fasteners, such as rivets or screws, when dis- The major advantages of spot welding are
assembly for maintenance is not required. Spot high speed and adaptability for automation in
welding is much faster and more economical the high production of sheet metal assemblies.
since a separate fastener is not needed for It can be incorporated into assembly lines with
assembly. other fabrication operations. Spot welding is
The process is used extensively for joining also economical in many job shop operations
low carbon steel sheet metal components for using semiautomatic machines because it is
autompbiles, cabinets, furniture, and similar faster than arc welding or brazing and requires
products. Stainless steel, aluminum, and copper less skill to perform.
alloys are also spot welded commercially. The process also has limitations, some of
Occasionally the process is used to join which are:
(A)=B[ (D)IQ
loooooooo.J
I (Glelooooaoooo.J
,.,l)[ (E)
laoaaoaooJ
td
(000000000)
l QOOQQOQOO J
(C)JID [ "'Q '"'8
+ + +
l Q.QOOOOOOJ
( OOOOOOOOlfl
Direct Indirect Indirect
Fig. 1.10-Typical arrangements for single spot welds

Spot Welding /17
(I} Disassembly for maintenance or repair categories: direct and indirect. For direct weld-
is very difficult. ing, both the welding current and the pressure
(2) A lap joint adds weight and material are applied by the electrodes. With indirect
cost to the product when compared to a butt welding, the welding current is introduced into
joint. one of the work pieces through a large contact ad-
(3} The equipment costs are generally jacent to the electrode that applies the welding
higher than for most arc welding processes. pressure. The spot weld is made at the electrode
(4) The short time, high current power re- location.
quirement produces unfavorable line power de- Typical direct and indirect arrangements
mand, particularly with single-phase machines. are shown in Figs. 1.10 and I. II. Figure I.IO(A)
(5) Spot welds have low tensile and fatigue shows the most common arrangement for spot
strengths because of the notch around the pe- welding that results in electrode indentations in
riphery of the nugget between the sheets. both sheets. An electrode with a large contact
(6) The full strength of the sheet cannot area may be used on one side, as in Figs.I.IO(B)
be utilized across a spot welded joint because through (F), to reduce marking or to balance the
fusion is intermittent and loading is eccentric heat at the interface. Figures I. IO(D) and (F)
due to the overlap. are similar arrangements except that the con-
ducting lower anvil has been replaced by a non-
PROCESS VARIATIONS conducting backup in the latter case. Figure
I. IO(C) shows a setup for making a series of
Direct and Indirect Welding single spot welds in rapid succession using a
Spot welding is divided into two general single transformer connected to two or more
welding stations. Only one set of electrodes is
in contact with the work during weld time, pro-
ducing a weld at that location. This arrange-
ment is economical with respect to equipment
costs.
Figures I. IO(G) and (H) show arrange-
ments for welding with two transformers. The
secondary circuits are connected in series and
the primaries may be connected in series or
(A) parallel. Since the two secondary voltages are
Parallel welding additive, this arrangement produces a relatively
high voltage to overcome high resistance types
of workpieces. This variation is sometimes
called "push-pull" or "over-and-under"
welding.
Parallel and Series Welding

Parallel and series welding variations are
used for multiple spot welding. In parallel spot
welding, two or more spot welds are made
~irnultaneously with the welding currents from a
single transformer flowing in parallel. This may
(C) (D) be done using either a single secondary circuit
with the electrodes connected in parallel as
Series welding
shown in Fig. l.IO(C), or multiple secondary
Fig. 1.11-Typical arrangements for circuits as shown in Figs. l.ll(A) and (8). The
multiple spot welding (direct welding) three-phase arrangement of Fig. 1.11(8) is lim-
High
High High
conductivity resistance
alloy electrode
conductivity
alloy
(A) (B)
Fig. 1. 12-Typical techniques for improving heat balance when spot welding
dissimilar metals
ited to three welding stations only. With a single obtain approximately equal fusion . The elec-
secondary circuit, the impedances of all current trode with the smaller face area will produce a
paths must be essentially equal for uniform cur- higher current density in the higher conductivity
rent distribution to each spot weld. Surface con- alloy that will increase the heat generated and
dition, electrode design, electrode force, and minimize the heat losses to the electrode across
material thicknesses must be the same at each the contact area. This arrangement is shown in
welding station . Fig. l.l2(A) .
Series welding is illustrated in Figs. 1.11 (2) Use an electrode material of higher
(C) and (D). Welding current flows from one resistance against the higher conductivity alloy
electrode through one spot weld into a third to limit the heat losses to the electrode as shown
electrode or mandrel, then through a second in Fig. l.l2(B).
spot weld to the other electrode. Welding amper- (3) Use a combination of (I) and (2),
age is affected by the total impedance of the shown in Fig. 1.12(C).
series circuit. When two workpieces are spot (4) Increase the thickness of the high con-
welded in series , part of the welding current ductivity alloy as illustrated in Fig. 1.12(0).
flows from one electrode through the adjacent The first three techniques for achieving
piece to the other electrode. This shunted current heat balance in dissimilar metals can be applied
does not contribute to welding. Its magnitude in a general way to the spot welding of similar
will depend upon the conductivity and thickness metals of unequal thickness. In this case, the
of the workpiece and the spot spacing. thicker sheet has the higher resistance (low con-
ductivity) and the nugget tends to penetrate
HEAT BALANCE deeper into it. Heat balance is improved by
either decreasing the current density in the
Heat balance may present a problem when thicker sheet or the heat loss from the thinner
spot welding together unequal thicknesses of the sheet, or a combination of both.
same metal, equal thicknesses of two metals In multiple layers of dissimilar thicknesses,
with a significant difference in electrical con- a long weld time permits a more uniform dis-
ductivities, or a combination of the two. Elec- tribution of heat in the asymmetrical resistance
trode configurations and compositions can be path between the electrodes. A correct heat
used to overcome unbalanced heating to some balance may be obtained by using multiple-
extent. If it is desired, for example, to spot impulse (pulsation) welding or a single impulse
weld equal thicknesses of a high conductivity of continuous current for an equivalent time.
alloy (electrical and thermal) to an alloy of low
conductivity, improved heat balance could be JOINT DESIGN
obtained by one of the following techniques: In all cases , spot welds are made through
(I) Use an electrode with a smaller face two or more sections of equal or unequal thick-
area on the high conductivity alloy than that of nesses to produce a lap joint. One or more
the electrode on the lower conductivity alloy to members may be flanges on parts or formed
Spot Welding /19
may be low. Minimum edge distance ·will be

related to the base metal composition and
strength, section thicknesses, electrode face
contour, and the welding cycle.
Joint Overlap
The minimum permissible joint overlap is
twice the minimum edge distance. However,
other factors such as electrode clearance may
require a larger overlap. If the overlap is too
small, the edge distance will automatically be
insufficient (see Fig. 1.13).
Fit-up
The mating parts should fit together along
Overlap and edge the joint with very little or no gap between
distance too small
them. Any force required to overcome joint
Fig. 1.13-Effect of improper overlap and gap will reduce the effective welding pressure.
edge distances The force required to close the joint may vary
as welding progresses and, thus, so will the
welding pressure. The ultimate result may be
sections such as angles or channels. In all cases, significant variations in the strengths of individ-
the joint must be accessible from both sides to ual welds.
the spot welding electrodes or the dies in the
Weld Spacing
case of indirect welding. In addition, the as-
sembly must be designed so that the joints can When a number of spot welds are made
be welded with standard machines, portable successively along a joint, a portion of the
welding guns, or special purpose machines. secondary current will flow through the adjacent
There are a number of factors that should welds. This shunting effect must be considered
be considered when designing for spot welding; when establishing the distance between adjacent
several of these are edge distance, joint overlap, spot welds and when establishing the welding
fit-up of parts, weld spacing, jont accessibility, machine settings.
marking or indentation, dissimilar thicknesses, The division of current will depend pri-
and weld strength. marily upon the ratio of the resistances of the
two paths, one through the adjacent welds and
Edge Distance
the other across the interface between the sheets.
This is the distance from the center of the If the path length through the adjacent weld is
weld nugget to the edge of the sheet. It must long compared to the joint thickness, the shunt-
provide sufficient base metal to resist the in- ing effect will be negligible. The minimum
ternal pressure developed in the molten nugget spacing between spot welds is related to the
during the welding cycle. conductivity and thickness of the base metal,
If spot welds are made too close to the the diameter of the weld nugget, and the cleanli-
edge of one or both members of a lap joint, the ness of the faying surfaces. Minimum spacing
base metal at the edge of the member will over- for various sheet thicknesses is generally given
heat locally and upset outward as shown in Fig. in recommended practice tables. Welds can be
1.13. This reduces the restraint on the molten made closer together using higher amperage,
nugget and expulsion of molten metal may oc- shorter weld time, and increased electrode force
cur. The nugget may then be unsound, electrode with a welding machine having a low inertia
indentation may be excessive, and weld strength head. In some cases, an auxiliary weld timer or
current control must be provided to produce the other technique is to use an indirect variation
first weld with lower heat input. of welding such as the arrangement shown in
Fig. 1.15. It minimizes the current density and
Joint Accessibility
pressure in face sheet B.
To accomplish spot welding, the design Surface marking may occur when an elec-
must consider the size and shape of commer- trode or its holder contacts the adjacent work-
cially available electrodes and electrode holders piece. Arcing between them may produce a
as well as the type of spot welding equipment small pit in the work that is objectionable from
on which the welding will be done. Each joint an appearance standpoint in some applications.
must be accessible to the electrodes mounted on Sometimes contact occurs when the electrode
the welding machine.• For multiple spot welded skids as it or the supporting machine compo-
joints, either the assembly or the welding ma- nents deflect under the load. In general, this
chine (gun) must be moved unless a special will not be a problem if the proper joint overlap,
multiple-station machine is provided. electrodes, and equipment are used.
Surface Marking
Dissimilar Thicknesses
It is often desirable to produce welded
There is a maximum section thickness ratio
assemblies with flush or invisible welds. When that can be effectively joined when spot weld-
the welding current flows through the work be-
ing two or more dissimilar thicknesses of the
tween the electrodes, the work is resistance
same metal. It is generally based on the thick-
heated locally and tries to expand in all direc-
ness(es) of the outside sheet(s).
tions. Because of the pressure exerted by the
For carbon steels, the maximum ratio is 4
electrodes, expansion transverse to the plane of
to I for two thicknesses. The welding of three
the sheets is restricted. As the metal heats, it
metal thickness combinations with pointed type
upsets radially in the plane of the sheets around
electrodes is limited to those where the thick-
the electrode face and usually produces a circ- ness ratio of the two outside sheets is not greater
ular ridge as shown in Fig. 1.14. As the weld
than 2.5 to I. For welding thickness combina-
cools, contraction takes place almost entirely
tions with higher ratios, the electrode face
in the transverse direction and produces concave
diameters must be selected to accommodate the
surfaces or marks at the electrode location.
different thicknesses.
This is not to be confused with excessive elec-
trode indentation into the work caused by im-
proper welding procedures. Actual depth of a
shrinkage depression seldom exceeds a few
thousandths of an inch.
After some finishing operations such as
painting, the marks may be very conspicuous.
It is difficult to eliminate the marks completely,
but they can be reduced materially by modify-
ing the welding procedure. For example, the
depth of fusion into the sheet can be minimized
by welding in the shortest practical weld time.
Various techniques are used to minimize
these markings. The common method is to use
a large flat-faced electrode against the show
side of the joint. This electrode should be made
of a hard copper alloy to minimize wear. An-
6. See Ch. 3 for information on electrodes and Fig. 1.14-Surface irregularity

electrode holder designs. produced by spot welding
Spot Welding /21
The use of a large diameter flat electrode ing will cause the joint to rotate as the load in-
against one sheet will affect the size and shape creases. The spot weld will fail either by shear
of the weld nugget depending upon the thick-to- through the nugget or by tearing the nugget out
thin stacking arrangement of the sections. When of the sheet. In general, the maximum shear
the flat electrode contacts the heavier metal, a strength is obtained when the nugget tears from
greater unbalance occurs as the thickness ratio the sheet. A nugget of some minimum diameter
increases. This results in less desirable welding is required for this type of failure. Increasing
conditions. Better welding conditions exist the nugget diameter beyond this minimum will
when the large flat electrode contacts the thinner not significantly increase the weld strength.
section, although higher amperage and electrode Spot welds have relatively low strengths
force are necessary. The maximum ratio is then when stressed in tension by loading transverse
4to I. to the plane of the sheets. This is due to the sharp
Minimum recommended spot spacing for a notch between the sheets at the periphery of the
weld joining three thicknesses is 30 percent weld nugget. Consequently, spot welded joints
greater than the spacing required for welding are not normally loaded in this manner.
two sections of the thicker outer sheet . The strength of multiple welded joints de-
Weld Strength pends not only upon thickness but also spacing
The strength of a single spot weld in shear and pattern. A staggered pattern is preferred for
is determined by the cross-sectional area of the multiple rows of welds rather than a rectangular
nugget in the plane of the interface between the pattern. The spacing between adjacent welds
two sections. In the case of a lap joint tested affects weld strength because of current shunt-
with the weld in shear, the eccentricity of loading through previous welds. However, spacing
1
Electrode
force
Welding Clamping
:-l
transformer force
r--------,
!
I
I
I
Sheet
B
I I
I
I I
1 I
L __ ____ _j
L.J
Fig. 1.15-Application of indirect welding to minimize marking on one side

also affects the number of welds that can be (4) Misalignment of the electrodes with re-
placed in a particular joint. Therefore, a com- spect to the work
promise must be made between spacing and the Correct electrode alignment is relatively
number of welds in order to obtain the maxi- easy to maintain with stationary welding ma-
mum joint strength. chines and proper supporting fixtures. However,
misalignment is common with portable gun type
ROLL SPOT WELDING machines. The seriousness of this condition is
dependent upon the ease with which the equip-
Roll spot welding consists of making a ment can be manipulated and correctly posi-
series of spaced spot welds in a row with a seam tioned for welding. It is likely that the electrodes
welding machine without retracting the elec- will have longer life between dressings on
trode or removing the electrode force between positioned work (stationary machines) than on
welds. Electrode wheel rotation may or may not nonpositioned work (portable welding guns).
be stopped during the welding cycle. The radius
of the wheel electrode, the contour of its face,
and the weld time influence the shape of the
nugget. The nugget is usually oval-shaped. WELDBONDING
The weld spacing is obtained by adjust-
Weldbonding is a combination of resis-
ment of cool time with the wheel electrodes
tance spot or seam welding and adhesive bond-
continuously rotating at a set speed. Hold time
ing. The best technique is to apply the adhesive
is effectively zero. Roll spot welding may also
to the joint overlap and then weld through it, as
be done with interrupted electrode rotation when
is sometimes done with a primer coat. The ad-
a hold time period is needed to consolidate the
hesive is best applied in paste form, although
weld nugget as it cools.
films may be suitable for some applications.
When continuously moving electrodes are
After welding, the adhesive is cured according
employed, as is commonly the case, weld time
to the manufacturer's recommendations.
is usually shorter and welding amperage higher
Weldbonding improves the fatigue life and
than those used for conventional spot welding.
durability over that obtained with spot or seam
The higher amperage employed may sometimes
welding alone. It may also improve buckling
require the use of a higher electrode force.
resistance with thin sheet, stress distribution,
Otherwise, recommended practices for spot
and rigidity of the joint. The presence of the
welding apply.
adhesive in the joint tends to (I) dampen vibra-
tion and noise and (2) give some corrosion
ELECTRODE MAINTENANCE protection.
Maintenance of electrodes is necessary for The adhesive, its application, and its cure
the production of consistent welds. An abnormal add to manufacturing costs. The presence of the
increase in the size of the electrode faces con- adhesive in the joint makes welding more diffi-
tacting the work is detrimental to weld strength cult and may contribute to significant variations
and quality. For example, if a 1/4-in. diameter in weld quality.
electrode face is allowed to increase to 5/16-in. The adhesive must flow from between the
diameter by mushrooming, the contact area will sheets when the electrode force is applied. Ad-
increase 50 percent with a corresponding de- vanced curing of the adhesive may hamper flow
crease in current density and pressure. Depend- and cause abnormally high resistance at the
ing somewhat upon the welding schedule, the joint interface. High resistance may prevent
result may be weak or defective welds. A dan- current flow or cause excessive heating and
ger sign is the production of poorly shaped metal expulsion. Application of a precompres-
spots which may be caused by: sion electrode force prior to the welding cycle
(I) Noncircular electrode faces may help displace the adhesive (see Fig. 1.8).
(2) Too large a flat face on the electrode Regardless of conditions, not all of the adhe-
(3) Concavity or convexity of the electrode sive will be displaced from between the sheets
face and, therefore, the contact resistance will be
Seam Welding /23
higher than with clean sheets. be useful for joining thin steel sheets where
The process has significant advantages for improved joint strength and corrosion resistance
aluminum sheet metal fabrications. It may also may be realized.
SEAM WELDING
APPLICATIONS The overlap is about I to 1.5 times the sheet
thickness. The welded joint thickness will be in
Seam welding is primarily used to produce
the range of 120 to 150 percent of the sheet
continuous gas- or liquid-tight joints in sheet
thickness with proper welding procedures.
metal tanks such as gasoline tanks for auto-
Flat-faced wheel electrodes, wide enough to
mobiles. Generally, two wheel electrodes are
completely cover the overlap and control joint
used. The process is sometimes used to weld
thickness, are normally used. High electrode
the longitudinal seam in tubular sections with
force and continuous welding current are re-
two wheel electrodes or one translating wheel
quired. Electrode force, welding current, weld-
and a stationary mandrel. A gastight seam is not
ing speed, overlap, and joint thickness are all
normally required in structural tubing.
interrelated and must be accurately controlled
for consistent welding. The overlap must be
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS accurately maintained and held to close toler-
This process has the same advantages and ances. This is usually done by rigid clamping
limitations as spot welding. An additional ad- of the pieces to be welded or by tack welding
vantage is the ability to produce a continuous them together in advance.
leaktight weld. The show surface of a joint must be mashed
Seam welds must be made in a straight or as nearly flat as possible so that it will present a
uniformly curved path. Abrupt changes in weld- good appearance. In most cases, the electrode
ing direction or in joint contour along the path on the show surface is a mandrel that supports
cannot be welded leaktight. This limits the de- the piece parts to be joined. The welding wheel
sign of the assembly. bears on the side that does not show. Proper
Strength properties of seam welded lap positioning of the wheel with respect to the
joints are generally lower than those of fusion joint is required to obtain a smooth weld face
welded butt joints because of the eccentricity of acceptable for painting. The weld area may
loading on lap joints and the built-in notch require some polishing before painting when
along the nugget at the sheet interface. the appearance of the finished product is
important.
PROCESS VARIATIONS For consistent results in production, all
Lap Seam Welding parts must be accurately made within design
tolerances. Locating and clamping jigs must
As with spot welding, lap joints can be consistently and properly position the parts for
seam welded using wheel electrodes, as shown welding. In addition, all welding variables, in-
in Fig. 1.16(A), or with one wheel and a man- cluding electrode force, weld current, and travel
drel electrode. The minimum joint overlap is the speed, must be accurately controlled.
same as for spot welding. Continuous seams with good appearance
and free of crevices can be produced by this
Mash Seam Welding
process variation. Crevice-free joints are neces-
Another type of weld commonly used is sary for applications, such as food containers or
the mash seam weld. The overlap for this type refrigerator liners, where cleanliness is important.
of weld is usually considerably less than for the Three problem areas that may be encountered
conventional lap joint as shown in Fig. 1.16(8). with this method are:
(A) Lap seam weld
Slightly lapped
Before welding After welding

(B) Mash seam weld
r-'\rl __
~electrode
Chamfered
~Broad, flat
~ electrode
(C) Metal finish seam weld
Fig. 1. 16-Variations of seam welding

Seam Welding/25
(I) There is usually some offset at the row strip of foil is introduced on one or both
joint because the seam cannot be mashed com- sides of the joint as it is passed between conven-
pletely flat. tional seam welding wheels. The 0.010-in. thick
(2) The metal in the overlap must flow foil acts as a bridge to distribute welding current
laterally as it is welded but this action is restrained to the edges of both sheets, offers added elec-
by the fixturing or tack welds. Therefore, some trical resistance, and helps contain the molten
distortion of the assembly is likely to take place. weld nugget as it grows and then cools. It also
(3) Very rigid fixturing is needed to resist serves as filler metal to produce a flush or slightly
weld distortion. reinforced weld joint. The foil must be guided
Low carbon steel and stainless steel may be accurately and centered on the joint for even
mash seam welded for certain applications. How- current distribution to both edges. The foil may
ever, metals that have a narrow plastic temper- be roll spot welded to the sheets at low power
ature range cannot be mash seam welded. before the joint is seam welded. The edges to be
joined must fit tightly together and be clamped
Metal Finish Seam Welding firmly in position.
This variation of seam welding is illus- For low carbon steel, welding speeds com7
trated in Fig. 1.16(C). Lap and mash seam welds parable to lap seam welding can be used, pro-
differ with respect to the amount of forging or, as vided the joint has good fit-up. Very little forg-
the name implies, mash down. The lap weld ing is required and, thus, distortion is low.
has practically no mash down, while the thick-
Other
ness of a mash seam weld approaches that of one
sheet thickness. In metal finish seam welding, As with spot welding, two seam welds can
mash down occurs on only one side of the joint. be made in series using two welding heads. The
This variation of seam welding is a compromise two heads may be mounted side by side or in
between lap and mash seam welding. tandem. Two seams can be welded with the
The amount of deformation, or mash, is same welding current, and power demand will
affected by the geometry of one electrode wheel be only slightly greater than for a single weld.
face and the position of the joint with respect to
that face. The wheel face is beveled on one side
of the midpoint as shown in Fig. 1.17. This varies
the amount of deformation across the joint.
Good surface finish can be produced on the side Chamfer begins
Upper electrode at centerline
of the joint against the flat wheel using proper
I
welding procedures.
The location of the edge of the sheet con-
tacting the flat-faced electrode, relative to the
bevel on the other electrode, must be held within
a close tolerance (see Fig. 1.17). With 0.031-
in. thick low carbon steel sheet, for example,
li
the edge must be within 0.016 in. of center. The
overlap distance is not critical.
Higher amperage and electrode force are Lower electrode
I
required than those for mash seam welding be- I
cause of the greater overlap distance. The varia-

Lower sheet
tion is applicable to the same metals and thick-
edge position
nesses as is mash seam welding. tolerance
Foil Butt Seam Welding Fig. 1. 17-Eiectrode face contour and
With this method, the edges of the sheets joint position for metal finish seam
to be joined are butted together and a thin, nar- welding
Gear-driven or
idling electrodes
Single-
Flat
bevel
Electrode width Electrode width
Fig. 1.18-Seam welding wheel face contours
A tandem wheel arrangement can reduce (3) Distortion of the workparts is minimized.
welding time by 50 percent since each half of a (4) It is easy to control spitting or burning.
joint can be welded simultaneously. Thus, for a (5) Sound welds with better surface appear-
72-in. long joint, two welding heads can be ance are possible.
placed 36 in. apart with welding current flowing To produce a gastight seam, the nuggets
through the work from one wheel electrode to should overlap 15 to 20 percent of the nugget
the other. A third continuous electrode is used diameter. For maximum strength, the overlap
on the other side of the joint. The full length should be 40 to 50 percent. The size of the nugget
of the joint can be welded with only 36 in. of will depend upon heat time for a given welding
travel. speed and current. The amount of overlap will
depend upon the cool time.
HEAT BALANCE For a particular metal and sheet thickness,
the number of welds (nuggets) per inch that can
Seam welding of dissimilar metals or un- be produced economically will fall within a range.
equal thicknesses presents the same heat balance In general, as the sheet thickness decreases, the
problems as with spot welding. The techniques number of welds per inch must increase to obtain
for improving heat balance are similar. The con- a strong, gastight seam weld. The ratio of welds
tact area between the work and electrode can be per inch to welds per minute will establish the
enlarged by increasing the wheel width or diam- welding speed in inches per minute. The number
eter, or both. One electrode wheel or mandrel of welds per minute is the number of cycles of ac
may be made of an alloy of lower conductivity
per minute divided by the sum of the heat and
than the other. cool times in cycles for a single weld.
To obtain the minimum number of welds per
WELDING CYCLE inch that will produce the required seam at a given
Interrupted Current welding speed, the heat time and welding currrent
should be adjusted to give the required weld nug-
Welding current is normally supplied in get geometry. The cool time should then be set to
timed pulses (heat time) with a period of time give the necessary nugget overlap. Since decreas-
(cool time) in between them. A nugget of weld ing cool time may increase the heat buildup,
metal is produced during each pulse of current. nugget penetration may increase.
Interrupted current is usually desirable for
most seam welding operations for the following Continuous Current
reasons: With low carbon steel, welding current can
(I) Good control of the heat is obtained. be applied continuously along the length of the
(2) Each weld nugget in the seam is al- seam with high travel speeds if the current wave
lowed to cool under pressure. form available will produce the proper nugget
Seam Welding/21
size and spacing. In this case, weld quality is ments for current and pressure distribution in the
secondary to high production requirements. Con- weld zone.
tinuous current can be used for sheet up to and If the electrode is driven on the periphery
including 0.040-in. thickness. Above this thick- by a steel roll, it is either knurl- or friction-
ness, surface condition has a significant effect on driven; if by a train of gears, it is gear- or shaft-
welding and electrode life is short. Continuous driven. Sometimes one electrode is driven and
current welds in a particular thickness can be the other one idles. Gear type drives may be
made over a wide range of speeds. For example, used to avoid interference with the work.
two thicknesses of 0.040-in. steel stock can be Radius-faced electrodes provide the best
welded at speeds ranging from 105 to 310 in./ weld appearance and are the easiest to set up.
min. The required amperage increases with Flat-faced .electrodes are often used but are
speed. more difficult to set up with the two flat sur-
faces parallel and uniformly contacting the
WELDING SPEED work. A knurl-driven electrode marks the weld
seam. The width of the wheel is determined by
The speed of welding depends upon the the thickness and geometry of the part being
metal being welded, stock thickness, and the welded. The diameter of the wheel is deter-
weld strength and quality requirements. In gen- mined by the part configuration or the physical
eral, permissible welding speeds are much lower requirements of the welding machine.
with stainless steels and nonferrous metals be- Common practice is to cool both the elec-
cause of restrictions on heating rate to avoid trodes and the work with flood cooling. If cool-
weld metal expulsion. ing water is detrimental to the work, the elec-
In some applications, it is necessary to trode shafts may be internally cooled.
stop the movement of the electrodes and work The rate of electrode wear is determined by:
as each weld nugget is made. This is usually (I) The electrode material, face width, and
the case for sections over 0.188-in. thick or for operating temperature
metals that require postheating or forging cycles (2) Abrasion by the drive rolls and the work
to produce the desired weld properties. Inter- (3) The metal being welded and its surface
rupted motion significantly reduces welding condition
speed because of the relatively long time re- The width of the weld cross section at the
quired for each weld. interface between the two workpieces should
With continuous motion, the welding cur- range from 1.5 to 3 times the thickness of the
rent must be increased and heat time decreased thinner section. The ratio of weld width to sheet
as welding- speed is increased to maintain weld thickness normally decreases as the thickness
quality and joint strength. There is some speed increases. The weld width is always slightly
beyond which the required welding current may less than the face width when commercial weld-
cause undesirable surface burning and electrode ing schedules are used.
pickup. This will accelerate electrode wear.
EXTERNAL COOLING
ELECTRODES
Flood, immersion, or mist cooling is com-
Seam welding electrodes are normally monly used with seam welding. This is generally
wheels with diameters ranging from 2 to 24 in addition to any internal cooling of the com-
inches. Common sizes have diameters of 7 to 12 ponents in the secondary circuit of the welding
in. and widths of 0. 375 to 0. 75 inches. machine. When external cooling is not used,
Various wheel contours are used, but the electrode wear and warpage of the work may be
four basic types are: flat, single-bevel, double- excessive. For welding nonferrous metals and
bevel, and radius-faced. These are shown in Fig. stainless steel, clean tap water is satisfactory.
1.18. The face contour used is determined by For ordinary steels, a 5 percent borax solution
the type of drive mechanism and the require- is commonly used to minimize rusting.
JOINT DESIGN Figure 1.19 shows several common designs

of seam welded joints that are generally similar
The various requirements that must be met to those used for spot welding applications. The
in designing spot welded joints also apply. to most conunonly used design, Fig. 1.19(A), is
seam welded joints. With seam welding, elec- the simple lap joint in which the pieces or edges
trode design together with mounting and leak- to be welded are overlapped sufficiently to pre-
tightness requirements place some limitations vent spitting of the weld metal from the edges
on design. of the stock. Common examples are the longi-
The wheel type electrodes are relatively tudinal seams in cans, buckets, water tanks,
large and require unobstructed access to the mufflers, and large diameter, thin-walled pipes.
joint. Since the electrodes rotate during welding, Flange joints are forms of lap joints. The
they cannot be inserted into small recesses or
design in Fig. 1.19(8), in which one of the
internal comers. External flanges must change
pieces is straight, is commonly used for weld-
direction over large radii to be able to produce
ing flanged ends to containers of various types.
a strong, leaktight seam weld.
In Fig. 1.19(C), both pieces are flanged. This
Curvature of the overlap plane is severely
design is used to join the two sections of auto-
restricted by the diameters of the wheel elec-
motive gasoline tanks. Often the flanged pieces
trodes. The smaller the radius of curvature, the
are dished to obtain added strength, in which
more difficult the welding operation becomes.
case it is necessary to mount one or both wheels
The diameter of the inside wheel must be less
at an angle to clear the work, as shown in Fig.
than twice the radius of curvature. The contact
1.19(0). A practical limit is 6 degrees because
length between the outside wheel and the work
greater angles cause excessive bearing thrust,
is shorter and the contact length with the inside
lack of bearing clearance, and the use of large
wheel is longer than with a flat flange. Welding diameter electrodes.
speed must be slower because of this condition.
PROJECTION WELDING
APPLICATIONS ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

Projection welding is primarily used to join In general, projection welding can be used
a stamped, forged, or machined part to another instead of spot welding to join 'small parts to
part. One or more projections are produced on each other or to larger parts. Economics of the
the parts during the forming operations. Fast- two processes should be considered in the selec-
eners or mounting devices, such as bolts, nuts, tion of one for a particular application. The
pins, brackets, and handles, can be projection chief advantages of projection welding include
welded to a sheet metal part. It is especially the following:
useful for producing several weld nuggets simul- (I) A number of welds can be made simul-
taneously between two parts. Marking of one taneously in one welding cycle of the machine.
part can be minimized by placing the projec- The limitation on the number of welds is the
tions in the other part. ability to apply uniform electrode force and
The process is generally used for section welding current to each projection.
thicknesses ranging from 0.02 to 0.125-in. (2) Less overlap and closer weld spacing
thick. Thinner sections require special welding are possible because the current is concentrated
machines capable of following the rapid col- by the projection, and shunting through adja-
lapse of the projections. Various carbon and cent welds is not a problem.
alloy steels and some nickel alloys can be pro- (3) Thickness ratios of at least 6 to I are
jection welded. possible because of the flexibility in projection
Projection Welding /29
However, weld quality will be better with clean

surfaces.
The process has several limitations in com-
parison to spot and seam welding; the most
important ones are:
(1) The forming of projections may require
an additional operation unless the parts are
press-formed to design shape.
(2) With multiple welds, accurate control
(A) (B) of projection height and precise alignment of
the welding dies are necessary to equalize the
electrode force and welding current.
(3) With sheet metal, the process is limited
to thicknesses in which acceptable projections
can be formed and for which suitable welding
equipment is available.
(C) (D)
Fig. 1.19-Common designs of seam-

welded joints
size and location. The projections are normally

placed on the thicker section.
(4) Projection welds can be located with
greater accuracy and consistency than spot
welds, and the welds are generally more con-
t t
sistent because of the uniformity of the projec- (A) (B)
tions. As a result, projection weld size can be

smaller than spot welds.
(5) Marking of the show surface can be
minimized by placing the projections in the
other part. Any slight deformation on the show
side can be sanded flush with the base metal.
(6) Large, flat-faced electrodes are used.
Consequently, electrode wear is much lower
than that with spot welding and this reduces
maintenance costs. In some cases, the flxturing
or part locators are combined with the welding
dies or electrodes when joining small parts
together.
(7) Oil, rust, scale, and coatings are less
t
!C) (D)
of a problem than with spot welding because
the tip of the projection tends to break through Fig. 1.20-Formation of a projection
the foreign material early in the welding cycle. weld
30 /SPOT, SEAM, AND PROJECTION WELDING
(4) Multiple welds must be made simul-

taneously and this requires higher capacity
equipment than does spot welding. It also limits
the practical size of the component containing
the projections.
Projection wall
thickness should
TYPES OF JOINTS be at least 70%
As with spot and seam welding, lap joints of sheet thickness
can be produced by projection welding. Gen- Projection should blend into stock
erally, several domed or elongated projections surface without shouldering
are formed on one part. The number of pro-
Fig. 1.21- General design of a
jections used will depend upon the joint strength
projection for steel sheet
requirements, as with spot welding.
A forged or machined part can be welded
to a sheet section using an annular projection
on the part. Strong, leaktight joints can be pro-
duced. The projection is formed or machined on the other surface to welding temperature. If too
the end or shoulder of the part which, in turn, small, it will collapse before the other surface
may be aligned with or pass through a hole in is adequately heated.
the sheet. (3) Collapse without metal expulsion be-
tween the sheets or sheet separation after
PROJECTION DESIGNS welding.
(4) Be easy to form and not be partially
Projections may be formed on a sheet of sheared from the sheet during the forming opera-
metal by embossing, on a solid piece of metal tion. Such projections may be weak and the
by machining or forging, or on an edge of stamp- resulting welds may be easily torn from the
ings. The purpose of a projection is to localize sheet on loading.
the heat and pressure at a specific location on (5) Cause little distortion of the part during
the joint. Welding current density is determined forming or welding.
by the projection design. The general design of a projection suitable
The sequence of events during the forma- for steel sheet is shown in Fig. 1.21. This design
tion of a projection weld is shown schemati- avoids the tendency to form the projection by
cally in Fig. 1.20. In Fig. 1.20(A), the pro-
jection is shown in contact with the mating
sheet. In Fig. 1.20(B), the current has started
to flow through the projection, thereby heating Punch
it to welding temperature. The electrode fqrce
causes the heated projection to collapse rapidly
and then fusion takes place as shown in Fig.
1.20(C). The completed weld is shown in
Fig. 1.20(0).
Sheet Metal
A projection design for sheet metal should Point radius
meet the following requirements: "R"
(I) Be sufficiently rigid to support the in- Material: tool steel hardened to 50-52 H RC
itial electrode force before welding current is
applied. Fig. 1.22-Punch and die design for
(2) Have adequate mass to heat a spot on projections in sheet metal
Table1.1
Punch and die dimensions for spherical dome projectionS'
Punch Die
Projection Point Hole Chamber
Thickness He1ght, Diameter, Diameter radius, diameter, diameter,
T H,±2% 0,±5% A R, ±0.002 B, ±0.005 D
0.022-0.034 0.025 0.090 0.375 0 .031 0.076 0.090
0.036-0.043 O.o35 0.110 0.375 0.047 0.089 0.110
0.049-0.054 0.038 0.140 0.375 0.047 0.104 0.130
0.061-0.067 0.042 0.150 0 .375 0.062 0.120 0.150
0.077 0.048 0.180 0.375 0 .062 0.144 0.180
0.092 0 .050 0.210 0.500 O.o78 0.172 0.210
0.107 0.055 0.240 0.500 0 .078 0 .196 0.240
0.123 0.058 0 .270 0.500 0 .094 0.221 0.270
0.135 0.062 0.300 0.500 01.09 0.250 0.300
0.153 0.062 0.330 0.500 0.125 0.270 0.330
0.164 0.068 0.350 0.500 0.141 0.297 0.360
0.179 0 .080 0.390 0.500 0.156 0.328 0.390
0.195 0 .084 0.410 0.500 0.156 0.338 0.410
0.210 0.092 0.440 0.500 0.187 0 .358 0.440
0.225 0. 100 0.470 0.500 0.187 0 .368 0.470
0.245 0. 112 0 .530 0.500 0. 187 0.406 0.530
a. All dimensions are in inches.
shearing of the sheet or by significant thinning

of the projection wall. The design of the punch
and die to form this projection shape is illus-
trated in Fig. 1.22. The projection sizes recom-
mended for various sheet thicknesses and the
i\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\3 punch and die dimensions to produce the pro-
0
jections are given in Table 1.1.
Projections may be elongated to increase
the nugget size and, thus, the strength of the
weld. In this case, the contact between the
(A) (B) projection and the mating section is linear.
Threaded boss Elongated projections are generally used for the
thicker sheet gages.
On thin sheet, an annular projection of
small diameter may be used instead of a round
projection. The annular projection has greater
stiffness to resist collapse when electrode force
is applied.
Machined or Forged Parts
Shoulder stud Annular projections are frequently used on
screw machine or forged parts to carry heavy
Fig. 1.23-Examp/es of annular loads and for applications that require a pressure-
projection welding tight joint around a hole between two parts.
Such preparation also produces a high strength For this reason, the projections should be
weld when a large stud or boss is welded to formed in the thicker of two pieces of the same
thin sheet metal. Figure 1.23 shows two appli- metal or in the section with higher electrical
cations of annular projections. Normally, the conductivity when dissimilar metals are being
projection has a 90 degree included angle at the joined. With high conductivity metals, heat dis-
nose. The nose should be rounded, particularly sipation is more rapid.
to improve heat balance with heavy sections. With unequal thicknesses, the projection
Relief, as shown in Fig. 1.23(C), should be design should be based on that required for the
provided at the base of the projection for the thinner section, even though the projection is
upset metal to fill as the projection collapses. formed in the thicker section.
This will assure a tight joint without a gap, as As with spot welding, the conductivity of
shown in Fig. 1.23(0). the electrode alloy can affect heat balance.
Various designs of weld fasteners are avail- Choice of electrode alloys can be used to im-
able commercially for projection welding appli- prove heat balance.
cations. Typical examples are shown in Fig.
1.24. Projection design and number depend
upon the application.
WELDING CYCLE
HEAT BALANCE Welding Current
The factors that affect heat balance are: The current for each projection is generally
(I) Projection design and location less than that required to produce a spot weld
(2) Thickness of the sections in the same metal and thickness combination.
(3) Thermal and electrical conductivities of The projection will heat rapidly and excessive
the metals being welded current will melt it and result in expulsion.
(4) Heating rate However, the current must be high enough to
(5) Electrode alloy create fusion before the projection has com-
The distribution of heat in the two sections pletely collapsed.
being projection welded together must be rea- For multiple projections, the total welding
sonably uniform to obtain strong welds, as in current will approximately equal the current for
spot welding. Maintenance of heat balance may one projection multiplied by the number of pro-
be a greater problem with projection welding jections. Some adjustment may be required to
because two or more welds are usually made account for normal projection tolerances, part
simultaneously. Uniform division of welding designs, and the impedance of the secondary
current and electrode force is necessary to ob- circuit.
tain even heating of all projections. However,
Weld Time
the resistance across the projections will vary.
Since the current paths are in parallel, the cur- Weld time is about the same for single or
rent will be distributed among them accordingly. multiple projections for the same design. Al-
Projections must be designed to support though a short weld time may be desirable from
the electrode force needed to obtain good elec- a production standpoint, it will require corre-
trical contact with the mating part and to col- spondingly higher amperage. This may cause
lapse rapidly when heated. With multiple pro- overheating and metal expulsion. In general,
jections, slight variations in projection heights longer weld times and lower amperages are used
can affect heat balance. This can occur with for projection welding than those for spot
wear of the projection-forming punches. welding.
The major portion of the heat develops in In some cases, multiple impulse welding
the projections during the welding operation. may be advantageous to control heating rate.
TY Weld bolts
I
Weld pins
Weld nuts and pads
Fig. 1.24-Typical commercial projection weld fasteners
This is helpful with thick sections and with ELECTRODES AND WELDING DIES
metals of low thermal conductivity.
The areas of parts to be joined are fre-
Electrode Force
quently flat except for the projections. In such
The electrode force used for projection cases, large flat-faced electrodes are used. When
welding will depend upon the metal being the surfaces to be contacted are contoured, the
welded, the projection design, and the number electrodes are fitted to them. With such elec-
of projections in the joint. The force should be trodes, the electrode force can be applied with-
adequate to flatten the projections completely out distorting the parts, and the welding cur-
when they reach welding temperature, and to rent can be introduced without overheating the
bring the workpieces in contact. Excessive contact areas.
force will prematurely collapse the projections For a single projection, the electrode face
and the weld nuggets will be ring-shaped with diameter should be at least twice the diameter
incomplete fusion in the center. of the projection. With multiple projections, the
The welding machine must be capable of electrode face should extend a minimum of one
mechanically following the work with the elec- projection diameter beyond the boundary of the
trodes as the projections collapse. Slow follow- projection pattern.
up will permit metal expulsion before the work- The best electrode material is one that is
pieces are together. sufficiently hard (to minimize wear) but does not
Projection Steel pilot Sheet

weld nut metal Projection
weld bolt
~'ZD
Insulation Insulation
Fig. 1.25-Locating a weld nut with Fig. 1.26-Positioning a weld bolt

an insulated pin with an insulating sleeve
crack or cause surface burning on the part. If other assembly process. The welding dies should
burning or cracking is encountered, a softer meet the following requirements:
alloy of higher conductivity should be used. (I) Provide accurate positioning of the
With multiple projections, electrode wear can parts
upset the balance of welding currents and (2) Permit rapid loading and unloading
electrode forces on each projection . Then, the (3) Have no alternative path for the weld-
strength and quality of the welds may become ing current
unacceptable. (4) For ac welding, be made of nonmag-
Electrodes for large production require- netic materials
ments often have inserts of Resistance Welder (5) Be properly designed for operator
Manufacturers Association (RWMA) Group B safety
material at the points of greatest wear. In some The dies must be mounted solidly on the
cases, it is more economical and equally satis- welding machine. The parts are mated in one die
factory to use one-piece electrodes of RWMA and all the welds are made at once with one opera-
Group A, Class 3 alloy. tion of the machine . One part may be located in
Welding electrodes and locating dies for relation to the other by punching holes in one
projection welding are usually combined. With with semipunchings in the other to match. The
the proper dies, it is possible to attain accuracy projections can usually be embossed or forged
with projection welding equal to that of any in the same operation.
~
dJj Weld
Weld
nut
Fig. 1.27- Use of a recessed electrode to position a weld nut

installation of the dies. The check for parallel-

ism of the platens should be made under in-
tended operating forces. This can best be done
Projection by placing a steel block with smooth, parallel
Spring weld bolt faces between the platens, applying the intended
Bolt
retainer Sheet electrode force, and then checking for gap with
feeler gages.
2:2ZZ~zzzzri2~~~z1metal The next step is to check the bases of the
die blocks. They must be clean, smooth, flat,
and free from burrs and nicks. If not, they
should be machined.
The dies are then installed on the machine.
Most machines have tee slots at right angles to
one another in the two platens to permit uni-
Fig. 1.28-Holding a bolt in the versal alignment of the dies. After the dies are
upper electrode with a spring properly lined up, they should be clamped se-
retainer curely to the platens. With the work in place in
the dies, the position of the ram or knee of the
machine should be adjusted for the proper stroke,
In some designs, insulated pins or sleeves including the necessary allowance for upset of
may be used in the electrode or dies to position the projections.
and align the parts. Simple examples are shown If the tips of the projections are in one
in Figs. 1.25 and 1.26. plane and of uniform height, the setup is ready
When the small part of an assembly can be for trial welds. Non-uniformity of current or
placed on the bottom and the large part on top, force on the projections may be caused by the
it is a simple matter to hold the small part in a following:
recessed lower electrode such as shown in Fig. (l) Shunting of current through locators
1.27. When it is desired to locate a small part on (2) Unequal secondary circuit path lengths
top of a larger part, a problem exists. Some- (3) Excessive play in the welding head
times the small part can be located and held by a (4) Too much deflection in the knee of the
removable device and then welded with a flat machine
upper electrode. Parts that nest into the upper The use of shims between die components
electrode may be held by spring clips attached or between dies and platens should be avoided.
to the electrode. Figure 1.28 shows a spring- If shims must be used, they should only be
loaded retainer through the side of the electrode clean, annealed, pure copper sheets of suffi-
holding a bolt for welding. Vacuum may also cient area to carry the secondary current.
be used to hold small parts in the upper elec- If projections are located on curved or
trode or die when part design permits. angled surfaces, accurate templates should be
The success of projection welding opera- provided for checking the dies. Also, when
tions in production with respect to the electrodes curved parts are welded, or two or more parts
depends largely upon the proper selection of are welded to others, the mill tolerances for the
materials, proper installation, and proper main- metal thicknesses involved may cause problems.
tenance. If the dies are correctly designed and These tolerances must be provided for in the
constructed, the installation is next in impor- design of the parts and arrangement of the
tance. First, the platens of the welding machine projections.
must be parallel to each other and perpendicular
to the motion of the ram. The platens should JOINT DESIGN
also be smooth, clean, and free of nicks and pit
marks. If they are not, the platens should be Lap joint designs for projection welding
removed and machined smooth and flat before are similar to those for spot welding. In general,
joint overlap and edge distances for projection uct is essentially the same regardless of the
welding can be less than for spot welding. Most method used.
applications use multiple projections where the Crossed wire products include such items
minimum distance between projections should as stove and refrigerator racks, grills of all kinds,
be twice the projection diameter. lamp shade frames, poultry equipment, wire
Part design at the joint location may be baskets, fencing, grating, and concrete reinforc-
significantly limited because the welding elec- ing mesh.
trodes normally contact several projections si- Wire racks may be welded in a press type
multaneously. The electrodes must be mounted projection welding machine or in special auto-
rigidly on the welding machine, and the support- matic indexing machines with hopper feed and
ing members must be strong enough to minimize a separate gun for each weld.
deflection when electrode force is applied. Concrete reinforcing mesh is made on con-
Press type welding machines are commonly tinuous machines. The stay wires are fed from
used for projection welding applications. wire reels and the cross wires are fed either
Fit-up is important with multiple projection from wire reels on the side of the machine or
welding. Each projection must be in contact from magazines of cut wire. The welded mesh
with the mating surface to accomplish a weld. is either rolled into coils like fencing or cut into
Uniformity of projection heights is a factor in mats and then stacked and bundled.
good fit-up. The welding dies must be carefully As in spot or projection welding, the wire
designed and accurately manufactured to mate or rod should be clean and free from scale or
with the parts at the weld locations. They should rust, dirt, paint, heavy grease, or other high re-
not have to deform the parts to obtain good sistance coatings. Plated or galvanized wire or
fit-up. rods may be used, but the coating at the weld
Where surface marking of one part must will be destroyed.
be minimized, the projections should be placed
in the other part. A large, flat electrode on the Metals Welded
show side of the joint should prevent electrode
marking, although slight shrinkage may occur Low carbon steel wire is the most com-
at each projection weld. This may be visible mon metal welded. TYpical machine settings for
after some finishing operations. cross wire welding of this type of material are
When projection welds are used to attach tabulated in Table 1.2. Next in importance are
other fasteners such as weld nuts and bolts, stainless steel and copper-nickel alloys. Com-
they must contain a sufficient number of pro- pared to the values given in Table 1.2, stainless
jections to carry the design load. The design steel will require the same weld time, 60 per-
should be proven by applicable mechanical cent of the amperage, and 2.5 times the elec-
testing. Production quality control should be trode force. Copper-nickel alloys will require
designed to ensure that weld quality does not about the same weld time and amperage and
drop below the design standards. about twice the electrode force.
Welding Technique
CROSS WIRE WELDING
Normally, cross wire welds are not dressed
General Principles
after welding. Therefore, the major considera-
Resistance welding of crossed wires is, in tion may be appearance, with strength secondary
effect, a form of projection welding. In practice, i~ importance for some applications.
it usually consists of welding a number of parallel In setting up the welding machine, con-
wires at right angles to one or more other wires sideration must be given to the following:
or rods. There are many specific ways to per- (I) Design strength
form the welding operation, depending upon pro- (2) Appearance
duction requirements, but the final finished prod- (3) Welding electrodes
Table1.2
Cross wire welding of low carbon steel wire
Cold drawn wire Hot drawn wire
Wire Weld Electrode Weld Weld Weld Electrode Weld Weld
dia., time, force, current, strength, time, force, current, strength,
in. cycles lbs. A lbs. cycles lbs. A lbs.
15% Setdown 15% Setdown
1/16 5 100 600 450 5 100 600 350
1/8 10 125 1,800 975 10 125 1,850 750
3/16 17 360 3,300 2,000 17 360 3,500 1,500
1/4 23 580 4,500 3,700 23 580 4,900 2,800
5/16 30 825 6,200 5,100 30 825 6,600 4,600
3/8 40 1,100 7,400 6,700 40 1,100 7,700 6,200
7/16 50 1,400 9,300 9,600 50 1,400 10,000 8,800
1/2 60 1,700 10,300 12,200 60 1,700 11,000 11,500
1/16 5 150 800 500 5 150 800 400
1/8 10 260 2,650 1,125 10 260 2,770 850
3/16 17 600 5,000 2,400 17 600 5,100 1,700
1/4 23 850 6,700 4,200 23 850 7,100 3,000
5/16 30 I ,450 9,300 6,100 30 1,450 9,600 5,000
3/8 40 2,060 11,300 8,350 40 2,060 11,800 6,800
7/16 50 2,900 13,800 11,300 50 2,900 14,000 9,600
1/2 60 3,400 15,800 13,600 60 3,400 16,500 12,400
1/16 5 200 1,000 550 5 200 1,000 450
1/8 10 350 3,400 1,250 10 350 3,500 900
3/16 17 750 6,000 2,500 17 750 6,300 1,800
I/4 23 1,240 8,600 4,400 23 1,240 9,000 3,100
5/16 30 2,000 11,400 6,500 30 2,000 12,000 5,300
3/8 40 3,000 14,400 8,800 40 3,000 14,900 7,200
7/16 50 4,450 17,400 11,900 50 4,450 18,000 10,200
1/2 60 5,300 21,000 14,600 60 5,300 22,000 13,000
Decrease in joint height x 100
a. Setdown. %
Dia. of smaller wire
(4) Electrode force are commonly used for cross wire welding,
(5) Weld time certain advantages are gained by shaping them
(6) Welding current (heat) to mate with the wires or rods being welded.
The particular application will determine Shaped electrodes provide better contact between
which is most important, strength or appearance, the electrode and the work.
when setting up for a particular crossed wire The electrode force depends upon the wire
welding application. It is normally assumed diameter, the specified setdown, the desired
that high strength welds with an acceptable appearance, and the weld design strength. The
appearance are desired. electrode force will affect the appearance of
The required electrode force, welding cur- the weld. The values given in Table 1.2 will
rent, and weld time depend greatly upon the produce welds with good appearance. Lower
amount that the wires or rods are to be com- weld strengths than those shown in the table
pressed together. This condition is called "set- will result if higher forces are used without
down." It is the ratio of the decrease in joint decreasing the weld time and increasing the
height to the diameter of the smaller wire. Weld welding current.
strength generally increases with "setdown" to The weld time needed will depend upon
a maximum. the diameter of the wire to be welded. For best
The welding electrodes must be of the results, the values shown in the table should
proper material and shape with provision for be used.
water cooling. RWMA Class II alloy electrodes The welding current depends upon the
usually have acceptable life, although electrode diameter and the specified setdown. It should be
facings of harder alloys are sometimes used for slightly less than that which will result in spitting
special applications. Although flat electrodes or expulsion of hot metal.
METALS WELDED
PROPERTIES INFLUENCING ment costs; therefore, metals of high electrical

WELDABILITY resistivity are considered to be more weldable
than those of low resistivity.
The following properties of metals have a
bearing on their resistance weldability: Thermal Conductivity
(I) Electrical resistivity
The thermal conductivity is important be-
(2) Thermal conductivity
cause part of the generated heat is lost through
(3) Thermal expansion
conduction into the metal. This loss must be
(4) Hardness and strength
overcome by greater power input. Therefore,
(5) Oxide-forming characteristics
metals of high heat conductivity are less weld-
(6) Plastic temperature range
able than those of low conductivity. Thermal
(7) Metallurgical characteristics
conductivity and electrical conductivity (re-
Electrical Resistivity ciprocal of resistivity) of the various metals
This is probably the most important prop- closely parallel one another. Aluminum, for
erty from a resistance welding standpoint, instance, is a good conductor of both heat and
since the heat generated by the welding cur- current, while stainless steel is a poor conduc-
rent is directly proportional to resistance. More tor of both.
current is required to generate the heat for weld-
Thermal Expansion
ing a metal of low resistivity than one of high
resistivity. High currents require large trans- The coefficient of thermal expansion is a
formers and power lines which increase equip- measure of the change in dimensions that takes
Metals Welded/39
place with a temperature change. When the co- tween these two extremes and the cleaning re-
efficient of thermal expansion is large, warping quirements will depend upon the oxidation
and buckling of welded assemblies can be behavior of the particular metal. Whether a
expected. cleaning operation is necessary depends upon
the amount of oxide present and how it will
Hardness and Strength affect weld properties. Surface resistance mea-
The hardness and strength of metals are surements may be used to control cleanliness. In
important to resistance welding. Soft metals can any case, all mill scale, heavy oxide from prior
be marked easily by the electrodes. Hard, strong heat treatment, and extraneous material, such
metals require high electrode forces. Metals as paint, drawing compounds, or grease, must
that retain their strength at elevated temperatures be removed prior to resistance welding.
may require the use of welding machines ca- Plastic Temperature Range
pable of applying a forging force to the weld.
If the metal melts and flows in a narrow
Oxide-Forming Characteristics temperature ~ange, the welding variables must
be more closely controlled than with a metal
All commonly used metals oxidize in air,
having a wide plastic temperature range. This
some more readily than others. The surface property may have considerable bearing on the
oxide normally has high electrical resistance.
welding procedure and equipment. Aluminum
If this oxide film is very thick, the resistance
alloys have narrow plastic ranges and require
may be so high that current can not flow through precise control of welding current, electrode
the pieces at normal secondary voltages. If the force, and electrode follow-up during welding.
oxide film is extremely thin, it may have very Therefore, projection welding of aluminum is
little effect. For oxide film thicknesses in be-
not done commercially. Low carbon steel has a
tween these two extremes, welding current may wide plastic range and is easily resistance
flow, but very localized heating may occur at welded.
the interfaces. In the case of spot welding, over-
heating between the electrodes and the work Metallurgical Characteristics
may cause surface flashing, pickup of metal
With resistance welding, a small volume
on the electrode, and poor surface appearance.
of metal is heated to its forging or melting tem-
Furthermore, if the oxide film thickness varies perature in a short time. The heated metal is
from one part to another, the weld strength may
then cooled rapidly by the electrodes and sur-
not be consistent. The oxide-forming charac-
rounding metal. Cold-worked metal will be
teristics of the metal should be thoroughly un-
annealed in the areas exposed to this thermal
derstood and suitable precautions be observed.
cycle. In addition, the rapid cooling may have
In welding aluminum alloys, for instance, the
a considerable hardening effect on some steels.
method of cleaning prior to welding and the
High carbon steel, for instance, may harden so
time interval between cleaning and welding are
rapidly that the welds crack. A postweld tem-
important variables.
pering operation is necessary to avoid this
Aluminum alloys form oxides rapidly and,
cracking. Figure 1.8 shows a postweld quench
therefore, welding must be done within a short
and temper cycle following the weld interval.
time after cleaning to avoid significant varia-
tions in surface contact resistance. Stainless LOW CARBON STEEL
steels, on the other hand, are oxidation-
resistant at room temperature and precleaning Low carbon steels generally contain less
is not usually necessary. The cleaning operation than 0.25 percent carbon. The overall weld-
at the mill prior to packaging and shipping ability of these steels is good. Their electrical
will usually be adequate for welding. Other resistivity is average. Hardenability is low.
metals have oxide-forming characteristics be- Welds with good strength can be obtained over
a wide range of current, electrode force, and Austenitic Type

weld time settings. There are a number of these steels, each
having suitable properties for particular uses.
HARDENABLE STEELS The most common ones contain 18 percent
Medium carbon steels may contain from chromium, 8 percent nickel, and approximately
0.25 to 0.55 percent carbon; high carbon steels 0.10 percent carbon. Some are susceptible to
may contain 0.55 to 1.0 percent carbon. Low carbide precipitation if heated for an appre-
alloy steels contain up to 5.5 percent total alloy- ciable time in a temperature range of 800" to
ing elements including cobalt, nickel, molyb- 1600° F. They can be resistance welded without
denum, chromium, vanadium, tungsten, alum- producing harmful carbide precipitation with
inum, and copper. Alloying additions produce short weld times. Less current is required than
certain desirable properties in steels. The steels for low carbon steels since their electrical re-
may respond to heat treatment and the welds sistances are approximately seven times greater.
may be hard and brittle unless a postweld tem- Relatively high electrode forces are needed be-
pering cycle is employed. With seam welding, cause of their high strengths at elevated tem-
travel must stop during weld and postheat times. peratures. Austenitic stainless steels have higher
Special controls are available to do this on coefficients of thermal expansion than carbon
standard machines. In general, the weldability steels. As a result, seam welded assemblies
of these steels is poorer, due to their harden- may warp excessively if the design and welding
ability, than that of mild steel. procedures do not provide for this. It is advan-
tageous to use short weld times to minimize
the total heat input.
STAINLESS STEELS NICKEL ALLOYS
Stainless steels contain relatively large
In general, nickel alloys are readily joined
amounts of chromium or chromium and nickel
by resistance welding. The general requirements
as alloying elements. They are divided into
for welding are high electrode force, accurate
three groups, namely, martensitic, ferritic, and
timing, and cleanliness. These alloys are subject
austenitic types. Whether the steel is harden- to embrittlement by sulfur, lead, and other low-
able or not depends upon the amounts of carbon, melting-point metals when exposed to them at
chromium, and nickel present.
high temperatures. Oils, grease, lubricants,
Ferritic and Martensitic Types marking materials, and other foreign material,
which might contain sulfur or lead, must be
These steels may be hardenable (marten- removed from the parts prior to welding or weld
sitic types) or nonhardenable (ferritic types). cracking may occur. Pickling prior to welding
When resistance welding the hardenable types, will only be necessary if a significant amount
the precautions given for high carbon and low of oxide is present as indicated by surface dis-
alloy steels must be followed. Hence, these coloration.
steels have poor weldability characteristics. The Pure nickel can be welded rather easily.
nonhardenable types also have poor weldability Some mechanical sticking of electrodes may be
characteristics because the weld zone will have experienced because of the high electrical con-
a characteristic coarse-grained structure and low ductivity of nickel. A restricted dome electrode
ductility. These steels are generally not suitable with a 170-degree cone angle is recommended
for applications where a ductile weld is required. for spot welding.
With the martensitic types, a postweld heat Monel 400' is an alloy of approximately two-
treatment improves weld ductility. However, thirds nickel and one-third copper. It has higher
postweld heat treatment of the ferritic types is
not beneficial. 7. A trademark
Metals Welded /41
electrical resistivity than mild steel and is con- Electronic control of current and time is also very
siderably stronger, particularly at elevated tem- desirable. Pure copper can not be spot, seam, or
peratures. Therefore, somewhat lower welding projection welded.
current and higher electrode force are required Copper-zinc alloys (brasses) become easier
for spot and seam welding this alloy. Projection to weld as the zinc content increases because
welding is accomplished without difficulty. the electrical resistivity increases. The red
Monel K-500', which can be age-hardened by brasses are difficult to weld while the brasses
a subsequent JIOOOF thermal treatment, has with high zinc content can be welded with a
higher thermal and electrical resistivities and is range of welding conditions, even though the
stronger than Monel 400. Therefore, slightly required energy input is high compared to carbon
lower welding current but higher electrode force steel. Relatively short welding times are recom-
is required for Monel K-500 than for Monel mended to prevent expulsion and sticking of the
400. Monel K-500 will crack in the age-hardened electrode to the work.
condition if subject to appreciable tensile stress Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronze),
at llOO"F. Therefore, spot, seam, and projection copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronze) and copper-
welding should be done on annealed material. aluminum alloys (aluminum bronze) are rela-
lnconel 600' contains approximately 78 tively easy to weld because of their relatively
percent nickel, 15 percent chromium, and 7 per- high electrical resistance. These alloys, partic-
cent iron. It has even higher thermal and elec- ularly phosphor bronze, have a tendency to be
trical resistivities than Monel 400, and is quite hot short. This may result in cracking in the
strong at elevated temperatures. Lower welding welds.
currents and higher electrode forces than for
Monel 400 are required for this alloy. Recom- ALUMINUM AND MAGNESIUM
mended practices for spot welding are available. ALLOYS
Projection and seam welding are quite readily
accomplished using procedures similar to those All the commercial aluminum and magne-
for stainless steels. sium alloys that are produced in the form of sheet
Inconel X-750' and Inconel 722' are age- and extrusions may be spot and seam welded,
hardening variations of Inconel 600. They provided the thicknesses involved are not too
possess high strengths at elevated temperatures, great. Properly designed equipment, correct sur-
and have very high electrical resistances. Rela- face prepration, and suitable welding procedures
tively low welding currents and high electrode are necessary to produce satisfactory welds.
forces are used for these two alloys. Projec- Aluminum and magnesium alloys have
tion welding can be accomplished readily with comparatively high thermal and electrical con-
machines having adequate force capacity. These ductivities. To make spot and seam welds, high
alloys should be welded in the solution annealed welding currents and relatively short welding
condition only. times are necessary. One important factor in-
fluencing the choice of equipment for spot and
seam welding is the rapid softening of the alloys
COPPER ALLOYS
at welding temperature. This necessitates fast
Copper alloys have a wide range of weld- movement of the welding electrode into the
ability that varies almost directly with their material as the nugget is formed. Although the
electrical resistance. When the resistance is low, distance is small, electrode movement must take
they are difficult to weld; when resistance is place in a very short time, perhaps 0.002 to
high, they are rather easy to weld. Machines 0.005 second. Rapid acceleration of the welding
having adequate current capacity and moderate machine head is necessary to maintain contact
forces are necessary. Because of the narrow between the electrodes and the work. For this
plastic range of these alloys, it is very desirable reason, low inertia equipment should be used.
to employ machines with low inertia heads. Projection welding of aluminum and magnesium
is not done commercially because of their nar- are the best preventive measures.
row plastic temperature range.
WELDING SCHEDULES
COATED AND PLATED STEELS When setting up for welding a particular
metal and joint design, a schedule must be
Many plated and coated steels can be spot, established to produce welds that meet the de-
seam, or projection welded, but the weld quality sign specifications. Previous experience can
usually is affected by the composition and the provide a starting point for the initial setup. If
thickness of the coating. Coatings on steel are the application is a new one, reference to pub-
usually applied for corrosion resistance, decora- lished information on the welding of the material
tion, or a combination of the two. Therefore, by the designated process will serve as a guide
the welding procedures should assure a reasonable for the initial setup.
preservation of the coating function as well as Sample welds should be made and tested
produce welds of adequate strength. Strength while changing one process variable at a time
requirements usually require machine settings within a range to establish an acceptable value
similar to those for bare carbon steel. Adjust- for that variable. It may be necessary to estab-
ments to compensate for the coating will be lish the effect of one variable at several levels
determined by a number of factors including of another. For example, weld or heat time and
its effect on contact resistance, acceptable elec- electrode force may be evaluated at several
trode marking, tendency of the coating to alloy welding currents. Visual examination and de-
with the base metal, and electrode sticking. structive test results can be used to select an
Coating thickness is the most important appropriate welding schedule. Finally, first pro-
variable affecting weldability. It varies over duction parts, or simulations thereof, should be
relatively wide ranges in commercial practice. welded and destructively tested. Final adjust-
When thickness presents problems in welding, ments are then made to the welding schedule
better welds can often be secured by decreasing to meet design or specification requirements.
the coating thickness. In some cases, it is pos- Starting schedules for many commercial
sible to redesign parts for projection welding alloys may be available from the equipment
to obtain strong welds without impairing the manufacturer. Some may also be found in the
corrosion resistance of the coating. following publications:
Satisfactory weld strength requires the de- (1) AWS CI.l, Recommended Practices
velopment of a weld nugget between steel for Resistance Welding
sheets which are initially separated by two (2) AWS Cl.2, Recommended Practices
layers of the coating metal. Coating thicknesses for Spot Welding Aluminum and Aluminum
vary so widely in commerical practice that Alloys
optimum machine settings for a particular appli- (3) AWS Cl.3, Recommended Practices
cation must be determined experimentally. A for Resistance Welding Coated Low Carbon
weld nugget of the desired size may be obtained Steels
without too much disturbance of the outside (4) AWS 08.5, Recommended Practices
surfaces by using higher welding current, greater for Automotive Portable Gun Resistance Spot
electrode force, and shorter weld time than for the Welding
same thickness of bare steel. Good electrode (5) AWS 08. 7, Specification for Auto-
contact reduces the tendency of the electrode to motive Weld Quality, Resistance Spot Welding
alloy with the coating. However, it is extremely (6) Resistance Welding Manual, Vols. 1
difficult to prevent alloying and pick-up around and 2, 3rd ed., Resistance Welder Manufac-
the periphery of the electrode face, particularly turers Association, 1956, 1961.
with low melting point coatings such as lead, (7) Metals Handbook, Vol. 6, Welding and
tin, and zinc. Short welding times, good tip Brazing, 8th ed., American Society for Metals,
maintenance, and attention to electrode cooling 1971.
Weld Quality /43
WELD QUALITY
The weld quality required depends pri- However, they have identical surface appearance
marily upon the application. It is affected by the because all the welding current passes through
composition and condition of the base metal, the outside surface of both welds. This effect is
joint and part designs, electrode condition, and more severe for closely spaced welds, welds in
available equipment. In some applications, each metal of low electrical resistivity, and welds in
weld must meet the minimum requirements of a thick sheets (0.040-in. thick and greater).
rather stringent specification. This is true for Normally, the surface appearance of a spot,
aircraft and space vehicles. Other applications seam, or projection weld should be relatively
may have standards for satisfactory welds but smooth; round or oval in the case of contoured
permit some percentage of undersize or defective work; and free from surface fusion, electrode
welds. Automotive components are examples. • deposit, pits, cracks, deep electrode indentation,
Design requirements may include surface or any other condition that would indicate im-
appearance, minimum strength, and leaktight- proper electrode maintenance or equipment
ness with some seam welding applications. operation. Table 1.3 lists some of the more com-
These should be monitored by a system of mon undesirable surface conditions, the causes,
quality control that includes visual inspection and the effects on weld quality.
and destructive examination of test samples or
actual weldments. The most important factors
that affect weld quality are as follows: WELD SIZE
(1) Surface appearance The diameter or width of the fused zone
(2) Weld size must meet the requirements of the appropriate
(3) Penetration specifications or the design criteria. In the absence
(4) Strength and ductility of such requirements, either accepted shop prac-
(5) Internal discontinuities tices or the following general rules should be
(6) Sheet separation and expulsion used.
(7) Weld consistency (I) Spot welds that are reliably reproduced
under normal production conditions should have
SURFACE APPEARANCE a minimum nugget diameter of 3.5 to 4 times
The surface appearance of a resistance weld the thickness of the thinnest outside part of the
is no indication of its strength, size, or internal joint. In cases of three or more dissimilar
soundness. It is an indication of the conditions thicknesses, the nugget diameters between ad-
under which the weld was made, but it should jacent parts can be adjusted somewhat by the
not be used as the sole criterion for qualifying selection of the electrode design and materials.
production welds. For example, a group of spot (2) The individual nuggets in a pressure-
welds in a joint may have identical surface ap- tight seam weld should overlap a minimum of
25 percent. The width of the nugget should be
pearance, such as those shown in Fig. 1.29. Yet,
at least 3.5 to 4 times the thickness of the
all welds except the first may be greatly under-
thinnest outside part.
strength because of the shunting of current
(3) Projection welds should have a nugget
through adjacent welds. Figure 1.30 shows an
size equal to or larger than the diameter of the
example of this. The diameter of the fused
original projection.
zone of the second weld is appreciably smaller
There is a maximum limit to the nugget
than the first one due to shunting of current.
size of a spot, projection, or seam weld. This
limitation is based more on the economics and
8. The requirements are given in AWS 08.7, Speci- practical limitations of producing
a weld than on
fiCation for Automotive Welding Quality-Resistance the laws of heat generation and dissipation that
Spot Welding, latest edition. limit the minimum size of the weld. The maxi-
Fig. 1.29-Surface appearance of two succeeding spot welds in 0.046

in. stainless steel sheet
mum useful nugget size cannot be specified

in general terms . Each user should establish
this limit in accordance with the design require-
ments and prevailing shop practices.
- .... -----
Fig. 1.30- Cross section of spot welds
PENETRATION in Fig. 1.29 showing the effect of
current shunting
Penetration is the depth to which the nugget
extends into the pieces that are in contact with the
electrodes. The minimum depth of penetration is
generally accepted as 20 percent _of the thickness
of the outside piece. If penetration is less than
20 percent, the weld is said to be cold because
the heat generated in the weld zone is too small,
and normal variations in welding current, time,
electrode force, etc., will cause undesirable
c hanges in weld strength. In extreme cases, there
may be no weld at all. The depth of penetration
should not exceed 80 percent of the thickness.
Greater penetration will result in expulsion, ex-
cessive indentation, and rapid electrode wear.
Figure 1.31 shows normal, excessive, and insuf-
ficient penetration.
The depth of penetration into each outside Fig. 1.31-Penetration in spot welds;
piece should be approximately uniform for equal (A)-normal, (B)-excessive,
or nearly equal thicknesses. For dissimilar thick-
(C)-insufficient
ness ratios of three or more to one, the depth of
penetration into the thicker piece need only be
equal to that in the thinner piece. welds are loaded in shear when the parts are
exposed to tension or compression loading. In
STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY some cases, the welds may be loaded in tension,
where the direction of loading is normal to the
Structures employing spot, seam, and pro- plane of the joint, or a combination of tension
jection welds are usually designed so that the and shear. In the case of flanged tank sections
Weld Quality/45
Table 1.3
Undesirable surface conditions for spot welds
Cause Effect
I. Deep electrode indentation Improperly dressed electrode face; Loss of weld strength due to re-
lack of control of electrode duction of metal thickness at the
force; excessively high rate of periphery of the weld area; bad
heat generation due to high con- appearance
tact resistance (low electrode
force)
2. Surface fusion (usually ac- Scaly or dirty metal; low electrode Undersize welds due to heavy
companied by deep elec- force; misalignment of work; expulsion of molten metal; large
trode indentation) high welding current; electrodes cavity in weld zone extending
improperly dressed; improper through to surface; increased
sequencing of pressure and cost of removing burrs from
current outer surface of work; poor
electrode life and loss of pro-
duction time from more fre-
quent electrode dressings
3. Irregular shaped weld Misalignment of work; bad elec- Reduced weld strength due to
trode wear or improper elec- change in interface contact area
trode dressing; badly fitting and expulsion of molten metal
parts; electrode bearing on the
radius of the flange; skidding;
improper surface cleaning of
electrodes
4. Electrode deposit on work Scaly or dirty material; low elec- Bad appearance; reduced corro-
(usually accompanied by trode force or high welding cur- sion resistance; reduced weld
surface fusion) rent; improper maintenance of strength if molten metal is ex-
electrode contacting face; im- pelled; reduced electrode life
proper electrode material; im-
proper sequencing of electrode
force and weld current
5. Cracks, deep cavities, or Removing the electrode force Reduction of fatigue strength if
pin holes before welds are cooled from weld is in tension or if crack or
liquidus; excessive heat genera- imperfection extends into the
tion resulting in heavy expul- periphery of weld area; increase
sion of molten metal; poorly in corrosion due to accumula-
fitting parts requiring most of tion of corrosive substances in
the electrode force to bring the cavity or crack
faying surfaces into contact
that are seam welded along the flanges, the The strength of spot and projection welds
seam welds may be subjected to peeling action. increases as the diameter becomes larger, even
The strength requirements for spot and though the average unit stress decreases. The
projection welds are normally specified in unit stress decreases because of the increasing
pounds per weld. For seam welds, the strength tendency for failure to occur at the edge of the
is usually specified in pounds per inch of joint nugget as its size increases. In low carbon steel,
length. It is good practice to specify weld for example, the calculated average shear stress
strength that is greater than that of welds of in good welds at rupture will vary from 10 to 60
minimum recommended nugget size, but not ksi. Low values apply to relatively large welds
more than 150 percent. and high values to relatively small welds. In
both instances, the actual tensile stress in the These methods are not always practical.
sheet at the weld periphery is at or near the For instance, the first will produce greater dis-
ultimate tensile strength of the base metal. This tortion of the assembly and reduce production
factor tends to cause the shear strength of circu- rates; the second and third methods require weld-
lar welds to vary linearly with diameter. ing machine controls that provide these features;
Single spot and projection welds are not the fourth method involves an additional opera-
strong in torsion where the axis of rotation is tion that may reduce the strength of cold worked
perpendicular to the plane of the welded parts. base metal. If the assembly is quenched from
This strength tends to vary with the cube of the annealing temperature, it may cause exces-
the diameter. Little torsional deformation is ob- sive distortion.
tained with brittle welds prior to failure. Angu-
lar displacements may vary from 5 to 180 de-
grees depending upon weld metal ductility. INTERNAL DISCONTINUITIES
Torsion is normally used to shear welds across Internal discontinuities include cracks,
the interface to measure the cross section. porosity or spongy metal, large cavities, and,
The ductility of a resistance weld is de- in the case of some coated metals, metallic
termined by the composition of the base metal inclusions. Generally speaking, these discon-
and the effect of high temperatures and sub- tinuities will have no detrimental effect on the
sequent rapid cooling on that composition. Un- static or fatigue strength of a weld if they are
fortunately, the standard methods of measuring located entirely in the central portion of the
ductility are not adaptable to spot, seam, and weld nugget. This is true because the stresses are
projection welds. The nearest thing to ductility
essentially zero in the central portion of the
measurement is the hardness test, since the hard- weld nugget. On the other hand, it is extremely
ness of a metal is usually an indication of its important that no defects occur at the periphery
ductility. For a given alloy, ductility decreases of a weld where the load stresses are highly
with increasing hardness, but different alloys of concentrated.
the same hardness do not necessarily possess Spot, seam, and projection welds in metal
the same ductility. thicknesses of approximately 0.040 in. and
Another method of indicating the ductility greater may have small shrinkage cavities in the
of a spot or projection weld is to determine the center of the weld nugget, as illustrated in Fig.
ratio of its direct tension strength to the tension- 1.32(A). These cavities are less pronounced in
shear strength? A Weld with good ductility has some metals than in others due to the difference
a high ratio; a weld with poor ductility has a low in forging action of the electrodes on the hot
ratio. metal. Such shrinkage cavities are generally not
There are various methods which can be
detrimental in the usual applications. However,
used in production welding to minimize the
the cavity that results from heavy expulsion of
hardening effect of rapid cooling. Some of these
molten metal, as shown in Fig. 1.32(8), may
are:
take up a very large part of the fused area and
(I) Use long weld times to put heat into
must be considered a defect. A certain number
the work. of expulsion cavities are to be expected in the
(2) Preheat the weld area with a preheat production welding of most commercial steels.
current.
Heavy expulsion of molten metal is a result of
(3) Temper the weld and heat-affected zones improper welding conditions, and the number
using a temper current at some interval after the of such welds that can be accepted should be
weld time. limited by specifications.
(4) Furnace anneal or temper the welded
Internal defects in spot, seam, and projec-
assembly.
tion welds are generally caused by low elec-
9. These tests are described in Vol. I, Welding trode force, high welding current, or any other
Handbook, 7th ed.: 161-3. conditions that produce excessive weld heat.
Quality Control/41
They are also caused by removing the electrode faces due to the expansion and contraction of
force too soon after welding current stops. the weld metal and the forging effect of the
When this occurs, the weld nugget is not prop- electrodes on the hot nugget. The amount of
erly forged during cooling. Such action may separation varies with the thickness of the stock,
result with high-speed seam and roll spot increasing with greater thickness. Normal sep-
welding. aration is shown in Fig. l.3l(A).
Excessive sheet separation results from the
SHEET SEPARATION same causes as surface indentation, to which it
is related. Improperly dressed electrode faces
Sheet separation occurs at the faying sur- act as punches under high electrode force. This
tends to decrease the joint thickness, upset the
weld metal radially, and force the sheets up
around the electrodes. Excessive sheet separa-
tion is illustrated in Fig. l. 33 (note that one
sheet is laminated).
. ~' . -~~,
.
.
. \'i
• • • F • ~ ,
....
Fig. 1.32-Shrinkage cavities in spot

welds: (A)-small, (B)-large Fig. 1.33-Excessive sheet separation
QUALITY CONTROL
Consistent weld quality can be maintained quality. Changes in base metal alloy, temper, or
with proper control of the factors that tend to surface conditions may require revision of the
produce variations in the final product. These welding cycle to produce acceptable welds.
factors include:
(1) Joint design and fit-up WELDING VARIABLES
(2) Material thickness tolerance
(3) Composition, temper, and surface con- When uniform parts are fed to a suitable
dition of the base metal welding machine operated to a qualified welding
(4) Electrode material and shape procedure specification, production of consis-
(5) Electrode and weldment cooling tently acceptable welds is routine. Uniform
(6) Welding cycle variables production welding is achieved if essentially con-
(7) Postweld thermal treatments stant conditions are maintained. When the elec-
The importance of joint design and fit-up trodes are properly dressed and the welding cycle
is discussed elsewhere in this chapter. Large is consistent, there should be very little variation
variations in part thickness, particularly with in weld quality. Since it is very difficult to achieve
three or more thicknesses, may produce incon- absolute uniformity in production operations ,
sistent fit-up which, in turn, can affect weld such operations always should be set up to allow
for some variations without causing significant type accessory are dual, triple, or multi-function
differences in weld properties. of the following: weld time, phase shift heat
Electrode force is usually determined from control, or complete timing and heat control
graphs relating air or hydraulic pressure to force schedule.
produced by the cylinder. Force gages are com- Any timing or level adjustment can be set
mercially available to verify settings for critical up on a multiple basis. The only requirement is
applications. In general, only static forces are that the control manufacturer be properly
measured. Proper maintenance and lubrication informed of the functional variables desired.
of moving parts help to assure uniformity of
Monitors
applied forces. Periodic electrode dressing
assures the application of uniform pressures Monitoring devices are electronic units that
and current densities. Consistent secondary receive input signals from various points of the
currents can be assured by the use of current or welding process, compare these input signals to
voltage regulators, maintenance of proper line a preset standard, and then display the result as
voltage, consistent fit-up of parts, proper spac- acceptable or rejectable. Rejection can also be
ing of welds, and allowance for magnetic mate- expanded to over or under an acceptable range.
rials in the throat of the machine. Various types of monitors are:
(I ) Current detector, over and under
CONTROL ACCESSORIES (2) Voltage (line) detector, over and under
(3) Tip voltage monitor
Controls for resistance welding have ade-
(4) Weld energy monitor (can be used as
quate life, reliability, timing accuracy, and
firing precision for most applications. They monitor only or as feedback unit to control
weld time)
utilize semiconductor components for resistance-
capacitance timing as well as accurate cycle (5) Electrode movement monitor
(6) Electrode movement and current detector
counting. Maintenance of the control functions
alone will not compensate for all welding Types I and 2 are single-variable readout
variables. Changes in work and electrode con- devices; there are many specialized units that
ditions, line voltage fluctations, current shunt- fall into this category. This style unit, usually
ing, cable wear, and electrode force variations simple in nature, will tend to prevent weld
can gradually or suddenly affect weld quality. quality deterioration from excessive variations
A current regulator can compensate for some of of this single variable. An "out of tolerance"
these variations. Improved timing accuracy and signal from these units is in the form of an
current regulation will help to maintain weld isolated relay which may be used to turn on an
quality indirectly. Various control accessories alarm or lock out the main welding control.
are available that can improve weld quality by Type 3 is a more sophisticated monitoring
device. To some extent, it reads the combination
automatic adjustment of control functions or by
of secondary voltage, welding current, and
monitoring of the welding variables and indicat-
ing a malfunction. electrode force using the voltage across the
tips as its quality standard. If the input voltage,
Programmed Devices
input current, metal conditions, or electrode
force vary, they may produce a change in the
Specialized accessories are available to voltage across the electrodes. If the voltage
expand the capability of standard NEMA' 0 type change is large enough to exceed a preset high
weld controls. With these accessories, it is pos- or low limit, the unit will indicate the weld as
sible to increase overall weld quality. On oc- a "reject." As long as the tip voltage remains
casion, some dual or multi-function accessories within set limits, the unit will indicate weld
can be of extreme value. Some examples of this quality as "acceptable."
Type 4, the weld energy monitor, can be
10. National Electrical Manufacturers Association used either as a monitor only or as a monitor
Quality Control/49
with feedback control of the welding machine maintain a preset power level in the welding
control. As a monitor, the unit integrates sec- transformer.
ondary voltage or current signals, or both, with
an internal time base and calculates an energy Tip Voltage Regulator. Tbis regulator receives
input level for each weld. a feedback signal from terminals at the welding
The weld energy monitor is set up by run- electrodes. The unit compares the feedback sig-
ning a group of sample welds at various ma- nal to a previously set reference level and auto-
chine settings and recording the upper and lower matically adjusts the current control circuit to
readings of acceptable welds. The user can then maintain the correct power at welding electrodes.
decide at what level to set the high and low The reference signal is determined when accept-
limits on the unit. After this is accomplished, able welds are made in the manual mode. This
every weld reading that falls between these information is used to adjust the circuitry to the
settings is indicated as an acceptable weld. proper operating range. Circuitry also incor-
Each weld that falls outside of these limits is porated in this unit indicates when the unit can
indicated by a "reject" or "out of limits" signal. no longer maintain the preset level. Lights or an
The "accept" and "out of limits" signals, plus alarm indicate when the preset tolerances are
a number of other signals, can be interfaced out exceeded.
of the weld energy monitor for use elsewhere,
Resistance Feedback Accessory. The acces-
such as a computer or programmable control
sory combines the resistance drop principle as a
input.
weld quality indicator with adjustable limit
timers and indicators to provide the operator
Adaptive Controls
with information on the condition of the welding
Adaptive or "feedback" control devices process. Also, the control makes in-process
are electronic units that operate on a closed- adjustments to the weld time to produce a good
loop or semi-loop principle. In general, this type weld.
system depends on signals generated by the The process variable monitored is the
welding process which are "fed back" into the change in the electrical resistance across the
circuitry and compared to a standard reference weld that occurs during the weld time. The re-
previously set up in the unit. As the weld time sistance of a spot weld varies according to a
progresses, the circuitry attempts to make adjust- predictable pattern as the nugget is being formed.
ments internally so that the feedback signal For the first few cycles of weld time, the re-
matches the standard reference. sistance may be erratic due to metal fit and sur-
Generally, the reference standard is set up face condition variables. However, the general
by making sample welds with the weld controller trend is for the resistance to increase as the metal
set in a manual mode. In these systems, there are is heated by the welding current.
usually adjustable high and low limits to set, and At some point, the resistance will peak
any weld exceeding these preset values will be and then begin to decrease. It is theorized that
indicated as a questionable weld. this decrease in weld resistance is due to metal
fusion and the resulting destruction of the inter-
Current Regulator. In this unit, the welding face resistance of the parts to be welded. It is
transformer primary current is monitored by a possible to roughly relate the percentage drop in
current transformer. The current transformer weld resistance from the peak value to weld
output is fed to a special electronic control nugget size. As an example, in the welding of
circuit. The output level of the control circuit two pieces of clean 0.060-in. thick mild steel, a
is related to the primary current demand of the resistance drop of 15 percent in a reasonable
welding machine. Changes in this level are weld time with reasonable electrode force will
sensed by additional electronic circuitry that be found to produce a good weld.
automatically adjusts the current control devices
to increase or decrease the primary current to Weld Energy Monitor. In addition to its
monitoring capability, the unit can be inter- INSPECTION AND TESTING

faced to the main welding control to control the
weld time. In this mode of operation, the device A satisfactory resistance weld is the result
uses the same input (secondary current squared of using correct welding settings and techniques
or secondary current combined with secondary and maintaining them for the duration of a par-
voltage) for information. ticular production run. Factors such as current,
time, electrode force, and material must be
With its added capability, the unit is in
properly controlled. This is best done by
active control of the process rather than merely
periodic testing of workpieces or test samples
a passive device. It displays an energy level on
for quality control.
a readout. Assuming that the proper energy level
The number of workpieces inspected as
for a good weld has been established, the unit
well as the inspection method may vary. The
can be placed in control of the weld time to
test pieces may be examined nondestructively or
produce the proper energy for each weld.
a certain number tested destructively. Statistical
Acoustic Emission Monitor. Acoustic emission methods are then used to predict the quality of
testing is based on the fact that solid materials the whole lot. In any case, an inspector must be
emit stress waves when stimulated mechanically able to (I) recognize conditions that may cause
or thermally. These waves can be picked up by variations in results, (2) make certain that the
a transducer and electronically processed for test pieces are representative samples, and (3)
monitoring and controlling. Monitoring spot ascertain that production pieces are made under
welds is an excellent example of in-process the same conditions as the test samples.
testing where the stimulus is provided by the The inspector has many inspection means
welding process itself. Starting with the electrode at his disposal, including visual, x-ray, IUagnetic
set-down and ending with the electrode lift-off, particle, fluorescent penetrant, and destructive
spot welding produces a complex acoustic emis- tests. For many types of weldments, the basis
sion signal. The distinguishable elements of this for acceptance is visual inspection. This may be
acoustic record are associated with a number of true even for some weldments that are later to
different physical changes that occur during the be tested by x-ray or other methods. It starts
welding process. The signals associated with with the material prior to fabrication. After the
expulsion (spitting or flashing) are generally of parts are assembled in position for welding, any
large amplitude. They can be easily distinguished incorrect alignment of faying surfaces and other
from the rest of the acoustic emission associated features of joint preparation that might affect
with nugget formation. the quality of the welded joint should be noted.
The expulsion can be visible when it takes A high-quality, consistent weld cannot be
place at the electrode tips and invisible when it judged entirely by appearance, but good welds
takes place between the metal parts. Expulsion should present a uniform and consistent appear-
occurs when an oversize weld nugget is formed, ance. The electrode indentation should not fade
and it is generally an indication of overwelding. out because this would indicate electrode de-
It will occur early in the weld cycle when the terioration or cold welds.
electrodes are clean or the metal is thin. It will No economical or practical nondestructive
occur later when the welding conditions have method of inspecting spot welds is available.
deteriorated. The detection of expulsion by Therefore, the practice is to periodically make
acoustical emission can be accomplished with a number of sample specimens for destructive
available techniques. Since the appearance of the testing. These pieces must be welded under the
first expulsion signal is the dynamic time-mark same conditions as the production parts. The
for the completion of a good weld, it can be material should be the same both in composition
used to signal the control to terminate welding and thickness. Surface cleaning and all machine
current. Thus, the unit forms a feedback path settings should be indentical. Care must be
between the welding process and the power taken to prevent misleading effects from current
input to the weld. shunting through adjacent welds.
Quality Control/51
Direction of rolling
r
r-1 / 2 in.-j (preferred)\
o i \
j_ Spot weld centered 1
as shown 1
L..-----L....::::....::..::::._---~....______J
j_r
.1
----~----CO>---~----~
I
T..____ L ----+~·1
I 2 3
: 0 0 0
: Spot welds centered
as shown
_1_ 1,..__u_se_th_i_rd_w_~_l_d_fo_r_t_es_t....J.-......,
TT I
~-------L-------~·1
T, in. W, in. L, in. D
up to 0.029 5/8 2 Minimum acceptable

0.030 to 0.058 1 3 weld spacing
0.059 to 0.125 1-1/2 4
Fig. 1.34-Pee/ test specimens
Fig. 1.35- Peel test

test for seam welds is the pillow test, a specimen

for which is shown in Fig. 1.36 . The specimen
is tested for leaks with internal hydraulic pres-
sure. An acceptable weld will not leak before
the specimen ruptures. Standard practice in
aircraft quality welding is to test welds for shear
strength using the specimen shown in Fig. 1.37.
This is done at intervals specified in the appro-
Drill hole in one piece and arc priate welding specification.
weld or braze a std. pipe nipple Sectioning of welded specimens is another
centrally over the hole method of weld evaluation. It consists of scrib-
ing the centerline of the weld, sawing to one
side of this line , and smoothing the cut surface
by grinding to the centerline. Etching allows
macroscopic examination of the weld nugget for
Fig. 1.36-Pillow test for seam welds
size, penetration, structure, and discontinuities.
The surfaces of a spot, seam, or projection
Commercial quality welds are normally weld should appear relatively smooth and free
visually inspected and peel tested. Peel test from surface melting, electrode deposits, pits,
specimen designs are shown in Fig. 1.34, and cracks, deep electrode indentations, or other
the method of testing in Fig. 1.35 . A similar conditions indicating that the proper electrode
Spot weld centered

_1__ as shown---./ .----::::t:-+
- -------------.
-r-r~------------~~~>-~~----------~
T L
T w L
Thickness of Specimen Recommended
thinner sheet, in. width, in. length, in.
Up to 0.030 5/8 3
0.031 to 0.050 3/4 3
0.051 to 0.100 1 4
0.101 to0.130 1·1/4 5
0. 131 to 0.190 1· 1/2 5
0.191 and over 2 6
Fig. 1.37-Tension-shear test specimen

Safety/53
face contour was not maintained or that the formance of all production by analysis of
equipment was not functioning properly. The samples.
diameter of the fused area for resistance welds (3) Predict the future quality by consider-
must meet the standards required by the specifi- ing the trend of past and present quality.
cation or design drawings. Additional informa- The methods of sampling, extraction of
tion on testing is found in AWS Cl.l, Recom- data from the samples, and a decision as to
mended Practices for Resistance Welding whether to permit further use of the welding
(latest edition). procedure constitute the quality control system.
In connection with the selection of the sta-
tistical control system, it will function faster
STATISTICAL METHODS and more economically if the number of vari-
ables to be kept under control is small and the
The application of statistical control to charts and records that must be maintained are
production quality has three prime objectives: few in number. Obviously, the various ma-
(I) To reduce the number of rejections and chines that are used to weld the same or similar
machine shutdowns due to poor performance materials should be as nearly equal in adjust-
(2) To assist in establishing the optimum ment and performance as possible.
specification limits of satisfactory quality A complicated system could be adopted
(3) To provide a reasonably reliable mea- that would cover a number of machines with
sure of actual production quality different and varying characteristics. However,
If these objectives are achieved, the prod- a more economical system can be used if all the
uct will have high quality at low cost, and mini- machines are first stabilized and then similar
mumscrap. machines are standardized before applying the
The basic principles of statistical control statistical control.
are widely used in industry. Briefly these prin- The advantages, methods, and procedures
ciples are to: for statistical quality control of resistance weld-
(I) Select samples of actual production and ing are described in AWS Cl.l-66, Recom-
test them for performance to specifications. mended Practices for Resistance Welding,
(2) Estimate the probable quality or con- 102-111.
SAFETY
MECHANICAL electronic eye safety circuits, or similar devices

should be used.
Resistance welding equipment should be (3) Designing portable resistance welding
designed to avoid crushing of hands and other guns so that the hands placed on the operating
parts of the body. This may be achieved by: holders cannot be crushed, perhaps by suitably
(l) Arranging initiating controls, such as remote two-hand controls with appropriate
push buttons and foot switches, to prevent the guards.
operator from inadvertantly operating them.
(2) Guarding the operator of multi-gun ma- PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
chines or large platen type machines that may
require the hands to pass under the point of op- As with other welding operations, the per-
eration. Dual hand controls, physical barriers, sonal protective equipment required is dependent
upon the particular application. The following must be manufactured and installed in accordance
equipment is generally needed for resistance with the safety requirements of appropriate local
welding: and national standards and codes. High voltage
(I) Eye protection in the form of eye or face parts must be suitably insulated and protected by
shields or hardened lens goggles is recommended. complete enclosures with access doors and panels
Face shields are preferred. interlocked to electrically isolate the machine.
(2) Skin protection should be provided by Doors and access panels of live electrical
non-flammable clothing with the minimum equipment at production floor level must be kept
number of pockets and cuffs in which hot or locked or interlocked to prevent access by un-
molten particles can lodge. authorized persons.
(3) Protective footwear is advisable. All electrical equipment must be suitably
grounded and the transformer secondary may be
grounded or provided with equivalent protection.
ELECTRICAL External weld-initiating control circuits should
Resistance welding equipment should be operate at low voltage for portable equipment.
designed to avoid accidental contact with parts Additional information on safe practices for
of the system that are electrically hazardous. All re~istance welding is contained in ANSI Z49 .1,
electrical equipment including control panels Safety in Welding and Cutting (latest edition).
Metric Conversion Factors

1 in. = 25.4 mm
11bf = 4.45 N
1 ksi = 6.89 MPa
1 in./min. = 0.423 mm/s
tc = 0.56 (tF - 32)
Supplementary Reading /55
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST

Adams, J. V., et al., Effect of projection ge- resistance spot welding machine for quality
ometry upon weld quality and strength. control. Welding Journal, 51(3): 122s-32s;
Welding Journal, 44(10): 466s-70s; 1965 1972 Mar.
Oct.
Nadkarin, A. V. and Weber, E. P., A new di-
Andrews, D. R. and Broomhead, J ., Quality mension in resistance welding electrode
assurance for resistance spot welding. Weld- materials. Welding Journal, 56(11): 33ls-
ing Journal54(6); 431-5; 1975 June. 38s; 1977 Nov.
Buer, E Y. and Begeman, M. L., Evaluation of Riley, J. J. and Harris, J. E, Annual projection
resistance seam welds by a shear peel test. welding of tubular sections to low carbon
Welding Journal, 41(3): 120s-22s; 1962 steel sheet. Welding Journal, 45(7): 289s-
Mar. 304s; 1966 July.
Chang, U.l., Mitchell, J. W., and Young, L. G., Savage, W. E, Nippes, E. E, and Wassell,
Evaluation techniques for electrode caps E A., Static contact resistance of series
used in resistance spot welding. Welding spot welds. Welding Journal, 56(11): 365s-
Journal, 51(9): 617-25; 1972 Sept. 70s; 1977 Nov.
Chihoski, R. A., Variations in aluminum spot Savage, W. E, Nippes, E. E, and Wassell, E A.,
welds. Welding Journal, 51(12): 567s-78s; Dynamic contact resistance of series spot
1970Dec. welds. Welding Journal, 57(2): 43s-50s;
1978 Feb.
Cunningham, A., et al., An analysis of the nug-
get formation in projection welding. Weld- Ueda, T. and Kawataka, H., Fatigue strength of
ing Journal, 45(7): 305s-13s; 1966 July. spot welded joints. Welding Research
Abroad, 17(2): 39-52; 1971 Feb.
Czohara, C. A. and Kilmer, T. H., Advancing
the state of the art in resistance welding. Wu, K. C., Electrode indentation criterion for
Welding Journal, 55(4): 259-63; 1976 Apr. resistance spot welding, Welding Journal,
47(10): 472s-78s; 1968 Oct.
Eichhorn, E and Oppe, H. J., The projection
welding of zinc coated sheet metal. Weld- Wu, K. C., Resistance spot welding of high con-
ing Research Abroad, 16(8): 20-31; 1970 tact resistance surfaces for weldbonding.
Oct. Welding Journal, 54(12): 436s-43s; 1975
Dec.
Johnson, K. I. and Needham, J. C., Design of
2
Flash, Upset, and Percussion Welding
Flash Welding . ............ ........... 58 Percussion Welding ............ ....... 82
Upset Welding ............ ........... 76 Safety ............ ............ ...... 88
Supplementary Reading List ............ 90
Chapter Committee

R.A.GREND A R. MATIESON
Weltronic Company Taylor- Winfield Corporation
P. G. HARRIS F. PARKER
ER.HOCH D. ROTH
Aluminum Company of America KirkhofTransformer Division,
FLX Corporation
A.EMANZ D.D.RAGER
57
2
Flash, Upset, and Percussion Welding
Flash, upset, and percussion welding are a to bring the parts into intimate contact. It is the
family of welding processes that can be used to method of heating and time of force applica-
produce a butt joint between two parts of similar tion that distinguish these three welding pro-
cross section· by making a weld simultaneously cesses. Percussion welding may also be used to
across the entire joint area without the addition join the tip or end of a small part to a flat
of filler metal. Upsetting force is applied at some surface.
point before, during, or after the heating cycle
FLASH WELDI NG
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCESS then minute arcs form. This action is called
"flashing." As the parts are moved together at
Def'mition and General Description
a suitable rate, flashing is continued until the
Flash welding is a resistance welding pro- faying surfaces are covered with molten metal
cess in which coalescence is produced simul- and a short length of each part reaches forging
taneously over the entire area of two abutting temperature. A weld is consummated by the ap-
surfaces. Heat for welding is created by resis- plication of an upsetting force to bring the molten
tance at minute contact points to the flow of faying surfaces in contact and then forge the
electric current and by arcs between the faying parts together. Flashing voltage is terminated at
surfaces. Force is applied on the joint at the ap- the start of upsetting. The solidified metal ex-
propriate time to expel the molten metal from the pelled from the interface is called "flash."
joint and then upset the base metal.
Two parts to be joined are clamped in dies Principles of Operation
(electrodes) connected to the secondary of a re- Sequence of Welding. The basic steps in a
sistance welding transformer. Voltage is applied flash welding sequence are as follows:
as one part is advanced slowly toward the other. (I) Position the parts in the machine
When contact occurs at surface irregularities, (2) Clamp the parts in the dies (electrodes)
resistance heating occurs at these locations. (3) Apply the flashing voltage
High amperage causes rapid melting and explo- (4) Start platen motion to cause flashing
sion of the metal at the points of contact and (5) Flash at normal voltage
58
Flash Welding /59
the parts increase with time. Flashing action

(metal loss) increases with part temperature.
A graph relating part motion with time is
(A)
known as the flashing pattern. In most cases, a
flashing pattern should have an initial period of
constant velocity motion of one part toward the
other to facilitate the start of flashing. This
linear motion should then merge into an accel-
erating motion which should closely approx-
imate a parabolic curve. This pattern of motion
(B) is known as "parabolic flashing."
To produce a strong joint with uniform up-
set, the temperature distribution across the joint
should be uniform and the average temperature
of the faying surface should be the melting tem-
perature of the metal. Once these conditions are
reached, further flashing is not necessary.
The steepness of the temperature gradient
(C) corresponding to a stable temperature distribution
is a function of the part acceleration during para-
bolic flashing. In general, the higher the rate of
part acceleration, the steeper is the stable tem-
perature gradient produced. Thus, the shape of
the temperature distribution curve in a particular
application can be controlled by appropriate
choice of flashing pattern. Since the compres-
(D) sive yield strength of a metal is temperature
sensitive, the behavior of the metal during the
upsetting portion of the welding cycle is markedly
dependent upon the flashing pattern. Therefore,
Fig. 2. t-The basic steps in flash welding:
the choice of flashing pattern is extremely im-
(A) position and clamp the parts;
portant for the production of sound flash welds.
(B) apply flashing voltage and start platen
The minimum flashing distance is the amount of
motion; (C) flash; (D) upset and terminate
flashing required to produce a stable temperature
current
distribution. From a practical standpoint, the
flashing distance should be slightly greater than
the minimum acceptable amount to ensure that
(6) Terminate flashing a stable temperature distribution is always
(7) Upset the weld zone achieved.
(8) Unclamp the weldment
Upsetting. When a stable temperature distri-
(9) Return the platen and unload
bution is achieved by flashing, the two parts
Figure 2 .I illustrates these basic steps.
should be brought together rapidly and then up-
Additional steps such as preheat, dual-voltage
set together. The movable part should be accel-
flashing, postheat, and trimming of the flash
erated rapidly so that the molten metal on the
may be added as the application dictates.
flashing surfaces will be extruded before it can
Flashing. This action takes place between the solidify in the joint. Motion should continue
faying surfaces as the movable part is advanced with sufficient force to upset the metal and weld
toward the stationary part during welding. Heat the two pieces together.
is generated at the joint and the temperatures of Upsetting current is sometimes applied as
60 / FLASH, UPSET, AND PERCUSSION WELDING
the joint is being upset to maintain temperature generally necessary and may require special
by resistance heating. This permits upsetting of equipment.
the joint with lower force than would be required (4) Alignment of workpieces with small
without it. Upsetting current is normally adjusted cross sections is sometimes difficult.
by electronic heat control on the basis of either (5) The parts to be joined must have al-
experience or welding tests. most identical cross sections.
Advantages and Limitations
APPLICATIONS
8 utt joints between parts with similar cross
section can be made with friction• and upset Base Metals
welding as well as with flash welding. The major
Many ferrous and nonferrous alloys can be
difference between friction welding and the
flash welded. Typical metals are carbon and low
other two processes is that the heat for friction
alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum alloys,
welding is developed by rubbing friction between
nickel alloys, and copper alloys. Titanium alloys
the faying surfaces rather than from electrical
can be flash welded, but an inert gas shield to
resistance. Upset welding is similar to flash
displace air from around the joint is recom-
welding except that the heat for welding is en-
mended to minimize embrittlement.
tirely from resistance heating at the joint; no
Dissimilar metals may be flash welded if
flashing action occurs.
their flashing and upsetting characteristics are
Some important advantages of flash weld-
similar. Some dissimilarity can be overcome
ing are:
with a difference in the initial extensions be-
(I) Cross-sectional shapes other than cir-
tween the clamping dies, adjustment of flashing
cular can be flash welded; for example, angles,
distance, and selections of welding variables.
H-sections, and rectangles. Rotation of parts is
Typical examples are welding of aluminum to
not required.
copper or a nickel alloy to steel.
(2) Parts of similar cross section can be
welded with their axes aligned or at an angle to Typical Products
each other, within limits.
(3) The molten metal film on the faying The automotive industry uses wheel rims
surfaces and its ejection during upsetting acts to produced from flash welded rings formed from
remove impurities from the interface. flat cold-rolled steel stock. The electrical industry
(4) Preparation of the faying surfaces is not uses motor and generator frames produced by
critical except for large parts that may require a flash welding plate and bar stock previously
rolled into cylindrical form. Cylindrical trans-
bevel to initiate flashing.
former cases, circular flanges, and seals for
(5) Rings of various cross sections can be
power transformer cases are other examples.
welded.
(6) The heat-affected zones of flash welds The aircraft industry utilizes flash welds in the
are much narrower than those of upset welds. manufacture of landing gear, control assemblies,
and hollow propellor blades.
Some limitations of the process are:
(I) The high single-phase power demand The petroleum industry uses oil drilling
produces unbalance on the three-phase primary pipe with fittings attached by flash welding. Sev-
power lines. eral major railroads are utilizing flash welding to
(2) The molten metal particles ejected dur- join track of relatively high carbon steel. In most
ing flashing present a fire hazard, possible in- cases: welding is done in the field using welding
jury to the operator, and damage to shafts and machmes and portable generating equipment
bearings. mounted on railroad cars.
(3) Removal of flash and upset metal is Miter joints are sometimes used in the pro-
duction of rectangular frames for windows, doors,
and other architectural trim. These products are
I. Friction welding is discussed in Chapter 7. commonly made of plain carbon and stainless
Flash Welding /61
steels, aluminum alloys, brasses, and bronzes. up to 1200 A from the power lines. Ignitron
Usually the service loads are limited, but appear- contactors are common on larger machines.
ance requirements of the finished joints are ex- Preheat and postheat cycles are normally
tremely stringent. controlled with electronic timers and phase-shift
heat controls. Timers for these functions may be
EQUIPMENT initiated manually or automatically in the proper
order during the welding period.
Typical Machine
Dies
A typical flash welding machine consists of
six major parts: Flash welding dies are not in direct contact
with the welding area as are spot and seam weld-
(I) The machine bed to which is attached the
fixed platen and a set of electrically insulateding electrodes. Dies may be considered work
ways to support the movable platen holding and current conducting clamps. Since
(2) The movable platen which is mounted the current density in these dies is normally low,
on the electrically insulated ways relatively hard materials with low electrical
(3) Two clamping assemblies, one of which conductivity may be used. However, water
is rigidly attached to each platen to align and cooling of the dies may be necessary in high
hold the parts to be welded production to avoid overheating.
(4) A means for controlling the motion of There are no standardized designs for these
the movable platen dies since they must fit the contour of the parts
to be welded. The size of the dies depends
(5) The welding transformer with adjustable
taps largely upon the geometry of the parts to be
(6) The controls welded and the mechanical rigidity needed to
Flash welding machines may be manual, maintain proper alignment of parts during up-
semi-automatic, or fully automatic in their op- setting. The dies are usually mechanically fas-
eration. However, most of them are either semi- tened to the welding machine platens.
automatic or fully automatic. With manual Electrode contact area should be as large as
practical to avoid local die burns. The contact
operation, the operator controls the speed of the
platen from the time that flashing is initiated surfaces may be incorporated in small inserts
until the upset is completed. In semi-automatic attached to the larger dies for low cost replace-
ment and convenient detachment for redressing.
operation, the operator usually initiates flashing
manually and then energizes an automatic cycle A facing insert of RWMA2 Group B material is
that completes the weld. In fully automatic frequently brazed to the die for maximum wear.
operation, the parts are loaded into the machine If the parts are backed up so that the clamp-
and the welding cycle is then completed auto- ing dies do not have to carry the upsetting force,
matically. The platen motion of many small clamping pressures need only be sufficient to
flash welding machines is provided mechanicallyprovide good electrical contact. If the work can-
by a cam that is driven by an electric motor not be backed up, it may be necessary to serrate
through a speed reducer. Large machines are the clamp inserts. In this case, they are usually
usually hydraulically operated. Equipment for made of hardened tool steel.
flash welding is discussed in Chapter 3. Flash welding dies tend to wear but do not
mushroom. As wear takes place, the contact
Controls and Auxiliary Equipment area may decrease and cause local hot spots
(die burns). The dies should be kept clean. Flash
Electrical controls on flash welding ma-
and dirt will tend to embed in the die and
chines are integral types designed to sequence
cause hot spots and die burns. All bolts, nuts,
the machine, control the welding current, and and other die-holding devices should be tight.
precisely control the platen position during
flashing and upsetting. Electronic (SCR) con-
tactors are widely used on machines drawing 2. Resistance Welder Manufacturers Association
62/ FLASH, UPSET, AND PERCUSSION WELDING
Additional information on flash welding dies and vices. This may require insulation of pins and
materials is given in Chapter 3. locating strips.
Fixtures and Backups (3) Usually, nonmagnetic materials are pre-
ferred because any magnetic material located in
The function of fixtures for flash welding the throat of the machine will increase the elec-
are (I) to locate rapidly and accurately two or trical impedence and limit the maximum current
more parts relative to each other, (2) to hold which the machine can deliver.
them in proper location while they are being (4) It should be made so that the operator
welded, and (3) to permit easy release of the can load and unload the parts with safety. This
welded assembly. A fixture is either fastened to may require the use of swivel devices or slides
the machine or built into it. Parts are loaded di- so that the fixture can be moved out of the
rectly into the fixture and welded. machine.
Resistance welding processes are very rapid (5) A fixture must provide for movement
compared to other methods of joining. If max- ofthe parts as they are being clamped in the dies.
imum production is to be attained, fixtures must (6) All bearings, pins, slides, etc., should
be easily loaded and unloaded. The following be protected from spatter and flash.
factors should be considered when designing a Backups are needed when the clamping
fixture: dies cannot prevent slippage of the parts when the
(I) Quick-acting clamps, toggles, and other upsetting force is applied. Slippage usually
similar devices should be employed. Sometimes occurs when the section of the part in the die is
ejector pins are used to facilitate removal of the too short for effective clamping or the part is
finished assembly. unable to withstand sufficient clamping force
(2) It must be designed so that welding without damage.
current is not shunted through any locating de- A backup often consists of a steel bracket
Clamping die
(electrode)
T = Tube wall or sheet thickness H = Total upset

A = Initial die opening J = K = Material lost per piece
B = Material lost L = M = Initial extension per piece
C = Final die opening S = Minimum necessary length of
F = Total flash-off electrode contact
D = Diam. or min. dimensions of bars
Fig. 2.2- Setup •nd m•teTi•lloss dimensions loT fl•sh welding of tube, sheet, •nd b•T
Flash Welding /63
that can be bolted in various positions to the In the flash welding of extruded or rolled
platen. Brackets can have either fixe~ or adjust- shapes with different thicknesses within the
able stops against the parts. cross-section, the temperature distribution dur-
ing flashing will vary with section thickness.
This tendency can often be counteracted by
WELDING PROCEDURES proper design of the clamping dies, provided the
ratio of the thicknesses does not exceed about 4
Every welding operation involves num- to I.
erous variables that affect the quality of the re- The recommended maximum joint lengths
sulting weld. For this reason, a welding pro- for several thicknesses of steel sheet are given in
cedure should be developed that prescribes the Table 2.1. The maximum diameters for steel
settings for the welding variables to assure con- tubing of various wall thicknesses are listed in
sistent weld quality. Flash welding involves di- Table 2.2. The limits can be exceeded in some
mensional, electrical, force, and time variables. cases using special procedures and equipment.
The dimensional variables are shown in Figs. 2.2 When flash welding rings, there is some
and 2.3. The paths of the movable platen and ratio of circumference to cross-sectional area
the faying surfaces during flashing and upsetting below which shunting of current becomes a
are also shown on Fig. 2.3. The current, force, problem. The power Joss can be high. The mini-
and time variables are shown on Fig. 2.4. Most mum ratio will depend upon the electrical re-
operations do not utilize all of the variables sistivity of the metal to be welded. With metals
shown. A simple flash welding cycle involves of high resistivity, such as stainless steel, the
flashing at one voltage setting followed by ratio can be lower than with low resistivity
upsetting. metals, such as aluminum.
Joint Design
Three common types of welds made by Table2.1
flash welding are shown in Fig. 2.5. Several Recommended maximum joint lengths of
basic design rules for flash welding are as follows: flat steel sheet for flash welding
(I) The design should provide for an even Sheet Max. Sheet Max.
heat balance in the parts so that the ends to be thickness, joint length, thickness, joint length,
welded will have nearly equal compressive in. in. in. in.
strengths at the end of flashing time. 0.010 1.00 0.060 25.00
0.020 5.00 0.080 35.00
(2) The length of metal loss during flashing 45.00
0.030 10.00 0.100
(flash-off) and upsetting must be included in the 0.040 15.00 0.125 57.00
initial length when designing the part. With 0.050 20.00 0.187 88.00
miter joints, the angle between the two mem-
bers must be taken into account in the design.
(3) The parts must be designed so that they ·Table 2.2
can be suitably clamped and held in accurate Recommended maximum diameters of steel
alignment during flashing and upsetting with the
tubing for flash welding
joint perpendicular to the upset force direction.
Wall Max. tubing Wall Max. tubing
(4) The end preparation should be designed
thicknesses, diameter, thicknesses, diameter,
so that the flash material can escape from the in. in. in. in.
joint, and that flashing starts at the center or the 0.125 4.00
0.020 0.50
central area of the parts. 0.030 0.75 0.187 6.00
In general, the two parts to be welded 0.050 1.25 0.250 9.00
should have the same cross section at the joint. 0.062 1.50
Bosses may have to be machined, forged, or 0.080 2.00
0.100 3.00
extruded on parts to meet this requirement.
"C
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"C
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Q)
c: ....
~ "'c:
"'
0. ~
"'
~ 0.
Q)
"'c:0 ::c
·;::;
...."' 0 "'~
.r:. E
"'c: '<0 c:
0 0.. 0
.!!! .!!! Q)
E
"C
0 ....0
"C
i=
Q) Q)
w"'
"C "'
"C
w "C
o:;
....03:
t
...."'
...."'
"'c:
....Q)
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c.
Q)
::c
"'0>
E
c:
0
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....0
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Dimensions
Note: The letters in parentheses refer to Fig. 2.2.
Fig. 2.3-Fiash welding dimensional variables and motions
Flash Welding /65
Upsetting
force
time
--.1------ Time at v 2
1------1--Manual flashing Postheating
--'---
time time
Preheating
t----11- time ~-----Automatic flashing time ------i~~ Up-
1 - - - - - - - - - - - Flashing time--------~-· setting
time
1 - - - - - - - - - - - Welding time - - - - - - - - - - + - 1
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - W e l d i n g period - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
Time--+-
Fig. 2.4-Fiash welding current, force, and time variables
When heavy sections are welded, it is often each metal. Such behavior can be attributed to
advisable to bevel the end of one part to facilitate differences in electrical and thermal conductiv-
the starting of flashing. Such beveling may elim- ities or melting temperatures, or both. To com-
inate the necessity for preheating or initially pensate for this, the extension from the clamping
flashing at a voltage higher than normal. Sug- die of the more rapidly consumed part should be
gested dimensions for beveling plate, rod, and greater than that of the other part. In the case of
tubing are shown in Fig. 2.6. aluminum and copper, the extension of the alu-
minum part should be twice that of the copper
Heat Balance
part.
Aligned Joints. When the two parts to be Miter Joints. Flash welding of nonaligned
welded are of the same alloy and cross section, sections (miter joints) may produce a joint with
the heat generated in each of the parts during the varying properties across it because of heat un-
weld cycle will be the same, provided the physi- balance across the joint. Since the faying sur-
cal arrangement for welding is uniform. Flash- faces are not perpendicular to their respective
off and upsetting will also be equal in each part. part lengths, the volume of metal decreases
In general, the heat balance between two parts across the joint to a minimum at the apex. Con-
of the same alloy will be adequate if their respec- sequently, flashing and upsetting at the apex may
tive cross-sectional areas do not differ by more vary significantly from that which occurs across
than normal manufacturing tolerances. the remainder of the joint.
When flash welding two dissimilar metals, Miter joints between round or square bars
the metal loss during flashing may differ for should have a minimum included angle of 150
tr:---I~----- ;t
Cross section after welding
(000001
Transformer
(A) Axially aligned weld
(00000)
Transformer
(B) Miter weld
(000001
Transformer
(C) Ring weld
Fig. 2.5-Common types offl•sh welds

Flash Welding /61
stock is greater than 20 times its thickness. If

service loading produces a tensile stress at the
apex, the outside corner should be trimmed to
remove the poor quality joint area.
Surface Preparation
Q =4
d
Surface preparation for flash welding is of
minor importance and in most cases, none is
(A) Rods and bars of 0.25 in.
and larger required. Clamping surfaces usually require no
special preparation unless excessive scale, rust,
grease, or paint is present. The abutting sur-
faces should be reasonably clean to accomplish
electrical contact. Once flashing starts, dirt or
other foreign matter will not seriously interfere
with the consummation of the weld.
Initial Die Opening
The initial die opening is the sum of the
initial extensions of the two parts, as shown in
(B) Tubing of 0.188-in. wall and larger
Figs. 2.2 and 2.3. The initial extension for each
part must provide for metal loss during flashing
(flash-off) and upsetting as well as some undis-
turbed metal between the upset metal and the
clamping die. Initial extensions for both parts are
b
determined from available welding data or from
+--1
welding tests. The initial die opening should not
be too large. Otherwise, nonuniform upsetting
and joint misalignment may occur.
~-· ,.,.,0"'-/c-r
Alignment
It is important that the parts to be welded
t are properly aligned in the welding machine so
(C) Flat plate of 0.188-in. and thicker that flashing on the faying surfaces is uniform.
If the parts are misaligned, flashing will occur
Note: Bevel only one piece when D is 0.25 in. only across opposing areas and heating will not
or larger and T is 0.188 in. or greater.
be uniform. When upset, the parts will tend to
slip past each other, as illustrated in Fig. 2. 7.
Fig. 2.6-End preparation for one
Alignment of parts should be given careful con-
part to facilitate the flashing of sideration in the design ofthe machine, the parts
large sec:tions to be welded, and the tooling for welding them.
This is especially true when the ratio of the width
to thickness of sections is large.
Metal Loss
degrees. At smaller angles, the weld area at the
apex will be poor quality because of the lack of The final length of the welded assembly
adequate backup metal. Satisfactory miter joints will be less than the sum of the initial part
may be made between thin rectangular sections lengths because of flashing and upsetting losses.
in the same plane with an included angle as These losses must be established for each part of
small as 90 degrees, provided the width of the an assembly and then added to the part length so
'l
'
II l Poor
II I Good \ !
Fig. 2.7-Effect of part alignment on joint geometry
that the welded assembly will meet design re- preheating operation:
quirements. Changes in welding procedures may (I) It raises the temperature of the parts
require modification of part lengths. which, in turn, makes flashing easier to start
and maintain.
Gas Shielding
(2) It produces a temperature distribution
In some applications, displacement of air with a flatter gradient which persists throughout
from the joint area by an inert or reducing gas the flashing operations. This, in turn, distributes
shield may improve joint quality by minimizing the upset over a longer length than is the case
contamination by oxygen, nitrogen, or both. when no preheat is employed.
However, gas shielding cannot compensate for (3) It may extend the capacity of a ma-
improper welding procedures, and it should only chine and permit the joining of larger cross sec-
be used when required to produce joints of actions than would be otherwise possible.
ceptable quality. Since preheating is usually a manual opera-
Argon or helium is particularly effec- tion, even when the machine is capable of flash
tive when flash welding reactive metals, such welding automatically, the reproducibility of the
as titanium. At high temperatures, these metals preheating operation is largely a function of
are embrittled when they are exposed to air. Dry operator skill.
nitrogen may be effective with stainless and Welding
heat-resisting steels.
The value of a protective atmosphere de- Most commercial flash welding machines
pends upon the effectiveness of the shield design. are operated automatically. The welding sched-
The flash-off material may deposit on the gas ule is established for the particular operations
shielding apparatus and interfere with its opera- by a series of test welds that are evaluated for
tion. Provisions for platen movement must be quality. The machine is then set up to reproduce
provided in the design. the qualified welding schedule for the particular
application.
The operator may load and unload the ma-
Preheating
chine and observe the welding cycle for con-
During preheating, the parts are brought sistency of operation. In some applications,
into contact under light pressure and then the automatic feed and ejection devices may be in-
welding transformer is energized. The high cur- corporated on the machine.
rent density resistance heats the metal between
Postheating
the dies. The temperature distribution across the
joint during preheating approximates a sinusoidal When welding steels with extremely high
waveform with the peak temperature point at the alloy or carbon content, cracking is possible if
interface. the weld is cooled too rapidly to room temper-
Three useful functions may be served by a ature. In some cases, this condition may be
Flash Welding /69
avoided by preheating large parts which, in turn, smoothed by filing or grinding.

will decrease the cooling rate subsequent to
welding. When preheating the parts is not suffi- PROCESS VARIABLES
cient, cracking may be prevented either by post-
heating the joint in the welding machine by Flashing
resistance heating or by immediately placing the Voltage. Flashing voltage is determined by the
weldment in a furnace operating at the desired welding transformer tap setting. It should be se-
temperature. lected to be as low as possible consistent with
A postheat cycle may be incorporated in a good flashing action. Electronic phase-shift heat
flash welding machine using an electronic timer control is not an effective means for reducing the
and phase-shift heat control. The postheat timer flashing voltage. The secondary voltage wave
can be initiated at the end of upset or after a form produced by this means is incompatible
time delay. The desired temperature can be with good flashing action.
attained by adjustment of the heat control. Heat Changes in flashing voltage should be made
will be transferred from the weldment to the only by changing the tap setting of the trans-
clamping dies during the postheat. This must be former. One system for providing two voltage
considered in the die design and material selec- ranges uses two primary contactors, each of
tion, and water cooling may be necessary. which is connected to separate transformer taps.
One contactor is energized to provide a high sec-
Flash Removal
ondary voltage during the initial stages of
It is frequently necessary to remove the flashing. The high voltage assists in starting the
flash material from the welded joint. In some flashing action. The other contactor is energized
cases, this is done only for the sake of appear- after a predetermined time in the flashing opera-
ance. A joint is somewhat stronger in tension if tion to provide a normal secondary voltage. The
the flash is not removed because of the larger first contactor is de-energized at the same time.
cross section of the upset material. The notch The best flashing action is achieved with this
effect at the weld line, however, may cause a arrangement.
reduction of fatigue strength. A portion of the Time. Flashing is carried out over a time in-
upset material may be left in place when the de- terval to obtain the required flash-off of metal.
sign of parts indicates that reinforcement is
The time required will be related to secondary
beneficial.
voltage and the rate of metal loss as flashing
It is generally easier to remove the flash progresses. Since a flashing pattern is generally
immediately after welding while the metal is parabolic, the variables are interrelated. In any
still hot. This can be done by a number of meth- case, smooth flashing action for some minimum
ods including machining, grinding, high-speed flashing distance during some time interval is
burring wheels, die trimming, oxyfuel gas cut- necessary to produce a sound, strong weld.
ting, high-speed sanding, and pinch-off type
clamping dies. With some alloy steels, flash Upsetting
removal with cutting tools is often difficult be-
In the production of a satisfactory flash
cause of their hardness. In these cases, either weld, the flashing and upsetting variables must
grinding or oxyfuel gas cutting is usually
be considered together since they are interrelated.
employed.
The upset variables include the following:
With soft metals such as aluminum and
(I) Flashing voltage cutoff
copper, the flash may be almost sheared off
(2) Upsetting rate
using pinch-off dies. These dies have sharp
(3) Upset distance
tapered faces which cut almost through the metal
(4) Upset current magnitude and duration
as upsetting takes place. The final die opening
is small. The partially sheared flash is then easily Flashing Voltage Cutoff. In most cases,
removed by other means. The joint can then be flashing voltage should be terminated at the same
time that upsetting of the weld commences, but into intimate metal-to-metal contact over the en-
not beforehand. The point of voltage termination tire cross section.
should be adjusted during actual welding tests The amount of upset required to obtain a
to ensure that it does not take place before the sound flash weld is related in some complex
faying surfaces make contact. way to the metal and the section thickness. Nor-
mally, an upset distance equal to one half of the
Upsetting Rate. Upsetting is initiated by in- part thickness should be adequate. If the flashing
creasing the acceleration of the moving part to conditions produce relatively smooth flashed
bring the faying surfaces together quickly. The surfaces, a considerably smaller upset distance
molten metal and oxides present on the surfaces
should be satisfactory for most metals. However,
are forced out of the joint as this occurs. Then some heat-resisting alloys may require upset dis-
the hot weld zone is upset. The upsetting rate
tances as large as I to 1.25 times the section
must be sufficient to expel the molten metal
thickness. Satisfactory welds are made in alumi-
before it solidifies and to produce the optimum
num with upset distances about 50 percent greater
upset while the metal has adequate plasticity.
than those employed with steels of similar
The welding machine must apply a force to
thicknesses.
the movable platen to properly accelerate the
part and overcome the resistance of the parts to Upsetting Current. In some cases, the weld
plastic deformation. The force required depends zone may tend to cool too rapidly after flashing
upon the cross-sectional area of the joint, the is terminated. This may result in inadequate
pressure needed to upset the metal to be welded, upset or cold cracking of the upset metal. The
and the mass of the movable platen. Table 2.3 joint temperature can be maintained during up-
gives the approximate minimum upsetting pres- setting by resistance heating with current sup-
sures for flash welding typical alloys. These plied by the welding transformer. The current
values may be used for a first approximation of magnitude is commonly adjusted by electronic
the welding machine size required to flash weld heat control.
a particular joint area in one of these alloys. Normally, upsetting current would be ter-
minated at the end of upset. If the flash is to be
Upset Distance. The magnitude of the upset
mechanically trimmed immediately after weld-
distance must be sufficient to accomplish these
ing, upsetting current may be maintained for an
two actions: additional period to achieve the desired tem-
(I) The oxides and molten metal must be
perature for trimming.
extruded to the surface from the center of the
thickest section.
(2) The two faying surfaces must be brought WELD QUALITY
Effect of Welding Variables
Table2.3
Approximate minimum upset pressure Weld quality is significantly affected by the
requirements for flash welding various specific welding variables selected for the appli-
alloys cation. Table 2.4 indicates the effects of several
Minimum upset variables on quality when they are excessive or
pressure insufficient in magnitude. Each variable is con-
Material required, ksi sidered individually although more than one can
Plain carbon steels (0. 4C max.) 10 produce the same result.
Plain carbon steels (0.4C-1.2C), The discontinuities encountered in flash
low and medium alloy steels 15-20 welding may be divided into two categories:
Stainless steels (400 series) 20
Titanium alloys 20-25 metallurgical and mechanical.
Stainless steels (300 series) 20-30
High temperature alloys 40-50 Metallurgical Discontinuities
Aluminum alloys 10-50 Base Metal Structure. Metallurgical discontin-
Flash Welding /71
Table 2.4
Effect of variables on flash weld quality
Welding variable
When
variable Hashing Upsetting
is:
Voltage Rate Time Current Distance or force
Excessive Deep craters Tendency to Metal too Burning of oxi- Tendency to
are formed freeze plastic to dation even to squeeze out
that cause upset the extent of too much
pockets and properly blowing out plastic metal;
inclusions in metal. Exces- flow lines bent
weld; cast sive defor- parallel to weld line
metal in weld mation
Insufficient Tendency to Intermittent Not plastic Longitudinal Failure to force
freeze; metal flashing, enough for cracking molten metal from
not plastic which makes proper up- through weld joint; cast metal
enough for it difficult set area. Inclu- retained in weld;
proper upset to develop sions and oxides, inclu-
sufficient voids not sions and voids
heat in the properly in weld
metal for forced out of
proper upset weld
uities that often originate from conditions pres- are usually limited to ferrous alloys. Their exact
ent in the base metal can usually be minimized cause is not certain. They appear in the form of
by the application of appropriate materials smooth, irregular-shaped areas on the fracture
acceptance specifications. The inherent fibrous surface through the weld interface.
structure of wrought mill products may cause There is excellent correlation between the
anisotropic mechanical behavior. An out-turned location of flat spots and localized regions of
fibrous structure at the weld line often results in carbon segregation in steels. In many cases, the
some decrease in mechanical properties as cooling rates associated with flash welds are
compared to the base metal, particularly in- rapid enough to produce brittle, high carbon
ductility. martensite at areas on the flashing interface
The decrease in ductility is not normally where the carbon content happens to be greater
significant unless: than the nominal composition of the alloy. Mi-
(I) The material is extremely inhomo- crohardness tests and metallographic examina-
geneous. Examples are severely banded steels, tion have confirmed the presence of high carbon
alloys with excessive stringer type inclusions, martensite in the region surrounding a "flat
and mill products with seams and cold shuts spot" in almost every case, even in plain carbon
produced during the fabrication process. steels. Furthermore, steels with banded micro-
(2) The upset distance is excessive. structures appeared significantly more suscep-
When excessive upset distance is employed, tible to this type of defect than unhanded steels.
the fibrous structure may be completely re- Die Burns. These are a type of discontinuity
oriented transverse to the original structure. produced by local overheating of the base metal
Oxides. Another source of metallurgical dis- at the interface between the clamping die and the
continuities is the entrapment of oxides at the part surface. They can usually be avoided com-
weld interface. Such defects are rare with good pletely when the parts are clean and mate prop-
practice since proper upsetting should expel any erly with the dies.
oxides formed during the flashing operation. Voids. Voids are usually the result of either
Flat Spots. These metallurgical discontinuities insufficient upset or excessive flashing voltage.
Deep craters on the faying surfaces produced by ment of the clamping dies and fixtures. Nonuni-
excessive flashing voltage may not be completely form upsetting may be caused by part misalign-
eliminated with the correct upset. Such discon- ment, insufficient clamping force, or excessive
tinuities are usually discovered during procedure die opening at the start of upset. The latter can be
qualification tests and are readily eliminated by corrected by decreasing the initial die opening
decreasing the flashing voltage or increasing the and then adjusting the welding schedule, if
upset distance. Figure 2.8 (A) and (B) indicate necessary.
the appearance of flash welds with and without
satisfactory upset.
TESTING AND INSPECTION
Cracking. This type of discontinuity may be
No combination of presently known non-
internal or external. It may be related to the metal-
destructive tests can provide a conclusive eval-
lurgical characteristics of the metal. Alloys that
uation of the quality of a flash welded joint.
exhibit low ductility over some elevated temper-
Fortunately, one of the major advantages of
ature range may be susceptible to hot cracking.
flash welding is that it can be highly mechanized
Such alloys, known as "hot-short" alloys, are
and essentially automatic. Therefore, a consis-
somewhat difficult to flash weld, but usually can
tent quality level is readily maintained after
be welded with the proper conditions. Cold crack-
satisfactory welding conditions are established.
ing may be found in hardenable steels. It can
The fact that no filler metal is employed means
usually be eliminated by welding with conditions
that provide a slow weld cooling rate, coupled that the strength of the weld is primarily a func-
with heat treatment as soon as possible after tion of the base metal composition and properties.
Consequently, properly made flash welds should
welding. Insufficient heating prior to or during
exhibit mechanical properties almost identical to
upsetting may also cause cracking in the upset
those of the base metal.
metal, as shown in Fig. 2.8(C). This can be elim-
In commercial practice, both destructive
inated by increasing the flashing distance or by
and nondestructive tests are employed to ensure
resistance heating during upsetting.
maintenance of the quality level in critical flash
Mechanical Discontinuities. These include welded products. The process control procedure
misalignment of the faying surfaces prior to usually includes the following:
welding and nonuniform upsetting during weld- (I) Material certification
ing. They are easily detected by visual inspection. (2) Qualification of welding procedure
Misalignment of the parts is corrected by adjust- (3) Visual inspection of the product
Cracks
(A) (B) (C)
Fig. 2.8-Visual indications of flash weld quality: (A) satisfactory heat and
upset, (B) insufficient heat or upset or both, (C) cracks due to insufficient
heat
Flash Welding /73
(4) Destructive testing of random samples to the unaided eye. In critical applications, radio-
When the product is used in a critical appli- graphic examination may also be specified.
cation, the above procedure is supplemented by
Random Samples
other tests such as magnetic particle, fluores-
cent penetrant, and radiographic examination. Depending upon the size of the production
When the welded joint is subsequently machined, run, a specified number of randomly chosen
routine measurement of the hardness of the weld parts may be selected for destructive testing
area may also be specified. In addition, specifi- of the welds. The results of these destructive
cations may require proof testing of flash welded tests are normally subject to the same criteria
products. specified in the welding procedure qualification
test. A report of the results of all destructive
Material Certification
tests is then prepared to certify the maintenance
Since material defects may cause flash of the required average quality level for the lot.
weld discontinuities, each lot of raw material Bend Tests
should be carefully inspected upon delivery to
ensure that it meets specifications. Certified Notched bend tests may be used to force the
chemical analysis, mechanical property tests, fracture to occur along the interface for visual
macro-etch examination, and magnetic particle examination. A bend test may be useful as a
inspection may be applicable. qualitative means for establishing a welding
schedule. However, such tests are not generally
Procedure Qualification
used for specification purposes.
Each new combination of material and sec-
tion size to be flash welded normally requires WELDING OF STEEL
qualification of the welding procedure to be em-
Typical data for the flash welding of steel
ployed. This usually consists of welding a num-
tubing and flat sheets are given in Table 2.5.
ber of test specimens that duplicate the material,
For welding solid, round, hexagonal, square,
section size, welding procedure, and heat treat-
and rectangular steel bars, data are given in
ment to be used in producing the product. All
Table 2.6. Both tables are applicable to steels of
specimens should be visually inspected for low and medium forging strength. They give the
cracks, die bums, misalignment, and other dis-
recommended dimensions for setting up a flash
continuities. Where required, weld hardness
welding machine to weld the various sections.
should be measured. A tensile specimen should Total flashing time is based on welding without
be machined from a test weld using the entire preheating.
welded cross section where possible. The test
When setting up a schedule, the dimen-
results should be compared to the base metal
sional variables and flashing time are selected
properties and design requirements.
from the tables. The welding machine is ad-
All pertinent welding conditions used in
justed to the lowest secondary voltage at which
producing the qualification test should be re-
steady and consistent flashing can be obtained.
corded. The production run is then made using
The secondary voltages available are dependent
the same welding procedures.
upon the electrical design of the welding ma-
chine transformer.
Visual Inspection
The upsetting force used for a particular ap-
Each completed weld in the production run plication depends upon the alloy and the cross-
should be visually examined for evidences of sectional area of the joint. The selection of equip-
cracks, die bums, misalignment, or other ex- ment for steels should be based on the values
ternal weld defects. Where specified, magnetic of recommended upsetting pressures given in
particle or fluorescent penetrant inspection is Table 2.7. Such values are based on welding
performed to assist in detecting flaws not visible without preheat.
Table 2.5
Data for flash welding steel tubing and flat sheetsab
S, in.
Flash- S, in. with-
ing with out
T, A, B, c. F, H, J = K, L=M, time, D, loca- loca-
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. tor tor
0.010 0.110 0.060 0.050 0.040 0.020 0.030 0.055 0.40 0.250 0.375 1.00
0.020 0.215 0.115 0.100 0.080 0.035 0.058 0.108 0.80 0.312 0.375 1.00
0.030 0.325 0.175 0.150 0.125 0.050 0.088 0.163 1.25 0.375 0.375 1.50
0.040 0.430 0.230 0.200 0.165 0.065 0.115 0.215 1.75 0.500 0.375 1.75
0.050 0.530 0.280 0.250 0.205 0:075 0.140 0.265 2.25 0.750 0.500 2.00
0.060 0.620 0.330 0.290 0.240 0.090 0.165 0.310 2.75 1.000 0.750 2.50
0.070 0.715 0.385 0.330 0.280 0.105 0.193 0.358 3.50 1.50 1.000 3.00
0.080 0.805 0.435 0.370 0.315 0.120 0.218 0.403 4.00 2.00 1.250
0.090 0.885 0.475 0.410 0.345 0.130 0.238 0.443 4.50 2.50 1.750
0.100 0.970 0.520 0.450 0.375 0.145 0.260 0.485 5.00 3.00 2.000
0.110 1.060 0.570 0.490 0.410 0.160 0.285 0.530 5.75 3.50 2.25
0.120 1.140 0.610 0.530 0.440 0.170 0.305 0.570 6.25 4.00 2.50
0.130 1.225 0.650 0.575 0.470 0.180 0.325 0.613 7.00 4.50 2.75
0.140 1.320 0.700 0.620 0.510 0.190 0.350 0.660 7.75 5.00 2.75
0.150 1.390 0.730 0.660 0.530 0.200 0.365 0.695 8.50 5.50 3.00
0.160 1.470 0.770 0.700 0.560 0.210 0.385 0.735 9.00 6.00 3.25
0.170 1.540 0.800 0.740 0.580 0.220 0.400 0.770 9.75 6.50 3.50
0.180 1.620 0.840 0.780 0.610 0.230 0.420 0.810 10.50 7.00 3.75
0.190 1.690 0.870 0.820 0.630 0.240 0.435 0.845 11.25 7.50 4.00
0.200 1.760 0.900 0.860 0.650 0.250 0.450 0.880 12.00 8.00 4.25
0.250 2.010 1.010 1.000 0.730 0.280 0.505 1.005 16.00 8.50 4.50
0.300 2.245 1.120 1.125 0.810 0.310 0.560 1.123 21.00 9.00 4.75
0.350 2.460 1.210 1.250 0.880 0.330 0.605 1.230 27.00 9.50 5.00
0.400 2.640 1.290 1.350 0.930 0.360 0.645 1.320 33.00
0.450 2.780 1.350 1.430 0.970 0.380 0.675 1.390 38.00
0.500 2.910 1.410 1.500 1.020 0.390 0.705 1.455 45.00
0.550 3.040 1.465 1.575 1.055 0.410 0.733 1.520 50.00
0.600 3.135 1.505 1.630 1.085 0.420 0.753 1.568 56.00
0.650 3.245 1.555 1.690 1.125 0.430 0.778 1.623 63.00
0.700 3.360 1.610 1.750 1.160 0.450 0.805 1.680 70.00
0.800 3.525 1.675 1.850 1.210 0.465 0.838 1.763 83.00
0.900 3.660 1.730 1.930 1.250 0.480 0.865 1.830 97.00
1.000 3.800 1.800 2.000 1.300 0.500 0.900 1.900 110.00
<1. Dat~is hu~don welding two pi~~cs wdding ~.:hara~.:tcristks
with the s~mc withmu prcht:al.
h. Sec Fig 2.2 to identify the dimensions giwn.
Flash Welding/15
Table 2.6
Data for flash welding round, hexagonal, sguare, and rectangular steel barsab
S, in.
Flash- S, in. with-
ing with out
D, A, B, C, F. H, J = K, L=M, time, D, loca- loca-
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. tor tor
0.050 0.100 0.050 0.050 0.040 0.010 0.025 0.050 0.40 0.250 0.375 1.00
0.100 0.182 0.082 0.100 0.062 0.020 0.041 0.091 0.75 0.312 0.375 1.00
0.150 0.270 0.120 0.150 0.090 0.030 0.060 0.135 1.15 0.375 0.375 1.50
0.200 0.350 0.150 0.200 0.110 0.040 0.075 0.175 1.50 0.500 0.375 I. 75
0.250 0.430 0.180 0.250 0.130 0.050 0.090 0.215 1.90 0.750 0.500 2.00
0.300 0.5i0 0.210 0.300 0.150 0.060 0.105 0.255 2.25 1.000 0.750 2.50
0.350 0.600 0.250 0.350 0.180 0.070 0.125 0.300 2.75 1.50 1.000 3.00
0.400 0.685 0.285 0.400 0.205 0.080 0.143 0.343 3.25 2.00 1.25
0.450 0.770 0.320 0.450 0.230 0.090 0.160 0.385 3.75
0.500 0.850 0.350 0.500 0.250 0.100 0.175 0.425 4.25
0.550 0.940 0.390 0.550 0.280 0.110 0.195 0.470 5.00
0.600 1.025 0.425 0.600 0.305 0.120 0.213 0.513 5.50
0.650 1.100 0.450 0.650 0.325 0.125 0.225 0.550 6.75
0.700 1.180 0.480 0.700 0.350 0.130 0.240 0.590 7.50
0.750 1.260 0.510 0.750 0.375 0.135 0.255 0.630 8.25
0.800 1.340 0.540 0.800 0.400 0.140 0.270 0.670 9.00
0.850 1.420 0.570 0.850 0.425 0.145 0.285 0.710 9.75
0.900 1.500 0.600 0.900 0.450 0.150 0.300 0.750 10.50
0.950 1.580 0.630 0.950 0.475 0.155 0.315 0.790 11.75
1.000 1.660 0.660 1.000 0.500 0.160 0.330 0.830 13.00
1.050 1.740 0.690 1.050 0.525 0.165 0.345 0.870 14.75
1.100 1.820 0.720 1.100 0.550 0.170 0.360 0.910 16.50
1.150 1.900 0.750 1.150 0.575 0.175 0.375 0.950 18.25
1.200 1.980 0.780 1.200 0.600 0.180 0.390 0.990 20.00
1.250 2.060 0.810 1.250 0.625 0.185 0.405 1.030 22.50
1.300 2.140 0.840 1.300 0.650 0.190 0.420 1.070 25.00
1.400 2.300 0.900 1.400 0.700 0.200 0.450 1.150 30.00
1.500 2.460 0.960 1.500 0.750 0.210 0.480 1.230 38.00
1.600 2.620 1.020 1.600 0.800 0.220 0.510 1.310 45.00
1.700 2.780 1.080 1.700 0.850 0.230 0.540 1.390 54.00
1.800 2.940 1.140 1.800 0.900 0.240 0.570 1.470 63.00
1.900 3.100 1.200 1.900 0.950 0.250 0.600 1.550 75.00
2.000 3.260 1.260 2.000 1.000 0.260 0.630 1.630 90.00
a. Data is hasc:d on welding two pic~.·cswith the same welding ,,;hara~.·tcristil·~
without preheat.
h. Sec Fig. 2.2 to idcntil): tOC dimensions given.
Table 2.7
Upsetting pressures for various classes of steels
Upsetting
Strength pressure,
classification Examples ksi
Low forging SAE 1020, 1117, and
high strength, low alloy steels 10
Medium forging SAE 1045, 1065, 1335,4130,4140 15
High forging SAE 4340, 8740, 3XX and 4XX
stainless steels, high-speed tool steels 25
Extra high forging Steels with high compressive strengths
at elevated temperature 35
UPSET WELDING
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCESS formed products such as pipe and tubing
The first variation can also be accomplished
Definition by flash welding and friction welding. The sec-
Upset welding is a process which produces ond variation is also done with high frequency
coalescence simultaneously over the entire area welding.3
of two abutting surfaces or progressively along a
joint. The heat for welding is obtained from the BUTT JOINTS
resistance to the flow of electric current through
Metals Welded
the metal at the joint. Force is applied to upset the
joint and consummate a weld when the metal A wide variety of metals in the form of wire,
reaches welding temperature. In some cases, bar, strip; and tubing can be joined end-to-end
force is applied before heating starts to bring the by upset welding. These include:
faying surfaces in contact. (I) Carbon steels
(2) Stainless steels
Principles of Operation
(3) Aluminum alloys
With this process, welding is essentially (4) Brass
done in the solid state. The metal at the joint is re- (5) Copper
sistance heated to a temperature where recrystal- (6) Nickel alloys
lization can rapidly take place across the faying (7) Electrical resistance alloys
surfaces. A force is applied to the joint to bring Carbon steels, stainless steels, copper
the faying surfaces into intimate contact and then alloys, and many aluminum alloys are easily
upset the metal. Upsetting hastens recrystalliza- welded with this process. Some aluminum
tion at the interface and, at the same time, some alloys require precise control of the upsetting
metal is forced outward from this location. This force.
tends to purge the joint of oxidized metal. Sequence of Operations
Process Variations The essential operational steps to produce
Upset welding has two variations: an upset welded butt joint are as follows:
(I) Joining two sections of the same cross (I) Load the machine with the parts aligned
section end-to-end (butt joint) end-to-end
(2) Continuous welding of seams in roll- 3. High frequency welding is discussed in Chapter 4.
Upset Welding/77
(2) Clamp the parts securely the other factors are constant. As the temper-
(3) Apply a welding force ature of the joint increases, the contact resis-
(4) Initiate the welding current tance changes, but it finally becomes zero when
(5) Apply an upsetting force the weld is formed. Upset welding differs from
(6) Cut off the welding current flash welding in that no flashing takes place at
(7) Release the upsetting force any time during the welding cycle.
(8) Unclamp the weldment Generally, force and current are maintained
(9) Return the movable platen and unload throughout the entire welding cycle. Initially,
the weldment the force is low to promote high initial contact
The general arrangement for upset welding resistance between the two parts. It is increased
is shown in Fig. 2.9. One clamping die is sta- to a higher value to upset the joint when welding
tionary and the other is movable to accomplish temperature is reached. After the prescribed up-
upset. Upsetting force is applied through the set is accomplished, the welding current is cut
clamping die or a mechanical backup, or both. off and the force is removed.
Wire of small diameter is sometimes welded
Joint Preparation
with chisel-shaped ends produced by shearing
For uniform heating, the faying surfaces with a wire cutter. The wires to be joined are
should be flat, comparatively smooth, and per- placed in the welding machine with the chisel
pendicular to the direction of the upsetting force. edges in contact at 90 degrees to each other.
Prior to welding, they should be cleaned to re-
Equipment
move any dirt, oil, oxidation, or other materials
that will impede welding across the interface. Equipment for upset welding is generally
The contact resistance between the faying designed to weld a particular family of alloys,
surfaces is a function of the smoothness and such as steels, within a size range based on cross-
cleanliness of the surfaces and the contact pres- sectional area. The mechanical capacity and
sure. This resistance varies approximately with electrical characteristics of the machine are
the reciprocal of the contact pressure, provided matched to suit the application. Special designs
may be required for certain aluminum alloys to
provide adequate control of upsetting force.
Electric current for heating is provided by
a resistance welding transformer. It converts line
power to low voltage, high current power. No-
load secondary voltages range from about 0.4
to 8 V, and the power line frequency may be 50
or 60 Hz. Secondary current is controlled by a
transformer tap switch or by electronic phase-
shift.
Upsetting
Basically, an upset welding machine has
force two platens, one of which is stationary and the
other movable. The clamping dies are mounted
on these platens. The clamps operate either in
straight line motion or through an arc about an
part
axis, depending upon the application. Force for
P'-----------..=,------=6
upset butt welding is produced generally by a
mechanical, pneumatic, or hydraulic system.
Finished upset weld Heat Balance
Fig. 2.9-General arrangement for upset Normally, the process is used to join to-
welding of bars, rods, and pipes gether two pieces of the same alloy and cross-
sectional geometry. In this case, heat balance CONTINUOUS SEAM WELDING

should be uniform across the joint. If the parts
to be welded are similar in composition and General Description
cross section but of unequal mass, the part of In the manufacture of continuously welded
larger mass should project from the clamping die pipe or tubing, coiled strip is fed into a set of
somewhat farther than the other part. With dis- forming rolls. These rolls progressively form the
similar metals, the one with higher electrical strip into cylindrical shape. The edges to be
conductivity should extend farther from the joined approach each other at an angle and cul-
clamp than the other. When upset welding large minate in a vee at the point of welding. A wheel
parts that do not make good contact with each electrode contacts each edge of the tube a short
other, it is sometimes advantageous to interrupt distance from the apex of the vee. Current from
the welding current periodically to allow the heat the power source travels from one electrode
to distribute evenly into the parts. along the adjacent edge to the apex, where weld-
ing is taking place, and then back along the
other edge to the second electrode. The edges
Applications
are resistance heated by this current to welding
Upset welding is used in wire mills and in temperature. The hot edges are then upset to-
the manufacture of products made from wire. In gether by a set of pinch rolls to consummate a
wire mill applications, the process is used for weld.
joining wire coils to each other to facilitate con-
Equipment
tinuous processing. The process also is used for
fabricating a rather wide variety of products Figure 2.11 shows a typical tube mill that
from bar, strip, and tubing. '!ypical examples of utilizes upset welding for joining the longitudi-
the mill forms and products that have been upset nal seam. Figure 2.11(A) shows the steel strip
welded are shown in Fig. 2.10. Wire and rod entering the strip guide assembly and the first
from 0.05 to 1.25-in. diameters can be upset stages of the forming section. The heat regulator,
welded. located behind the forming section, can be ad-
justed pither manually or by phase-shift heat
control. Figure 2.11(8) shows the rotary type of
Weld Quality
oil-cooled welding transformer. This welding
Butt joints can be made that have about the equipment includes (l) a dressing tool assembly
same properties as the base metal. With proper for dressing the welding electrodes without
procedures, welds made in wires are difficult to removing them from the welding machine and
locate after they have passed through the draw- (2) a scarfing tool assembly that removes the
ing processes. In many instances, the welds are upset metal after welding. In the third step, the
considered part of the continuous wire. welded tube enters the straightening and sizing
Upset welds may be evaluated using ten- section, shown in Fig. 2.11(C). Following this,
sion tests. The tensile properties are then com- the tubing is cut to the desired length.
pared to those of the base metal. Metallo graphic Welding cari be done using either ac or de
and dye penetrant inspection techniques are also power. Alternating current machines may be
used. A common method for evaluating a butt operated on either 60 Hz single-phase power or
weld in wire is a bend test. A welded sample on power of higher frequency produced by a
is clamped in a vise with the weld interface lo- single-phase alternator. Direct current machines
cated one wire diameter from the vise jaws. The are powered by a three-phase welding trans-
sample then is bent back and forth until it breaks former-rectifiet unit.
in two. If the fracture is through the weld inter- Welding Procedures
face and shows complete fusion or occurs out-
side the weld, the weld quality is considered As the formed tube passes through the zone
satisfactory. between the electrodes and the pinch rolls, there
Upset Welding /79
Fig. 2.10-Typic./ mill forms and products joined by upset welding

(A) (B)
(C)
Fig. 2.11-TypiciJI tube mill using welding for joining the longitudinal seam: (A) the strip
guide assembly and first stages of the forming section; (B) the rotary type oil-cooled
welding transformer; (C) the straightening and sizing section
Upset Welding/81
is a variation in pressure across the joint. If no The longitudinal spacing of the stitches
heat were generated along the edges, this pres- must have some limit. The spacing is a function
sure would be maximum at the center of the of the power frequency and the travel speed of
squeeze rolls. However, since heat is generated the tube being welded. With 60 Hz power, the
in the metal ahead of the squeeze roll center speed of welding should be limited to approx-
line, the metal gradually becomes plastic and imately 90ft/min. To weld tubing at higher speeds
the point of initial edge contact is slightly ahead than this requires welding power of higher fre-
of the squeeze roll axes. The point of maximum quency. This is indicated in Table 2.8 which
upsetting pressure is somewhat ahead of the shows typical welding speeds using various
squeeze roll center line. sizes of 180 Hz power sources for steel tubing
The current flowing across the seam is dis- of several wall thicknesses.
tributed in inverse proportion to the resistance It is desirable to have the outside corners of
path between the two electrodes. This resistance, the edges close first as the formed tube moves
for the most part, is the contact resistance be- through the machine so that the stitches will
tween the edges to be welded. Pressure is effec- be inclined forward. This condition is known as
tive in reducing this contact resistance. As the an inverted vee. The advantages of using an in-
temperature of the joint increases, the electrical verted vee are twofold: (I) the angle deviation
resistance will increase and the pressure will de- from the vertical reduces the forces tending to
crease. A very sharp thermal gradient caused by expel any molten metal in the joint, and (2) the
the FR heating at the peaks of the ac cycle pro- major portion of the upset metal is extruded to
duce a "stitch effect." The stitch is normally of the outside where it is easily removed. The tub-
circular cross section, lying centrally in the weld ing is normally formed so that the included'angle
area and parallel to the line of initial closure of the of the vee is about 5 to 7 degrees.
seam edges. It is the hottest portion of the weld.
Surface Burns
The stitch area is molten while the area between
stitches is at a lower temperature. The patches of As in spot and seam welding, the current
molten metal are relatively free to flow under the that provides the welding heat must enter the
influence of the motor forces (current and mag- stock through electrode contacts. The resistance
netic flux) acting on them. Consequently, they are of these contacts must be kept to a minimum to
ejected from the stitch area. If the welding heat is avoid f'R losses sufficient to result in surface
excessive, too much metal is ejected and pinhole burns on the tube. Burns are actually surface por-
leaks may result. With too little heat, the individ- tions of the tube that are heated to their fusion or
ual stitches will not overlap sufficiently, resulting melting point. They tend to stick to or imbed
in an interrupted weld. themselves in the face of the wheel electrode. If
Table 2.8
Typical seam welding speeds for steel tubing using 180Hz power sources
Wall Speed, ft/min.
thickness,
in. 125kVA 200 kVA 300 kVA 500 kVA
0.050 150 200
0.065 110 100 200
0.083 72 105 145
0.095 85 115
0.109 66 90
0.125 50 70 140
0.134 60 125
0.156 85
large steel particles become embedded in the of the tube to support the forces being applied.
electrode face, the contact resistance will in- The maximum permissible pressure in the weld-
crease and cause more severe burning. This ac- ing throat is a function of the yield strength of
tion continues to build up with each revolution the metal and the ratio of tube diameter to wall
of the electrode. To stop burning, the operation thickness (D/t ratio). In extreme cases where the
must be interrupted and the electrode cleaned D/t ratio is high, a backup mandrel must be used
or remachined. to prevent distortion of the tube wall and mis-
To eliminate burns, the area of contact and alignment of the joint.
the pressure between the electrode and the tube
must be adequate. As a rule of thumb, each
INSPECTION AND TESTING
electrode should have sufficient contact area so
that the current density will be less than 50 000 Upset welds can be inspected and tested in
A/in~ The relative shapes of the formed tube and the same manner as flash welds. In general, the
the electrode should ensure that the maximum quality requirements for upset welds are not so
contact pressure occurs next to the seam. stringent as those specified for flash welds. The
Without the aid of some backup support, process normally can not produce welds with the
electrode contact pressure is limited by the ability consistency available with flash welding.
PERCUSSION WELDING
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCESS In the application of the process, the two

parts are initially separated by a small projection
Definition and General Description on one part, or one part is moved toward the
Percussion welding is a joining process in other. At the proper time, an arc is initiated
which coalescence is produced simultaneously between them. This arc heats the faying surfaces
over the entire abutting surface by the heat from of both parts to welding temperature. Then, an
an arc. The arc is produced by a short pulse of impact force drives the parts together to produce
electrical energy. Pressure is applied percussively a welded joint. There are basically two variations
during or immediately following the electrical of percussion welding: magnetic force and capa-
pulse. citor discharge.
In general, "percussion welding" is the term Although the steps may differ in certain ap-
used in the electronics industry for joining wires, plications because of process variations, the
contacts, leads, and similar items to a flat sur- essential sequence of events in making apercus-
face. On the other hand, if the item is a metal sion weld are as follows:
stud that is welded to a structure for attachment (I) Load and clamp the parts into the
purposes, it is called "capacitor discharge stud machine.
welding"• even though the equipment and pro- (2) Apply a low force on the parts or release
cedures are similar to percussion welding. the driving system.
(3) Establish an arc between the faying
4. Capacitor discharge stud welding is discussed in Vol. surfaces with high voltage to ionize the gas be-
2, Welding Handbook, 7th Ed.; 262-3, 282-94. tween the parts or with high current to melt and
Percussion Welding /83
vaporize a projection on one part. Advantages and Limitations

(4) Move the parts together percussively
with an applied force to extinguish the arc and Advantages. The extreme brevity of the arc in
consummate a weld. both versions of percussion welding limits melt-
(5) Release the force. ing to a very thin layer on the faying surfaces.
(6) Unclamp the welded assembly. Consequently, there is very little upset or flash
(7) Unload the machine. on the periphery of the welded joint. Heat-
Percussion welding is analogous to capa- treated or cold-worked metals can be welded
citor discharge stud welding. The differences without annealing them.
between the two processes are the applications Filler metal is not used and there is no cast
and the type of power source. Percussion weld- metal at the weld interface. A percussion welded
ing may be used to join two parts of equal cross joint usually possesses higher strength and con-
section end-to-end. These include wire, rod, ductivity than does a brazed joint. Also, unlike
and tubing. Welding current is supplied by a brazing, no special flux or atmosphere is required.
capacitor storage bank in these applications. The A particular advantage of the capacitor dis-
process may also be used to weld wires or con- charge method is that the capacitor charging
tacts to large flat areas with power from a capa- rate is easily controlled and low compared to the
citor bank or a transformer. discharge rate. The line power factor is better
than with a single-phase ac machine. Both these
factors give good operating efficiency and low
power lirie demand.
Welding heat is generated by a high current Percussion welding can tolerate a slight
arc between the two parts to be joined. The cur- amount of contamination on the faying surfaces
rent density is very high, and this melts a thin because expulsion of the thin molten layer tends
layer of metal on the faying surfaces in a few to carry any contaminants out of the joint.
milliseconds. Then, the molten surfaces are Limitations. The percussion welding process
brought together in a percussive manner to con- is limited to butt joints between two like sections
summate a weld. and to flat pads or contacts joined to flat sur-
The two process variations differ in the type faces. In addition, the total area that can be joined
of power supply, method of arc initiation, and is limited since control of an arc path between
work drive motion. With the capacitor discharge two large surfaces is difficult.
method, power is furnished by a capacitor stor- Joints between two like sections can be
age bank. The arc is initiated by the voltage accomplished more economically by other pro-
across the terminals of the capacitor bank (charg- cesses. Percussion welding is usually confined
ing voltage) or a superimposed high voltage to the joining of dissimilar metals not normally
pulse. Motion may be imparted to the movable considered weldable by other processes and to
part by mechanical or pneumatic means. the production of joints where avoidance of
For magnetic force welding, power is sup- upset is imperative. Another limitation of this
plied by a welding transformer. The arc is in- process is that two separate pieces must be joined.
itiated by vaporizing a small projection on one It cannot be used to weld a ring of one piece.
part with high current from the transformer. The
vaporized metal provides an arc path. The per- APPLICATIONS
cussive force is applied to the joint by an electro-
Weldable Metals
magnet that is synchronized with the welding
current. Magnetic force percussion welds are The magnetic force method is primarily
made in less than one half cycle of 60 Hz. Con- used for joining electrical contacts to contactor
sequently, the timing between the initiation of arms. Combinations include copper to copper,
the arc and the application of magnetic force is silver-tungsten to copper, silver oxide to copper,
critical. and silver-cadmium oxide to brass. Areas from
0.040 to 1.27 in~ are being welded in produc- mainly those in the electrical contact or compo-
tion. Some metal loss occurs at the weld inter- nent field. Large contact assemblies for relays
face, and in most instances some flash must be and contactors are usually made on magnetic
removed from the periphery of the weld. Figure force percussion welding machines. Such ma-
2.12 shows several contact designs welded by chines can be automated for high production.
this process. Figure 2.13 shows a section Hand-held capacitor discharge equipment
through a typical weld. may be used to weld wires to pins. This is par-
The capacitor discharge method is usually ticularly applicable to aerospace equipment that
employed to produce the following types of is subject to shock and vibration. The process is
joints: also used to weld electronic components to
(I) Butt joints between wires or rods terminals .
(2) Lead wire ends to flat conductors or
terminals EFFECT ON METALS WELDED
(3) Contacts to relay arms
The wire is usually made of copper and Heat Effect
may be solid or stranded, bare or tinned . The A percussion weld is made in a very short
rods are usually copper, brass, or nickel-silver. time. It may take milliseconds when using mag-
Other alloys such as steel, alumel, chrome!, netic force welding. Because of this short time,
aluminum, and tantalum may be welded to them- the heat-affected zones of percussion welds are
selves or to other materials. The method is also shallow, usually less than 0.010 inch. There is
applicable to reactive , refractory, and dissimilar little oxidation of mating surfaces and a minimum
metal welds, because the short weld time limits of alloying between dissimilar metals. Since the
the contamination of the reactive metals and the heat-affected depth is so small, heat-treated
formation of low-strength intermetallic zones in metals may be welded without softening them .
the joints. The heat input is so concentrated and of such
Industrial Uses short duration that heat-sensitive components
near the weld area are not affected by the weld-
Companies using percussion welding are ing cycle.
Fig. 2.12-Typical electrical contacts joined by magnetic force percussion

welding
Percussion Welding/85
Fig. 2.13-Photomacrograph of a section through a silver contact (top)

welded to a brass terminal (bottom)
Heat balance between parts is usually not a generally consists of a modified press type re-
factor of concern. Since percussion welding is sistance welding machine with specially de-
essentially a de process, polarity of the two parts signed transformer, controls, and tooling.
involved may be important in some cases, as in Figure 2.14 shows a typical machine used to
arc welding. weld the type of parts shown in Fig. 2.12. An
Metal Loss
The metal loss that occurs during a percus-
sion weld is not so great as in arc stud welding.
The loss varies with the area of the weld and the
type of welding machine. Metal loss can gen-
erally be ignored for parts to be joined by capa-
citor discharge percussion welding. However, it
should be considered in magnetic force percus-
sion welding.
Flash
This is the metal that is expelled at high
velocity from the weld interface during a per-
cussion weld. It can damage adjacent tooling
and affect accuracy of assembly. Any flash
attached to the weld joint should be removed so
that it will not cause a problem in service.
MAGNETIC FORCE WELDING

Welding Machines
These machines use a low voltage power
supply (20 to 35 volts from a transformer), a
projection type arc starter, and an electromag- Fig. 2.14-Magnetic force percussion
netic system'to produce the weld force. A unit welding machine
air cylinder provides the initial force to bring Joint Design

the parts together.
For welding two flat surfaces together, a
Magnetic force percussion welding ma-
projection similar to that for resistance welding
chines usually have an independent power source
must be formed on one piece as shown in Fig.
for the electromagnet so that the force magni-
2.15. Its diameter and height must be developed
tude and time of application can be varied with
for each application. The diameter must be large
respect to the initiation of welding current. This
enough to support the initial force applied to the
is accomplished by using two separate trans-
parts but too small to carry the welding current.
formers, one for welding power and one for the
The height determines the gap between the fay-
electromagnet power. The acceleration of the
ing surfaces and, thus, •the initial arc voltage.
force member can be controlled by adjusting
When large area contacts are welded, two pro-
the magnitude of the electromagnet current,
jections may be required.
thereby providing a duration control for arc time.
The surfaces to be joined must be flat and
Since welding is done during l/2 cycle of
60 Hz, current flow is unidirectional. In some parallel during welding so that arcing will occur
cases, the polarity of the two parts may have over the entire area. Areas that are not melted
will probably not weld when impacted together.
some effect on weld quality. In general, the
same conditions that prevail in de arc welding
Voltage and Current
are also in effect in percussion welding with re-
spect to polarity. The current is always passing It is necessary to establish and maintain the
through the transformer in the same direction desired magnitude of voltage and current for the
and the core can become partially saturated. required weld area. These are determined by the
Consequently, the electrical controls should pro- projection design, the capacity of the welding
vide a low amplitude 1/2-cycle pulse in the op- transformer, and the impedance of the secondary
posite direction to deflux the transformer and circuit. The transformer should be of low imped-
electromagnet. This can be done during the ance with secondary voltages higher than those
loading time. commonly used in resistance welding.
Silver cadmium
contact
All dimensions are in inches
height
Copper
arm
Fig. 2.15-Typical design of a magnetic force percussion welded contact

assembly
Percussion Welding /87
Arc Time The other system utilizes a low voltage,

high capacitance energy source. This has the ad-
Arc time can be considered as the time be-
vantages of a safe working voltage (about 50V),
ginning with the explosion of the projection and
a simple power supply, and low weld spatter. In
ending when the two parts come together and the
some designs, the high voltage power is dis-
arc is quenched. The timing between the initiation
charged through a transformer of low voltage
of the arc and the application of magnetic force
output.
is very critical.
A low voltage system requires a 600V arc
The arc time is a function of:
starting circuit and special wire end preparation.
(I) Magnitude of magnetic force
Once the air gap is ionized with the 600V (low
(2) Timing of the magnetic force with rela-
amperage)circuit, the arc is sustained by the 50V
tion to welding current
circuit. The arc initiation circuit does no appre-
(3) Inertia or mass of the moving parts in
ciable melting.
the force system
One type of low voltage machine consists
(4) Height of the projection
of a hand-held gun and a portable power supply.
(5) Magnitude of the welding current and
The gun is designed to weld wires to terminals
the diameter of the projection
by holding a small flat or square terminal in one
Acceleration of the movable head is di-
set of stationary jaws and the wire to be welded
rectly proportional to the magnetic force applied in a set of movable jaws. When the gun is trig-
and inversely proportional to the mass . The gered, springs move the wire toward the terminal
acceleration of the movable head with the two- at a high velocity. A feather edge on the end
transformer system can be controlled by adjust- of the wire greatly improves arc starting. The
ing the magnitude of the force current, which arc is initiated at the point of contact of the wire
thereby provides a duration control for arc time, and terminal. The welding current melts the
within limits. feather edge on the wire faster than the wire is
moving toward the terminal. The arc spreads
CAPACITOR DISCHARGE
over the wire area and melts a layer about 0.002
WELDING to 0 .003-in . thick in each part. The arc is ex-
Two types of machines are presently used. tinguished after about !SO to 600 microseconds
One utilizes a high voltage, low capacitance as the two parts come in contact.
system. Charging voltage ranges from I to 3 kV. Another version of a portable, low voltage
With this system, wire end preparation is not welding machine employs a high frequency
critical since the applied potential is sufficient pulse to initiate the arc . This feature eliminates
to ionize the air in the gap and start the arc. the need for a special shape on the wire end.
Fig. 2.16-A portable capacitor discharge percussion welding power supply

and hand-held gun
The machine uses an electromechanical actuator capacitance, and high frequency voltage when
to accelerate the wire and to provide the neces- it is used. Control of the motion mechanism is
sary forging force. One version of this machine also provided.
is shown in Fig. 2.16.
Low voltage semiautomatic and automatic
machines are used to weld assemblies similar to
WELD QUALITY
the one shown in Fig. 2.17. Component leads are The quality of percussion welds can be
usually tinned annealed copper. Terminals may determined by metallographic examination and
be brass, tinned brass, or nickel-silver alloys. mechanical tests. Metallographic examination
Wires and leads of 0.006 to 0.102-in. diameters will show the weld interface and the widths of
can be welded to terminals and plates of various the heat-affected zones. In the case of dissimilar
thicknesses above 0.006 inch. metals, it may reveal the degree of alloying at the
Controls for capacitor discharge equip- interface. Micro hardness tests on a metallo-
ment usually include those for welding voltage, graphic section may indicate the effect of weld-
ing on the base metal.
Welded joints may be tested in tension,
bending, or shear, depending upon the joint
design. The effect of vibration may be important
in some applications. The test method should be
designed to qualify the welding procedures and
weld joint properties for the intended appli-
cations.
Where the electrical integrity of the joint
Printed circuit or
is important, appropriate resistance measure-
molded board
ments should be made before and after a test
Fig. 2.17-A typical percussion welded and then the results compared. Some slight
electronic assembly change in resistance may be expected.
SAFETY
MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL
The welding machine should be equipped All doors and access panels on machines
with appropriate safety devices to prevent injury and controls should be kept locked or interlocked
to the operator's hands or other parts of the body. to prevent access by unauthorized personnel.
Initiating devices, such as push buttons or foot When the equipment utilizes capacitors for
switches, should be arranged and guarded to energy storage, the interlocks should interrupt
prevent them from being actuated inadvertently. the power and short circuit all the capacitors
Machine guards, fixtures, or operating through a suitable resistive load when the panel
controls should prevent the hands of the operator door is open. A manually operated switch or
from entering between the work-holding clamps other positive device should also be provided in
or the parts. Dual hand controls, latches, addition to the mechanical interlock or contacts.
presence-sensing devices, or any similar device Use of this device will assure complete discharge
may be used for this purpose. of the capacitors.
Safety/89
PERSONAL worn by the operator.

Additional information on safe practices
Flash guards of suitable fire resistant ma- for welding may be found in the American Na-
terial should be provided to protect the operator tional Standard Z49 .I, Safety in Welding and
and avoid fires. In addition, personal eye pro- Cutting (latest edition), available from the Amer-
tection with suitable shaded lenses should be ican Welding Society.

1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 in~ = 645 mm•
1 ft/min = 5.08 mm/s
1 psi = 6.89 kPa
1 ksi = 6.89 MPa

Hind, R. H., Butt Welding in the tool industry. 1960 Sept.
Production Engineering, 40(12): 785-793;
Moore, C. D., Flash welding aluminum to cop-
1961 Dec.
per. Machinery, 99: 790-792; 1%1, Oct. 4.
Holko, Kenneth H., Magnetic force upset weld-
ing dissimilar thickness stainless steel tee Petry, K. N., et al., Principles and practices in
joints. Welding Journal, 49(9), 427-439s: contact welding. Welding Journal, 49(2):
1970 Sept. 117-126; 1970 Feb.
King, P. P. and Schnepf, Arc percussive butt Savage, W. F., Flash welding: the process and
welding of fine wire conductors. Welding application. Welding Journal, 41(3): 227-
Journal, 44(2): 100-105; 1965 Feb. 237; 1962 Mar.
Kotechki, D. J., Cheever, D. L., and Howden, Savage, W. F., Flash welding: process variables
D. G., Capacitor discharge percussion weld- and weld properties. Welding Journal,
ing: microtubes to tube sheets. Welding 41(3): 109s-119s; 1962 Mar.
Journal, 53(9): 557-560; 1974 Sept.
Stieglitz, H. W., Flash welding copper to steel.
Makara, A. M. and Sakhatski, G. P., The flash Metal Progress, 80: 112; 1961 Nov.
welding of high tensile steels. Welding
Sullivan, J. F. and Savage, W. F., Effect of
Research Abroad: 44-48; 1969 Mar.
phase control during flashing on flash weld
Manning, R. F. and Welch, J. B., Percussion defects. Welding Journal, 50(5): 213s-221s;
welding using magnetic force-a production 1971 May.
process. Welding Journal, 39(9): 903-907;
3
Resistance Welding Equipment
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Resistance Welding Controls .......... 110
Spot and Projection Welding Electrical Characterisitcs .............. 120

Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Electrodes and Holders ............... 124
Roll Spot and Seam Welding Power Supply .................... ... 138
Machines .................... .... 100
Safety .................... ......... 140
Flash and Upset Welding
Machines .................... .... 105 Supplementary Reading List ........... 143
Chapter Committee

R.A.GRENDA R.MATTESON
Weltronic Company Taylor-Windfield Corporation
P. G. HARRIS E PARKER
D. ROTH
KirkhofTransformer Division,
FIX Corporation
A.EMANZ D.D.RAGER
91
3
Resistance Welding Equipment
INTRODUCTION
The selection of resistance welding equip- Machines in both groups may be designed to
ment is usually determined by' the joint design, operate on either single-phase or three-phase
materials of construction, quality requirements, power.
production schedules, and economic considera- Most resistance welding machines are the
tions. Standard resistance welding machines are single-phase direct energy type. This is the type
designed to meet the requirements of Bulletin of machine most commonly used because it is
No. 16, Resistance Welding Equipment Stan- the simplest and least expensive in initial cost,
dards, issued by the Resistance Welders Manu- installation, and maintenance. With properly
facturers Association (RWMA). These machines designed controls, it will normally produce welds
are capable of welding a wide variety of alloys of commercial quality comparable to those made
and component sizes. Complex resistance weld- with other types of machines. Actually, the
ing equipment of special design may be neces- mechanical systems and secondary circuit de-
sary to meet the economic requirements of mass signs are essentially the same for all types of
production. welding machines, but the transformer design
A resistance welding machine has three and control systems will differ considerably.
principal elements: A single-phase welding machine will have
(I) An electrical circuit consisting of a a larger volt-ampere demand than a three-phase
welding transformer and a secondary circuit machine of equivalent rating. The demand of a
including the electrodes which conduct the weld- single-phase machine causes unbalance on a
ing current to the work. three-phase power line. Also, the power factor is
(2) A mechanical system consisting of a relatively low because of the inherent inductive
machine frame and associated mechanisms to reactance in the machine. Single-phase demand
hold the work and apply the welding force. may not be a problem if the welding machine is
(3) The control equipment to initiate and a relatively small part of the total line load or a
time the duration of current flow. It also may number of single-phase welding machines are
control the current magnitude as well as the connected to balance the load on the three phases
sequence and the time of other parts of the weld- of the power line.
ing cycle. A three-phase direct energy machine draws
Resistance welding machines are classified power from all three phases of the power line
according to their electrical operation into two at a high power factor. The inductive reactance
basic groups: direct energy and stored energy. of the welding circuit is low because direct
92
Spot and Projection Welding Machines /93
current is used for welding. Consequently, the is to accumulate and store electrical energy
kVA demand of a three-phase machine is lower and then discharge it from storage to make the
than that of an equivalent single-phase machine. weld. The energy is normally stored electro-
This is a definite advantage where a large ca- statically in a capacitor bank. Single-phase
pacity machine is needed and the power line power is generally used for small bench models.
capacity is limited. The power demand is low because storage time
The principle of a stored energy machine is relatively long in comparison to the weld time.
SPOT AND PROJECTION WELDING MACHINES

ROCKER ARM TYPE can readily be changed by the substitution of
different horns. Some machines have adjustable
The simplest and most commonly used spot upper horns and, in some cases, adjustable lower
welding machine is the rocker arm design, so horns. With extended horns, rather larger assem-
called because of the rocker movement of ttie blies can be inserted into the machine throat,
upper horn. A horn is essentially a cylindrical but machine performance may be reduced be-
arm or extension of an arm of a resistance weld- cause of the increase in throat area.
ing machine which transmits the electrode force
and, in most cases, the welding current. This Electrode Position
type of machine is readily adaptable for the spot The travel path of the upper electrode is an
welding of most weldable metals. Three methods arc about the fulcrum of the upper arm. The elec-
of operation are available, namely: (I) air, (2) trodes must be positioned so that both are in the
foot, and (3) motor. plane of the horn axes. Also, the two horns
Air-operated machines, such as the one in should be parallel when the electrodes are in
Fig. 3.1, are the most popular type. With air contact with the work. Even with parallel horns,
operation, the welding cycle is generally con- electrode skidding can occur if the electrode
trolled automatically with a combination control holders or horns are not sufficiently rigid. Skid-
unit. They can operate very rapidly and are easily ding can be reduced by changing to more rigid
set up for welding. electrode holders, adjusting the position of the
Foot-operated machines are best suited for electrodes, or providing support to the lower
miscellaneous sheet metal fabrication, particularly horn. Because of the radial motion of the upper
for short production runs where consistent weld electrode, these machines are not recommended
quality is not required. Motor-operated machines for projection welding.
are normally used where compressed air is not
readily available.
Mechanical Design
Standard rocker arm machines are generally
available with throat depths of 12 to 36 in. and The machine frame houses the transformer
transformer capacity of 5 to 75 kVA. The gen- and tap switch and supports the mechanical and
eral construction of these machines is the same electrical components.
with all three types of operation. For air-operated machines, the stroke ofthe
A rocker arm type machine, however air cylinder must be proportioned to the required
operated, suffers a reduction of available weld- electrode spacing. Its diameter must be pro-
ing force and welding current as the throat depth portioned to the required electrode force and
is increased. On the other hand, the throat depth lever arm ratio Y/X in Fig. 3.1). For a given
94/ RESISTANCE WELDING EQUIPMENT
c
~---x----~~~-·-----
A- Throat depth H · Lower horn

B - Horn spacing M -Rocker arm
C · Centerline of rocker arm N · Secondary flexible conductor
D · Lower arm adjustment R -Current regulator (tap switch)
E -Air cylinder S ·Transformer secondary
F -Air valve T · Electrode holder
G -Upper horn W · Electrode
Fig. 3.1-Air-operated rocker arm spot welding machine
cylinder diameter, the available welding force of possible erratic and inconsistent behavior of
will decrease as the throat depth is increased. the air cylinder.
Electrode spacing can be set by adjusting the With foot and motor operated machines,
position of the electrodes in the horns. In most the air cylinder is replaced by a stiff spring. The
cases, however, it is desirable to use a double- spring is compressed by a foot-operated lever
acting air cylinder with adjustable stroke. arm or a motor-driven cam as it exerts a force on
The force exerted by a piston is equal to the end of the rocker arm. The amount of force
the product of its area and the air pressure. Most is determined by the stiffness of the spring and
industrial air systems are operated at 80 psi pres- the compression distance.
sure minimum, and cylinder size is determined
on this basis.
Electrode force is the product of the piston
PRESS TYPE
force and the lever arm ratio Y/X. Consequently, Press type machines are recommended for
it is in direct proportion to the air pressure as all projection welding operations and many spot
controlled by a pressure regulator. Air pres- welding applications. With this type of machine,
sures below 20 psi should not be used because the movable welding head travels in a straight
Spot arui Projection Welding Machines /95
line in guide bearings or ways. These bearings shown in Fig. 3.2.

must be of sufficient proportions to withstand Projection welding machines have platens
any eccentric loading on the welding head. on which dies, fixtures, and other tooling are
Standard press type welding machines are avail- mounted. The platens have flat surfaces and
able with capacities of 5 to 500 kVA and with usually have standard T-slots for bolting attach-
throat depths up to 36 inches. Nonstandard units ments. Machines designed for spot welding are
with lower ratings, such as bench types, are equipped with horns and electrode holders. A
widely used for radio, instrument, and jewelry combination unit will have both platens and
work. horns, as shown in Fig. 3.2. Such a machine
Press type machines are classified according will have one throat depth as a projection weld-
to their use and method of force application. ing machine and a greater throat depth as a spot
They may be designed for spot welding or pro- welding machine. The platens, the ram, and the
jection welding, or both. Force may be applied force cylinder are all on the same centerline.
by air or hydraulic cylinders, or manually with The distance from this centerline to the frame
small bench units. of the machine is the projection welding throat
A few general guidelines for the selection of depth. On standard machines with horns, the
a machine of this type are as follows: spot welding electrodes are located 6 in. farther
(I) Hydraulic operation is not normally used from the frame. This is true whether or not
on machines rated below 200 kVA because of platens are used. The design throat depth should
the higher cost compared to air operation. not be exceeded because the ram is not designed
(2) Air operation may be used on all sizes to take greater eccentric loading.
of machines. When high forces are required, On projection and combination machines,
however, air cylinders and valves will be quite the lower platen is mounted on a knee which
large, operation will be slow, and air consump- may be adjusted vertically. The knee may be of
tion will be high. When all factors are taken into cast iron, steel, copper, or bronze.
consideration, most machines of 300 kVA and
Mechanical Design
under are air operated, and machines of 500 kVA
and above are hydraulically operated. In be- Air-Operated Machines. These machines are
tween, they may be operated by either method. usually the direct-acting type where the electrode
Fast electrode follow-up is particularly force is exerted by the air cylinder through the
important when spot and projection welding rela- ram. Three general types of double-acting air
tively thin sections, particularly those of alumi- cylinders are employed. These are illustrated in
num and other nonferrous metals. Air operation Fig. 3.3. In all cases, air for the pressure stroke
provides much faster follow-up than does hy- enters at port A and exhausts at port B. For the
draulic operation because of the compressibility return stroke, the air enters at port B and ex-
of air. With hydraulic operation, follow-up must hausts at port A.
occur by fluid motion throughout the hydraulic Figure 3.3(A) shows a fixed-stroke cylinder
system. A precharged air accumulator is some- with stroke adjustment. The stroke adjuster K
times used with this system to improve follow- limits the travel of pistion P and the electrode
up. Other systems use springs in combination opening.
with the electrode holders. An adjustable-stroke cylinder with a dummy
piston is shown in Fig. 3.3(8). The dummy
General Construction
piston R is attached to the adjusting screw K
Standard press type welding machines are which positions this piston. Chamber L is con-
designed and built on the unit principle for nected to port A through the hollow adjusting
economy in manufacture. The same frame size screw. The stroke of the force piston P is ad-
is used with two or three transformers of dif- justed by the position of the dummy piston R
ferent kVA ratings and with a range of throat above it. This cylinder design responds faster
depths. A typical press type welding machine is than a fixed-stroke cylinder because the volume
A - Air or hydraulic cylinder F- Knee

B- Ram G -Flexible conductor
C - Spot welding attachment H -Transformer secondary
D -Upper platen J - Knee support
E -Lower platen
Fig. 3.2-Press type combin•tion spot •nd projection

welding m•chine
(L) above piston P can be made smaller than X. This determines the up position for piston P
that of a fixed-stroke cylinder of the same size. and the electrode opening for welding. When
A modification of the adjustable-stroke the air from chamber H is exhausted to atmo-
cylinder provides a retraction feature to provide sphere, piston P will lift piston R with it until
additional electrode opening for loading and un- stop X contacts the cylinder head. This will in-
loading of the machine or for electrode mainte- crease the electrode opening for loading and un-
nance. This adjustable-retractable stroke cylinder loading of the machine. Readmission of air to
is shown in Fig. 3.3(C). With this type, a third chamber H will return pistons P and R to weld-
port C is connected to chamber H above the ing position when the pressure in chamber H is
dummy piston R. If air is admitted to chamber slightly higher than that in chamber M. Flow
H at a pressure slightly higher than the operating control valves or cushions are usually used to
pressure in chamber L, piston R will move down control the operating speed of an air cylinder.
to a position determined by the adjustable stop Several optional features are available on
Spot and Projection Welding Machines/ 97
(A) (B) (C)

Fixed stroke Adjustable stroke Adjustable
retractable stroke
Fig. 3.3-Typical air cylinder designs for air-operated press type

welding machines
air-operated machines to provide either dual (I) A portable welding gun or tool
electrode force for forging action or fast follow- (2) A welding transformer and, in some
up of the electrodes as the weld nugget is cases, a rectifier
formed . Such features usually incorporate a (3) An electrical contactor and sequence
rubber diaphragm of some form to minimize timer
friction in the force system . (4) A cable and hose unit to carry power
and cooling water between the transformer and
Hydraulic Machines. With these machines, a
welding gun
hydraulic cylinder is used in place of an air cyl-
inder. The designs for hydraulic cylinders are A typical portable welding gun consists of
similar to those for air-operated cylinders (see a frame, an air or hydraulic actuating cylinder,
Fig. 3 .3). Hydraulic cylinders are generally hand grips , and an initiating switch. The unit
smaller in diameter than air cylinders because may be suspended from an adjustable balancing
higher pressures can be developed with a fluid unit. Some small units may use manual pres-
system . sure to apply the electrode force.
In the simplest type of hydraulic system, a There are two basic types of air or hy-
constant speed motor drives a constant pressure, draulically operated guns . One is the scissor
constant delivery pump. The output pressure of type which is analogous to a rocker arm spot
the pump is controlled by an adjustable relief welding machine. The other is the "C" type,
valve. Fluid delivery is controlled with a four- so-called because of its shape. This type has
way valve of similar design to that employed in action similar to a press type spot welding
an air system . Auxiliary devices include a sump, machine.
a filter, a heat exchanger, a gage, and, some- There are no standard designs for portable
times, an accumulator. spot welding guns. They are used for applications
where it is impractical to bring the work to the
welding machine. The design of the gun usually
PORTABLE TYPE
is tailored to the configuration of the assembly
A typical portable spot welding machine to be welded. There may be some degree of
consists of four basic units: standardization of gun sizes and shapes by a
particular manufacturer or user that specializes MULTIPLE SPOT WELDING TYPE

in this type of equipment. These units may be
applicable to a number of similar part designs. A multiple spot welding machine is a spe-
The design of a gun is influenced by the cial purpose unit designed to weld a specific
electrode force required. To minimize the size assembly. This type of machine should be con-
and weight of a gun, a hydraulic cylinder is sidered when the production requirements and
commonly used to provide forces greater than the number of spot welds on an assembly are
750 lbs. However, air cylinders supplying up to so large that welding with a single spot machine
1500 lbs. are sometimes used for simplicity of is uneconomical. The principal advantages of
the equipment. these machines are:
Transformers for portable guns should pro- ( 1) A number of welds can be made at the
duce open-circuit secondary voltages that are same time.
two to four times greater than those of trans- (2) Part dimensions and weld locations
formers for stationary machines. The higher can be reasonably consistent.
voltages are needed because of the added im- (3) The equipment can be very reliable and
pedence of the cable between the transformer easy to maintain.
and the gun. The transformer is usually mounted Welding Station Design
some distance above the work to give more
freedom and flexibility to the gun, but it can be Multiple spot welding machines utilize a
close-coupled to minimize secondary impedance number of transformers, usually of dual sec-
losses. A current-controlling tap switch, an air ondary design. Figure 3.4 shows typical stan-
valve, and sometimes an air-hydraulic booster dardized components that are used in designing
or a rectifier unit are mounted on the trans- a wide range of multiple spot welding machines.
former. Force is applied directly to the electrode through
An air-hydraulic booster is a piston device a holder by an air or hydraulic cylinder. To make
for transforming air pressure into high hydraulic welds on close centers, the cylinder diameter
pressure. The pressure increase is inversely pro- must be small. This can be accomplished with
portional to the areas of the two pistons. The tandem pistons on the same shaft, as shown in
booster provides the necessary hydraulic pressure the illustration. A 2-in. diameter air cylinder
to the gun cylinder. of this design can develop an electrode force of
A combination control is required to operate 350 lb with normal shop air pressure. This force
a portable gun unit. It consists of a primary is adequate for spot welding two 0.025-in.
contactor and sequence timer. If an electronic thicknesses of cold rolled steel. Closer spot
tube contactor is used, the control is usually weld spacing may be obtained by using hy-
mounted separately but as close to the trans- draulic cylinders of smaller diameter. The com-
former as possible. If the contactor is a solid- bination cylinder and electrode holder assem-
state device, the compactness of this unit can blies are commonly called welding guns.
permit mounting the control directly on the trans- A welding transformer with two insulated
former. secondaries can power two separate welding
The cable and hose assembly between the circuits. This type of transformer is noted for its
transformer and welding gun consists of electri- compact design and narrow width. If desired,
cal cables, air or hydraulic hoses, water-cooling only one of the dual secondaries need be used
hoses, and a cable to the initiating switch. The at one time. For higher secondary voltage, the
gun cable is normally a concentric, kickless type. two secondaries can be connected in series to
The two conductors in the cable are intertwined feed one secondary circuit. To increase the weld-
in such a manner that the reactance is low. They ing current available to a single circuit, the
are operated at high current density to reduce secondaries can be connected in parallel. Weld-
bulk. As a result, water cooling is necessary to ing guns and transformer units of this type can
keep them from overheating. be designed to spot weld two sheets of cold
Spot and Projection Welding Machines /99
/ ~--, '\
( ' \ \ \
II I
I I I I
: I : : I
2 Dia. --t-----~ I I I :
min. 1
I I I I I
I I I I I
/-1 1 I I I 1
,. I +r I I I
- -l. -J
~em
: 11 - I
~~-u I
I ~~~:ns
6·9
Flexible cables
Dimensions are in inches
Fig. 3.4-B•sic components of • multiple spot welding system
rolled carbon steel up to 0.125 in. thick. trode. The same basic welding gun is used for
For most applications, the lower electrode is these designs but it is mounted on a special "C"
made of a piece of solid copper alloy with one frame similar to that for a portable spot welding
or more electrode alloy inserts that <!ontact the gun. The entire assembly can move as electrode
part to be welded. It is normally water cooled force is applied to the weld location.
to remove heat. The inserts generally are de- Machine Designs
signed with large contact areas to resist wear.
Pointed electrodes are not normally used against Multiple transformer machines are used ex-
the show side to avoid marking . A typical ma- tensively in the manufacture of formed sheet
chine is shown in Fig. 3.5. metal products. Because of their broad usage
Equalizing gun designs are often used and requirements, many designs of multiple
where standard electrodes are needed on both transformer machines are available. The ma-
sides of the weld to obtain good heat balance chines may be designed as welding stations in
or where variations in parts will not permit con- large, high production, automated assembly
sistent contact with a large, solid lower elec- lines, or they may be used independently .
100 I RESISTANCE WELDING EQUIPMENT
Fig. 3.5-A typical muhiple transformer spot welding machine

with a tilt table for loading parts
Independent machines may be loaded and un- (3) Required weld appearance
loaded either manually or automatically. (4) Production rate requirements
In designing a machine for a particular (5) Available equipment (presses, frames,
assembly, a number of factors must be con- and dial tables)
sidered. These include: (6) Changeover time for different assem-
(I) Shape, size, and complexity of the part blies
(2) Metal composition and thickness (7) Cost of the equipment
ROLL SPOT AND

SEAM WELDINGMACHINE S
A roll spot or seam welding machine is stituted for the electrode tips used in spot weld-
similar in principle to a spot welding machine ing. Both roll spot and seam welding can be
except that wheel-shaped electrodes are sub- performed on the same type of machine.
Roll Spot and Seam Welding Machines /101
The essential elements of a standard seam machine is shown in Fig. 3.6.

welding machine are as follows: (2) Longitudinal, where the axes of rota-
(I) A main frame that houses the welding tion of the electrodes are parallel to the front of
transformer and tap switch the machine. This type is used for such applica-
(2) A welding head consisting of an air tions as the welding of side seams in cylindrical
cylinder, a ram, and an upper electrode mount- containers and short seams in flat work.
ing and drive mechanism (3) Universal, where the electrodes may be
(3) The lower electrode mounting and set in either the circular or longitudinal position.
drive mechanism, if used This is accomplished with a swivel type upper
(4) The secondary circuit connections head in which the electrode and its bearing can
(5) Electronic controls and contactor be rotated 90 degrees about a vertical axis. Two
(6) Wheel electrodes interchangeable lower arms are used, one for
The main frame, transformer, tap switch, circular operation and the other for longitudinal
ram, and air.cylinder are essentially the same as operation.
those of a standard press type spot or projection Figure 3.7 shows the electrode arrange-
welding machine. Hydraulic cylinders are sel- ments for standard types of machines as well as
dom used on seam welding machines because methods of electrode drive.
the electrode force requirements are not normally
high. To provide for electrode wear, either an
adjustable connection is used between the ram ELECTRODE DRIVE MECHANISMS
and the piston rod or an adjustable-stroke air
cylinder is employed. In addition, the position Knurl or Friction Roller
of the lower electrode and its mounting arrange- The knurl or friction roller drive has either
ment is sometimes adjustable. This adjustment the upper or the lower electrode, or both, driven
is used to position the work at a proper height by a friction wheel on the periphery of the elec-
for convenient operation. trode. When these friction rolls have knurled
Most seam welding of thin gages is done teeth, they are known as knurls or knurl drives.
using continuous drive systems. With thick Knurl or friction roller drive will maintain a
gages, intermittent drive systems must be used constant welding speed as the electrode diameter
to maintain electrode force on the weld nugget decreases from wear. Typical drive arrangements
as it solidifies. The thickness range that can be are shown in Figs. 3.7 (A), (B), (D), and (E).
welded with each drive system will depend upon A knurl drive is commonly used on ma-
the metal being joined. chines for seam welding galvanized steel, teme
The majority of continuous drive mecha- plate, scaly stock, or other materials where the
nisms use a constant speed, ac electric motor electrodes are likely to pick up surface material
with a variable speed drive. The speed range from the parts being welded. The knurl drive
depends upon the drive design and the electrode wheel tends to break up the material on the elec-
diameter. Good flexibility may also be obtained trode face. Where the nature of the work permits,
with a constant torque, variable speed de drive. both electrodes should be knurl-driven to pro-
vide a more positive drive and lessen the possi-
bility of skidding.
TYPES
Gear Drive
There are three general types of seam weld-
ing machines: With this method, the electrode shaft is
(I) Circular, where the axis of rotation of driven by a gear train powered by a variable-
each electrode is perpendicular to the front of speed drive, as shown in Figs. 3.7 (C) and (F).
the machine. This type is used for long seams Only one electrode should be driven to avoid
in flat work and for circumferential welds, such skidding. Otherwise, a differential gear box is
as welding the heads into containers. Such a necessary. This type of drive is generally less
Fig. 3.6-A standard circular seam welding machine with a

special fixture
Roll Spot and Seam Welding Machines /103
(A) (B) (C)
(D) (E) (F)
(A) Circular with double knurl or friction roller drive

(B) Circular with upper knurl or friction roller drive
(C) Circular with upper gear drive
(D) Longitudinal with double knurl or friction roller drive
(E) Longitudinal with upper knurl or friction roller drive
(F) Universal with upper gear drive
Fig. 3.7-Typic:al seam welding elec:trode and drive arrangements
desirable than a knurl drive because the welding electrode diameters exceeds about 2 to 1, the
speed decreases as the electrode wears. This can smaller electrode should be driven and the large
be compensated for by gradually increasing the one should idle to minimize electrode skidding.
drive speed.
SPECIAL PURPOSE MACHINES
The most important applications for a
gear-driven machine are the welding of alumi- Special purpose machines are available for
num and magnesium and the fabrication of specific applications. Such machines can be
small diameter containers. Standard seam weld- generally grouped as traveling electrode type,
ing machines are designed with some minimum traveling fixture type, and portable seam weld-
distance between electrode centers for each ing machines.
machine size. If one of the electrodes must be
Traveling Electrode Type
small to fit inside a container, the other must
be correspondingly larger to account for the re- With this type of machine, the seam to be
quired center distance. If the ratio of the two welded is clamped or otherwise positioned on a
fixed mandrel or shoe of some type and the ram chine, such as the one shown in Fig. 3. 9.
and wheel electrode are moved along the seam.
Portable Type
The mandrel or shoe is the lower electrode. The
ram and electrode are moved by an air or hy- Portable seam welding guns may be used
draulic cylinder or by a motor-driven screw. for work that is too large and bulky to be fed
Sometimes two upper electrodes operating in through a standard machine. The gun consists of
series are used side by side or in tandem. Figure a pair of motor-driven wheel electrodes and
3.8 shows a typical traveling electrode machine. bearings, together with an air cylinder and asso-
ciated mechanism for applying the electrode
Traveling Fixture Type
force. Welding current is supplied in the same
In the traveling fixture type, the upper manner as for portable spot welding. A variable-
electrode remains in a fixed position. The fixture speed de drive may be used where a wide range
and work are moved under the electrode by a of welding speeds is desirable. The motor and
suitable driving system. Multiple electrodes can speed reducer are mounted directly on the weld-
also be used to advantage with this type of rna- ing gun frame.
Fig. 3.8-Traveling electrode seam welding machine

Flash and Upset Welding Machines /105
Fig. 3.9-Tr~ve/ing fixture se~m welding m~chine with two

electrodes in t~ndem
COOLING jets spraying on both the work and the welding

One requirement in seam welding is the electrodes are usually satisfactory. Welding
proper cooling of the machine, the electrodes, under water may be done in special cases.
the current-carrying bearings, and other com- Another method of cooling the weldment
ponents of the secondary circuit. Cooling of the is a water mist that removes the heat by evapora-
work is also important in most applications to tion. A mist is produced by mixing air and water
minimize warpage from the local heating. Water in proper proportions in a nozzle.
FLASH AND UPSET WELDING MACHINES

Flash and upset welding machines are join continuously the seam in pipe or tubing.
similar in construction. The major difference is Flash welding machines are generally of much
the motion of the movable platen during weld- larger capacity than upset welding machines.
ing and the mechanisms used to impart the mo-
tion. Flash welding is generally preferred for FLASH WELDING MACHINES
joining components of equal cross section end-
General Construction
to-end. Upset welding is normally used to weld
wire, rod, or bar of small cross section and to A standard flash welding machine basically
consists of a main frame, a stationary platen, a completed weld in the machine can be done with
movable platen, clamping mechanisms and fix- appropriate controls.
tures, a transformer, a tap switch, electrical
Flashing and Upsetting Mechanisms
controls, and a flashing and upsetting mecha-
nism. The stationary platen is generally fixed in In the operation of a flash welding ma-
position, although some designs provide a limited chine, the parts are moved together using a pre-
amount of adjustment for electrode and work determined travel pattern. This movement must
alignment. The movable platen is mounted on be carefully controlled to consistently produce
ways on the frame and connected to the flashing sound welds. After the appropriate flashing time,
and upsetting mechanism. Both platens are the pieces are rapidly brought into contact and
usually of cast or fabricated steel, although upset. The upsetting action must be accurately
some small welding machines may have cast synchronized with the termination of flashing.
bronze, cast iron, or copper platens. The platens The type of mechanism used for flashing
are connected to the transformer secondary. and upsetting will depend upon the size of the
Electrodes that hold the parts and conduct the welding machine and the application require-
welding current to them are mounted on the ments. Some mechanisms permit the faying sur-
platens. The transformer and tap switch are faces to be butted together under pressure and
generally located within or immediately behind then preheated. After the appropriate temperature
the frame with short, heavy duty copper leads is reached, the pieces are separated and then the
to the platens. flashing and upsetting sequence is initiated. The
The depth of the frame and, consequently, movable platen may be actuated with a motor-
the width of the platens depends upon the size driven cam or with an air or hydraulic cylinder.
of the parts to be welded as well as the clamp- Motor-operated machines normally use an
ing mechanism design. Upsetting force should ac motor with a variable speed drive which, in
be aligned as nearly as possible to the geometric turn, drives a rotary cam. The cam is designed
center of the parts to minimize machine deflec- to produce a specific flashing pattern. It may
tion. Dual flashing and upsetting cylinders or contain an insert block to upset the joint at the
cams are sometimes used with wide platens to end of flashing. The speed of the cam determines
provide uniform loading or clearance for long the flashing time. The platen may be moved di-
pieces to extend over the mechanism. rectly by the cam or through a lever system. The
Trasformer and Controls motor may operate intermittently for each weld-
ing cycle or continuously. With continuous
A flash welding transformer is essentially operation, the drive is engaged through a clutch
the same as those used for other types of single- on the output shaft of the speed reducer. A
phase resistance welding machines. A tap switch typical motor-operated flash welding machine is
in the primary circuit is normally used to adjust shown in Fig. 3.10.
flashing voltage. An autotransformer is some- A motor-driven flashing cam may be used in
times used to extend the range of adjustment of combination with an air or hydraulic upsetting
secondary voltage. The primary power to the mechanism, particularly on larger machines.
transformer is switched with an electronic con- Such a combination provides adjustment of
tactor. Phase-shift heat control may be used with upset speed, distance, and force independently
the contactor to provide low power for preheat- of the flashing pattern.Current flow is synchro-
ing or postweld heat treatment in the machine. nized with the mechanical motion of the platen
With ignitron contactors, auxiliary load resistors by limit switches.
must be connected in parallel with the trans- Medium and large flash welding machines
former primary for proper operation of the use hydraulically operated flashing and upset-
ignitrons. ting mechanisms. These machines are capable of
Programming of secondary current for pre- applying high upsetting forces for large sections.
heating prior to flashing and post heating of the They are accurate in operation and are readily
Fig. 3.10-Automatic motor-operated flash welding machine
set up for a wide range of work requirements. A Clamping Mechanisms and Fixtures
large hydraulic flash welding machine is shown
in Fig. 3.11. A servo system is used to control Several designs of clamping mechanisms
the platen motion for flashing and upsetting. are available to accommodate different types of
The servo system may be actuated by a pilot parts. These designs may be grouped generally
cam mechanism or by an electrical signal as operating in either the vertical or the horizon-
generated from the secondary voltage or the pri- tal position. In special cases, the mechanisms
mary current. Choice of operating mode depends may be mounted in other positions.
upon the application. The control may be pro- Vertical Clamping. The movement of the
grammed to include preheating and postheating. electrode may be in a plane perpendicular to
An accumulator is generally required to provide the platen ways. The electrode may move either
an adequate volume of hydraulic fluid from the through a slight arc or in a straight line. If operat-
pumping unit during upsetting. ing through an arc, a clamping arm pivots about
Electro-hydraulic servo systems are gen- a trunnion. This design is generally known as
erally of two designs. In one design, the servo the "alligator" type. A machine with this type
valve meters the fluid directly to the hydraulic of clamping arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.12.
cylinder for position control. With the other Clamping force may be applied by an air or hy-
design, the servo valve meters the fluid to a draulic cylinder operating directly or through a
small control cylinder that operates a follower leverage or cam-operated mechanism. Vertical
valve on a separate hydraulic system. The first clamping is commonly used for bar stock and
design is simple and straightforward, but the other compact sections.
second system has two distinct advantages.
First, it has two separate hydraulic circuits for Horizontal Clamping. With thi~ design, the
improved valve life. Second, the speed of re- motion of the electrodes is paralletto the platen
sponse is fast and control of the platen position ways and generally in a straight line, as shown
is accurate. in Fig. 3.11. The major advantage of this type of
108/ RESISTANCE WELDING EQU IPME NT
Fig. 3.11-Automatic hydraulically operated flash welding machine with

horizontal clamping
Fig. 3.12-An automatic flash welding machine with vertical alligator

type clamping
Fig. 3.13-An ~ir-oper~ted autom~tic upset welding machine
clamping mechanism is that the secondary of the UPSET WELDING MACHINES

welding transformer can be connected to both
halves of the electrodes for uniform transfer Upset welding machines are quite similar
of welding current into the work. This arrange- to flash welding machines in principle except
ment is highly desirable for welding parts with that no flashing mechanism is required. A typical
large cross sections. Clamping force can be upset welding machine, such as the one in Fig.
applied with one of the mechanisms described 3.13, consists of a main frame that houses a
for vertical clamping. transformer and tap switch, electrodes to hold
the parts and conduct the welding current, and
Fixtures. Fixtures may be used to support and means to upset the joint. A primary contactor is
align the parts for welding as well as to back up used to control welding current.
the parts to prevent slippage in the electrodes The simplest type of upset welding machine
during upsetting. They are usually adjustable to is manually operated. In this machine, the
accommodate the geometry and length of the pieces to be welded are clamped in position in
parts. The design must be sturdy to withstand the electrodes. A force is exerted on the movable
the upsetting force without deflecting. When the platen with a hand-operated leverage system.
parts can be backed up, the clamping force on Welding current is applied, and when the abut-
the electrodes can be limited to that needed to ting parts reach welding temperature, they are
ensure good electrical contact and maintain upset together to accomplish the weld. The
satisfactory joint alignment. current is manually shut off at the proper time
during the welding cycle. The work is then re- Normal upset forces are 12, 70, and 120 lb, re-
moved from the electrodes. A limit switch or a spectively. However, larger units are available.
timing device may be used to terminate the Upset welding is used extensively for the
welding current automatically after the weld has welding of small wires, rods, and tubes in the
upset a predetermined amount. manufacture of items such as chain links, re-
Automatic machines may use springs or air frigerator and stove racks, automotive seat
cylinders to provide upset force (see Fig. 3.13). frames, and for joining coils of wire for further
Either device can provide uniform force con- processing. This process is often selected for
sistently. Spring or air operated machines are applications where the upset is not objectionable
particularly adapted for welding nonferrous for the design. It is best adapted for joints be-
metals having narrow plastic ranges. tween parts with relatively small cross section
There are three standard sizes of upset where uniformity of welding current is not a
welding machines rated at 2, 5, and 10 kVA. problem.
RESISTANCE WELDING CONTROLS
The principal functions of resistance weld- also control other mechanical movements of the
ing controls are to ( 1) provide signals to control machine such as driving or indexing mecha-
machine actions, (2) start and stop the flow of nisms. Sequence weld timers are used on spot,
current to the welding transformer, and (3) con- seam, and projection welding machines.
trol the magnitude of the current. There are three The four basic steps in any spot, seam, or
general groups of controls: timing and sequenc- projection welding cycle are as follows:
ing controls, welding contactors, and auxiliary (1) Squeeze time
controls. If the machine is simple in construc- (2) Weld time
tion, such as a foot-operated spot welding ma- (3) Hold time
chine, its controls are simple. If the welding (4) Offtime
cycle is complex, such as that used in weld- Squeeze time is the interval between the initial
ing heat-resistant alloys to military specifica- application of electrode force on the work and
tions, the machine controls are complex. Many the first application of current. Weld time is the
types of resistance welding machine controls are duration of welding current flow with single
available. Most are produced to the require- impulse welding. Hold time is the period during
ments of the National Electrical Manufacturers which the electrode force is maintained on the
Association (NEMA) standard'. weld after the last impulse of current ceases. Off
time is the period during which the electrodes
TIMING AND SEQUENCE are retracted from the work during repetitive
CONTROLS welding. During off time, the work is moved to
the next weld location.
Sequence Weld Timers Certain welding machines are manual or
A sequence weld timer is a device to con- motor-operated. With these machines, a cam
trol the sequence and duration of the elements may be used to initiate a weld timer that con-
of a complete resistance welding cycle. It may trols only the duration of welding current.
A multiple impulse weld timer provides
I. Standard Publication No. ICS 5-1978, Resistance for a number of current pulses with an interval
Welding Control, National Electrical Manufacturers between them. It controls the duration of each
Association, Washington, DC. pulse, called heat time, as well as the interval
Resistance Welding Controls /lll
between them, or cool time. The sum of the heat state current. The transients in the secondary
and cool times is know as the weld interval. winding of the transformer are not so great, but
Timers and combination controls are di- they are sufficient to materially affect the energy
vided into two types: nonsynchronous and delivered to the weld.
synchronous precision. The first type is less ex-
pensive than the second because timing accuracy Nonsynchronous Controls
requirements are not so stringent. A synchronous A nonsynchronous control utilizes a weld
precision control can be used for applications or weld interval timer that may initiate or termi-
where a nonsynchronous one is adequate. How- nate the flow of welding current at any time
ever, a nonsynchronous control may not be with respect to the line voltage wave form. Con-
suitable for some applications where timing sequently, time as well as current input can vary.
accuracy is important. In addition, timing accuracy may not be equiva-
Single-phase and three-phase resistance lent to that of synchronous precision timers.
welding controls are similar except for the fir- However, this type of control is adequate for
ing sequence of the rectifier devices in the con- most commercial applications on steel products.
tactor and the techniques of electronic heat
control. The timing and control functions are Classifications of Sequence Weld Timers
about the same except that terminology may Sequence weld timers are classified by
vary between the two types of equipment. NEMA according to the functions they control
Three-phase controls are predominently syn- and the timing precision. These are as follows:
chronous precision types. (1) Types lA, lAS, and AlA that control
weld time only.
Synchronous Precision Controls
(2) '!Ypes lB and lBS that control heat and
This type of control utilizes synchronous cool times for multiple impulse welding opera-
precision timers for accurate timing of all periods tions.
of current flow. The timer closes the primary (3) '!Ypes 3B and A3B which are sequence
circuit of the welding transformer at precisely timers that control squeeze, weld, hold, and off
the same point (electrical angle) with respect to times.
the ac line voltage. Another distinction of a (4) Types 3C and A3C which are similar to
synchronous precision timer is that accuracy is Type 3B except that a squeeze delay or initial
absolute and equal to the set value. Thus, the squeeze timer is provided to account for the
current wave form and the energy delivered to electrode travel time to contact the work. These
the welding transformer are consistent for each types of timers are used for high-speed repetitive
weld. A synchronous precision control always welding.
contains an electronic heat control unit. (5) '!Ypes 5B and A5B, which are also sim-
Control of the exact time when the primary ilar to a '!Ype 3B, are designed for multiple
circuit is closed is vital for precise results. impulse welding applications. They control heat,
If a highly inductive circuit, characteristic of a cool, and weld interval times instead of weld
welding transformer, is connected to the primary time.
lines at a point corresponding to zero current (6) '!Ype 7B is a sequence timer used in
(if current were flowing), then no transient will conjunction with a synchronous precision weld
occur. The current during the first half cycle will timer (Type lAS) to control squeeze, weld,
be practically the same as the steady-state cur- hold, and off times.
rent throughout the weld. On the other hand, (7) '!Ype 9B is similar to a '!Ype 7B except
when the primary circuit is closed at the time that a synchronous precision multiple impulse
the current would be maximum (if current were weld timer (Type lBS) is used with it.
flowing), a transient current occurs in the In the designations, S indicates a syn-
primary. Its peaks are greater in magnitude chronous precision timer and the prefix A in-
than those corresponding to normal or steady- dicates an absolute cycle timer. The latter type
is 100 percent accurate and synchronous. Welder

AC supply
Timing Mechanisms
Several types of timers are employed to
control the duration of various functions during
the welding cycle. The two most common types
are RC timers and digital counters.
Rectifiers
RC Timer. This type is based on the constant
time interval required to either charge or dis-
charge a condenser through a resistive circuit. Protective
The timing accuracy decreases with increasing Fuse thermostat
time span. This timer is the one most often used
in electronic welding controls.
Digital Counter. This type is accurate regard- Fig. 3.14-A single-ph•se welding
less of the set time. It employs semiconductor machine with an ignitron contactor and
circuits to count the actual number of power control circuit
supply frequency cycles and to initiate some ac-
tion after a preselected number of cycles has
elapsed. other the negative half cycles of current. In the
Others. Some operations, such as postheating case of single-phase equipment, only one set is
of flash or upset welds, are not critical with re- needed in one of the power lines, as shown in
spect to timing accuracy. Pneumatic or motor- Fig. 3.14. With a three-phase frequency converter
operated timers may be suitable for these appli- machine, one set is required in each leg of the
cations. Timing ranges may vary from a few transformer for a total three sets, as shown in
seconds to several minutes. Fig. 3.15.
An ignitron tube is constructed as shown in
Fig. 3.16. It consists of a vacuum-tight stain-
CO NTACTORS
less steel container with a pool of mercury in the
A contactor is used to close and open the bottom which serves as the cathode. A graphite
primary power line to the welding transformer. anode is supported at the top by an insulating
Electronic contactors are normally used with re- glass bushing to which the power lead is con-
sistance welding machines that are controlled nected. An ignitor above the mercury pool starts
by electronic timing controls. Magnetic con- the flow of current through the tube. The tube
tactors may be used with some low power ma- has a cooling water jacket to remove the heat
chines where timing is not critical, such as generated by the conducting arc within the tube.
manually-operated spot welding machines or Current flows in one direction only from the
upset welding machines. graphite anode to the mercury cathode.
Combination controls, both synchronous The ignitor will initiate primary current
precision and nonsynchronous types, incorporate conduction when some minimum voltage drop
electronic contactors to switch the primary cur- exists across the tube. This is done by sending
rent to the machine transformer. Either ignitron a pulse of current from the ignitor to the mer-
tubes or silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) are cury pool at some instant during the half cycle.
used as switching devices. The choice will de- The ignitron tube will continue conducting cur-
pend upon the performance requirements of the rent until the applied voltage ceases at the end
equipment. of the half cycle. The ignitor must start conduc-
Electronic contactors have two inversely tion for each half cycle during the period that
connected ignitron tubes or SCRs in a power line primary current flow is desired.
to control the current flowing in that line. One The control circuit of an ignitron contactor
device conducts the positive half cycles and the with nonsynchronous timing is very simple, as
Resistance Welding Controls /113
Shell type single

lgnitron phase core
tubes
Three-
phase
power @ circuit
Fig. 3.15-E/ectrica/ arrangement of a three-phase frequency converter

spot welding machine
Fig. 3.14 indicates. The rectifiers in the ignitor

circuit allow current flow from the ignitor to the
mercury pool only. The ignitron tubes will fire
during the time that the initiating switch is
closed to energize the ignitors. The switch is
normally actuated by a timer.
connection The contactor energizes the welding circuit
when the control circuit is closed. This control
Insulating circuit requires no additional power since its
Water seal
outlet power is obtained from the main circuit. Each
ignitron tube is fired for the appropriate half
cycle by its ignitor as long as the control circuit
Thermostat is energized.
bracket A thermostatic switch is mounted on one
steel or both of the ignitron tubes to stop operation
jackets if the tube temperature becomes too high.
With synchronous precision timing and
electronic heat control, ignitron tube conduction
must be initiated at a specific point on the half-
cycle voltage wave. This is done by controlling
the ignitor circuits with SCRs, as shown in Fig.
Cathode 3.17, or with thyratron tubes in older units. The
control signals the SCRs or thyratrons when to
conduct current to the ignitors. With this arrange-
Fig. 3.16- Cross section of an ment, the control circuit need not carry ignitor
ignitron tube current.
Single-phase
power
Control Control
Fig. 3.17-An ignitron contactor with silicon-controlled rectifiers

to initiate tube firing
The effect of duty cycle on the selection former. This is not possible with ignitron tubes
of ignitron tube size for a particular application which must be mounted vertically.
is as important as the current rating of the tube.
Duty cycle averaging time is a matter of a few AUXILIARY CONTROLS
seconds, depending upon the tube size. Tube
Heat Control
manufacturers' rating charts should be consulted
when selecting the tube size for a specific The control of the heat or current ouput of
application. the welding machine can be accomplished with
Ignitron tubes require a minimum load cur- adjustable taps on the welding transformer pri-
rent to ensure satisfactory operation. If the mary and with electronic heat control. A tap
primary current demand will be less than 40 A, switch changes the ratio of transformer turns for
an auxiliary load resistor should be permanently major adjustment of welding current. When an
connected in parallel with the welding trans- intermediate setting is needed or for fine adjust-
former. This resistor will always provide the ment, electronic heat control is used.
required minimum loading on the tubes. In electronic heat control circuits, SCRs or
If sufficient current for proper ignition is thyratron tubes are used to control the ignitor
not furnished to the ignitors, the ignitor circuit circuits ofthe ignitron tubes (see Fig. 3.17). The
will try to carry the welding transformer load. ignitron conduction can be delayed from the start
Obviously, this action could severely overload of the half cycle by withholding the signal to
the ignitor circuit and damage it. Ignitor cir- the ignitor. This delay is normally controlled by
cuits are usually protected by fuses to avoid a heat adjustment dial. With an SCR contactor,
this problem. the action is similar.
Water-cooled, silicon-controlled rectifiers Referring to Fig. 3 .17, if the ac voltage
are availabi"e as functional replacements for produced by the control is 180 degrees out of
ignitron tubes. They come in a variety of sizes. phase with the ac supply voltage, the SCRs can-
Their selection for resistance welding controls not conduct. The ignitor circuits do not fire, and
must be approached in the same manner as for the ignitron tubes block the flow of primary cur-
ignitron tubes. SCR firing circuits are somewhat rent. As the out-of-phase or delay angle of the
different from those for ignitron tubes and the control voltage is decreased to approximately
designs vary among control manufacturers. One 130 degrees, the SCR will fire the ignitor of the
feature of SCR controls is the ability to mount associated ignitron tube late in the half cycle.
them in any position on a gun welding trans- Current will flow through the ignitron tube, but
Resistance Welding Controls /115
the rms value will be low. As the delay angle is 440 volt systems. With SCR contactors, the
decreased, the ignitor will fire the ignitron tube limiting values are significantly lower.
earlier, and it will conduct current for a greater Automatic heat control is normally the basis
part of the half cycle. The rms current will in- of all auxiliary controls that change the welding
crease. When the delay angle equals the power amperage during a welding sequence. These in-
factor angle of the load, 100 percent rms primary clude current and voltage regulators as well as
current will be conducted to the welding trans- upslope, downslope, and temper controls.
former. Figure 3.18 illustrates this concept for To minimize variations in welding current,
welding machine loads with four different power the heat control should be operated as near to
factors. The higher the power factor (lower full heat as possible. At low settings, a small
angle), the wider is the range of heat control. change of the dial setting can significantly change
The reduction in heat or energy varies as the rms current. Line voltage disturbances, such
the square of the current. Thus, if the rms cur- as the operation of another welding machine,
rent can be varied from 100 to 20 percent, the can distort the line voltage wave form sufficiently
heat will vary from 100 to 4 percent. to produce such a change. Major changes in
Complete control from 100 percent to zero welding transformer output should be made by
is not feasible. With ignitron tubes, the limiting changing the tap switch.
minimum value is 40 percent rms current for The power demand is always greater when
220 volt systems and 20 percent rms current for heat control is used to adjust the magnitude of
0.20
78.4°-
0.35
69.5°-
Load
0.50
600- 1
power 0.707
...., ~ r...;: K.
factor r-45°-f+
100
...........
"· 1\\\
90
80
/ ~ r-.\ .....
......
...c:
~
70
60
/
It/
~~,· ' L"""Applied
' voltage
I ...~
~~
~
'\
u ·;
-.....
J
"'E 50
0 40 / I~
c: ~~
.
'
J
30
~
Q_
20 / \
10 / ' \
"
'
I
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Delay angle in degrees
Fig. 3.18-The relationship between percent of rms current and firing delay
angle for different power factors
the welding current. In general, the kVA demand to minimize the cooling rate and the cracking
with heat control follows a linear relationship tendency.
with current. For example, if the welding current Upslope and downslope of welding current
is adjusted by heat control to 80 percent of its are illustrated in Fig. 3.19. The accepted no-
maximum value, the kVA demand will be about menclature for the various parts of a welding
80 percent of maximum. However, if the welding current cycle are also shown.
current is reduced to 80 percent of its maximum
value by changing the transformer tap switch, Quench and Temper Control
the kVA demand will be only about 64 percent The quench and temper control is a device
of maximum. that applies a temper cycle to the completed
Upslope and Downslope Controls weld after a quench period during which no cur-
rent flows. In each case, the time period is ad-
Upslope control is used to start the welding justable. Temper current magnitude is normally
current at some low value and control its rate of adjustable with heat control.
rise to some maximum value during a period of This control is frequently used when spot
several cycles. It is frequently used to minimize welding hardenable steels in thickness ranges of
or prevent the expulsion of molten metal from 0.016 to 0.125 inch. After the weld is made, it
between the faying surfaces when welding is then rapidly cooled during quench time to
coated steels and some nonferrous metals, par- hasten formation of martensite. The quench time
ticularly aluminum. must be long enough for martensite to form. The
Downslope control is used to decrease the minimum time will depend upon the weld thick-
welding current from maximum to a lower value ness and steel composition. A current pulse is
called the postheat current. The gradual decrease then applied to reheat the weld zone and thus
in current reduces the cooling rate of the weld. temper (soften) the martensite. Although this
It may be useful when welding hardenable steels cycle cannot duplicate furnace heat treatment,
Welding
current
,-/(" 1\- -~11-1\Ti-...,

_L_
Initial -(
.... /( n-r-11 ~~-n
Postheat
current
current /\ \ I I \
t I 4
t
' 'I
~ v u
u v
V Dowml:,,j
• time
1+-------Weld heat time ------+~-----Postheat time ----+-1
1 + - - - - - - - - - - - - - W e l d time - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - 1
Fig. 3.19-Welding current with upslope and downslope features

Resistance Welding Controls /ll7
it usually will prevent weld cracking. resistance welding machines having two or more
transformers. This control distributes the elec-
Forge Delay Control
trical power demand by energizing the welding
This control will initiate a forging force transformers in sequence on one or more phases.
at a definite time interval after the start of weld Reconnection is normally provided to energize
time or weld interval. It is used to apply two the transformers simultaneously on two or more
levels of force to a weld, namely, a welding phases.
force and a forging force. Obviously, the weld- This control generally contains several
ing machine must be designed to perform a dual single-function timers to control mechanical
force function. functions, such as squeeze and hold timers, and
Dual force is used for spot welding some two or more weld periods. In addition, it has a
aluminum alloys. The principle is to produce the contactor for each transformer. The weld timers
weld and then apply a high force during cooling are a function type but are weld safe; that is, the
to avoid the formation of cracks. It is common termination of weld time is not dependent upon
to downslope the welding current to retard the conduction of a single electronic device. Acces-
cooling rate with the application of forging sories such as heat control and upslope control
force. are occasionally added to this type of control.
A less expensive version of this control
Electronic Current Regulator uses only one ignitron or SCR contactor and a
An electronic current regulator is designed series of magnetic contactors. The ignitron or
to maintain a constant welding current under SCR contactor switches the primary current on
adverse conditions. This device will make cor- and off. The magnetic contactors connect the
rections for either line voltage fluctuations or welding transformers in succession to the con-
impedance changes generally caused by inser- tactor circuit during a nonconductive period.
tion of magnetic material into the throat of the
welding machine.
It first compares the primary current, as
STANDARD CONTROLS
measured by a current transformer or other de- Resistance welding control functions can
vice (feedback signal}, to a previously adjusted vary from control of only weld time, in the case
satisfactory level (command signal); then it of manually operated spot welding machines,
varies the phase-shift heat control network to to sequencing and timing a number of events
make these signals equal and opposite. with automatic spot and seam welding machines.
Electronic Voltage Regulator A typical complex weld cycle is shown in Fig.
3.20. It is evident that a control unit for this
An electronic voltage regulator is designed type of operation requires a number of timing
to maintain a constant voltage at the welding and sequencing features.
machine transformer in the presence of line Standard NEMA single-phase resistance
voltage variation. There are various forms of this welding controls and the types of timers that are
device. Some designs make an arbitrary correc- used with each control are given in Table 3.1.
tion that is dependent upon voltage rise or drop, Timer and auxiliary control functions and the
and others compare the line voltage (feedback) standard timing ranges for single-phase controls
to a previously adjusted (command) operating are given in Table 3.2. The functions performed
voltage. Both types cause the phase-shift heat by a particular control unit depend upon the
control network to respond and change the igni- intended applications of the welding machine.
tron tube conduction point. This type of regulator Timer and auxiliary control functions and
is simpler than the electronic current regulator. their timing ranges for three-phase controls are
similar to those for single-phase controls. Tim-
Load Distribution Control
ing ranges for specific functions may vary
A load distribution control is used with slightly because a three-phase machine is nor-
1+--- Preweld---1+---- Weld---+-----*-Postweld

Welding
process times
Current
Electrode force
Solenoid valve
voltage
Forge solenoid
valve voltage
I
Delay
after
precom-
pression --+o---~
1+---t-Precom-
Timer functions pression
1+---t-Squeeze
and times
Y - Machine operating time

1 - Heat Weld interval
2 -Cool
Note. When weld delay is required, it occurs before the start of weld time;
forge delay time then will be initiated at the beginning of weld delay time.
Both preheat and weld delay are not used in the same sequence.
Fig. 3.20-A complex weld cycle with multiple impulses
mally used for welding nonferrous metals, pri- monitor specific welding variables or actions that
marily aluminum. occur during the welding cycle. If the monitor
detects a fault, it can do one or more of the
MONITORING AND ADAPTIVE following:
CONTROLS (I) Set off an alarm or signal light
(2) Document the information
There are a number of factors that affect (3) Reject or identify the faulty part
the consistency of resistance spot welds during a (4) Interrupt the process until the problem
production run. These include line voltage varia- is corrected
tions, electrode deterioration, changes in surface (5) Alter time or current for the next weld
resistance, shunt paths, and variations in the force (6) Change a variable during the weld cycle
system. There are several systems available to to ensure a good weld
Resistance Welding Controls /ll9
Variables that affect process stability and

Table3.1 weld consistency include weld time, welding
Standard NEMA single-phase current, impedance, energy, and electrode force.
resistance welding controls Physical changes that take place in the weld
zone are temperature, expansion and contraction,
Control Timer
type types Applications electrical resistance, and, in some cases, metal
expulsion.
Nonsynchronous types
Monitoring devices can compute either weld
NIA lA Single weld pulse energy or impedance by measuring welding
NIB 18 Multiple weld pulse
N2 38 Single-pulse voltage, current, resistance, or time. When the
weld sequence computed value falls outside acceptable limits,
N3 58 Multiple-impulse the unit can notify the operator or automatically
weld sequence adjust one or more of the variables prior to the
N6 3C Single-pulse
next weld.
weld sequence
Another monitoring device uses an acoustic
Synchronous precision types
emission device to sense the first sound gen-
SIH lAS or ICS Single weld pulse
S2H lAS and7B Single-pulse erated by metal expulsion between the faying
weld sequence surfaces. The device immediately terminates the
S3H, S4H 18Sand9B Multiple-impulse welding current. The principle behind this device
weld sequence is that every weld reaches its maximum size,
S5H IBS Multiple weld sequence
as limited by expulsion.
Table 3.2
Timing ranges of standard single-phase resistance welding timers
Timing range, cycles (60Hz)
Function Nonsynchronous Synchronous Absolute cycle
Timer functions
Squeeze 3-120, 3-30 1-99, 1-59
Squeeze delay 1 3-30 1-59
Initial squeeze 1 3-60
Weld 3-120, 2-30 1-60, 1-10 1-99, 1-59
Weld interval 9-360 (1-8 heat times)'
Heat 3-30 1-30 1-99
Cool 3-30 1-30 1-29
Hold 3-60, 2-30 1-99, 1-29
Off 3-60, 3-30 1-99, 1-29
Auxiliary control functions

Upslope 3-30 1-10, 1-30 1-9, 1-29
Weld heat 3-60 1-60 1-99
Weld interval heat 3-180 3-180 (1-8 heat times)'
Downslope 3-30 1-10, 1-30 1-9, 1-29
Quench 9-360 9-360 1-99
Temper 3-120 1-120 1-99
Forge delay 3-360 1-360,0.1-59.9 1-99,0.1-99.9
Preheat 3-120 1-120 1-99
Precompression 3-10 1-9
Delay after
precompression 3-10 1-9
I. Only one of these functions is used.
2. The timer l·ounts the numherofheat times mther than the overall time.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SINGLE-PHASE EQUIPMENT where: kYA 1 =maximum input power

k YAr = standard power rating at 50 percent
The typical electrical system of a single- duty cycle
phase resistance welding machine consists of (I) DC =operating duty cycle, percent
a transformer, (2) a tap switch, and (3) a sec-
ondary circuit including the electrodes. For example, a welding transformer rated at
The welding transformer, in principle, is the 100 kYA may be operated at 141 kYA at 25
same as any other iron-core transformer. The percent duty cycle without overheating.
chief difference is that its secondary circuit has Tap Switches
only one or two turns. Stationary machines
have only one turn. Portable gun welding trans- Tap switches are devices for connecting
formers may have two turns that can be con- various primary taps on the transformer to the
nected in series or parallel, depending upon the supply lines. They are usually rotary type and
output requirements. designed for flush mounting in an opening in the
machine frame or, in some cases, directly on the
Transformer Rating transformer. The switches are designed to ac-
Resistance welding transformers are nor- commodate the arrangements of the transformer
mally rated on the basis of temperature rise limi- taps. Straight rotary designs are normally used
tations on the components. The standard rating in with 4, 6, or 8 tap transformers. In addition,
kYA is based on the ability of a transformer to there may be a series-parallel switch that con-
produce that power at a 50 percent duty cycle nects two sections of the primary in series or in
without exceeding design limitations. This parallel. This provides a wider range of secondary
means that a transformer can produce its rated voltages.
power for a total time of 30 seconds during each Most switch handles have locking buttons
minute of operation without exceeding temper- so that the contacts are centered in each operat-
ature limitations if it is being properly cooled. ing position. In addition, some switches have an
Duty cycle is the percentage of time that the "off' position which acts as a disconnect. A tap
transformer is actually producing power during a switch should not be operated when the trans-
one minute integrating period. It is expressed former is energized. Otherwise, arc-over be-
by the formula: tween points will damage the contact surfaces
of the tap switch.
Duty cycle, percent = AC Secondary Circuit

Weld time, cycles (60Hz) x (welds/min) The geometry of the secondary circuit or
36 loop, the size of the conducting components,
and the presence of magnetic material in the loop
will affect the electrical characteristics of an ac
For example, if a machine is producing 36
welding machine. Available welding current and
welds per minute with a weld time of 12 cycles
kYA demand will be influenced by the imped-
(60Hz), its operating duty cycle is 12 percent.
ance of the secondary circuit.
If a welding .transformer is operated at less
The electrical impedance of an ac welding
than 50 percent duty cycle, it can be operated
machine should be minimized to permit the de-
at a higher power level than its thermal rating.
livery of the required welding current at mini-
The maximum permissible kYA input for a stan-
mum kYA demand. The electrical impedance
dard resistance welding transformer at a partic-
will be smaller when:
ular duty cycle can be determined using the
(I) The throat area of the welding machine
following equation:
is decreased.
(2) The electrical resistance of the secondary
kYAt = 7.07 kYAr/(DC) 112 circuit is decreased.
Electrical Characteristics /121
(3) The sizes of the secondary conductors fore, spe~ial high voltage electrical control
are increased. panels are normally required. A protective over-
(4) The amount of magnetic material in the voltage device, a discharge resistor, and a contact
throatofthe machine is decreased. to ground are generally provided for safe opera-
tion and maintenance.
Three-phase welding systems have largely
Power Factor Correction
replaced single-phase series capacitor installa-
Series Capacitors. Welding machines of good tions. A welding machine with an inherently
design effectively minimize the impedance of good power factor is generally less troublesome
the secondary circuit. However, the size of the than a series capacitor installation.
work to be welded and associated fixturing may
Shunt Capacitors. Shunt capacitors are seldom
require a large throat depth or throat height.
used with resistance welding equipment. The
This requirement may add considerable induc-
initial high inrush of current may actually in-
tance to the secondary circuit. The increased in-
crease the line demand. However, shunt capac-
ductance causes a reactive voltage drop which
itors may be preferred to series capacitors if the
in turn decreases the power factor. To compen-
welding time is comparatively long, as in non-
sate for this, a higher secondary voltage will be
interrupted resistance seam welding.
required and the necessary electrical kVA de-
mand will be increased. DC Secondary Circuit
Low power factor and intermittent, high
electrical demand are not desirable to the elec- One method of decreasing impedance
tric utility, which must maintain a stable power losses in the secondary circuit is to rectify the
supply to other customers. One method of re- secondary power to de. Single-phase de resis-
ducing line kVA demand and improving power tance welding machines utilize a center-tapped
factor is the use of series capacitors in the pri- secondary and a full wave silicon diode rectifier
mary circuit. A specific amount of capacitance bank. With this system, kVA rating of a ma-
can be connected in series with the transformer chine does not 'have to be increased to provide
of a welding machine to neutralize the induc- for a larger throat area. For a given size and
tance of the machine and improve the power application, the kVA demand of a de machine
factor. This, in turn, will reduce the demand will be significantly lower than that of an ac ma-
from the power line. chine. The reason for this is the high power factor
This power factor correction method will of about 90 percent for de machines, compared to
increase the voltage applied to the welding 25 to 30 percent for ac machines.
machine transformer. High voltage insulation is This type of power is particularly useful
therefore required. A transformer tap switch is for portable gun welding applications. The im-
not used because it changes the series resonant pedance loss in the cable connecting the gun and
condition. The welding current is changed with transformer is much lower with de than with ac.
phase-shift heat control or a tapped auto- This, in turn, decreases the kVA demand and
transformer. the required size of the welding transformer. It
The resistance of the secondary circuit is also advantageous for spot and seam welding
limits the current in any high power factor sys- operations where the amount of magnetic ma-
tem. Since the metal being welded has resis- terial in the machine throat increases or decreases
tance, the welding current may vary significantly as welding proceeds.
with slight changes in metal thickness or clean-
liness. This may affect weld consistency
and quality, particularly with alloys of high DIRECT ENERGY
resistance. THREE-PHASE EQUIPMENT
Voltages appearing across the welding ma- Frequency Converter Type
chine transformer and the series capacitors are
higher than the electrical supply voltage. There- This type of machine has a specially de-
signed transformer with three primary windings, ing current limited to about 50 percent of maxi-
each of which is connected across one or the three mum. Specially designed massive transformers
input phases. There is one secondary winding may permit the use of high current for the longer
which is interleaved among the primary windings time period.
and connected to the secondary conductors. Figure 3.21 shows a typical current-force
Referring to Fig. 3.15, the transformer pri- diagram for this type of machine. Programming
mary windings are connected to the power lines may be provided for other functions such as pre-
by three electronic contactors. Ignitron tubes or heat current, precompression force, and temper
SCRs may be used as contactors. A welding con- current. Single- or multiple-impulse welds
trol causes ignitron tubes A, B, and C to conduct maybe made.
in sequence. With the correct sequence and con-
DC Rectifier Type
duction time, current is passed through the three
primary windings in the same direction. This A three-phase de rectifier type of welding
causes unidirectional current to flow in the secon- machine is similar to the single-phase type in
dary circuit. Ignitron tubes A, B, and Care then that a welding transformer powers a rectifier
shut off at the end of a preselected time. lgnitron bank. The output of the rectifiers is fed into the
tubes A', B', and C' are caused to conduct next welding circuit. Some machines use half-wave
with the correct sequence and conduction time, rectification as shown in Fig. 3.22(A). In this
and current will flow in the opposite direction case, the transformer secondary is wye con-
through the primary windings and the secondary nected. Other machines, particularly earlier ver-
circuit. This action effectively applies a reversing sions, have full-wave rectification with the trans-
"de" voltage to the primary windings. former secondary connected in delta arrange-
The maximum duration of unidirectional ment as shown in Fig. 3.22(8).
primary current flow is governed primarily by the Welding current is controlled by electronic
size of the transformer and its saturation charac- heat control, sometimes in conjunction with a
teristics. It is common practice to have two maxi- transformer top switch. The design of the pri-
mum de pulse lengths. One is a short time of mary circuit and control varies among equip-
about 5 cycles (60 Hz) for high current applica- ment manufacturers. The secondary current out-
tions and the other is usually 10 cycles with weld- put of a three-phase machine is much smoother
Forge delay time 1 £_ Final force

,-- ------,I
t----- Weld time -7--+--1
''\
.,.
I
I
/
'' \
I \
--1 5.queeze 1 - - - - - - T o t a l weld time
b~
-----+~-Hold
ti~
Fig. 3.21-Typk•l current-force diagr•m for frequency converter

or de rectifier types of three-ph•se spot welding m•chines
Electrical Characteristics /123
High current
Welding
transformer rectifiers
Welding
transformer
L1--++
L2 Work
Work L3--~
Primary Secondary
Primary Secondary
(B) Full-wave rectifier
(A) Half-wave rectifier
Fig. 3.22-Eiectrical arrangements for three-phase de rectifier

welding machines
than that of a single-phase machine. In addition, of machine is similar to that of Fig. 3.21. In
power demand is balanced on the power line. addition, programming may be provided for
The three-phase rectifier consists of silicon other functions such as preheating, upslope,
diodes mounted on water-cooled conductors. The downslope, and tempering. Single- or multiple-
arrangement of conductors and diodes is electri- impulse welds may be made.
cally symmetricaL The impedance of each diode
circuit must be similar so that each diode will STORED ENERGY EQUIPMENT
share the load (current) equally. The diodes Equipment of this type is usually confined
themselves must have similar electrical charac- to small units suitable for bench mounting. They
teristics. Each diode has long life if it is properly are powered from a single-phase line. Many
applied and used. Welding current may be pro- designs of welding heads or portable tongs that
vided continuously as long as the thermal rating are connected to their power units with cables
of the machine is not exceeded. are available _They are used for a wide variety
A typical current-force diagram for this type of applications including assembly of small
Fig. 3.23-A bench-mounted stored energy spot welding machine

electrical components of nonferrous alloys and

the spot welding of foils.
Electrode force may range from a few
ounces to several pounds. Calibrated springs are
used in a manual force system to apply the elec-
trode force. Stored energy is used to produce the
welding current pulse. The welding current am-
plitude, duration, and wave shape are determined
by the electrical characteristics of the power
source including capacitance, reactance, re-
sistance, and capacitor voltage. Welding times
are often substantially shorter than one half cycle
of60 Hz.
Figure 3.23 shows a typical foot-operated
bench type welding machine of this type with a
maximum electrode force of either 8 or 20 lb, de-
pending upon the spring size. Electrode force is
applied by actuation of a foot pedal mounted
Time, ms
beneath the welding head. A typical power
source is rated at 40 watt-seconds, has 600 micro-
farads of capacitance, and can be adjusted for Fig. 3.24-Typical time-current wave
welding outputs as indicated by the curves in forms of a 40 watt-second stored
Fig. 3.24. energy spot welding machine
ELECTRODES AND HOLDERS
The perishable tools used in resistance quire special electrode designs. If it should be
welding are the electrodes, which may be in the necessary to compromise the design, it may
form of a wheel, roll, bar, plate, clamp, chuck, affect electrode life, weld quality, production
or some modification thereof. Most spot weld- rate, or all three. Consequently, selection of the
ing applications utilize electrode holders or electrode material is very important for good
adaptors for mounting the electrodes in the performance.
machine.
A welding electrode may perform one or ELECTRODE MATERIALS
more of the following functions:
(1) Conduct welding current to the parts Standard resistance electrode materials are
(2) Transmit a force to the joint classified by the RWMA.Z They are divided into
(3) Fixture or locate the parts in proper two groups: copper-base alloys and refractory
alignment metal compositions. In addition to these standard
(4) Remove heat from the weld or adjacent materials, there are a number of proprietary
part alloys available from the various electrode manu-
The electrode design should always have facturers. For some applications, commercially
sufficient mass to transmit the required welding
force and current and provisions for adequate 2. Standard electrode materials are described in ANSI/
RWMA Bulletin No. 16, Resistance Welding Equip-
cooling when needed. High production applica- ment Standards, Resistance Welder Manufacturers
tions sometimes involve thick sections that re- Association, Philadelphia, PA.
Table 3.3
Minimum properties for RWMA electrode materials
Proportional limit Ultimate tensile Elongation, %
tension, psi Hardness, Rockwell B Conductivity, <;<• strength, psi in 2 in. or 4 diameters
Group A
copper-base
alloys Class I Class 2 Class 3 Class I Class 2 Class 3 Class I Class 2 Class 3 Class I Class 2 Class 3 Class I Class 2 Class 3
Rod diam., in. Round rod stock (cold worked)
Up to I 17,500 35,000 50,000 65 75 90 80 75 45 60,000 65,000 100,000 13 13 9

Over I to 2 15,000 30,000 50,000 60 70 90 80 75 45 55,000 59,000 100,000 14 13 9
Over2 to 3 15,000 25,000 50,000 55 65 90 80 75 45 50,000 55,000 95,000 15 13 9
Thickness, in. Square, rectangular, and hexagonal bar stock (cold worked)
Up to I 20,000 35,000 50,000 55 70 90 80 75 45 60,000 65,000 100.000 13 13 9
Over I 15,000 25,000 50,000 50 65 90 80 75 45 50,000 55,000 100,000 14 13 9
Thickness, in. Forgings
Up to I 20,000 22,000° 50,000 55 65 90 80 75 45 60,000 55,000 94,000 12 13 9
Over I to 2 15,000 21,000° 50,000 50 65 90 80 75 45 50,000 55,000 94,000 13 13 9
Over2 15,000 20,000° 50,000 50 65 90 80 75 45 50,000 55,000 94,000 13 13 9 tl"l
~
Castings ....
'"'
~
All 20,000 45,000 55 90 70 45 - 45,000 85,000 - 12 5 1}
.,
1:)
~
:X:
<::>
~
~
f:3
Ul
-
~
m
-"'
fa
"'~
z
I")
m
~
m
r
0
Table 3.3 (continued) z
Cl
Minimum Properties for RWMA electrode materials m
g
Group A Proportional limit Ultimate tensile Elongation, <kin 2 in. :;;
copper-base alloys tension, psi Hardness, Rockwell Conductivity,%-" 3:
strength, psi or 4 diameters m
z
-i
Class 4 Alloys
Cast 60,000 33C 18 (Average) 90,000 0.5
Wrought 85,000 33C 20 (Average) 140,000 1.0
Class 5 Alloys, cast
TypeH 16,000 888 12 70,000 2
TypeS 12,000 658 15 65,000 12
Group 8 Ultimate compression
refractory metals strength, psi
Class 10-Rods, bars, and inserts 728 45 135,000
Class !!-Rods, bars, and inserts 948 40 160,000
Class 14-Rods, bars, and inserts 858 30
a. International Annealed Copper Standard.
b. Hot worked and heat treated but not cold worked.
Electrodes and Holders /127
available copper alloys (brasses or bronzes) or trodes of this alloy is the welding of heat re-
steels may be used for welding electrodes. Table sistant alloys that retain high strength proper-
3.3 gives the minimum properties for alloys to ties at elevated temperatures. Welding of these
meet the various RWMA classification require- alloys requires high electrode forces which, in
ments. The specific alloy compositions are tum, require a strong electrode alloy. TYpical
not specified, and they will vary among the heat resistant alloys are some low alloy steels,
manufacturers. stainless steels, and nickel-chromium-iron alloys.
Class 3 alloy is especially suitable for many
Group A-Copper-Base Alloys
types of electrode clamps and current-carrying
The copper-base alloys are divided into structural members of resistance welding ma-
five classes. Class I alloy is a general purpose chines. Its properties are similar in both the
material for resistance welding applications. It cast and wrought conditions because it develops
may be used for spot and seam welding elec- most of its mechanical attributes from heat
trodes where electrical and thermal conductiv- treatment.
ities are of greater importance than mechanical Class 4 alloy is an age-hardenable type
properties. Other applications are seam welding that develops the highest hardness and strength
machine shafts and welding fixtures. This alloy of the Group A alloys. Its low conductivity and
class is recommended for spot and seam welding tendency to be hot-short makes it unsuitable for
electrodes for aluminum, brass, bronze, magne- spot or seam welding electrodes. It is generally
sium, and metallic coated steels because of its recommended for components that have rela-
high electrical and thermal conductivity. tively large contact area with the part. These
Class I alloy is not heat treatable. Its include flash and projection welding electrodes
strength and hardness are increased by cold and inserts. Other applications are part backup
working. Therefore, it has no advantage over un- devices, heavy-duty seam welding machine bear-
alloyed copper for castings and is rarely used ings, and other machine components where re-
or fabricated in this form. sistance to wear and high pressure are important.
Class 2 alloy has higher mechanical prop- Class 4 alloy is available in both cast and
erties but somewhat lower electrical and thermal wrought forms. Because of the high hardness
conductivities than Class I alloy. It has good after heat treatment, it is frequently machined
resistance to deformation under moderately high in the solution-annealed condition.
pressures, and is the best general purpose alloy. Class 5 alloy is available principally in the
This alloy is suitable for high production spot form of castings with high mechanical strength
and seam welding of clean mild and low alloy and moderate electrical conductivity. It is recom-
steels, stainless steels, low-conductivity copper- mended for large flash welding electrodes,
base alloys, and nickel alloys. These materials backing material for other electrode alloys, and
comprise the bulk of resistance welding appli- many types of current-carrying structural mem-
cations. bers of resistance welding machines and fixtures.
Class 2 alloy is also suitable for shafts,
Group 8-Refractory Metal Compositions
clamps, fixtures, platens, gun arms, and various
other current-carrying structural parts of resis- These materials contain a refractory metal
tance welding equipment. This alloy is heat in powder form, usually tungsten or molyb-
treatable and may be used in both wrought and denum. They are made by the powder metal-
cast forms. Maximum mechanical properties are lurgy process. Their chief attribute is resistance
developed in wrought form by cold working after to deformation in service. They function well for
heat treatment. achieving heat balance when two different elec-
Class 3 alloy is also heat treatable but it trode materials are needed to compensate for a
has higher mechanical ,properties and lower difference in thicknesses or alloys being welded.
electrical conductivity than Class 2 alloy. The Class 10, 11 , and 12 compositions are mix-
chief application for spot or seam welding elec- tures of copper and tungsten. The hardness,
strength, and density increase and the electrical Other Materials

conductivity decreases with increasing tungsten A number of unclassified copper alloys and
content. They are used as facings or inserts where other materials may be suitable for resistance
exceptional wear resistance is required in various welding electrodes. Suitability of a particular
projection, flash, and upset welding electrodes. material for electrodes will depend upon the
It is difficult to establish guidelines for the appli- application. Although most requirements are met
cation of each grade. The electrode design, weld- by materials meeting RWMA standards, there
ing equipment, opposing electrode material, and are cases where other materials will function as
workpiece composition and condition are some well or better. For example, steel may be used
of the variables that should be considered in for flash welding electrodes for certain aluminum
each case. applications.
Class 13 and Class 14 are commercially Dispersion-strengthened copper is an un-
pure tungsten and molybdenum, respectively. classified material that may be used for elec-
They are generally considered to be the only trodes. It is high purity copper that contains
electrode materials that will give good perfor- small amounts of submicroscopic aluminum
mance when welding nonferrous metals with oxide uniformly distributed in the matrix. The
high electrical conductivity. The welding of aluminum oxide significantly strengthens the
braided copper wire or copper and brass wires to copper matrix and raises the recrystallization
themselves or to various types of terminals are temperature of cold worked material. The high
typical uses for Class 13 and 14 materials. recrystallization temperature of wrought material
RWMA Major
taper diameter
3~-fE=Er
4~
~
e ~
·~---
Pointed
·~-E-::·:.:::JB---
7~::;:;:::")8
Radius
Fig. 3.25-Stand ard RWMA spot welding electrode face and taper designs
sure densities in the weld zone. Figure 3.25

shows the standard RWMA electrode face and
taper designs. The radius and dome contours are
the most commonly used for all metals. The
flat-faced electrode is used to minimize surface
marking or to maintain heat balance.
The face may be concentric to the axis of
the electrode as in Figs. 3.25(A), (B), (C), (E),
and (F); eccentric or offset as in Fig. 3.25(0);
or at some angle to the axis as in Fig. 3.26. So-
called offset electrodes with eccentric faces are
used to make a weld near a comer or in other
less accessible areas. This is illustrated in Fig.
3.27. A facing of Group B material may be brazed
to a shank of a Group A alloy to produce com-
posite electrodes for special applications as
shown in Fig. 3.28.
Shank
The shank of an electrode must have suffi-
cient cross-sectional area to support the electrode
force and carry the welding current. The shank
may be straight, as in Fig. 3.25, or bent as in
Fig. 3. 29. The standard shank diameters are
shown in Fig. 3.25.
Fig. 3.26-Speci•l spot welding

electrodes with the f•ces •ngled •t 30
degrees
provides excellent resistance to softening and

mushrooming of electrodes. This significantly
contributes to long electrode life. The mechanical
properties and electrical conductivity of disper-
sion-strengthened copper bars meet the require-
ments for RWMA Group A, Class I and 2 alloys.
SPOT WELDING ELECTRODES

A spot welding electrode has four features:
(l) the face, (2) the shank, (3) the end or attach-
ment, and (4) provision for cooling.
Face
The face of the electrode is that portion
which contacts the work. Its design is influenced
by the composition, thickness, and geometry of
the parts to be welded. In tum, the electrode Fig. 3.27-An •pplic•tion of TypeD
face geometry determines the current and pres- offset spot welding electrodes
Tapered electrodes Straight-shanked electrodes are used with

high welding forces, especially the 5/8 and 3/4-
in. diameters . The base of the electrode bears
against the holder socket. The water seal is an
"0" ring in a recessed groove in the holder. The
electrode is mechanically held in place by a
coupling or collar.
Dome Flat Insert

Cooling
Wherever practical, spot welding electrodes
Threaded electrodes should have an internal cooling passage extend-
ing close to the welding face. This passage
should be designed to accommodate a water
inlet tube and provide for water out around the
tube. The tube should be positioned to direct the
cooling water against the tip of the electrode. In
Flat Flat most cases, the tube is a component of the elec-
trode holder. An exception is bent electrodes.
Fig. 3.28-Typic•l Group B electrode Where internal cooling is not practical, external
f•ces brued to Group A •lloy sh•nks cooling of the electrodes by immersion, flooding,
or attached cooling coils should be considered.
Attachment Two-Piece Electrodes

The method of attaching the shank end to Two-piece or cap-and-adaptor electrodes
the holder is usually one of three general types: are available with both male and female caps,
tapered, threaded, or straight-shank. as shown in Fig. 3.31. They are available with
RWMA tapered attachments use the Jarno straight and bent shanks. Use of this electrode
taper as the standard. This taper offers the follow- design is a matter of economics. Tip maintenance
ing advantages : costs may be lower because only the cap needs
(I) The taper number multiplied by 1/8 in . to be replaced with wear. On the other hand, the
gives the nominal major diameter. For example, resistance of the cap-to-adaptor interface may
RWMA No.5 taper has 5/8 in. diameter. contribute to electrode heating and wear. Their
(2) The taper numbers progress in sequence use should be evaluated for each application
from 3 to 7. compared to the one-piece design.
(3) The RWMA taper is a uniform 0.600
in ./ft for all sizes .
The electrode diameter and taper length in-
crease as the taper number increases. Longer
tapers can support higher electrode forces, but Table3.4
there is a maximum force that should be used Recommended maximum electrode force
with each electrode size. Recommended maxi- for standard spot welding electrodes
mum electrode forces for the various sizes are Shank Face Maximum
given in Table 3.4. Thper diam., diam., electrode
Threaded attachments are used where high no. in. in. force,lb
welding forces would make removal of tapered 4 0.482 0.19 800
electrodes difficult, or where electrode position 5 0.625 0.25 1500
is critical. lYpical threaded electrodes are shown 6 0.750 0.28 2000
7 0.875 0.31 2400
in Fig. 3.30.
Fig. 3.29-Typic al single and double bent spot welding electrodes
Method of Manufacture Maintenance
Straight electrodes are machined from A spot welding electrode has a specific
cold worked rods. Bent electrodes may be pro- face area in contact with the work. In use, this
duced by cold forming of straight electrodes, area will grow by mushrooming and the current
by forging, or by casting. Forging or casting is and pressure densities will decrease at the same
normally used where the required shape cannot time. As a result, the weld will become smaller.
be produced by cold forming. Most bent elec- In addition, the electrodes tend to pick up metal
trodes are cold formed ¥cause they have dis- from the parts being welded. A small amount of
tinct advantages over the others, including the pick up may not be harmful, but a considerable
following: amount will cause the electrodes to over-
(1) The physical and mechanical properties heat and mushroom faster.
of cold-drawn rod It is not possible to predict how many welds
(2) Placement of a water tube in the cooling can be made with a given setup before redressing
hole prior to forming of the electrodes is necessary. A periodic check
(3) Lower manufacturing costs of the weld quality as well as the electrode
shape will help in determining the number of

welds or assemblies that can be made before
redressing. Then, a schedule of electrode redress-
ing should be set up as preventive maintenance
to maintain weld quality.
A minor amount of redressing of electrodes
in the machine is permissible using a plastic or
metal paddle contoured on both sides to match
the electrode face contour. The paddle is wrapped
with fine abrasive cloth. The electrodes are
brought against the abrasive cloth under a light
load. The paddle is then rotated to redress the
electrode faces.
Where a major amount of redressing is
necessary, the electrode should be removed
from the machine and refaced on a lathe.
Flat face Truncated Eccentric Alternatively, major redressing of the elec-
cone trode may be done in the machine with a
Fig. 3.30-Typical threaded spot welding manual or power-operated dressing tool.
electrodes A file should never be used for redressing
electrodes in the machine because the resulting
electrode faces may be irregular in size and
contour. Poorly dressed electrodes will reduce
the quality of weld.
The following suggestions may be helpful
in correctly applying spot welding electrodes.
(I) Use standard electrodes and holders
wherever possible.
(2) Use the proper electrode material
recommended for the application and the metal
to be welded.
(3) Use adequate water cooling and circu-
late it in the correct direction in the electrodes.
(4) Align the electrodes properly. Elec-
trodes should not skid against the parts or be
out of alignment when they are in contact
with the parts.
(5) Use only rawhide or rubber mallets
for tapping electrodes into position and only
ejector type holders or the proper tools for re-
moving electrodes from the machine.
(6) See that the machine is Set up properly.
The electrodes must contact the parts with
minimum impact before current flows and must
remain in contact until termination ofthe current.
Specifications and Identification
Fig. 3.31~Male and female
design~ of two-piece spot Spot welding electrodes are covered by
welding J!lectrodes two standards:
(I) ANSI/RWMA Bulletin No. 16, Re- design principles are generally employed for
sistance Welding Standards, published by the special holders, with or without adaptors, for
Resistance Welder Manufacturers Association. use with a great variety of special or standard
(2) AWS 08.6/SAE HS-J 1156, Standard electrodes.
for Automotive Resistance Spot Welding Elec- The three types of standard holders are
trodes, published by the American Welding available as nonejector and ejector types.
Society and the Society of Automotive En- Straight electrode holders of both types are
gineers. shown in Fig. 3.32. With the ejector type, the
These standards provide a code system electrode is removed by striking the ejector
for the various standard electrode designs. head or button with a hammer. With the non-
The code identifies the nose style, alloy class, ejector type, the electrode taper is released by
shank size, and length. Methods are also given rotating the electrode with a wrench. Holders
to identify bent electrode shapes, special-faced are available in different lengths and several
electrodes, and cap electrodes. diameters.
Straight electrodes are identified by a let- Offset and universal holders are produced
ter followed by four numbers with the follow- with 90° and 30° heads as shown in Fig. 3.33.
ing meanings: Low inertia holders which incorporate a spring
(I) The letter indicates the nose style as for rapid follow-up are also available.
shown in Fig. 3.25. From the many available holder and elec-
(2) The first digit indicates the Group A trode designs, it usually is possible to find a
alloy class as shown in Table 3.3. combination to fit most requirements. Ex-
(3) The second digit indicates the taper. amples of various electrode and holder com-
(4) The third and fourth digits indicate binations are also shown in Fig. 3.33.
the overall length in 0.25-in. units. Multiple electrode holders are available
For single bent electrodes, two digits are for producing two or more spot welds simul-
placed ahead of the letter to indicate the bend taneously in parallel. These holders have
angle in degrees. For single and double bent spring, mechanical, or hydraulic force equaliz-
electrodes, two additional digits are added to ing systems. The lower electrode may be a flat
indicate the offset distance in 0.062-in. units. block that opposes all upper electrodes or in-
dividual electrodes mounted in a block. Since
the welds are made by parallel circuits, the
proper division of current to each weld will
depend upon the relative resistances of the paths.
ELECTRODE HOLDERS The path of lowest resistance will conduct more
current than the others, and weld size may vary
Electrodes are mounted on a spot weld- with the current magnitude.
ing machine by means of electrode holders.
Various holder designs permit positioning the
electrodes properly with respect to the work.
The holders are clamped to the arms of the PROJECTION WELDING
welding machine. Most of them have provi- ELECTRODES
sions for conducting cooling water to the
electrodes, and some have an ejector mecha- Projection welding electrodes must have
nism for easy removal of the electrode. flat surfaces that are larger than the projection
There are three fundamental holder de- diameter. It is common practice to use large,
signs: straight, offset, and universal or adjust- flat electrodes or rectangular bar stock.
able offset. These three basic types are avail- Projection welding electrodes are frequently
able in standard sizes and designs for use with composed of an internally water-cooled holder
standard spot welding electrodes. Similar with replaceable inserts at the projection Ioca-
Water tube
Return spring Ejector tube
1 - - - - - - - -Barrel l e n g t h - - - - - -- - - !
(A)
Ejector tube
1---------Barrellength --------~
(B)
~ f!
~ ~ ~~------------------~~~
\~
w"" '""'
~~~~::=:~=::==:=::==:=::5~~~~~~~~~s~~~~
~~~·,;/~~
~~~--~
~----~~----------------------~~
F.L-----'
1...,.._- - - -- - - - Barrellength - - - - -- - - o - l1
(C)
Fig. 3.32-Typical straight spot welding electrode holders: (A) and (8) ejector types,
(C) nonejector type
Bent
electrodes
Eccentric electrode
Universal
holder
Offset Universal
holders holders
Fig. 3.33-Various combinations of electrodes and holders

eccentric electrode
Eccentric
electrode
Button type
electrode
Paddle type holder

with truncated
electrode
Fig. 3.33 (cont.)-Various combinations of electrodes and holders
tions. These inserts may be threaded electrodes disks. The five basic considerations are face
or pieces of Group A or B electrode materials contour, width, diameter, cooling, and method
pressed or otherwise secured in the holder. of mounting. The diameter and width of the
An example of this design is shown in Fig. 3.34. wheel are usually dictated by the thickness,
Since the area of contact between each size, and shape of the parts. The face contour
electrode and the adjacent part is larger than in depends upon the requirements for current and
spot welding, current and pressure densities are pressure distribution in the weld nugget and the
lower. Therefore, electrode deterioration from type of drive mechanism. The four basic face
wear, deformation, or pickup is not nearly so contours in common use are flat, single-bevel,
rapid as with spot welding. The electrodes do, double-bevel, and radius as shown in Fig. 3.35.
however, eventually become pitted or deformed The electrodes are usually cooled by either
at the projection weld locations. When this inter- flooding or directing jets of water on both of
feres with the proper electrode contact or weld the electrodes and the work from top ~nd bot-
quality, the electrodes or inserts must be re- tom. Where that method of cooling is unsatisfac-
dressed or replaced. tory the electrodes and shafts can be designed
Selecting the best combination of opposing for internal cooling.
electrode materials for good heat balance will Cooling by simple flooding alone is notal-
minimize deterioration. Regular cleaning of the ways adequate. A steam pocket may develop at
electrodes to remove grease, dirt, flash, or other the point where the electrode meets the work
contamination will prolong electrode life. and keep cooling water from the immediate
Multiple projection welding electrodes can area. When flood cooling is unsuitable, water
be designed to automatically compensate for mist or vapor cooling may be effective.
height variations or wear. These equalizing A seam welding electrode is generally
electrodes generally employ some hydraulic or attached to the shaft with a sufficient number of
mechanical method to provide automatic float- bolts or studs to withstand the driving torque.
ing or equalizing features. The contact area with the shaft must be great
enough to transmit the welding current with
minimum heat generation.
SEAM WELDING ELECTRODES
Peripheral drive mechanisms, such as knurl
Seam welding electrodes are wheels or or friction drives running against the electrode,
Electrodes and Holders I 137
Upper block
Faced
replaceable inserts
Water out
Water in
Lower block
Fig. 3.34-Typical projection welding multiple electrode construction

require adequate work clearance. A knurl drive Seam welding electrodes, like spot weld-
will mark the electrode face, which in tum will ing electrodes, have a predetermined area of
mar the surface of the weld. However, a knurl contact with the parts that must be held within
drive wheel tends to clean surface pickup from limits if consistent weld quality is to be main-
the electrode face. tained. Only minor dressing or touch up with
Although the work and drive may require light abrasives should be attempted with the
flat-faced electrodes with or without beveled electrode in the machine. Wheel dressers may
edges, they are more difficult to set up, control, be used for continuous electrode maintenance.
and maintain than radius-faced electrodes. In Machining in a lathe is the preferred method of
addition, radius faces give the best weld ap- redressing an electrode to its original shape.
pearance. Precautions must be taken to prewnt foreign
0
~li=Liw~<hH
G
Gear-driven or
idling electrodes
Single Double
bevel bevel -f.-
Radius
~\·1~ Electrode width
Fig. 3.35-Seam welding wheel face contours

materials from becoming embedded in the elec- the current without overheating, and that the
trode wheel or work. Rough faces do not im- electrodes be rigid enough to maintain work
prove traction. Welding should be stopped while alignment and minimize deflection.
the electrodes are still on the work. The electrodes are mechanically fastened
to the welding machine platen. They can be
FLASH AND UPSET WELDING solid, one-piece construction of one the RWMA
ELECTRODES Group A electrode materials of Classes I through
5. Service life can sometimes be increased by
Flash and upset welding electrodes usually using Class 2, 3, and 5 material with replace-
are not in direct contact with the weld area as are able inserts of Class 3, 4, or one of the Group B
spot and seam welding electrodes. They function materials at the wear points.
as work-holding and current-carrying clamps, A varying amount of wear inevitably
and are often referred to as such. They are occurs, and this may result in decreased con-
normally designed to contact a large area of the tact area and localized burning of the work. The
workpiece, and the current density in the contact electrodes should be kept cool, clean, and free
area is relatively low. Accordingly, relatively of dirt, grease, flash, and other foreign particles
hard electrode materials with low conductivity for good service. An antispatter compound may
can give satisfactory performance. help prevent flash adherence. All fasteners and
Since the electrodes must conform to the holding devices should be tight and properly
parts to be welded, there are no standard de- adjusted, and their gripping surfaces should be
signs. Two important requirements are that the properly maintained to avoid work slipping dur-
materials have sufficient conductivity to carry ing welding.
POWER SUPPLY
Power demand from the line depends upon feeder and produces 230 or 460 V power. It
the welding method and the design of the weld- should not be confused with the welding trans-
ing machine. An adequate power supply is one former mounted in the welding machine. The
of the prerequisites for high-production resis- power supply conductors are the leads between
tance welding. A major part of the power supply the power supply transformer and the welding
system for an industrial plant is within the plant machine.
itself. That part consists of the power supply The adequacy of the power supply trans-
transformers and conductors. former and supply conductors is governed by
two factors: the permissible voltage drop and
the permissible heating. The permissible voltage
POWER SUPPLY TRANSFORMERS drop is the determining factor in the majority
of installations, but consideration must be also
In considering the installation of a resis- given to heating.
tance welding machine, it is necessary to deter- It is relatively simple to determine the size
mine if the plant supply is adequate. This in- of a power transformer for a single welding
cludes the kVA rating of the power supply machine on the basis of heating alone. The weld-
transformer and the size of the power supply ing machine transformer is rated on a heating
conductors. The power supply transformer is basis and a definite ratio exists between the two
usually connected to a 2300 or 4800 V primary ratings. Power transformers are usually rated for
Power Supply /139
to determine the maximum permissible voltage

Table 3.5 drop specified by the machine manufacturer.
Equivalent continuous loading of Normally, it should not be greater than 5 per-
resistance welding machines cent. When the same power transformer is used
Equivalent with two or more machines, the voltage drop
continuous caused by one machine will be reflected in the
'1YJ>e of welding load, operation of the second. Then, it is advisable
percent of
sum of name- to confine the total voltage drop to not more
plate ratings than 5 percent for consistent weld quality. Volt-
Spot, projection (single-impulse) 20 age drop should be measured at the machine
Spot, projection (multiple-impulse) 40 location. The percentage voltage drop is calcu-
Flash, multipoint spot, or projection 20 lated by the following formula:
Seam 70
Voltage drop, % =
(No-load voltage) -(Full-load voltage) X 100
continuous or 100 percent duty cycle operation No-load voltage
compared to 50 percent for a resistance welding
transformer. The equivalent rating of a power BUS OR FEEDER SYSTEM
transformer required to supply a given welding
machine on a heating basis only will be equal to In general, the bus or feeder from the trans-
70.7 percent of the welding transformer rating former to the machines should always be as short
at 50 percent duty cycle. For example, the size as possible and of low reactance design to min-
of the power transformer required for the proper imize the voltage drop in the line. The simplest
operation of a 200 kVA seam welding machine and most economical power line consists of in-
is 141.4 kVA. For a single machine, the next sulated wires taped together in a conduit. When
largest size power transformer would be used. only two or three machines are to be served at a
If more than a single machine is to be common location, this construction is economi-
served from a common power supply trans- cal and effective. Bus duct construction that
former, a study must be made of actual operating permits easy tap connections at frequent intervals
duty cycles for all machines as well as of the along its length is desirable in production plants
operating diversity factor 3 between machines. where manufacturing layouts are cont.inually
Welding machines normally are operated below changing.
their maximum thermal capacity. The approxi- Systems are available to interlock two or
mate continuous loading for a number of similar more machines to prevent simultaneous firing
welding machines, expressed as the percentage and the accompanying excessive voltage drop.
ofthe total kVA of the welding machine ratings, Any scheme of interlocking will cause some
is given in Table 3.5. For example, if the ma- curtailment in production. However, this can be
chines are predominately spot or projection minimized with a voltage monitoring type which
welding types producing single-impulse welds, operates only when the voltage drops below a
a power supply transformer with a rating of preset value.
about 20 percent of the sum of the machine
nameplate ratings would, in most cases, be ade- INSTALLATION
quate with respect to permissible heating.
Resistance welding machines should be
To determine the size of the power supply
transformer required to serve a welding machine connected to the power line in accordance with
on the basis of voltage drop, it is first necessary the applicable electrical codes and the recom-
mendations of the machine manufacturer. The
primary cable size should be adequate on both
3. Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the indi-
vidual maximum demands of the various machines to a thermal and a voltage drop basis.
the maximum demand of the whole installation. Because many control units contain phase-
140 / RESISTANCE WELDING EQUIPMENT
shift heat control, the control power must be in from two to four times the machine nameplate
phase with the welding power. The control rating. One oft he advantages of a circuit breaker
power should be fused separately from the weld- is that a pushbutton can be located on the weld-
ing power. ing machine. The operator can quickly open the
Enclosed fusible isolation switches are fre- circuit in an emergency by hitting this button.
quently used for the power or welding circuit. When fuses are used, their size should be
These switches seldom have adequate interrupt- that recommended by the machine manufac-
ing capacity for safe disconnection under load. turer. The manufacturers normally provide wir-
For emergency disconnecting purposes, it is ad- ing diagrams in which recommended fuse ratings
visable to use a circuit breaker. The rating of the are shown. The fuses should function for any
breaker in carrying capacity should be sufficient normal demand or operation of the machine. The
to carry the maximum demand of the machine purpose of fuses is almost solely to interrupt a
when its welding circuit is shorted. It may be short circuit in the electrical system.
SAFETY
Resistance welding processes are widely latches, blocks, barriers, or dual hand controls.
used in high production operations, including All non-portable, single-ram welding ma-
the automobile and appliance industries. These chines should be equipped with one or a com-
processes include projection, spot, seam, flash, bination of the following:
upset, and percussion welding in a wide range (I) Machine guards or fixtures which pre-
of machine types. The main hazards which may vent the operator's hands from passing under
arise with the processes and equipment are as the point of operation.
follows: (2) Dual-hand controls, latches, proximity-
(I) Electric shock due to contact with high sensing devices, or any similar mechanism
voltage terminals or components which prevents operation of the ram while the
(2) Ejection of small particles of molten operator's hands are under the point of operation
metal from the weld All chains, gears, operating linkages, and
(3) Crushing of some part of the body be- belts associated with the welding equipment
tween the electrodes or other moving compo- should be protected in accordance with ANSI
nents of the machine Standard Bl5.1, Safety Standard for Mechanical
Power Transmission Apparatus (latest edition).
Static Safety Devices
MECHANICAL
On press type, flash, and upset welding ma-
Guarding
chines, static safety devices such as pins, blocks,
Initiating devices on welding equipment, or latches should be provided to prevent move-
such as push buttons and switches, should be ment of the platen or head during maintenance
arranged or guarded to prevent the operator or setup for welding. More than one device may
from inadvertently activating them. be required, but each device should be capable
In some multiple-gun welding machine in- of sustaining the load.
stallations, the operator's hands can be expected
Portable Welding Machines
to pass under the point of operation. These ma-
chines should be effectively guarded by a suit- Support Systems. All suspended portable
able device such as proximity-sensing devices, welding gun equipment, with the exception of
Safety/141
the gun assembly, should have a support sys- must be provided with suitable interlocks, and
tem that is capable of withstanding the total the contacts must be wired into the control
shock load in the event of failure of any com- circuit.
ponent of the system. The system should be fail The interlocks must effectively interrupt
safe. The use of adequate devices such as cables, power and discharge all high voltage capacitors
chains, or clamps is considered satisfactory. into a suitable resistive load when the door or
Movable Arm. Guarding should be provided panel is open. In addition, a manually operated
around the mounting and actuating mechanism switch or suitable positive device should be pro-
of the movable arm of a welding gun if it can vided to assure complete discharge of all high
cause injury to the operator's hands. If suitable voltage capacitors.
guarding cannot be achieved, two handles should
Locks and Interlocks
be used. Each handle should have an operating
switch that must be actuated to energize the All doors, access panels, and control panels
machine. These handles must be located at safe of resistance welding machines must be kept
distances from any shear or pinch points on locked or interlocked. This is necessary to prevent
the gun. access by unauthorized persons.
Stop Buttons Grounding
One or more emergency stop buttons should The welding transformer secondary should
be provided on all welding machines, with a be grounded by one ofthe following methods:
minimum of one at each operator position. (I) Permanent grounding of the welding sec-
ondary circuit
Guards
(2) Connection of a grounding reactor
Eye protection against expelled metal par- across the secondary winding with a reactor tap
ticles must be provided by a guard of suitable to ground
fire-resistant material or by the use of approved As an alternative on stationary machines, an
personal protective eye wear. The variations in isolation contactor may be used to open all of the
resistance welding operations are such that each primary lines.
installation must be evaluated individually. For The grounding of one side of the secondary
flash welding equipment, flash guards of suit- windings on multiple spot welding machines can
able fire-resistant material must be provided to cause undesirable transient currents to flow be-
control flying sparks and molten metal. tween transformers when either multiphase pri-
mary supplies or different secondary voltages, or
both, are used for the several guns. A similar
condition can also exist with portable spot weld-
ing guns when several units are used on the same
ELECTRICAL fixture or assembly or on another that is nearby.
Such situations require use of a grouodi'ng reactor
Voltage or isolation contactor.
All external weld initiating control circuits
should operate on low voltage. It should not be
more than 120 V for stationary equipment and
36 V for portable equipment.
INSTALLATION
All equipment should be installed in con-
Capacitors
formance with the ANSI/NFPA No. 70, National
Resistance welding equipment and control Electric Code (latest edition). The equipment
panels containing capacitors involving high volt- should be installed by qualified personnel under
ages must have adequate electrical insulation and the direction of a competent technical supervisor.
be completely enclosed. All enclosure doors Prior to its production use, the equipment should
be inspected by competent safety personnel to resistance welding equipment may be found in

ensure that it is safe to operate. ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting
Additional information on safe practices for (latest edition).
1 in= 25.4mm
1 lb force = 4.45 N
1 psi = 6.89 kPa
1 W•s = 1 J
Supplementary Reading List /143

Beemer, R. D. and Talbot, T. W., Analyzer for Johnson, K. 1., ed., Resistance Welding Con-
nondestructive process control of resistance trol and Monitoring, Cambridge, England:
welding. Welding Journal, 49(1): 9s-13s; The Welding Institute, 1977.
1970 Jan.
Mollica, R. J ., Adaptive controls automate re-
sistance welding. Welding Design and Fab-
Blair, R. H. and Blakeslee, R. C., Half-wave
rication, 51(8): 70-72; 1978 Aug.
and full-wave resistance welding power
supplies. Welding Journal, 50(3): 174-6; Parker, F., The logic of de resistance welding.
1971 Mar. Welding Design and Fabrication, 49(12):
55-58; 1976 Dec.
Dilay, W. and Zulinski, E., Evolution of the
silicon-controlled rectifier for resistance Sherbondy, G. M. and Motto, J. W. Jr., Cur-
welding. Welding Journal, 51(8): 554-9; rent ratings of power semiconductors. Weld-
1972 Aug. ing Journal, 51(6): 393-400; 1972 June.
4
High Frequency Welding
Fundamentals of the Process .......... 146 Equipment ......................... 158
Process Variations ................... 150 Welding Procedures ................. 162
Advantages and Limitations ........... 153 Weld Quality ....................... 163
Applications ........................ 154 Safety ............................. 165
Supplementary Reading List ........... 167
Chapter Committee
W. C. RUDD, Chairman G. A. SMITH, JR.

Thermatool Corporation Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation
E. D. OPPENHEIMER R.E.SOMERS
Consulting Engineer Welding Consultant
A. R MANZ D. D. RAGER
145
4
High Frequency Welding
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCESS
DEFINITIONS AND and magnetic properties of the metal. As the
GENERAL DESCRIPTION frequency is increased, the depth of penetration
decreases and the current is more concentrated.
High frequency welding includes those Heating to welding temperature can be accom-
processes in which coalescence of metals is plished at much lower amperages than with con-
produced by the heat generated from the elec- ventional resistance welding. The location of this
trical resistance of the work to the flow of high concentrated current path in the part can be con-
frequency current with or without the application trolled by the location of the electrical contacts
of an upsetting force. There are two processes with HFRW or the design and position of the in-
that utilize high frequency current to produce duction coil with HFIW.
the heat for welding: namely, (1) high frequency While the welding process depends upon
resistance welding (HFRW), and (2) high fre- the heat generated from the resistance of the
quency induction welding (HFIW), sometimes metal to the flow of high frequency current,
called induction resistance welding. other factors must also be considered for suc-
The heating of the work in the weld area and cessful high frequency welding. The speed of
the resulting weld are essentially identical with welding depends upon the type of metal and its
both processes. With HFRW, the current is con- thickness at the joint. Flux is not normally used
ducted into the work through electrical contacts except when welding some brasses. Inert gas
that physically touch the work. With HFIW, the shielding of the welding area is needed only
current is induced in the work by coupling with for joining metals, such as titanium, that react
an external induction coil. There is no physical/ very rapidly with oxygen and nitrogen. Welding
electrical contact with the work. of carbon steels and many other alloys can usu-
With conventional resistance welding pro- ally be accomplished while water or soluble oil
cesses, the current is normally 60 Hz alternat- coolant flows over the actual weld area. High
ing or direct current. High amperages are re- welding speeds make the process attractive for
quired to resistance heat the metal, and large many high production applications, such as the
electrical contacts must be in close proximity to manufacture of pipe and tubing.
the desired weld area. The voltage drop across The basic high frequency welding applica-
the weld is low, and the current flows along the tions are shown in Fig. 4.1.
path of least resistance from one electrode to the
other. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
With high frequency welding, the current
flow is concentrated near the surface of the part. High frequency current in metal conductors
The depth of current penetration is influenced tends to flow at the surface of the material at
by the current frequency and also the resistivity relatively shallow depths. This is commonly
146
Continuous seam welding
(A) Tube butt seam (B) Tube butt seam
(C) Tube mash seam
(D) Strip butt
(F) Spiral tube

(G) Spiral tube fin
Finite length welding
(H) Pipe butt
(J) Melt spot (K) Strip butt
Fig. 4.1- B~sic high frequency welding ~pplic~tions

20 ~
00
0.50 ::c
-
10 ~ Ci
~ ::c
8 'T1
,;
~ 0.25 tr1
6 t-o.... 0
5 c:
tr1
z
4 l"l
0.13 -<
3 ~
tr1
t"'
E 2 0
E z
0.06 Cl
.s.,c.
"'0
c: 1.0
0
·;:; 0.8 0.03
~., 0.6 c:
.,c.c: 0.5
....c: 0.4
~
:J
0.3
(.)
0.01
0.2
0.005
0.10
............ ·K "'··
0.08
0.06
~ ""'- .....
0.05
I":
0.04 ~
0.03
~
""""
4 10 100 200 300 450 1000
Frequency, kHz
Fig. 4.2-The effect of frequency on depth of current penetr~tion into v~rious met~ls ~t selected temper~tures
called skin effect. Figure 4.2 shows the decrease creased, the current is confined to a smaller
in depth of penetration of high frequency cur- area near the surface. This concentration of cur-
rent into various metals with increasing fre- rent is advantageous because extremely high
quency at room and elevated temperatures. For heating rates can be achieved in a very localized
example, the depth of current penetration in path.
steel at 800°C is about 0.03 in. with 500 kHz Figure 4.4 compares current patterns in the
and nearly 0.25 in. with 10kHz. work at frequencies of 60 and 10 000 Hz. It
High frequency current may have its path also shows the effect of the shape and location
within the workpiece controlled by either varia- of the proximity conductor. In Fig. 4.4(A), a
tions in the inductance of the circuit or the near- 1/4-in. thick steel plate is acting as one conductor
ness of its own return flow path, or both. This for 60 Hz current. The return conductor is a
phenomenon, called the proximity effect, is illus- copper tube positioned very close to and parallel
trated in Fig. 4.3. with the plate. The 60 Hz current flowing in
Both the skin effect and proximity effect the steel plate travels opposite to the current in
become more pronounced with increasing fre- the adjacent proximity conductor. In this 60 Hz
quency. Therefore, the effective resistance of the case, the size and the shape of the proximity
current path in the work increases as a function conductor have a negligible effect on the dis-
of increasing frequency. As frequency is in- tribution of the current in the steel plate. As a
Current path Steel plate /Proximity conductor
~""~''" ''"'
in work
r------
I
I 60Hz
I
I Current flows throughout whole area
I with little effect by the proximity
I
I conductor
I (A)
Return I Work
I
conductor I
I \ I
I I @ rSteel plate
I I
I I ~~-----:?52?~~-/.~----~,~J
I I
I I ~•~ 10 OOOHz
I I Current confined to narrow zone
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
I
Contacts
I
I
I
I
L __
t
High-frequency
Effect of proximity conductor shape,
placement, and magnetic core on
current current at 10 000 Hz
(C)
Fig. 4.3-Restriction of the flow p~th of
high frequency current by the proximity Fig. 4.4- Current depth ~nd distribution
effect of the return conductor ~dj~cent to v~rious proximity conductors
150 I HIGH FREQUENCY WELDING
result, the 60Hz current flows almost completely cular proximity conductor. In this case, the dis-
through the plate cross-sectional area, as shown. tribution of current in the work will be quite
When 10 000 Hz current is applied to the broad, as shown, because of the height of the
same system, as shown in Fig. 4.4(B), the cur- conductor.
rent in the work is confined to a relatively narrow If both conductors are sheets placed edge-
band immediately beneath the proximity con- to-edge in a plane with a small gap between
ductor. This narrow band is the region of lowest them, the proximity effect will cause the two
inductive reactance in the plate and the closest adjacent edges to heat. The skin effect will con-
path to the current in the proximity conductor. fine the current to the metal at those edges.
The shape and magnetic surroundings of the Proper placement of a laminated magnetic
proximity conductor have considerable effect on core on three sides of the conductor confines
the distribution of the current in the work but the current in the work to a very narrow line
have no effect on the depth of current penetration. and produces heating directly beneath the prox-
Figure 4.4(C) shows two round proximity con- imity conductor.
ductors at different distances from the work. The Almost all high frequency welding tech-
closer the proximity conductor, the more con- niques employ some force to bring the heated
fined the current. Also shown is a rectangular metals into close contact during coalescence.
proximity conductor with the narrow edge at the During the application of force, an upset (or
same distance from the work as the closest cir- bulging of metal) occurs in the weld area.
PROCESS VARIATIONS
HIGH FREQUENCY ing speed and power level are adjusted so that
RESISTANCE WELDING the two edges are at welding temperature when
brought together. At that point, pressure rolls
High frequency resistance welding has
forge the hot edges together and upset them to
three specific variations. These are:
produce a weld. Hot metal, containing impurities
(I) Continuous seam welding
from the faying surfaces of the joint, is squeezed
(2) Finite length butt welding
out in both directions. The upset metal is
(3) Melt welding
normally trimmed off flush with the base metal.
Continuous Seam Welding
Finite Length Welding
Continuous HFR seam welding is generally
used to weld long length products. 'JYpical ex- Techniques are available for welding the
amples are shown in Fig. 4.1. High frequency abutting ends of two strips together. This is done
current of about 400 kHz is introduced into the by passing a high frequency current through the
work with a pair of small sliding contacts. They joint area. The high frequency current is con-
are on either side of the seam to be welded as fined to the joint area by proper positioning of a
shown in Fig. 4.5. The faying surfaces are return or proximity conductor over the weld
brought together at an angle of about 4 to 7 de- joint. By selection of the proper frequency, the
grees. The apex of the vee-shaped opening is depth of penetration of the current can be ad-
downstream from the contact, in the direction justed to heat the joint uniformly through its
oftravel. thickness. When the joint reaches welding tem-
The high frequency current follows a lo- perature, forging force is applied and the hot
calized path down one side of the vee and back metal upsets. Joints with small upsets are made
along the other due to the skin and proximity in this fashion at very high rates of speed. Figure
effects. The resistance of the metal to the flow of 4.6 shows the arrangement of the welding head
current heats the edges to a shallow depth. Weld- for this type of welding.
Process Variations /151
Fig. 4.5-Joining a tube seam by high frequency resistance welding
small volume of metal between electrodes that

contact the parts, usually in less than I second.
The molten metal flows together producing a
welded joint between the parts. At this time, the
process is in the early stages of commercializa-
tion. One of the intended uses is the welding of
stacks of electrical motor or transformer lami-
nations together. A proximity conductor placed
perpendicular to the steel laminations confines
current flow to a very narrow, shallow path
across the stack of laminations, as shown in
Fig. 4.7. Figure 4.8 shows a welded lamination
stack and Fig. 4.9 is a section through a typical
weld joining a stack together.
HIGH FREQUENCY
INDUCTION WELDING
Fig. 4.6-Joining strips together using
high frequency resistance welding Tube Seam Welding
This application of HFIW is similar to .con-
tinuous HFR seam welding except that the cur-
Melt Welding rent is magnetically induced into the work. There
Another version of the HFR welding pro- are no electrical contacts. It can only be used
cess is called spot or line melt welding. In melt where there is a complete current path or closed
welding, the high frequency current melts a loop wholly within the work. The induced
152/ HIGH FREQUENCY WELDING
Clamping
force --. 7 - . ....... -
Ill ,~ , ,
Laminations
~- '1
Contact
Fig. 4.8-Melt welds on a motor

lamination stack
Melt HF
weld
or tubing. The two ends are pressed together
Contact with a force sufficient to upset the metal when it
reaches welding temperature. An induction coil
Fig. 4.7- HFR melt welding of steel
motor laminations is placed around the joint. High frequency cur-
rent in the coil induces a circulating current in
the butted pipe joint. Resistance heating due to
the induced current heats the ends of both pieces
very rapidly. When the metal reaches welding
current circulates through the weld area as well
temperature, the metal is upset to produce a
as, by necessity, through other portions of the solid-phase forge weld. The upset metal is
work . Its primary application is for welding
usually left in place . Figure 4.1(H) shows the
tubing . The tube edges are brought together in
placement of the coil. This process is used for
the same manner as in HFRW. An inductor or
welding tubes with diameters of I to 3 in. and
induction coil of copper tubing or bar circles
wall thicknesses up to 0.375 in . for the fabrica-
the tube at the open end of the vee, as shown in
tion of high-pressure boilers . Welding times may
Fig. 4.10. High frequency current in the inductor
range from 10 to 60 seconds.
induces a circulating current in the tube. The
current flows around the outside surface of the Welding With a Magnetic Pulse
tube and along the edges of the vee. This cur-
Another form of HFIW utilizes a magnetic
rent heats the edges to welding temperature. The
pulse to forge the two parts together at welding
weld is consummated in the same manner as
temperature . It is applicable to lap or sleeve
with HFR tube welding . The induction method
of tube welding is advantageous for coated tub-
ing, small or thin-wall tubing, and avoids sur-
face marking by electrical contacts. With HFIW,
there is current flowing around the outside of the
tube that is electrically in series with the welding
current flowing in me vee . The resistive heat
losses over the circumference of the tube are
higher than those with HFRW. In general, the
HFIW process is less efficient than the HFRW
process, particularly when welding large sizes
of pipe and tube.
Welding of Hollow Pieces
HFIW of individual pieces can be done

only when the induced current can circulate in a Fig. 4.9-Photomicrograph of section
closed-circuit path. A typical application is the through a melt welding lamination stack
welding of butt joints between sections of pipe (X50)
Advantages and Limitations /153
joints between two pipes. After the lap joint that flows in the opposite direction to that in
reaches welding temperature, a pulse of current the coil. The two currents produce very large
from a capacitor bank is discharged through the magnetic forces that repel each other. This motor
inductor surrounding the joint. This current pulse effect drives the hot outer piece against the hot
of lO kA to 150 kA lasts for approximately 50 inner piece and forges them together, producing
microseconds. The rapidly rising and falling a welded sleeve joint. Steel-to-steel and copper-
current induces a current in the outer workpiece to-aluminum joints may be made by this process.

The high frequency welding processes offer ing, therefore, is developed in a small volume of
several advantages over the conventional 60 Hz metal along the edges to be joined. A narrow
resistance welding processes. One characteristic heat-affected zone is desirable because it tends
of the processes is that they can produce welds to give a stronger welded joint than with a wider
with very narrow heat-affected zones. The high zone produced by many other welding processes.
frequency welding current tends to flow only Any molten metal is squeezed out of the joint
near the surface of the metal because of the skin during the upsetting or forging portion of the
effect. Also, it flows along a narrow path be- cycle. Consequently, any low-melting phases
cause of the proximity effect. The heat for weld- that normally contribute to weld cracking are
Fig. 4. 10-Joining • tube se•m by high frequency induction welding

eliminated. With some alloys, the narrow heat- from the power lines can appear as useful heat
affected zones and absence of cast structure may in the work. Most high frequency welding ma-
eliminate the need for postheat treatments. These chines derive their energy from a balanced three-
treatments normally improve the metallurgical phase input power system.
characteristics of welded joints. Because the time at welding temperature is
One major advantage of HFW is the ability very short and the heat is localized, oxidation
to weld a given tube shape with less power than and discoloration of the metal as well as dis-
required with 60 Hz power. Also, it can be used tortion of the parts are minimized. Metal sheaths
to weld very thin tube forms. Wall thicknesses used to shield materials that would normally be
of 0.030 in. and thinner can be butt welded by damaged from prolonged exposure to heat can
either the induction or the contact process. be fabricated with one of the high frequency
Another advantage of a high frequency welding processes. An example of this is the
process is that it reduces electrical contact prob- continuous welding of electrical cable sheathing
lems. Introducing currents of 1000 to 2000 A with the cable inside of it.
through rubbing contacts is much easier at 450 As with any process, there are also limi-
kHz than at 60 or even 10 000 Hz. Because tations. Because the process utilizes localized
nearly all metals have an oxide on their surfaces, heating in the joint area, proper fitup is impor-
commercial metal products may have an oxide tant. Equipment is usually incorporated into mill
film or scale of appreciable thickness. At low or line operation and must be fully automated.
frequencies, the contact has to break through The process is limited to the use of coil, flat, or
this skin and make contact with the metal; other- tubular stock with a constant joint symmetry
wise, considerable heating will result from the throughout the length of the part. Any disruption
contact resistance. With high frequency power, in the current path or change in the shape of the
the voltage is high and there is continuous arcing vee can cause significant problems. Also, special
or puncturing of surface films under the contact. precautions must be taken to protect the operators
Most of the current is carried by the arc. In any and plant personnel from the hazards of high
event, the contact does not need to break through frequency current.
the oxide film. Only enough pressure is needed Since the equipment operates in the broad-
on the contacts to assure continuous contact cast radio frequency range, special care must be
with the surface. This feature makes it possible taken in its installation, operation, and mainte-
to weld thin materials without bending or col- nance to avoid radiation interference in the plant
lapsing them. Contact wear is not a major vicinity. The manufacturer's recommendations
problem. should be followed.
As much as 60 percent of the energy drawn
APPLICATIONS
GENERAL Metals that may be welded with continuous
High frequency resistance welding, where high frequency resistance welding include car-
the current is introduced by means of direct bon steel, alloy steel, copper, aluminum, zir-
contact, may be utilized for a variety of con- conium, titanium, and nickel. Finite length
figurations and types of welding. It may be welding is usually limited to the welding of
used for continuous seam welding and for finite carbon steels and stainless steels. The various
length welding where the entire seam to be products in Fig. 4.11 illustrate the types of joints
welded is heated uniformly. that may be welded.
Applications /!55
Fig. 4.11-Some products produced by high frequency welding
Numerous factors must be considered in of steel to obtain unusual sonic prop-

determining whether a metal is weldable in a erties
given configuration by any high frequency weld- (2) Carbon steel to OFHC copper to pro-
ing process. Of prime importance is the require- duce a strong electrical bus bar
ment that a properly shaped vee be obtainable (3) OFHC copper to an aluminum alloy to
for continuous seam welding. In general, it might produce a high-strength, lightweight
appear that high-strength alloys are more diffi- conductor
cult to weld because of problems in producing (4) Tool steel to carbon steel for band
a properly shaped vee. This is not the case. Other saw blades
properties of the metal being joined appear to (5) Beryllium copper to brass for electrical
have greater influence on weldability than its contacts
strength. In general, it appears that the carbon (6) "JYpe 430 stainless steel to galvanized
steels are quite weldable. On the other hand, carbon steel for automotive trim
some of the aluminum alloys appear to have (7) Structural shapes of carbon and alloy
rather poor weldability. Welding conditions have steels for architectural use or strength
to be held in a narrow range to ensure good welds. improvement
High frequency resistance welding can be (8) Clad steel to carbon steel sheet
used to weld dissimilar metals together, some High frequency induction welding can be
examples of which follow: used only where there is a closed-loop path or a
(I) Double-walled tubing made of two types complete circuit for the flow of current entirely
within the work. 'TYpical applications are shown and fed into the welding station.
in Figs. 4.1(8), (H), and (1). High frequency resistance welding is uti-
lized to produce pipe and tubing of diameters
PIPE AND TUBE WELDING ranging from 0.5 to over 50 in. and with wall
thicknesses of from 0.010 through I inch. Any
One of the major applications of the con- metal can be welded with this technique. Weld-
tinuous high frequency welding process is high-
ing speeds range from 25 to over 1000 ft/min .,
speed welding of the longitudinal seam in pipe depending upon the metal and product size.
and tubing. It is applicable to both ferrous and High frequency induction welding is suit-
nonferrous pipe and tubing . HFRW and HFIW able for tubing made of any metal. Tubes may
are both applicable, as shown in Figs. 4.5 and range in diameters from approximately 0.5 to
4.10. Heating of the edges can be done so rapidly 6 in. with wall thicknesses of from 0.006 to
that very high welding speeds are possible, much 0.375 inch . Welding speeds range from 25 to
higher than with arc welding. Welding speeds
over 1000 ft/min., depending upon the appli-
for tubing or pipe of several wall thicknesses of cation.
steel and aluminum using HFRW and a 160 kW,
400 kHz power supply are given in Table 4 .1.
Figure 4.12 shows a large mill for the production STRUCTURAL BEAMS
of 24-in. diameter pipe having a wall thickness HFRW is used for the production of struc-
of 0.5 inch. Pipe sections are formed to diameter tural shapes, such as I and H beams, in sizes up
Fig. 4.12- Mill for high frequency resist~nce welding 24-inch di~meter pipe
Applications /157
cess can be used to manufacture structural shapes

Table4.1
Welding speeds for pipe or tubing of that cannot be hot rolled. It permits the joining
various wall thicknesses using of strips with different mechanical properties,
high frequency resistance welding such as high-strength steel flanges to a low car-
bon steel web, and also the fabrication of sec-
Wall thickness, Welding speed, ft/min.
tions of high-strength, low alloy steels . Figure
in. Steel Aluminum
4.13 shows the arrangement of an I or H beam
O.Q3 900 I ,000
0.06 500
mill with the location of the contact and the
600
0.10 300 360 straightening rolls enlarged for clarity.
0.16 175 225
~~ 100 I~ SPIRAL PIPE AND TUBE
to 20 in. with webs up to 3/8-in. thick . In this Spiral pipe and tube may be manufactured by
type of operation, strips from three coils are fed HFR welding. In this case, strip is fed con-
into a welding mill. Simultaneously, two high tinuously into a forming mill that bends it heli-
frequency resistance welding machines make the cally (like a barber pole) into a cylindrical
two T-joints between the web and flanges. Weld- section . The seam is continuously butt or lap
ing speeds range from 25 to 200ft/min. This pro- welded together by HFRW process . Figure 4 .11
A · Uncoilers and flatteners

B · Cut flange reeder
C · Web upsetter
D · Flange prebender
E · Welding stat ion
F · Cooling zone
G .Straighteners, longitud inal and flange
H - Cutting saw
I Runout and take-away
J · Scarfing station
section
Weld
station
Courtesy of the Welding Research Council

Fig. 4.13-Mill•rr•ng ement for f•brintingl or H be•ms by high frequency
resist•nce welding
HF
Heated area
of tube
Fig. 4.14-High frequency l•p welding

Heated edge of fin
spir•lpipe
shows an example of spiral welded pipe, and

Fig. 4.14 shows the pipe emerging from the Courtesy of the Welding Research Council
welding station of the mill.
Fig. 4.15-Arr•ngement for welding •
spir•l fin into tubing
FINNED TUBE
Spiral and longitudinal fins can be welded
to tubing with the HFRW process. Figure 4.15 10 inches. Fin pitch can vary from less than
shows the arrangement for welding a spiral fin one to six turns per inch. '!ypical fin heights
on tubing. Finned tube can be made in many equal the radius of the tube. Fin thickness may
combinations of metals, such as stainless steel be as large as 0.25 inch, except that it is limited
tube with a mild steel fin, cupronickel tube with by the thickness of the tube wall since the tube
an aluminum fin, or mild steel tube with a mild must resist the forging force on the fin. Various
steel fin. Tube diameters range from 0.625 to types of serrated or folded fins may also be used.
EQUIPMENT
POWER SOURCES perage power to low voltage, high amperage
power for welding.
Units for providing high frequency power For frequencies in the range of 3 to 10 kHz,
include motor-generators and solid-state invert- welding power is usually produced by solid-
ers for frequencies up to 10 kHz, and vacuum
tube oscillators for frequencies from 100 to 500
kHz. Vacuum tube oscillators are available in Tank
Rectifier
sizes ranging from 1 to 600 kW of power output circuit
with frequencies in the 200 to 500 kHz range.
Figure 4.16 shows a basic circuit for oscillator
type power sources in the 200 to 400 kHz range.
The transformer and rectifier are used to convert Output
Plate Vacuum
plant line voltage to high voltage, direct current transformer
transformer tube
and welding
power for the oscillator circuit. The oscillator oscillator
contacts
circuit converts direct current to high frequency
current for the output transformer. The output Fig. 4.16- B•sic circuit of •n
oscill•tor type
transformer converts the high voltage, low am- power source of the 200 to 400 kHz r•nge
Equipment I 159
state inverters that operate on de from a rectifier. high frequency insulation, such as teflon, trans-
These inverters have replaced motor-alternator former oil, or solid material potting compounds
or motor-generator power sources. The inverter should be used.
portion of the equipment is a solid-state device The secondary winding of the impedance
in which silicon-controlled rectifiers are fired by matching transformer, in series with the induc-
a timing circuit and thus create high frequency tion coil or contact system and workpiece, forms
current. the low voltage, high current welding circuit.
The connecting leads should have the lowest
IMPEDANCE MATCHING possible impedance to obtain high efficiency
TRANSFORMERS and minimize the voltage drop in the leads. This
Vacuum tube osciilators inherently have may be achieved by using short leads made of
high output impedance and must be fed into flat plates spaced 1/16 inch apart. The power
high impedance loads. The inductors and the losses in poorly designed leads or incorrectly
contact-workpiece circuits in high frequency matched transformers can prevent successful
welding are low impedance loads. An impedance performance of a high frequency welding
matching transformer is required to transfer operation.
energy efficiently from the osciilator to the Both rotating generator and solid-state in-
work. High frequency current can only transfer verter power sources have output voltage typi-
power efficiently from the high frequency gen- cally in the 200 to 1000 V range. Their current
erator to the work when the impedance of the is fed by cables to the primary coil of a lami-
work circuit matches the impedance of the power nated iron core transformer. Capacitors are con-
source. nected in parallel with the primary of the trans-
The impedance matching transformer is former to improve the system power factor.
placed as close as possible to the welding The rotating generator or solid-state inverter is
operation. It is connected by a transmission line operated as close to unity power factor as pos-
directly to the oscillator, which is often at a sible for maximum efficiency and performance.
convenient distance from the welding station. In These transformers lower the voltage and in-
crease the current of the generators and inverters.
some installations, capacitors are connected
The transformer provides power to an induction
across the impedance matching transformer
coil or contact system through relatively short,.
primary to improve both the power transfer and
closely-spaced leads. The transformer winding
the electrical power factor.
The impedance matching transformer con- ratio must be selected to give optimum power
struction is quite simple. It usually consists of a transfer between the generator or inverter and
the welding load. These ratios commonly range
primary winding of water-cooled copper tubing
from 4:1 to 13:1.
inside a cylindrical secondary winding of one or
more turns of water-cooled copper sheet. To
improve the magnetic coupling between the pri- CONTACTS
mary and secondary turns, a water-cooled, fer- The high frequency current transfer con-
rite magnetic core may be used. Because the tacts, either sliding or fixed, are usually made of
output voltage of the oscillator often is in the copper alloys or hard metallic particles in a cop-
range of 10 to 25 kV, the insulation between per or silver matrix. The contacts are silver brazed
the windings must be designed with care. The to heavy water-cooled copper mounts. Replace-
transformer may be insulated with air. In these ments can be made by exchanging the mount and
instances, the magnetic coupling between the contact tip assembly.
primary and secondary will be relatively poor Contact tip sizes range from 0.25 to I in.2
because of the large air gap required between depending upon the amperage to be carried.
the transformer coils to prevent arcing. A small Welding curents are usually in the range of 500
gap is needed to achieve good magnetic coupling to 5000 A. Consequently, both internal (water)
between the primary and secondary coils. Good and external (water or soluble oil) cooling is
160 I HIGH FREQUENCY WELDING
provided for the contact tips and mounts. sired inside current and increases the outside
The force of the contact tips against the current in the weld zone. This results in higher
work is usually in the order of 5 to 50 pounds welding speeds for a given power input. Im-
for continuous welding systems and 5 to 100 peders are usually made of one or more ferrite
pounds for static welding operations. The re- bodies. They are water cooled to keep their
quired forces are dependent upon the thickness operating temperature below that at which they
and surface condition of the parts being joined, would lose their magnetic properties.
as well as the amperage.
Contacts used for continuous seam welding CONTROL DEVICES
of nonferrous metals may have triple the life of
Input Voltage Regulators
those used with ferrous materials. Welding of
High-speed, high frequency seam welding
300 000 ft of nonferrous tubing with one set of
requires accurate control of the welding power
contacts is common. On stationary welding oper-
level. Relatively brief power fluctuations can
ations, contacts may last thousands of operations
result in weld imperfections. Thus, it is impor-
before requiring dressing or replacement.
tant that the power be automatically and con-
tinuously regulated. Several regulation systems
INDUCTION COILS
are available. The choice depends upon the input
An induction coil, also called an inductor, power conditions, the welding requirements, and
is generally fabricated of copper tubing, copper the power rating of the high frequency power
bar, or copper sheet. It is water cooled. The source. The following are the most commonly
best efficiency is obtained when the induction used regulators.
coil completely surrounds the workpiece. The Motor-Generators. These units provide con-
coil may have one or more turns, as required by stant voltage power by utilizing the flywheel
the application. It is designed to fit in close prox- effect of high mechanical inertia. The power is
imity to the workpiece at the area to be heated. supplied to one or more high frequency power
The strength of the magnetic field, which in- sources of the vacuum tube or solid-state type.
duces the heating current in the workpiece, Electromechanical Induction Regulators.
diminishes rapidly as the distance between the Regulators of this type may be installed on indi-
coil and work is increased. The sharpness with vidual pieces of equipment or on a group of
which the heating pattern in the workpiece machines. They are used when there are no large
mirrors the shape of the coil improves as fre- or rapid variations in the input power. Nearby
quency increases and distance decreases between equipment that demands heavy current inter-
the coil and the workpiece. Typical spacing be- mittently may cause power line voltage fluc-
tween the coil and workpiece is 0.08 to 0.25 tuations that are beyond the response capability
inch. of such regulators.
Saturable Core Reactors. These magnetic
devices have better response than mechanical
IMPEDERS
induction regulators.
When tube and pipe welding with both the Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers. These power
HFRW and HFIW processes, current can flow control devices can be used in conjunction with
on the inside surface of the tube as well as on the other solid-state devices. They normally are
outside surface. This additional current, which arranged in the circuit to regulate the input wave
flows in parallel with the welding current, results form by blocking a portion of the wave. Their
in power loss. To minimize this loss, a mag- control circuits can be designed to respond rapidly
netic core or impeder is placed inside the tube to changes in input voltage.
weld area. The impeder increases the inductive All of the above input voltage regulators
reactance of the current path around the inside can include weld power control. In addition,
wall ofthe tube. This, in turn, reduces the unde- electronic and saturable core types can include
Equipment /161
overload protection, system fault detection de- ripple can cause intermittent lack of fusion along
vices, and monitoring systems for associated the seam. These intermittent discontinuities are
handling equipment employed in the welding called "stitches." Inductive-capacitive filters
operation. are normally used on the rectifier output to re-
duce the ripple to less than I percent.
High Frequency Generator Power Controls
Speed-Power Control
A control must be provided to raise and
lower the high frequency power to meet the de- An automatic speed-power control may be
mands of the welding operation. There are many used for continuous HFRW or HFIW with a
types of high frequency power controls, all of vacuum tube oscillator power source. This auto-
which vary the current flowing in the contacts matic device controls the SCR system in the
or the inductor coil. Controls normally used for primary of the main plate transformer and ad-
high frequency welding are saturable reactors, justs the power output of the oscillator with
silicon-controlled rectifiers, variable impedance changes in welding speed. For example, assume
devices, vacuum tubes, and field current regula- that a weld is being produced at 200ft/min when
tors on generators. a problem with the mill requires that the travel
A saturable reactor located in the circuit speed be decreased. Without automatic speed-
ahead of the main plate transformer provides a power control, the welding power would need to
variable power control. With the addition of a be turned off as soon as the slowdown started.
magnetic amplifier and appropriate instrumenta- However, with speed-power control, the welding
tion, automatic control of welding power may power remains on during the slowdown. It is
be achieved. automatically adjusted to produce a good weld
Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) may be as the speed decreases. The control can adjust the
placed in the primary circuit of the plate trans- welding power level to near zero. A good weld
former for vacuum tube oscillators or in the SCR is achieved almost to the stop condition. Such
rectifier system on solid-state inverters to control control minimizes the loss of material in the mill.
welding current. The speed-power control automatically
A variable impedance can be used in series raises the power level as the mill speed increases.
with the secondary winding of the welding trans- The power required for welding is not directly
former and the inductor or contacts. It is the proportional to speed. The control is designed to
most direct method of varying the high frequency automatically compensate for this.
power level and does not alter the basic charac- Timing Controls
teristics of the high frequency generator. Gen-
erally, this control is manually adjusted for the For timed high frequency resistance or
desired power level. induction welding, weld duration may be con-
A controllable vacuum tube device can trolled by motor-driven or electronic timers.
control power output. These operate in a manner They actuate the main contactor in the power
similar to a variable resistor connected in series source. In very high-speed production using
with the de output of the oscillator power supply. equipment with vacuum tube oscillators, it is
In generator units, power control is per- possible to tum the grids of the oscillator tubes
formed manually or automatically by varying on and off with a small contactor. Very short
the field strength of the generator. weld times can be produced and controlled by
For continuous operations, it is essential this means. In some cases, movement of the
that the welding power be relatively ripple-free, workpieces during weld upset is used to actuate a
particularly when welding thin-walled nonfer- switch. The switch turns off the welding current
rous metals at high speeds. Excessive power when the desired upset has occurred.
WELDING PROCEDURES
of the vee and the contact-to-vee apex distance
SURFACE PREPARATION
must be closely controlled.
In general, a number of surface condition- There is no question about the need for ac-
ing operations that aid in producing a sound curate control of relative positions when welding
weld take place during the welding cycle. First, two edges together. The ideal relationship is, of
faying surfaces are heated to high temperatures, course, to have the edges parallel and matched
usually above the melting point. Then relatively in the vertical direction. Mismatch will cause
large amounts of plastic deformation are used to uneven heating of the faying surfaces . Serious
remove contaminated metal from the faying sur- angular mismatch may cause excessive melting
faces and bring clean surfaces into intimate of the edges and arcing near the apex of the vee.
contact. Special surface treatment operations, In general, it is probably best to be sure that
such as brushing or solvent cleaning, are gen- the faying surfaces are parallel and at the same
erally unnecessary. level. In welding thick skelp into pipe, deliberate
angular mismatch may be us.ed. In this case, the
ALIGNMENT AND FIT-UP inside edges of the faying surfaces are melted,
and, as the edges approach the apex of the vee,
In continuous seam welding, the edges of
they approach parallelism.
the parts to be joined are brought together in the
form of a vee. The shape of the vee is important
FIXTURING
in producing satisfactory welds. Normally, the
mill is set to produce a vee with an included The proper design of fixturing and tooling
angle of 4 to 7 degrees . If the angle is less than is critical to successful application of high fre-
4 degrees, the apex (weld point) will not stay at quency resistance welding. Precise alignment of
a fixed point, and inconsistent welding will
occur along the joint. Also, arcing may occur
across the vee, upstream from the weld point.
Maximum usage of the proximity effect is
limited in high frequency resistance welding
because the strip separation must be sufficient
to prevent arcing across the vee. Arcing is un-
desirable because it causes nonuniform heating
of the strip and may pit the edges to be joined.
The tendency for arcing and the strip separation
required to prevent arcing vary with the welding
conditions and metals being welded.
If the angle is greater than 7 degrees, me-
chanical and thermal control of the edges may be.
lost and they may wrinkle or stretch. Alignment
of the weld joint is important, and the joint must
be held tightly together until it cools.
Variations in the separation and length of
the vee during welding will cause corresponding
changes in the amount of power drawn from the
power source and in the heat developed at the
edges . Variation in the width of the vee changes
the current distribution at the edges , the depth of Fig. 4.17-Section through • high
heating, and the final surface temperature of the frequency resist•nce weld showing
edges. To produce consistent welds, the width the upset
Weld Quality /163
the edges of the material must be controlled In both static and continuous welding, upsetting
throughout the welding process. Some applica- of metal occurs in the weld area when pressure
tions of the HFW processes include the forming is used. A section through such a weld is shown
of flat stock into tubing that requires precision in Fig. 4.17. The upset metal may be left in place
tooling to produce an acceptable welded seam. or removed, depending upon the use of the prod-
Mismatch of the edges can cause uneven heating uct. In continuously welded products such as
that results in poor quality welds. tubing, the upset is often continuously removed
Almost all high frequency welding varia- from both sides of the weld by scarfing or plan-
tions employ pressure to produce a sound weld. nishing equipment.
WELD QUALITY
A number of discontinuities often found Material-induced discontinuities may also
in other types of welded joints are rarely found be encountered. The most common type is the
in high frequency welded joints containing upset outbent fiber crack found in carbon and low
metal. Since metal is expelled from a properly alloy steel welds. Figure 4.19 shows this type of
made joint, porosity and other discontinuities discontinuity. It is produced by a stringer inclu-
produced by freezing segregation are eliminated. sion in the steel being bent outward when the
The weld zones are very narrow and have narrow hot metal is upset to complete the weld.
heat-affected zones. Joint strength equal to that A third type of discontinuity is a small,
of the base metal can be obtained in a variety of unbonded flat spot or area along the weld line.
metals. For example, welds can be made in These areas sometimes extend completely
carbon steels that have tensile strengths equal to through the weld and can leave leaks in the wall
the base metal strength. of a pipe. Figure 4.20 shows an example of a
High frequency welded joints have the same flat spot. They are apparently caused by a com-
chemical composition as the metal being welded. bination of inclusions in the metal and improper
Consequently, the weld zone responds to heat welding conditions. A at spots are formed when
treatment in the same way as does the base metal. nonmetallic material is trapped at the bond line
High frequency welds with upset can con- of the weld.
tain discontinuities resulting from improper The short time at temperature and the de-
welding conditions (current, speed, upset, or formation of upsetting tend to restrict grain
joint preparation). For example, unwelded areas growth in the weld zone. Rapid cooling rates
may occur in the joint as shown in Fig. 4.18. may cause quench hardening of the weld zone in
some carbon and alloy steels. Such hardening
may decrease ductility below acceptable limits,
and a postweld heat treatment may be required
to obtain the desired properties. Welding of
work-hardened metals that do not quench
harden (stainless steels, for example) always
produces a weld zone that is softer than the
wrought base metal.
INSPECTION AND TESTING

Courtesy of the Welding Research Council Inspection of longitudinal butt joints in
Fig. 4.18- Cross section of~ butt joint in tubular products made by this process is di-
c~rbon steel cont~ning ~n unwelded rected towards in-plant quality control and is
portion often required by some specification. Prefer-
Courtesy of the Welding Research Council Courtesy of the Welding Research Council
Fig. 4.19- Outbent fiber cr•ck in • butt Fig. 4.20- Cross section of • butt joint in
joint in c•rbon steel. Pier•/ etch, x30 c.rbon steel showing • fl•t spot
(reduced 25%)
ably, the inspection is performed continuously, coil which induces eddy currents within the tube.
immediately following the welding station. De- Changes in the coupling between the coil and
tection of out-of-tolerance discontinuities as the the tube and also in the electrical character-
tube is welded will reduce scrap and eliminate istics of the tube due to certain types of dis-
subsequent rejection, particularly if the tube is continuities will cause variations in the loading
processed in fabricating a product. and tuning of the generator. The changes are
Eddy current inspection is employed al- detected by the differentially-wound detector
most exclusively. Basically, the welded tube is coil and are reflective in meter readings or
passed through an encircling electromagnetic by recording devices for permanent record.
Safety/165
Instrumentation is also available for limit warn- is required that contains precision-machined
ing signals. The frequencies employed are us- discontinuities matching the degree of accept-
ually in the range of 1 to 25 kHz. The method ability required by the specification.
is applicable to testing of welds in both non- Magnetic particle and liquid penetrant in-
ferrous and ferrous metals in diameters from spection methods are slow. These methods can
0.125 to 16 inches. Testing speeds range from be justified only when the end use justifies the
25 to 500ft/min. cost to ensure the highest possible quality. In
'fYpical discontinuities that are readily de- some cases, these methods usually supplement
tected by the eddy current technique are laps, other methods.
cracks, slivers, pits, unbonded areas, misaligned In-process inspection for tubular products
welds, and pin holes. A basic requirement is may also include destructive testing of short
a reliable and consistent means for setting the sections of tube removed from production. A
degree of sensitivity of the test equipment to the section is tested by placing an open end over a
required level. A standard reference specimen conical die mounted in an arbor press. Force is
is required for this purpose. The reference speci- applied to the other end of the tube to expand it
men has typical discontinuities deliberately over the die. Examination of the sample may
fabricated into it that represent the require- reveal unbonded areas and offset joint edges.
ments of a particular application or specification. In conjunction with this test, a finite length of
This testing method can also detect surface tube is leak tested by pneumatically pressuriz-
flaws in the base metal. ing the tube internally and immersing it in water.
Ultrasonic testing is another method used This test will reveal discontinuities extending
for inspection of tubular products. This testing through the welded seam, indicated by bubbles
technique is normally restricted to finite tube emerging from the flaw.
lengths, using the immersion method automati- Inspection of other joint types, such as
cally. This technique is more sensitive than web-to-flange and end-to-end butt joints, may
the eddy current method to minor surface be accomplished by metallographic techniques
scratches and to elongated discontinuities such and mechanical testing methods to determine
as the incomplete removal of the flash. As with joint strength and ductility.
the eddy current method, a reference specimen
SAFETY
Consideration must be given to the health frequency or high frequency. Proper care and
and safety of the welding operators, mainte- safety precautions should be taken while work-
nance personnel, and other personnel in the area ing on high frequency generators and their
of the welding operations. Good engineering control systems to prevent injury. Modem units
practice must be followed in the design, con- are equipped with safety interlocks on access
struction, installation, operation, and mainte- doors and automatic safety grounding devices
nance of the equipment, controls, power sup- that prevent operation of the equipment when
plies, and tooling to assure conformance to the access doors are open. The equipment
Federal (OSHA), State, and local safety reg- should not be operated with panels or high
ulations, as well as those of the using company. voltage covers removed or with interlocks and
High frequency generators are electrical grounding devices blocked.
devices and require all the usual precautions The output high frequency primary leads
in handling and repairing such equipment. should be encased in metal ducting and should
Voltages are in the range from 400 to 20 000 not be operated in the open. The induction
volts and are lethal. These voltages may be low coils and contact systems should always be
)66/ HIGH FREQUENCY WELDING
properly grounded for operator protection. High by induction and cause fires or burns.
frequency currents are more difficult to ground Injuries from high frequency power, espe-
than low frequency currents, and grounding cially at the upper range of welding frequencies,
lines should be kept very short and direct to tend to produce severe local surface tissue
minimize inductive impedance. Care should be damage but are not likely to be fatal, since
taken that the magnetic field from the output current flow in the victim's body is shallow.
system does not heat adjacent metallic sections
tc = 0.556(tF - 32)
1 in. = 25.4 mm = .025 m
1ft= 0.305m
1 tt/min = 5.08 mm/s
11bf = 4.45 N
1 psi= 6.89 kPa
1 degree (angle)= (1.75 x 1o·•) rad

Brown, G.H., Hoyler, C.N., and Bierwith, seam welding of ferrous and non-ferrous
R.A., Theory and Applications of Radio tubing. Welding Journal, 35 (12): 1199-
Frequency Heating, New York: D. Van 1206; 1956 Dec.
Nostrand Co., Inc., 1957.
Osborn, H.B., Jr., High frequency welding of
Dailey, R.E, Induction welding of pipe using pipe and tubing, Welding Journal, 42 (7):
10 000 cycles. Welding Journal, 44 (6): 571-577; 1963 July.
475-479; 1965 Jun.
Rudd, W. C., High frequency resistance weld-
Harris, S. G., Butt welding of steel pipe using ing. Welding Journal, 36 (7): 703-707;
induction heating, Welding Journal, 40 (2): 1957 July.
57s-65s; 1961 Feb.
Rudd, W.C., High frequency resistance welding
Johnstone, A.A., Trotter, EJ., and a'Brassard, of cans, Welding Journal, 42 (4): 279-284;
H. E, Performance record of the Thermatool 1963 Apr.
high frequency resistance welding process.
Rudd, W. C., High frequency resistance weld-
British Welding Journal, 7 (4): 238-249;
ing. Metal Progress: 239-40, 244; 1965
1960Apr.
Oct.
Koppenhofer, R. L. et al., Induction-pressure
Rudd, W. C., Current penetration seam welding
welding of girth joints in steel pipe. Weld-
-a new high speed process. Welding
ing Journal, 39 (7): 685-691; 1960 July.
Journal, 46 (9): 762-766; 1967 Sept.
Oppenheimer, E. D., Helical and Longitudinally
Rudd, W.C. and Udall, H.N., High frequency
Finned Tubing by High Frequency Resis-
melt welding. Welding Journal, 56 (4):
tance Welding, Dearborn, MI.: Soc. of
28-32; 1977 Apr.
Manufacturing Engineers, 1967; ASTME
Tech. Paper AD 67-197. Wolcott, C. G., High frequency welded struc-
tural shapes. Welding Journal, 44 (11):
Osborn, H. B., Jr., High frequency continuous
921-926; 1965 Nov.
5
Electron Beam Welding
Fundamentals of the Process .......... 170 Metals Welded .................... .. 201
Characteristics of Welds .............. 177 Applications .................... .... 204
Equipment .................... ..... 180 Weld Quality .................... ... 206
Welding Procedures ................. 196 Safe Practices .................... ... 273
Selection of Welding Variables ......... 199 Supplementary Reading List ........... 275
Chapter Committee
D. E. POWERS, Chairman G. H. LOAN

Leybold-Heraeus Vacuum Systems Inc. Nuclide Corporation
S.C. BROWN B. W. SCHUMACHER
Westinghouse Electric Corporation Ford Motor Company
H. CASEY C. T. SZYMKO
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratories Argonne National Laboratories
J. F. HINRICHS J. VAN EIJNSBERGEN
A. 0. Smith Corporation Union Carbide Corporation
J. LEE C. M. WEBER
Chrysler Corporation Babcock and Wilcox Company
Welding Handbook Committee Member
W. L. WILCOX
Scott Paper Company
169
5
Electron Beam Welding

DEFINITION trode and the emitter are both at the same elec-
Electron beam welding (EBW) is a process trical potential, and together are referred to as
that produces coalescence of metals by the heat the cathode. In a triode (cathode-grid-anode)
obtained from a concentrated beam of high gun, the emitter is at one potential and the beam-
velocity electrons impinging upon the surfaces shaping electrode can be biased to a slightly
to be joined. The electron, a basic particle of more negative potential to control beam current
matter, is characterized by a negative charge and flow. In this case, the emitter alone is referred
a very small mass. to as the cathode, and the shaping electrode is
The beam of electrons is produced and called the bias electrode or "grid cup." The
accelerated by an electron beam gun. 1}'pical accelerating anode is incorporated into the elec-
components of the gun are an emitter, a bias tron gun, making beam generation completely
electrode, and an anode. The emitter is some- independent ofthe workpiece.
times called the filament or cathode; the bias The electrons, accelerated to speeds in the
electrode is also called the grid or grid cup. range of 0.1 to 0.7 times the speed of light, pass
Auxiliary mechanical and electrical compo- through a small hole in the center of the anode
nents, which may include beam alignment, and continue toward the workpiece. After the
focus, and deflection coils, are used in con- electrons leave the anode, they generally diverge
junction with the electron beam gun. The whole because of random thermal radial velocity spread-
assembly is called the electron beam gun ing and geometric mutual repulsion, as shown
column. in Fig. 5.1. To counteract the inherent diver-
gence effects, an electromagnetic lens system
GENERAL DESCRIPTION is used to reconverge the beam and focus it on the
work. This beam divergence and convergence
The heart of the electron beam welding is of such a gradual nature that the useable focal
process is the electron beam gun, a simplified range or depth of focus may extend over a dis-
representation of which is shown in Fig. 5.1. tance of an inch or so.
Electrons are generated by heating a negatively The heat intensity imparted to the weld
charged emitting material to its thermionic emis- joint is controlled by four basic variables:
sion temperature range. The electrons "boil off" (I) The number of electrons per second
this emitter and are then given speed and direc- impinging on the workpiece (beam current)
tion by their attraction to a positively charged (2) The kinetic energy of these electrons
anode. A precisely configured electrode sur- (accelerating voltage)
rounding the emitter electrostatically shapes the (3) The diameter of the electron beam at
ejected electrons into a beam. In a diode the workpiece (beam spot size)
(cathode-anode) gun, this beam-shaping elec- (4) The travel speed with which the work-
170
u....---Emitter (-) than it is wide, and the heat-affected zone is very

narrow. For example, the width of a butt weld
V ~Beam-shaping or
in 0.5-in. thick steel plate may be as small as
bias electrode (-)
0.060 in. when made in a vacuum. This stands
in remarkable contrast to the weld zone in arc
and gas welded joints.
Because of the deep penetrating capability
of an electron beam, the angle of incidence
with which the beam impinges on the surface of
a workpiece will affect the final angle at which
Focal range the resulting weld zone is formed with respect
1+-1----- Focal point to that surface.
PROCESS VARIATIONS
Fig. 5.1-A simplified representation of an
electron beam gun column
There are three variations or modes of the
electron beam welding process: high vacuum
(EBW-HV), medium vacuum (EBW-MV), and
nonvacuum (EBW-NV). The principal differ-
piece or electron beam gun is being translated ence between these process modes is the ambient
(welding speed) pressure at which welding is done. With the
Accelerating voltages and beam currents high vacuum mode, welding is done in the pres-
employed for typical electron beam gun sys- sure range of 10·3 to 10·6 torr.' For medium vac-
tems vary over the ranges of 30 to 175 kV and uum, the pressure range is 10·3 to 25 torr. Within
50 to 1000 rnA, respectively. The electron beam this range, the pressure span from about 10'3 to
produced by these guns can be focused to diam- 1 torr is commonly called a "soft" or "partial"
eters in the range of 0.01 to 0.03 inch. The re- vacuum, and from about 1 to 25 torr, a "quick"
sulting power density attainable can reach values vacuum. Nonvacuum electron beam welding is
up to l0 6 W/in.2, a level significantly higher done at atmospheric pressure. In all cases, the
than that possible ~ith arc welding processes. electron beam gun must be held at a pressure of
A comparative measure of electron beam 10'4 torr or less for stable and efficient operation.
systems, generally used to indicate their probable High vacuum and medium vacuum welding
welding capability, is the maximum power are done inside a vacuum chamber. This im-
density that a system is capable of delivering to poses an evacuation time penalty to take ad-
the workpiece. This comparison factor is totally vantage of the "high purity" atmosphere. The
dependent upon the maximum beam power (cur- medium vacuum welding machine retains most
rent x voltage) and minimum beam spot size of the advantages of high vacuum welding but
attainable with each system. Electron beam with improved production capability. Chamber
welding systems capable of producing beam evacuation times are much shorter, resulting in
power levels up to 100 kW and power densities higher production rates. Nonvacuum welding,
in excess of 10'W/in? have been built, but they although it incurs no pumpdown time penalty,
are not yet used commercially. is unsuitable for some applications because the
At very high power densities, the elec- welds are generally wider and shallower than
tron beam is capable of instantly penetrating into welds made with equal power in vacuum.
the workpiece and forming a "vapor hole." The
walls of the vapor hole are molten. The molten
metal from the forward portion flows around the
periphery of the hole and solidifies at the rear to I. A torr is the accepted industry term for a pressure
of one millimeter of mercury. One standard atmo-
form weld metal as the beam advances along the sphere can be expressed as 760 torr or 760 mm of
joint. Hence, the weld metal is much deeper mercury.
172/ ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
With medium vacuum operation, the (2) Maximum weld metal purity is possible
beam is generated in high vacuum and then due to the absence of contaminating gases.
projected into a welding chamber operating at (3) The relatively long gun-to-work dis-
higher pressure. This is accomplished through tances possible with this method enhance the
an orifice of special design that is large enough ability to observe the welding process and pro-
to pass the beam but too small to allow signifi- vide the ability to weld relatively inaccessible
cant back diffusion of gases into the gun joints.
chamber. An electron beam is scattered by collision
In nonvacuum electron beam welding of the electrons with any gas molecules that
equipment, the beam is generated in high vacuum may be present in its path. The frequency at
and then projected through a series of orifices which these collisions occur will vary directly
and differentially-pumped chambers. It finally with both the concentration of gas molecules
emerges into a work environment that is at present and the total distance traveled.
atmospheric pressure. Figure 5.2 shows the three The high vacuum minimizes exposure of the
basic modes of electron beam systems. weld zone to oxygen and nitrogen contamination
while hot. It also causes evolved gases to rapidly
High Vacuum Welding
move away from the weld metal, thereby im-
High vacuum (10· 3 torr or lower) is the proving weld metal purity. Thus, high vacuum
natural environment for all electron guns. Al- welding is better suited for welding highly
though special devices enable the electron beam reactive metals than the other two process
to be brought into an environment of higher variations.
pressure, the gun itself cannot operate effec- Production of high vacuum requires pump-
tively at pressures greater than 10·3 torr. ing time which significantly limits production
The principal advantages which accrue as rates. This can be offset somewhat by welding a
a result of welding in high vacuum are as follows: number of assemblies in a single load and by
(1) Maximum weld penetration and mini- keeping the chamber volume to a minimum.
mum weld width can be achieved, thereby pro- However, chamber size limits the number of
ducing a minimum of weld shrinkage and dis- parts per batch that can be accommodated for
tortion. welding. Consequently, high vacuum welding is
Workpiece
Fig. 5.2-The basic modes of electron beam welding

Fig. 5.3-Eiectron beam welding a gear in medium vacuum
generally considered to be a relatively low pro- involved. A welding chamber of minimum vol-
duction type of operation. ume is used. For example, gears can be success-
fully welded to shafts in their final machined or
stamped condition with no subsequent finishing
Medium Vacuum Welding
needed. Such an operation is shown in Fig. 5.3.
A principal asset of medium vacuum weld- Close tolerances can be maintained.
ing is the fact that its requirements can be met Because welding is done at pressures where
without pumping the welding chamber to very the concentration of air is significant (100 ppm),
low pressure (high vacuum). With small welding medium vacuum welding is less desirable than
chambers, pumping times may be a matter of high vacuum welding for reactive metals. How-
seconds. This is of major importance in terms of ever, medium vacuum welding may be accept-
commercial and economical processing. This able for refractory metal welding where absorb-
variation is ideally suited for the mass produc- lion of very small amounts of oxygen and nitro-
tion of parts where repetitive production tasks are gen can be tolerated.
The higher concentration of air will also with high and medium vacuum welding, even
tend to scatter the electron beam, producing an when inert gas shielding is used.
increase in beam diameter and a decrease in Operating conditions for nonvacuum weld-
beam power density. This results in welds that ing differ from the other two variations. Beam
are slightly wider, more tapered, and less pene- dispersion increases rapidly with ambient pres-
trating than similar type welds produced under sure, as shown in Fig. 5.4. Therefore, at atmo-
high vacuum conditions. spheric pressure the gun-to-work distance must
As with high vacuum welding, a limitation be less than I. 5 inches. This restriction limits the
is imposed on the work size by the vacuum shape of the workpiece near the weld joint.
chamber, and the chamber must be evacuated The depth of penetration in nonvacuum
prior to welding. Therefore, production rates are electron beam welds is affected by beam power
generally lower than those attainable with non- level, travel speed, gun-to-work distance, and the
vacuum welding . ambient atmosphere through which the beam
Nonvacuum Welding passes. Figure 5.5 shows penetration as a func-
tion of travel speed for three different power
The major advantage of nonvacuum weld- levels, indicating the significant increase in
ing is that the work is not enclosed in a vacuum travel speed that can be used by increasing power
chamber. Therefore, production rates can be for a given penetration.
higher and costs lower than with the other varia- Figure 5 .6 shows the effect of the ambient
tions because time is not needed for chamber atmosphere and the gun-to-work distance on the
evacuation. Also, th<t size of the weldment is penetration-travel speed relationship. Penetra-
not limited by a chamber. tion is greater with helium, which is lighter than
These advantages are gained at the expense air, and lower with argon, which is heavier
of low weld depth-to-width ratios, reduced weld than air. For a given penetration and gun-to-work
penetration, and small gun-to-work distances. distance, helium shielding will permit welding
The welding atmosphere is not as "pure" as at a significantly higher travel speed.
760 TORR 500 TORR ?..50 TORR 50 TORR 5 TORR
Fig. 5.4-Eiectron beam dispersion characteristics at various ambient pressures

1.000 r--.---.------.-----,----- -,----,---,-------,-----,
1/4 in. work distance
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Speed, ipm
Fig. 5.5-Effect of travel speed on penetration of non vacuum electron beam

welds in steel (175 kV in air)
Nonvacuum electron beam welding appears The following are some of the definite
to demonstrate more efficient penetrating capa- advantages of electron beam welding:
bility at power levels above 50kW. This apparent (I) The ability to produce weld metal with
capability probably results from the decrease in a cross section that is deeper and narrower than
ambient air (or gas) density produced by local those of arc welds in most metals. This ability
heating of the air (or gas) as the beam passes to attain an extremely high weld depth-to-width
through it. ratio permits single-pass welding of joints that
Many materials have been welded success- would normally require multipass arc welds.
fully using the nonvacuum technique. They in- (2) The total heat input per unit length for
clude carbon, low alloy, and stainless steels; a given depth of penetration can be much lower
high temperature alloys; refractory alloys; and than with arc welding. This gives a much nar-
copper and aluminum alloys. Some of these rower head-affected zone, noticeably less dis-
metals can be welded in air while others require tortion, and fewer thermal effects compared to
inert gas protective atmospheres to avoid exces- arc welding.
sive oxygen and nitrogen contamination. (3) A high purity environment (vacuum) for
With 60 kW nonvacuum equipment, it is welding minimizes contamination of the metal
possible to produce single-pass welds in many by oxygen and nitrogen.
metals of l-in. thickness at relatively high speeds. (4) The ability to project the beam over a
Figure 5.7 is a cross section of a nonvacuum distance of several feet in vacuum often allows
weld in 3/4-in. Type 302 stainless steel plate. welds to be made in otherwise inaccessible
locations.
(5) Rapid travel speeds are possible be-
cause of the high melting rates associated with
Electron beam welding has some unique this concentrated heat source. This reduces the
performance cApabilities, such as its environ- time required to accomplish welding and in-
ment, high power densities, and outstanding con- creases the productivity and energy efficiency
trol capabilities, that permit the solution of a of the process.
wide range of joining problems. (6) Reasonably square butt joints in both
176 I ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
0.4
---
. ........
Helium
.... ~:~
F==:t::::-
0.3
-.....__
----
'-"
~ -..o
0.2 ~
~
0.1
i""""">
0
Air Gun-to-work distance
.s: 0.4
o 1/4 in.
"~
r:::.'
0
"<:0 o 1/2 in.
-
...
~
Q)
0.3
'""" 61 in .
r:::.
Q)
c.. ~
--
0.2
~ ~
0.1 ~ ...._ ~
-,.-
l"l>
13.
0
Argon
0.2
0.1
~ _-
.. b:r---.. -L:J
D.
0
0 25 50 75
Travel speed, ipm
Fig. 5.6-Penetration vs travel speed for nonvacuum electron beam welds

in A/SI 4340 steel in helium, air, and argon with three gun-to-work
distances (175 kV, 6.4 kW)
thick and relatively thin plates can be welded in tron beam welding are as follows:
one pass without filler metal addition. (I) The equipment costs are generally
(7) Hermetic closures can be welded with higher than those of arc welding equipment.
the high or medium vacuum modes of opera- However, final system cost depends strongly
tion while retaining a vacuum inside the com- upon the particular welding requirements; final
ponent. part costs can be highly competitive with arc
(8) The beam of electrons can be mag- welding.
netically deflected to produce various shaped (2) Proper utilization of the high weld
welds and magnetically oscillated to improve depth-to-width ratio can require precision ma-
weld quality or increase penetration. chining of the joint edges, exacting joint align-
Some of the probable limitations of elec- ment, and good fit-up. In addition, joint gap
Characteristics of Welds /177
must be minimized to take advantage of the

small size of the electron beam. However, these
precise part requirements are generally not man-
datory where high depth-to-width ratio welds
are not required. ·
(3) For high and medium vacuum welding,
work chamber size must be large enough to
accommodate the assembly operation. The time
needed to evacuate the chamber will influence
production costs.
(4) With the nonvacuum mode of electron
beam welding, the restriction on work distance
from the bottom of the electron beam gun column
to the work will impose limitations on the prod-
uct design in areas directly adjacent to the weld
joint.
(5) Because the electron beam is deflected
Fig. 5.7-A cross section of a nonvacuum
by magnetic fields, nonmagnetic or properly
electron beam weld in 3/4-in. stainless
degaussed metals should be employed for tooling
steel plate made in air with 12 kW
and fixturing that will come into close proximity
of power
to the beam path.
CHARACTERIS TICS OF WELDS

The electron beam welding process pro- about 5 in./min. Thick weld joints, which would
duces weld metal geometries that differ sig- require multiple-pass arc welding procedures,
nificantly from those made by conventional arc can be made with a single-pass electron beam
welding processes. 'JYpical transverse cross sec- welding procedure in considerably less time .
tions through electron beam and gas tungsten Second, the rate (travel speed) at which welding
arc welds are shown in Fig. 5.8. The geometry can be accomplished is much greater than with
of a typical electron beam weld exhibits a weld arc welding. Thus, the electron beam welding
depth-to-width ratio that is very large in com- process is a very rapid one .
parison to that of arc welds. This feature is due High vacuum welds with depth-to-width
to the high power density of the electron beam. ratios of 50: I are possible in a number of alloys.
The beam is concentrated in a small area. Elec- The welding of heavy sections in a single pass
tron beam power density can exceed the power is practical using a square-groove butt joint. F:or
densities obtained with arc welding by several example, aluminum plates up to 18 in . thick
orders of magnitude. have been welded. While some problems re-
The high depth-to-width ratios of electron main with joining thick sections, production
beam welds account for two important advan- applications in steel extend up to 6 inches . The
tages of the process. First, relatively thick joints medium vacuum mode sacrifices some penetra-
can be welded in a single pass. Figure 5. 9 is an tion in comparison to the high vacuum mode .
example of a single-pass electron beam weld in a With the nonvacuum mode, the maximum pene-
4-in . thick carbon steel section. It was made with tration attainable is generally about 2 inches.
a beam power of 33 kW and a travel speed of The ability to produce welds with these
Welding conditions
Gas tungsten arc weld
Electron beam
weld 1st Pass • 2nd Pass b Total
Voltage, V 30 X 10 3 11.7 13.0
Current, A 200x 10-a 270. 270.
Welding speed, in./min 95 6.5 7.5
Power,kW 6 3.2 3.5 6.7
Energy, kJ/in. 3.8 29.6 28.0 57.6
a. Without wire
b. With 0.062 in. dia. Type 2319 AI filler metal
Fig. 5.8- Comparison of electron beam (left) and gas tungsten arc (right) welds
in 1/2-in. thick Type 2219 aluminum alloy plate
characteristics depends upon the process mode: melting point, heat capacity, thermal diffusivity,
high, medium, or nonvacuum. In all cases, it and vapor pressure. This process, particularly in
is highly dependent upon the beam spot size its high vacuum mode, is an excellent tool for
and the total beam power. Figure 5 .10 gives a the welding of parts of dissimilar metals or dif-
general indication of the effect of ambient pres- ferent masses, and the repairing of welded
sure on weld metal profile and penetration when components impossible to salvage with other pro-
all other operational variables are essentially cesses. The low total heat input to the workpiece
constant, but not necessarily optimum . The noticeably minimizes weld joint distortion. Here
depth-to-width ratio is also critically dependent again, the high and medium vacuum modes are
upon base metal physical properties, such as the most advantageous, although the nonvacuum
Characteristics of Welds /179
mode offers some notable advantages over con-

ventional arc welding processes.
Because the high power density produces
welds that are not controlled by thermal con-
duction, metals of significantly different thermal
conductivities can be welded together. In weld-
ing a joint between two pieces of different thick-
ness, the unequal heat loss due to the difference
in mass is not a significant problem. Also, fusion
can be accomplished without significant need for
heat sinks that would be required for arc welding.
The beam energy is usually concentrated on the
thick section at the joint, and the power is ad-
justed for penetration through the thin section.
Arc welding procedures often require the
use of preheat for thick sections of a metal hav-
ing a high thermal conductivity, such as alumi-
num or copper. Little or no preheat is required
for electron beam welding high conductivity
metals with the available power density.
Reactive and refractory metals are detri-
mentally affected by very small amounts of
gaseous contaminants, such as oxygen, nitrogen,
and hydrogen. However, these metals may be
electron beam welded without introducing these
Fig. 5.9-Single-p~ss electron be~m weld
contaminants. Such metals include tungsten,
in a 4-in. thick c~rbon steel section
molybdenum, columbium, tantalum, zirconium,
Pressure, torr
211 158 105 54 0.6 10 ..
'. .
;~.J '" ' .. ·-· , ... -
...
if;~ '•' I •
Atmospheric pressure
(760 torr)
Fig. 5.10-Eiectron beam weld profile change with increasing ambient pressure
when all other operating variables are essentially constant
and titanium. The high vacuum mode of welding Since the electron beam welding process is
is the most suitable one for joining these metals. capable of producing weld metal with a width as
The other two modes offer decreasing weld per- small as 1/10 or 1/20 of the thickness of the
formance capabilities, although they still permit part, the process is ideally suited to weld com-
satisfactory application in select cases. ponents of a critical nature or components that
Although electron beam welding is a high must utilize maximum material and design
power density process, it is also a low energy allowances.
process. That is, the energy required to weld a The weld metal geometry produced by this
joint of a given thickness is considerably less than process can be used to control distortion in weld-
that required by more conventional arc welding ments. In this type of weld (Fig. 5.8 [left]), the
processes. Two advantages can result from the weld metal is essentially parallel-sided except
low energy input: First, it minimizes distortion where the electron beam first impinges on the
and reduces the size of the weld heat-affected top surface of the abutted members. Contraction
zones. Second, the high cooling rates associated of the metal during cooling is fairly uniform
with narrow electron beam welds can affect through the joint. When the weld metal has a
metallurgical reactions, such as phase changes. characteristic V-shape, as in arc welding, there
However, the fundamental rules of metallurgy is significant warpage from unequal thermal con-
regarding cooling rates and the resulting micro- traction across the joint.
structure still apply. The weld metal will have Since the electron beam can penetrate
mechanical properties normally associated with through extremely thick sections, beveling or
the bulk properties of the microstructure. chamfering one or both edges of abutting mem-
Another aspect of electron beam welding bers is not necessary. However, closer machin-
involves the control of the process. Accurate ing tolerances may be required for electron
control of the electron beam has always per- beam welding than for arc welding.
mitted a high degree of reliability and the result In medium vacuum welding, weld metal
is reproducible welding. At present, incorpora- cross sectjon configurations are similar to those
tion of minicomputers and microprocessors of high vacuum welding, but the depth-to-width
offers additional control of the welding condi- ratios are somewhat smaller. With nonvacuum
tions. electron beam welding, the weld bead may be
Control of the environment where welding as wide as a typical gas tungsten arc weld. The
is taking place can affect the composition of the weld metal may possess all the characteristics of
weld metal. Electron beam welding in a high that produced by the more conventional welding
vacuum will permit gases to escape and high processes if insufficient power or large gun-to-
vapor pressure metals to evaporate. At the other work distances are employed. However, at high
pressure extreme, nonvacuum electron beam power and speed, depth-to-width ratios on the
welding in air may increase the nitrogen and order of 5 to I are feasible with the nonvacuum
oxygen in the weld metal. welding mode.
EQUIPMENT
Electron beam welding equipment is class- more vacuum pumping systems, and a power
ified as high vacuum, medium vacuum, and supply. High and medium vacuum equipment
nonvacuum, depending upon the environment operate with the work in an evacuated welding
in which welding takes place. All three types chamber. Although the work does not need to be
employ an electron beam gun column, one or placed in an evacuated welding chamber for
Equipment /181
nonvacuum electron beam welding, a vacuum major design effort must be given to the proper
environment must be provided for the electron electrode configuration, and, hence, beam-
beam gun column portion of the system. shaping, careful attention also must be paid to the
All three modes of welding can be per- emitter portion. The emitter may be either (1) a
formed with high voltage equipment. The gun directly (resistance) heated wire or ribbon type
column may be fixed in position or have limited filament or (2) a rod or disc type filament indi-
movement. Low voltage equipment is only suit- rectly heated by an auxilliary source, such as
able for high and medium vacuum operations. electron bombardment or induction heating. The
With high vacuum, the gun may be fixed in choice of emitter design will affect the charac-
position on the chamber or be mobile inside teristics of the final beam spot produced on
the chamber. With medium vacuum, the gun the work.
must be fixed in position on the chamber. Only self-accelerated guns, similar to the
A mobile, low voltage gun column can Pierce and Steigerwald telefocus gun configura-
usually be moved in they and z directions during tions, are used for electron beam welding. They
operation while the work carriage moves in the have superior focusing and power capabilities,
x direction. Gun movement is achieved by action and also permit placing the gun anode and work-
of the welding operator or by automatic pro- piece at earth ground potential.
gramming. The Pierce gun originally was designed as
a diode configuration capable of producing a
rapidly converging beam with the primary focal
ELEORON BEAM GUNS point close to the anode. Beam divergence was
In general, electron beam welding guns are uniform thereafter. The Steigerwald telefocus
operated in the space-charge-limited condition. gun was designed as a triode configuration which
If the gun is operated in this condition, the beam produced a gradually converging beam with the
current produced at any accelerating voltage is primary focal point some distance from the
proportional to the 3/2 power of the accelerating anode. Current designs of Pierce and telefocus
voltage (I = KV3/2 ), where the constant of pro- type guns are modifications of the original de-
portionality, K, is a function of gun geometry. sign configurations. Present day reference to use
Besides acceleration voltage, a broad range of a Pierce or telefocus type gun in any partic-
of conditions must be satisfied if an electron ular type of electron beam equipment generally
gun is to deliver the required power and power indicates only whether a low voltage diode gun
density. Design, configuration, emitter charac- or a high voltage triode gun is being employed.
teristics, total power capabilities, and focusing When a change in beam current is desired
provisions contribute to optimum gun character- at a given accelerating voltage in a diode gun,
istics. For a given metal and joint thickness, mechanical change of the cathode-to-anode
characteristically narrow welds can be made if spacing of the gun is necessary. This changes
(1) sufficient beam power is available to permit the proportionality constant, K, of the gun.
rapid travel speed, and (2) the beam power den- Several spacers are supplied by the manufacturer
sity is great enough to develop and continuously to provide a wide range of operating conditions.
maintain a vapor hole to the depth of penetra- Operation with the proper spacer permits ade-
tion required. quate beam power, beam spot size, and control
An electron beam gun generates, accel- sensitivity. Diode guns can also be operated in
erates, and focuses a beam of electrons. The the temperature-limited condition: that is, the
components of a gun can logically be divided beam current at a given voltage is determined by
into two categories: (1) the elements necessary controlling the power to, and thus the temper-
for the generation of free electrons (the emitter ature of, the electron emitter. Electron emis-
portion) and (2) the field-shaping elements for sion is related to both emitter temperature and
the production of a useful beam (the beam- accelerating voltage.
shaping electrode and the anode). Although The triode type gun is similar to the diode
gun except that the beam-shaping electrode similar quality welds in most metals. However,
("grid cup") is biased with a variable negative differences in weld geometry can exist because
voltage relative to the emitter. This makes it one system operates with low voltage and high
possible to easily vary the beam current at any amperage and the other with high voltage and
constant accelerating voltage; thus, both the low amperage. High voltage equipment is the
accelerating voltage and beam current can be only suitable type for nonvacuum electron beam
varied independently within limits. welding applications.
Full control of beam current with a bias High voltage equipment requires special in-
voltage permits rapid change in beam current. sulating techniques that limit the mobility of the
Electronic switching circuits in some equipment electron beam gun. Although for some applica-
provide rapid pulsing of the beam. Beam cur- tions a sliding vacuum seal permits limited move-
rent pulsing can minimize heat input and yet ment, the gun is usually fixed on the welding
produce deep weld penetration, but it is not chamber. Low voltage guns may be mounted on
used extensively for welding. Accurate control the chamber in fixed position or on a travel car-
of current slope rates to and from welding power riage inside the chamber for mobile operation.
level may be extremely useful in many appli-
cations.
POWER SUPPLIES
All guns focus the electron beam to a small
spot on the workpiece with an electromagnetic The power supply of an electron beam
lens. Furthermore, the beam can be oscillated welding machine is an assembly of at least one
in a repetitive or nonrepetitive manner by means main power supply plus one or more auxiliary
of a suitable set of magnetic deflection coils and power supplies. It produces high voltage power
controls. The coils are positioned immediately for the gun and auxiliary power for the emitter
below the electromagnetic focusing lens where and beam control. Depending upon whether a
they can deflect the electron beam from its nor- diode type or a triode type of gun is used, the
mal axial position. Simultaneous use of two high voltage power supply consists of two or
sets of deflection coils at 90 degrees allows the more ofthe following components:
formation of the classical lissajous figures on (I) A main high voltage de power source
the work surface. Sinusoidal beam deflection that delivers the electron beam accelerating
perpendicular to the direction of welding permits voltage and the total beam current
broadening of the weld bead to simplify manual (2) An emitter power supply with either ac
tracking of weld seams. Circular and elliptical or de output
deflection tends to reduce weld porosity. More (3) An electrode bias supply that impresses
complex deflection patterns may be employed to a voltage between the emitter and the bias elec-
enhance penetration and improve weld quality. trode (grid cup) to control beam current
Electron beam welding guns are designed (4) Special electronic supplies, such as a
for either low voltage or high voltage operation. beam pulser or a beam current regulator
Low voltage guns operate below 60 kV and are The main high voltage power source and
generally modified Pierce types. High voltage the auxiliary power supplies are frequently
guns operate above 60 kV and are generally the placed together in a common oil-filled tank. A
modified telefocus types. Similar power levels high purity, electrical grade transformer oil
are available with either low or high voltage serves both as an electrical insulating medium
guns. Beam power is the product of the accel- and as a heat transfer agent to carry heat from
erating voltage and the beam current. Therefore, the electrical components to the tank walls. The
operation at high voltage requires less beam components are typically supported from the
current than operation at low voltage for equiv- cover plate of the tank so that they can be re-
alent power. In general, the use of either low moved from the tank with the cover plate. The
voltage or high voltage equipment in high or oil. need not be removed except for periodic
medium vacuum applications will produce filtering or replacement.
Equipment /183
Another high voltage insulating material, desired quality of beam focus. Excessive volt-
used infrequently in a power supply, is sulfur age ripple will produce undesirable ripple in the
hexafluoride gas at a pressure of 45 psi. A power beam current that may be reflected in weld qual-
supply with this gas insulation is considerably ity. Therefore, maximum ripple voltage is usually
more compact and lighter than an oil-insulated one percent or less.
unit ofthe same rating. The inherent decrease in output voltage
The components in both the main high volt- with increasing load is typically in the range of
age power supply and the auxiliary supplies are 15 to 20 percent. Various controls and regulators
primarily transformers, diodes (rectifiers), are used to compensate for this voltage decrease
capacitors, and resistors. Electron tube diodes and to minimize the effects of line voltage varia-
were initially used in the main power supply tions as well as the effects of temperature and
by some manufacturers, but solid-state diodes, other factors influencing the output voltage.
either selenium or silicon, are usually em- Sophisticated controls are designed to eliminate
ployed now. Cost, regulation, physical size, and all of the effects mentioned and to maintain a
ability to absorb transients of voltage and cur- stable accelerating voltage to within I percent of
rent are some of the considerations affecting the the selected value. Other less costly controls
choice of components. eliminate only some of the effects and are ade-
quate for less critical applications. Some of the
Main High Voltage Power Source
controls used, in approximate order of increasing
This unit converts three-phase line power sophistication and performance, include:
to high voltage de power for the electron beam (I) Line voltage regulator (constant voltage
gun. Common power ratings are in the range of transformer)
3 to 35 kW; the maximum is 60 kW Units are (2) Servo-operated variable transformer
designed to provide the output voltage and beam with feed-back from the high voltage output
current for a particular electron beam gun type (3) Motor-generator with electronic exciter
(high or low voltage). Typical machine ratings and feedback from the high voltage output
are given in Table 5 .I. (4) Electronic regulation with both current
The requirements for maximum voltage and voltage feedback available
ripple in the de output vary depending upon the Emitter Power Supply
Directly heated wire or ribbon emitters are
Table5.1
typically formed in a hairpin-like shape. The
Typical electron beam welding heating current can be either ac or de. Direct
machine ratings
current is preferred because the magnetic field
Rating, Output created by the heating current can influence the
kW kV,max rnA, max direction of the beam. The cyclic nature of ac
1.25 25 50 heating will cause the beam spot to oscillate
3 30 100 with a small, but significant, amplitude about a
3 60 50 fixed point.
6 30 200
7.5 150 50 Since the magnitude of any such magnetic
9 30 300 effect will increase with the amount of heating
15 30 500 current employed, it is necessary to use filtering
15 60 250 even with de heating currents to reduce any
15 150 100
100 ripple to 3 percent or lower.
17.5 175
25 175 144 Current and voltage ratings of a filament
30 60 500 power supply depend upon the type and size of
35 150 230 directly heated filament used. For 0.020-in.
35 200 175 diameter tungsten wire filaments, the supply
60 175 345
would be rated for 30A at 20V. Ribbon type
filaments are employed to provide a much larger across the coil changes with temperature varia-
emitting area than that of a wire type filament. tions.
Ribbons require power supplies rated for higher Beam deflection coils are also powered by
currents and lower voltages (30 to 70A at 5 to solid-state devices. Two sets of coils at 90 de-
IOV). grees are usually placed at the base of the gun
Indirectly heated emitters are also in com- column for x andy deflection of the beam. Pro-
mon use. Here, an auxiliary source of either the gramming of the power sources for the two sets
bombardment or inductive type is used to indi- of coils can provide beam movement along
rectly heat the gun emitter to electron emission either axis or both axes simultaneously. Geo-
temperatures. The power supplies, therefore, metric beam patterns (circle, ellipse, square, and
differ from those employed with directly heated rectangle) can be produced by electronic control.
filaments. A typical rating of a power supply for The ripple on the de input to both the deflection
an auxiliary electron gun that heats a disc emitter coils and the electromagnetic lens must be low
by bombardment would be 100 to 200 rnA at to minimize any adverse effects of beam insta-
several kilovolts. bility on weld quality.
Bias Voltage Supply

VACUUM PUMPING SYSTEMS
The bias voltage supply for a triode type
Vacuum pumping systems are required for
gun is usually designed to give complete control
evacuation of the electron beam gun chamber,
of beam current from zero to maximum. To do
the work chamber for high and medium vacuum
this, the de power supply applies a variable
modes, and the orifice assembly at the exit of the
voltage on the beam-shaping electrode (grid
gun column for medium vacuum and non vacuum
cup), negative with respect to the emitter. A
welding. Two basic types of vacuum pumps are
voltage in the range of 1500 to 2000V is needed
used in these systems. One is a mechanical piston
to cut off the beam current. For maximum beam
or vane type used to obtain a pressure ~eduction
current, the voltage requirement decreases to the
from I atmosphere to about 0 .I torr. For medium
200 to 300V range. As with the high voltage
vacuum welding, these mechanical pumps are
power supply, the bias supply must also pro-
generally operated in conjunction with a Roots
duce well-filtered voltage that does not intro-
type blower, another kind of mechanical pump.
duce more than one percent ripple in the beam
The other type is an oil diffusion pump used to
current.
reduce the pressure to J0· 4 torr or lower. The
Some electron beam equipment uses a self-
sequencing of these pumps to produce the needed
biasing system. The bias voltage is derived par-
vacuum can be accomplished by either manual
tially from the main accelerating voltage through
or automatic operation of valves in the system.
a voltage divider, and partially from the voltage
In commercial electron beam welding equip-
across a series resistor in the main power circuit.
ment, automatic valve sequencing is virtually
This system does not have a separate bias supply
standard.
per se.
The vacuum system for an electron beam
Electromagnetic Lens and Deflection gun chamber consists of a mechanical roughing
Coil Power Supplies pump and a diffusion pump. A similar system
is used to evacuate the work chamber in the
The electromagnetic lens (focusing coil) is high vacuum mode of operation. In both these
generally powered by a constant current power cases, the system may be ducted to the chamber
source of solid-state design. The strength of the through a water- or liquid nitrogen-cooled (op-
magnetic field is directly related to the current tically dense) baffle, if necessary, to minimize
flowing through the coil. The current provided backstreaming of diffusion pump oil into the
to the coil must remain constant for consistent chambers. A combination diffusion and mechan-
beam spot size, even when the voltage drop ical pumping system is shown in Fig. 5 .II.
Equipment /185
The vacuum pumping system can be Cryogenic traps, such as liquid nitrogen
mounted on the same base as the vacuum cham- (LN), are not usually used on electron beam
ber and connected with rigid ducting, except for welding systems unless pressures of I0- 6 torr or
the mechanical roughing pump. The roughing lower are required.
pump is connected to the system with a flexible For medium vacuum welding, the work
tube to minimize vibration ofthe welding cham- chamber is evacuated with a mechanical vacuum
ber. A large diameter vacuum valve isolates the pumping system of high capacity. The types
diffusion pump from the chamber during the and sizes of mechanical pumps used in the sys-
roughing portion of the pumping cycle. A small tem will depend upon the work chamber size,
mechanical pump holds the isolated diffusion the workload, and the desired production rate.
pump at low pressure. Automatic evacuation cycles are used to enhance
The roughing and diffusion pumping pe- high speed production capability.
riods are normally controlled by automatic se- With nonvacuum welding equipment, the
quencing of pneumatic or electric vacuum valves. electron beam gun chamber is evacuated with a
Automatic evacuation cycles are accomplished combination mechanical-diffusion pumping sys-
with pressure-sensing relays that activate the tem. The various pressure stages in the orifice
appropriate valves in the preprogrammed se- assembly through which the electron beam exits
quence. The control units are designed to protect from the gun are pumped with a series of me-
the vacuum system in case of accidental pressure chanical vacuum pumps.
rise in the chamber. The evacuation process and its rate depend
Vacuum Exhaust
chamber
V-6
Diffusion
pump
Valves Vacuum sensors

V-1 - high vacuum S-1 - ion type
V-2 - roughing S-2 - thermocouple type
V-3 - backing S-3 - thermocouple type
V-4 - holding S-4 - thermocouple type
V-5 - vacuum release S-5 - ion type
V-6 - vacuum release
Fig. 5.11-V~cuum pumping system for high v~cuum oper~tion

upon the capacities of the pumps, the work and of the weld seam. It is used for setup opera-
fixturing load, the size of the chamber, and tions, inspection of the weld, alignment of the
the total leakage rate of the system. The total weld joint with respect to the electron beam,
leakage rate is the increase in chamber pressure and positioning of the gun to center the sharply
per unit of time attributed to both real leaks and focused electron beam on the weld seam.
virtual leaks in the system. Closed-circuit television is used to provide
Real leaks are actual holes or voids in the a better viewing system. It may have both a
chamber capable of passing air or gas. A virtual light source and a television camera mounted
leak is the semblance of a real leak being present in a serviceable location outside the chamber.
somewhere in the vacuum system resulting from An optical protection system is mounted inside
the outgassing of adsorbed or occluded gases the chamber to shield the viewing equipment
on the interior surfaces of the system when under from metal splatter and metal vapor deposition.
vacuum. For satisfactory system operation, no The closed-circuit television system permits
in-leakage (real leaks) should be detectable continuous monitoring of welds and minimum
when a helium mass spectrometer leak detector, exposure to the intense light from the weld.
having a sensitivity of I x 10"7 standard cm'/s Computer control and numerical control
of helium, is employed to leak-check the system.> are available for automatic programming of
A customary limiting value for an acceptable beam power and travel speed as a function of
rise rate test is in the range of l to 2 X I0- 2 torr gun position.
per hour, averaged over a 10-hour test pe-
riod. This test is conducted by isolating the
chamber to be tested from the pumping sys- HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS
tem (without exposing it to atmosphere)
High voltage electron beam systems oper-
immediately after a four-hour preparatory
ate above 60 kV. The equipment is designed
pumpdown of the chamber. The 10-hour
to operate at voltages between 100' kV and
period starts when the vacuum level reaches
200 kV, with beam powers of up to 100 kW.
I XIO"' torr.
The electron beam gun of a high vacuum
welding machine is housed in an external
LOW VOLTAGE SYSTEMS vacuum chamber mounted on top of the welding
chamber with either stationary or sliding vacuum
Work chambers of low voltage machines
seal, as shown in Fig. 5.12. In the latter case,
are usually made of carbon steel plate. The
motion of the gun is limited to they axis, with
thickness of the plate is designed to provide both
x axis motion provided by the weldment car-
adequate x-ray protection and the structural
riage. Other motions, such as z axis movement,
strength necessary to withstand atmospheric
are provided by special jigging of the work.
pressure. Lead shielding may be required in
Computer- and numerically-controlled electron
certain areas of the chamber to ensure total
beam power and travel speed are also available.
radiation tightness ofthe system.
The external location of the gun reduces
The weldment inside the chamber may be
its maneuverability, but provides ready access
observed by direct viewing through leaded glass
to the gun components for service. This arrange-
windows. However, the effectiveness of this
ment also provides the operator with a view of
technique depends upon the distance between
the beam spot and the weld through optics that
the operator and the weld joint and the shape
are coaxial with the electron beam (Fig. 5.12).
of the workpieces. When direct viewing is diffi-
A view through a coaxial optical system is
cult, an optical viewing system may be pro-
shown in Fig. 5.13. In addition, direct viewing
vided to give the operator a magnified view
is provided through lead glass windows in the
chamber walls.
2. See ASTM E498 for a description of this method Work chambers for this equipment are usu-
of leak testing. ally carbon steel boxes of ribbed design with
Equipment /187
Insulator
Optical
viewing
system
Electromagnetic
lens ------;::::===~~
Deflection
coils
Workpiece
- T o vacuum
system
Fig. 5.12-A typical high voltage electron beam welding machine

arrangement
an external cladding of lead for adequate x-ray SEAM TRACKING METHODS

protection.
Nonvacuum electron beam welding ma- With electron beam welding, as with other
chines do not require a vacuum chamber around automatic welding processes, it is important that
the workpiece. The gun column may be fixed the relative positions of the beam spot and
atop an x-radiation shielding box containing the weld joint be established accurately prior to
the workpiece and travel carriage. Another ar- initiation of the welding cycle. This .relation-
rangement is to place the gun column and the ship must then be accurately maintained through-
workpiece in an x-ray shielded room where both out the entire welding cycle. This total require-
the gun and workpiece may be traversed. The ment is somewhat complicated in electron beam
equipment is operated remotely from outside welding because (1) the beam spot is very small
the room. and produces a relatively narrow weld bead; (2)
Fig. 5.13-A sighting on an electronic component through a coaxial

optical system of a high voltage electron beam gun
welding is performed at relatively high travel beam-to-joint alignment is desirable. Direct

speeds; and (3) the workpiece is contained in a optical viewing of welding and manual correc-
vacuum chamber or radiation enclosure making tion for deviations in the joint path is, at best,
continuous observation of welding somewhat a difficult task, although some equipment is
difficult. utilized in this fashion.
As previously mentioned, most high vac- There are two methods for maintaining
uum electron beam machines are equipped with beam position on a nonlinear joint. The first
some type of viewing system that permits the involves programming by analog means or con-
operator to observe the weld joint and the beam tinuous path numerical controls. This method
spot. The initial correct position of the electron is applicable if the parts are machined pre-
beam in relation to the joint can easily be estab- cisely to the required contour and are accurately
lished with a viewing system. On medium vac- positioned for welding.
uum and nonvacuum machines, where operator A second method for tracking the joint is
viewing of some sort is not normally provided, an adaptive electromechanical control. This
this initial beam-to-joint alignment is accom- control uses a tracking device that follows the
plished through precise handling (tooling and weld joint and signals the control to adjust the
fix turing) of the part. work or gun position to keep the beam on the
For welding long or slightly irregular joints, joint. Two seam tracking devices that employ
a m eans for automatically maintaining proper the same electrical circuitry and are quickly
Equipment /189
interchanged to accomplish various tracking the electron beam column centerline. From the
requirements are the stylus and contour types. oscilloscope display, the operator can tell quickly
The stylus type seam tracking system is and precisely the position of the electron beam
based on a probe, or stylus, that rides in the column centerline with respect to the joint. From
joint. Lateral (cross seam) movements of the this information, necessary adjustments can be
probe, resulting from a change in joint position, made to assure proper positioning of the elec-
are converted to electrical signals by a trans- tron beam with respect to the joint. Excessive
ducer. The electrical signals drive a positioning weld joint gap and runout are also easily detected
servomotor that maintains preset alignment of with this system.
the joint-to-gun focus. The electrical signals All of the above seam tracking devices
from this system define a right-error, a left- can be used in conjunction with a record-and-
error, and the null or correct gun position. Al- playback device that allows the joint to be traced
ternatively, the electron beam can be deflected and its location recorded. Then the joint can be
electronically to accommodate changes in the welded using playback programmed control of
location of the joint. the beam or work position.
A simple modification of the stylus type
seam tracking system permits the edge welding
of certain types of assemblies by using the WORK HANDLING EQUIPMENT
weldment as a cam. A preloaded ball type stylus Once the relative positions of the electron
rides against the edge of the weldment as it is beam and the weld joint are established, it is
rotated or driven linearly. In some cases, the important that this relationship be maintained
device may trace a replica of the joint con- during the entire welding operation. Therefore,
figuration. As a proximity control to accommo- the work motion mechanisms must be accurate
date changes in vertical position of the weld and well defined. Their design and manufacture
joint, the system is modified to maintain a should follow good machine tooling practices.
constant gun-to-work distance by applying the Ruggedness, repeatability, smoothness, and ac-
tracking signal to a servomotor drive on the curacy are prime requirements. Since travel
z axis. speed affects weld geometry, it is important
An electronic seam-locating system is also that this variable be controlled accurately and be
available to provide seam tracking capability repeatable. In general, electric motor drives
that can be used in a two-step operation. The having an accuracy of about ± 2 percent of set
first step is to visually verify that the weld speed are adequate.
joint and weld travel direction are parallel with Most electron beam welding machines pro-
the workpiece clamped into position. This is a vide standard mechanisms for linear and rotary
mechanical adjustment of the fixturing in the motion of the workpiece relative to the electron
welding chamber. beam. Linear motion in the horizontal plane is
The vacuum chamber is then closed and usually provided either by movement of a work
evacuated to the welding pressure. A finely fo- table or by movement of the electron gun. Rotary
cused electron beam of less than I rnA is aimed motion about a vertical axis is achieved with a
at the weld joint and oscillated across the joint motor-driven horizontal rotary table. Machines
at 60Hz. The reflected electrons from this scan- can be equipped with an external platform so that
ning beam are deflected by a pickup plate, anq the work table and any work-handling mecha-
the resulting signal is displayed as a visible nisms can be withdrawn from the vacuum cham-
trace on an oscilloscope. A discontinuity in the ber for ease of loading and fixturing.
oscilloscope line trace indicates the seam loca- Figure 5.14 shows an x-y work table on its
tion, which is used for the initial electron beam external platform. An adjustable (0 to 90 degree)
column centerline-to-joint alignment. Any shift rotary work positioner and tailstock are mounted
in the discontinuity position relative to a null on the table. Rotary motion about the horizontal
location, when traversing the weld joint, indi- axis can be accomplished with the rotary posi-
cates a change in joint position with respect to tioner and tailstock. The positioner is power-
Fig. 5. 14-An X-Y work table with a rotary positioner on the run-out platform
of the electron beam welding machine
driven. Simple linear, rotary, and circular welds cult to rotate the entire piece about the center of
can be made with these mechanisms. the weld.
It is often desirable to produce circular Multiple-spindle rotary fixtures are fre-
welds in several parts as a single load in the quently used to make circumferential welds in a
chamber. In this case, the components are ar- group of similar parts. The parts are successively
ranged on an eccentric table that travels in a indexed into welding position by a motor drive.
circular manner. The circle diameter can be The joint on each part can be positioned for
changed by a simple adjustment of the table. The welding by linear movement of the work table
eccentric table is positioned on the work table. on which the rotary fixture is mounted. It is
Each piece in turn is moved into position, and possible to automate the entire operation. An
the circular weld motion is made with the ec- example of a special purpose rotary fixture is
centric table. Programmed indexing from piece shown in Fig. 5.15.
to piece can be added. This eccentric table can Since all operating variables of electron
be used for single circular welds in large or odd- beam welding are machine controlled, this pro-
shaped pieces where it is inconvenient or diffi- cess is readily adaptable to computerized nu-
Equipment /191
merical control. Movement of the workpieces beam welding is basically a modification of

or the gun, as well as electron beam deflection, standard high vacuum equipment. A diffusion
can be preprogrammed in any combination. pump and an "aperture" tube (an orifice that
The beam current itself is also programmable. allows beam passage, but impedes gas flow) are
It can be changed from one discrete level to added to the beam column. A column valve is
another, or changed at a specified rate. Other used to isolate this separately pumped gun
variables, such as accelerating voltage, emitter region from the work chamber region, so that the
power, and chamber pressure as well as auxili- gun remains under vacuum when the chamber
ary functions, can be part of the program for is vented to atmosphere. Once a part is in place,
either control or monitoring. Electron beam the work chamber is rapidly pumped down to
welding systems use this computerization capa- some medium vacuum level and then the column
bility for contour welding of intricately-shaped valve is opened. In this manner, a high vacuum
parts, or for monitoring the welding variables of of JQ-4 torr or better is always maintained in the
parts requiring precise process control. beam-generating section of the column, but the
beam can be impinged on the workpiece in its
medium vacuum environment. Low and high
MEDIUM VACUUM EQUIPMENT voltage systems are produced for this mode of
welding.
Equipment for medium vacuum electron General purpose medium vacuum machines,
Fig. 5.15-A loaded rotary welding fixture in location beneath the

electron beam gun
Fig. 5.16-A general purpose medium vacuum electron beam welding

machine
such as the one in Fig. 5.16, are employed ad- Another method for achieving high produc-
vantageously in short production runs. How- tion with medium vacuum equipment is shown
ever, most medium vacuum machines are special in Fig. 5 .18. Here, a sliding seal is used to
purpose ones tooled for particular assemblies. provide intermediate vacuum zones before and
Figure 5.17 illustrates some typical medium after the separately pumped medium vacuum
vacuum tooling concepts. In each case, the welding chamber. This method of maintaining a
work chamber and tooling are an integral assem- series of continuously pumped vacuum zones
bly, specifically designed for a single part design. eliminates the need for evacuation time and en-
Medium vacuum welding machines of a ables the high production capability of a dial
great variety are in operation for high produc- feed table to be fully utilized.
tion applications . For example, a machine with
a single welding station and multiple loading
stations can have production capability in the
NONVACUUM EQUIPMENT
region of 200 parts per hour. A dual welding A beam of electrons passing through a
station machine, on the other hand, could in- gas is primarily scattered by the shell electrons
crease the production capability up to 500 parts of the gas atoms or molecules. As the gas pres-
per hour. The production rates in the final an- sure increases, scattering becomes more severe
alysis are dependent upon the design of the parts. (Fig . 5.4). This effect produces a noticeable
Equipment /193
broadening of the beam profile and a decrease in ocity (accelerating voltage) must be high to
beam power density, but not necessarily a loss minimize the scattering effect of the gas atoms
in total beam power. or molecules.
An electron beam must be generated in high A series of chambers operating at succes-
vacuum. To weld with the beam at atmospheric sively higher pressures is obtained by staging
pressure, the beam must pass through a series of (differentially pumping) the vacuum over some
chambers or stages operating at progressively finite length with an orifice system through
higher pressures. In addition, the electron vel- which the electron beam passes. The orifice sys-
Part being
welded
Carriage assembly
Ball joint assembly
Diaphragm assembly Housing assembly
Fig. 5.17-Typical tooling concepts in special purpose medium vacuum

electron beam welding machines
Automatic unload
To vacuum
systems
vacuum
chamber)
Fig. 5.18-A medium vacuum electron beam welding system with a

prepumping zone for continuous part feed capability
tern design must be capable of producing not trode of the gun. The beam is focused by an
only the atmospheric-to-high vacuum gradient electromagnetic lens to the minimum diameter
required, but also the type of gas dynamic char- of the orifice system shown in the lower part of
acteristics needed in this type of staging system. the figure. It emerges from the vacuum environ-
A beam of relatively high speed electrons is ment into air at atmospheric pressure through the
produced with high accelerating voltage; about lower orifice. Inert gas shielding can be added,
150 kV minimum is required to produce a prac- if desired. The workpiece is placed near the
tical working distance between the final orifice lower orifice. A high vacuum is maintained
and the workpiece. In addition, the beam power continuously in the gun area during operation by
level and the ambient atmosphere through which an oil diffusion or turbomolecular pump. Higher
the beam passes can greatly influence the useful pressures are maintained in the interim pressure
working distance attainable. stages by mechanical pumps. In most cases, the
Figure 5.19 illustrates a nonvacuum elec- work is moved in front of the gun column. The
tron beam gun column assembly with an orifice gun can be placed in either a vertical or a hori-
system. The electron gun is typical of those used zontal position. The welding area must be
for the other variations of electron beam weld- shielded to prevent external x-radiation as with
ing. Accelerating voltages are in the range of high vacuum and medium vacuum modes.
150 to 200 kV. Beam current and, thus, power Figure 5. 20 shows another type of non-
are controlled by the voltage on the bias elec- vacuum electron beam welding gun column and
Equipment /195
its power supply and controls. This particular column assembly during operation. The gun and
type features a gas-filled, high voltage power power supply can be traversed along a weld
supply that can be mounted directly on the gun joint during operation.
Cable socket
and insulator ---r-..._--11~--1
Electron
gun
First stage
pumping line
External airjet
Fig. 5.19-A nonvacuum electron beam gun column assembly

Fig. 5.20-Nonvacuum electron beam gun column and its gas-filled

power source, disassembled
WELDING PROCEDURES
JOINT DESIGNS JOINT PREPARATION AND FIT-UP

Butt, corner, lap, edge, and T-joints can be For most applications, the fit-up of parts
made by electron beam welding using square- must be more precise than for arc welding pro-
groove or seam welds. Fillet welds are difficult cesses. This is due to the very small diameter of
to make and are not generally used. Typical the electron beam as compared to a welding arc.
electron beam weld joint designs are shown in ' The beam must impinge on and melt both mem-
Fig. 5.21. Modifications of these designs are bers simultaneously, except for seam welds
frequently made for a particular application. where the beam penetrates through the top sheet.
Square-groove welds require fixturing to Also, in most cases, filler metal is not needed
maintain fit-up and alignment of the joint. They to fill a joint gap or provide reinforcement to the
can be self-aligning if a rabbet joint design is weld. To avoid underfill or incomplete fusion,
used. The weld metal area can be increased joints must be carefully prepared to provide
using a scarf joint, but fit-up and alignment of good fit-up and alignment.
the joint are more difficult than with a square- A metal-to-metal fit between parts is de-
groove weld. Edge, seam, and lap fillet welds sirable but difficult to obtain. Normally, the gap
are primarily used to join sheet gage thicknesses. or opening between the faying surfaces should
Welding Procedures /197
Electron beam
Electron beam
~ ~
~ I
I.... ____ j I
L - - -......
I
I
~m
~..:--~1_
L-----J
I
I
! __,
Square-groove weld, Square-groove weld,

butt or corner joint self-aligning butt or
corner joint
Electron beam
Scarf butt joint

~
Edge weld, corner flange joint
Electron beam
D- ""'I""
+
b"m
Square-groove weld, Seam weld, T-joint

T-joint
Electron beam
Electron beam
+
.....___,
/
---~~"""~ '
L-----(2---,
Seam weld, Fillet weld, lap joint
lap joint
Fig. 5.21-Typical electron beam weld joint designs

not be more than 0.005 inch. The acceptable gap removed by mechanical or chemical means. Flat
for a particular application will depend upon the surfaces of soft metals, such as magnesium,
process mode employed, the type of base metal, aluminum, and copper, can be scraped by hand.
the thickness of the joint, and the required weld Machining without coolant is preferred for all
quality. In general, sheet sections require a fit-up but very hard metals where grinding must be
of Jess than 0.005 in.; plate sections may tol- used. Surfaces that are not prepared by ma-
erate somewhat more than this amount. Alumi- chining should be chemically cleaned. Wire
num alloys can tolerate somewhat larger gaps brushing is not generally recommended because
than steel. Beam deflection or oscillation with it tends to embed contaminants in the metal sur-
high and medium vacuum welding, to widen face. Grit blasting and grinding are not recom-
the fusion zone, and nonvacuum welding may mended for soft metals, including soft steels,
permit larger gaps. However, the acceptable because the grit may be embedded in the sur-
joint gap and tolerance should be determined faces. Nonvacuum welding will generally re-
for each application to avoid unnecessary costs. quire Jess stringent precleaning than vacuum
In general, roughness of the faying sur- welding.
faces is not critical so long as the surfaces can be
properly cleaned to remove any contamination.
Burrs on the sheared edges of sheet are not detri- FIXTURING
mental unless they separate the faying surfaces All electron beam welding is done by
oflap joints. either machine or automatic operation. The
parts must be fixtured to align the joint, unless
the design is self-fixturing, and then either the
CLEANING
assembly or the electron beam gun column must
Cleanliness is a prime requisite for any be moved to accomplish the weld.
welding process where high standards are to be Where practical, self-fixturing joint de-
met. The particular requirement will depend signs should be used. A pressed or shrink fit
upon the end use of the welded product. Con- can be used to position circular parts for weld-
tamination of the weld metal is likely to cause ing. However, these methods require close
porosity or cracking, or both, as well as a deteri- tolerance machining, which may not be econom-
oration of mechanical properties. Improper ical for high production welding.
cleaning of the components to be welded may Fixturing for electron beam welding does
cause chamber evacuation time to be excessive not have to be as strong and rigid as that re-
with the vacuum modes. quired for automatic arc welding. The reason is
Acetone is a preferred solvent for cleaning that electron beam welds are generally made
electron gun components and workpiece parts, with much lower power than arc welds. There-
but it is highly flammable and must be handled fore, stresses in the weldment caused by ther-
accordingly. Chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents mal gradients are significantly lower.
should not be used because of their detrimental The close joint fit-up and alignment for
effect on high voltage equipment operation. If electron beam welds generally require that the
a vapor degreaser containing a chlorinated hydro- fixturing be made to close tolerances. If nec-
carbon solvent must be used for heavy degreas- essary, copper chill blocks may be used to re-
ing, the parts should be thoroughly washed in move heat from the joint. A backup of the
acetone afterward. Another alternative is to use same metal as the workpieces should be posi-
a fluorocarbon type solvent in the degreaser. tioned at the back side of the weld to protect
Mter final cleaning, the joint area should not the part or fixture from an exiting electron
be touched by hand or tools to avoid contam- beam.
ination. Work tables and rotating positioners should
Surface oxides and other forms of contam- have smooth and accurate motion at the re-
ination that solvents will not dissolve should be quired travel speeds. All fixturing and tooling
Selection of Welding Variables /199
should be made of nonmagnetic metals to pre- metallurgical purposes. Wire feed is not em-
vent magnetic deflection of the beam. All mag- ployed exclusively. The dilution obtained from a
netic metals should be demagnetized before dissimilar filler metal added as wire at the sur-
welding them. face does not occur uniformly to any great
The entry and exit of the electron beam depth. In the case of heavy plate, filler metal
tends to produce underfill at both ends of the in the form of a thin shim must almost always be
welded joint. To minimize or eliminate this employed. The presence of the filler shim re-
defect, tabs of the same metal as the workpieces quires that beam oscillation or a large diameter
are fitted tightly against both ends of the joint. spot be used to melt the shim and the base metal
The beam is initiated on the starting tab, tra- on both sides of the joint. This is not the case with
versed across the weld joint, and terminated thin metal weldments where filler wire can be
on the runoff tab. Later, the tabs are cut added and dilution will occur throughout the en-
off flush with the ends of the workpiece by tire joint. Typical examples of filler metal addi-
machining. tion for metallurgical reasons are the welding of
Type 6061 aluminum alloy using Type 4043 alu-
FILLER METAL ADDITIONS
minum filler metal and the welding of beryllium
When the faying surfaces of butt joints using aluminum or silver filler metal.
are fitted together with acceptable tolerances, Filler metal may be added to fill the joint
filler metal is not normally needed to obtain a during a second pass after the penetration pass
full thickness weld. As welding processes along has been made. This is done to provide a full
the joint, weld metal flows from the leading thickness weld.
edge to the trailing edge of the vapor hole. Filler wire feeding equipment is usually
This action, combined with thermal contraction either a modified version of that used for gas
as welding progresses, usually produces a tungsten arc welding or specially designed units
welded joint free of underfill when proper weld- for use in a vacuum chamber. Filler wire diam-
ing procedures are used. However, there are eters are generally small, 0.020 in. and under.
applications when it is desirable or necessary The wire feeder must be capable of uniformly
to add filler metal to obtain an acceptable feeding small diameter wire into the leading
welded joint. edge of a small molten weld pool. The wire
Filler metal may be added to produce cer- feeding nozzle should be made of a heat-
tain physical or metallurgical characteristics in resistant metal.
the weld metal. Some weld metal characteris- For welding in a vacuum chamber, the
tics that may be altered or improved by filler filler wire drive motor must be sealed in a
metal addition are ductility, tensile strength, vacuum-tight chamber. Otherwise, the motor
hardness, and resistance to cracking. For ex- will contribute significantly to the outgassing
ample, addition of a small amount of alumi- load and increase evacuation time. Provisions
num wire or shim can produce a "killing" for adjustment of the wire feed nozzle to posi-
action in steel, which will reduce porosity. tion the wire with respect to the electron beam
Filler metal is often added to the joint for and the weld joint must be located externally.
SELECTION OF WELDING VARIABLES
The expression most widely accepted for sionis:

the rate of energy input to the workpiece is
joules per inch.3 The equation for this expres- .
Energy mput, J/"m. = -S-
El =-s-
P
3. Energy input to the weld from a heat source is dis-
cussed inCh. 2, Welding Handbook, Vol. 1, 7th ed., where: E = beam accelerating voltage, V
p.35-6. I = beam current, A
P = beam power, W or J/s Once the required energy input per unit
S = travel speed, in./s length is determined for a given metal thickness,
The above equation and data for welding the travel speed can be selected and the required
various thicknesses of a metal provide for inter- welding power defined or vice versa. The beam
polation of welding variables for that metal by voltage and current can now be selected to
graphical means. A curve relating energy input produce the required power.
per unit length with thickness for a particular The beam size selected will be dependent
family of alloys can be determined from a few upon the desired weld bead geometry. To main-
tests to establish the welding conditions for tain a selected beam spot diameter at the sur-
typical metal thicknesses. Figure 5. 22 shows face of the workpiece, it is necessary to cor-
several such curves. Such graphs are useful to respondingly increase the focus coil current as
determine initial welding power and travel speed the accelerating voltage is increased, since the
settings for a particular alloy and thickness. This beam spot size is a dependent function of the
is possible because of three factors. First, the accelerating voltage. If the accelerating voltage
welding machine settings are usually regulated is maintained constant but the gun-to-work
by closed-loop servocontrols that ensure stability distance is increased, a corresponding decrease
and reproducibility. Second, the adjustment of in focus coil current is necessary to maintain a
each variable is independently controlled, thus selected beam spot diameter at the surface of the
permitting flexibility in selection. Third, there workpiece.
are only four basic variables to adjust: accelerat- Changes in individual welding variables
ing voltage, beam current, travel speed, and will affect the penetration and bead geometry
beam focus. These factors combine to make the as follows:
process of establishing the welding schedule (l) Accelerating Voltage. As the accelerat-
relatively simple. ing voltage is increased, the penetration of the
60 30 0 2 3
Power, kW Thickness, in.
Fis. 5.22-Hi&h v•cuum electron be•m we/dins enersy requirements for

complete penetr•tion welds in sever•/ met•ls •s •
function of joint thickness
Metals Welded/201
weld will also increase. For long gun-to-work and the penetration will decrease.
distances or the production of narrow, parallel- (4) Beam Spot Size. Sharp focus of the
sided welds, the accelerating voltage should be beam will produce a narrow, parallel-sided
increased and the beam current decreased to weld geometry because the effective beam
obtain maximum focal range (see Fig. 5.1). power density will be maximum . Defocusing
(2) Beam Current. As the beam current is the beam, either by overfocusing or by under-
increased, penetration of the weld bead will also focusing, will increase the effective beam diam-
increase. eter and reduce beam power density. This, in
(3) Travel Speed. As the travel speed is in- turn, will tend to produce a shallow or V-shaped
creased, the weld bead will become narrower weld bead. These effects are shown in Fig. 5.23.
\I \I
dP
\ I
I
I\
I I
I.
! I
Over focus Sharp focus Underfocus
Fig. 5.23-Effect of electron beam focusing on weld bead geometry

and penetration
METALS WELDED
In general, metals and alloys that can be alloy or of combinations of alloys will depend
fusion welded by other welding processes can upon their metallurgical characteristics, part
also be joined by electron beam welding.• This configurations, joint design, process variation,
includes similar and dissimilar metal combina- and welding procedure.
tions that are metallurgically compatible. The
narrow weld metal geometry and thin heat-
affected zones, especially in the high vacuum STEELS
process mode, favor welded joints with better
Rimmed and Killed Steels
mechanical properties and fewer discontinuities
than arc welded joints . However, electron In rimmed steel, the chemical reaction
beam welds in alloys that are subject to hot that occurs between carbon and oxygen to form
cracking or porosity will likely contain such dis- a gas (CO) will occur in the molten weld pool.
continuities. The weldability of a particular As a result, violent weld pool action, spatter,
and porosity in the weld metal are expected
4. The weldability of various metals is covered in
with this type of steel.
Sec. 4, Metals and Their Weldability, Welding Hand-
book, 6th ed. This section will be revised as Vol. 4, Electron beam welds in rimmed steel can
7th ed. be improved if deoxidizers, such as manganese,
silicon, or aluminum, are incorporated through less steel. The weld metal becomes austenitic
filler metal additions. Deoxidizers can also be during welding and remains austenitic during
added locally to the joint area by painting, cooling. In the more martensitic types, such
spraying, and shim inserts. as 17-4 PH' and 15-5 PH; the low carbon con-
Welding of rimmed steel can also be some- tent precludes formation of hard martensite in the
what enhanced by the proper selection of elec- weld metal and heat-affected zone.
tron beam welding conditions, such as slow Some of the precipitation-hardening stain-
travel speed, to produce a wide and shallow less steels have poor weldability because of their
weld cross section. The conditions should be high phosphorus content. Steels 17-10 P and
selected to provide time for gases to escape HNM are not usually electron beam welded.
from the molten weld metal. Then a weld of
reasonable quality can be obtained, The use of
beam deflection may also be effective in re- ALUMINUM ALLOYS
ducing weld porosity. In general, aluminum alloys that can be
Hardenable Steels readily welded by gas tungsten arc and gas metal
Thick sections of hardenable steels may arc welding can be electron beam welded. Two
crack when electron beam welded without pre- problems that may be encountered in some alloys
heat. Very rapid cooling in the fusion and heat- are hot cracking and porosity.
affected zones will result in the formation of The non-heat treatable series of alloys
hard martensite. The combination of a hard, (1xxx, 3xxx, and 5xxx) can be electron beam
brittle microstructure and residual stresses can welded without difficulty. Welded joints will
cause crack formation. Cracking can be pre- possess mechanical properties similar to an-
vented by preheating, which can be done with nealed base metal.
a defocused electron beam in many applications. The heat treatable alloys (2xxx, 6xxx, and
However, careful programming and monitoring 7xxx) are crack sensitive to varying degrees
are necessary to achieve the proper preheat when electron beam welded. Some may also be
temperature with this method of heating. prone to weld porosity. Aluminum alloy l)rpes
6061-T6 and 6066-T6, which are considered
Stainless Steels difficult alloys to join, can be successfully
welded by the electron beam process. Best re-
Austenitic Stainless Steels. The high cooling
sults with these alloys are obtained by using
rates typical of electron beam welds help to
small amounts of Type 4043 aluminum filler
inhibit carbide precipitation because of the short
metal.
time that the steel is in the sensitizing temper-
As-welded joints in 1.5-in. thick l)rpe
ature range.
7075-T651 aluminum alloy exhibit lower me-
Martensitic Stainless Steels. Although these chanical properties than unwelded plate. The low
steels can be welded in almost any heat-treated weld properties are caused by overaging in the
condition, a hard martensitic heat-affected zone heat-affected zone. Postweld solution treating
will result. Hardness and susceptibility to crack- and aging will produce heat-treated properties
ing increase with increasing carbon content and in the welded joint. At high travel speeds, weld
cooling rate. porosity may result from vaporization of certain
elements in the alloy. The high zinc content of
Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels.
Type 7075 aluminum alloy is responsible for
These types of steels can, in general, be elec-
vapor formation. At low travel speed, the vapor
tron beam welded to produce good mechanical
has time to escape to the surface before the
properties in the joints. The semiaustenitic types,
weld metal solidifies. Zinc-free aluminum
such as 17-7PH' and PH14-8 Mo; can be welded
alloys can be welded at higher speeds without
as readily as the 18-8 types of austenitic stain-
encountering a severe porosity problem. It is
5. Trademarks advantageous to weld thermally hardened alumi-
Metals We/ded/203
num alloys at high travel speed to minimize the to fabricate a composite structure of thin welded
width of the softer weld and heat-affected zones. sections rather than to weld a single thick sec-
tion. Freedom from impurities such as oxygen,
TITANIUM AND ZIRCONIUM nitrogen, and carbon is important. Alloys of
metals containing rhenium are best suited for
Titanium and zirconium absorb oxygen and welding because they remain ductile at lower
nitrogen rapidly at welding temperatures and temperatures than the pure metals do.
this reduces their ductility. Acceptable levels of
oxygen and nitrogen are quite low. Therefore, DISSIMILAR METALS
these materials and their alloys must be welded
in a relatively inert environment. High vacuum Whether two dissimilar metals or alloys
electron beam welding is best for both metals, can be welded together successfully depends
but medium vacuum and non-vacuum with inert upon their physical properties, such as melting
gas shielding may be acceptable for some titan- points, thermal conductivities, atomic sizes,
ium applications. Most zirconium applications and thermal expansions. Weldability is usually
require welding in a vacuum or inert gas because predicted by empirical experience in this area.
of corrosion resistance requirements. A generalization of weldability can be made by
examining the alloy phase diagram ofthe metals
REFRACTORY METALS to be welded. If intermetallic compounds are
formed by the metals to be joined, the weld
Electron beam welding is an excellent will be brittle.
process for joining the refractory metals because Information on the relative weldability of
the high power density allows the joint to be some dissimilar metals is given elsewhere in the
welded with a minimum of heat input. This is Handbook.6 However, the information must be
important with molybdenum and tungsten be- reviewed in the light of each particular appli-
cause fusion and recrystallization raise the cation with regard to joint restraint and service
ductile-to-brittle transition temperatures of these environment.
metals above room temperature. The short time The problem of metallurgical incompati-
at temperature associated with electron beam bility can sometimes be solved by the use of a
welding minimizes grain growth and other re- filler metal shim or by welding each of the
actions that raise transition temperatures. materials to a compatible transition piece. Ex-
The refractory metals can be divided amples are given in Table 5.2. Thble 5.3 pre-
basically into two groups: rhenium, tantalum, sents a summary of the weldability of various
and columbium (readily welded) and molyb- metal combinations derived from phase diagram
denum and tungsten (difficult to weld). information and accumulated practical experi-
Molybdenum and tungsten can be success- ence.
fully electron beam welded provided the joints 6.Sec. 4, Metals and Their Weldability, Welding
are not restrained during welding. Thin sec- Handbook, 6th ed. This section will be revised as
tions are easy to handle, and it may be better Vol. 4, 7th ed.
Table5.2
Examples of filler metal shims for electron beam welding
Metal A MetalB Filler shim
Thugh pitch copper Thugh pitch copper Nickel
Tough pitch copper Mild steel Nickel
Hastelloy xa SAE 8620 steel 321 stainless steel
304 stainless steel Monel• Hastelloy B 8
A-286 stainless steel SAE4140steel Hastelloy B 8
lnconel713 8 lnconel 713 8 Udimetsoo•
Rimmed steel Rimmed steel Aluminum
a. 1\'adenames
Table5.3
Weldability of dissimilar metal combinations
Aluminum 2 1. Very desirable
(solid solubility in all combinations)
Gold 1 5
2. Probably acceptable
Beryllium 5 2 5 (Complex structures may exist)
Cobalt 3 5 2 5 3. Use with caution
(Insufficient data for proper evaluation)
Copper 2 2 5 2
4. Use with extreme caution
Iron 3 5 2 5 2 2 (No data available)
Magnesium 5 2 5 5 5 5 3 5. Undesirable combinations
(Intermediate compounds formed)
Molybdenum 3 5 2 5 5 3 2 3
Columbium 4 5 4 5 5 2 5 4 1
Nickel 2 5 5 2 5 5 5
Platinum 5 5 I I 5 2 5 1
Rhenium 3 4 4 5 1 3 5 4 5 5 3 2
Tin 2 2 5 3 5 2 5 5 3 5 5 5 3
Thntalum 5 5 4 5 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 5
Titanium 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5
1\mgsten 3 5 4 5 5 3 5 3 1 5 5 3 1 2
Zirconium 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 2 5
e e "e e
.. ="
e .. 8..., -8&l>.= :se" ] "e
" ~ 8. -~ e e e =
! ·a" :9 ..
:.::
·a" sc ·a" ...,
.E! 8
• ~ u.E!0 .!:!z ~=
>. &l c. c "'
~ 8 u ,g ::E
c
i:ii < ~ .~
0
~
0
0 E= ~ E-o
APPLICATIONS
Electron beam welding is primarily used producibility and reliability of electron beam
for two distinctly different types of applications: welding if a high purity environment is not re-
high precision and high production. quired. These desired characteristics permit
High precision applications require that the welding of components in the semifinished or
welding be accomplished in a high purity en- finished condition using both medium and non-
vironment (high vacuum) to avoid contamina- vacuum equipment. Typical examples are gears,
tion by oxygen or nitrogen, or both, and under frames, steering columns, and transmission and
minimum heat effects and maximum reproduci- driveline parts for automobiles; thin-wall tubing;
bility conditions. These types of applications are handsaw and hacksaw blades, and other bimetal
mainly in the nuclear, aircraft, missile, and elec- strip applications. Figure 5.24 shows a bimetal-
tronic industries. 1Ypical products produced in- lic strip welding machine where individual
clude nuclear fuel elements, special alloy jet strips are fed continuously into and out of the
engine components, pressure vessels for rocket weld chamber through a series of pressure zones.
propulsion systems, and hermetically-sealed Nonvacuum electron beam welding has
vacuum devices. found its major application for high volume
High production applications can take ad- production. One example is the automotive in-
vantage of the low heat input and the high re- dustry where nonvacuum welding is employed
Applications /205
for many large volume applications, two of ample. Integrated welding machine/tube mill
which are shown in Figs. 5.25 and 5.26. The units have been built to weld copper or steel
manufacture of welded tubing is another ex- tubing continuously at speeds up to 100ft/min.
Fig. 5.24-A continuous process strip electron beam welding machine
Fig. 5.25-Nonvacuum electron beam welded automotive frame (top)

formed from a welded blank (bottom)
Fig. 5.26-Nonvacuum electTon beam welded toTque conveTteT assembly
WELD QUALITY
INTRODUCTION Unlike a cast ingot, weld metal grains usually

grow from partially melted grains at the fusion
To produce welds that meet the require- line. The phenomenon is called epitaxial solidi-
ments of specifications set forth in the welding fication. The nature of the weld metal structure
industry, it is necessary to exercise good con- is controlled by the size and orientation of the
trol over the three factors that are primarily re- base metal grains and by the thermal gradients
sponsible for electron beam weld quality: (l) in and the shape of the weld pool.
joint preparation, (2) welding procedure, includ- The nature of the stress resulting from
ing provisions for keeping the beam on the fusion welding is also important. Metal immed-
seam, and (3) characteristics of the metals iately adjacent to the moving weld pool is first
being welded. The first two of these are cov- heated; it expands against the restraining forces
ered in other sections ofthis chapter. of the surrounding cold base metal; then it
The third factor relates to the physical cools and contracts. In effect, metal is plasti-
and mechanical properties of the metals being cally deformed (upset) during the heating cycle
welded, as well as to their metallurgical char- and restrained in tension during cooling. A
acteristics. Weld discontinuities of metallurgi- series of residual tensile and compressive
cal origin are cracking and porosity. stresses surround the weld zone, often resulting
Weld zones constitute regions of different in warpage of the welded assembly.
microstructures within the base metal structure. In considering these factors, it would ap-
Weld Quality /207
pear that electron beam welding offers the fol- (7) Lack of fusion
lowing unique characteristics for controlling the The probability of encountering these types
weld joint properties: of discontinuities is more pronounced in weld-
(l) Base metal recrystallization and grain ing thick sections. A knowledge of the causes
growth can be minimized. of the discontinuities and a means of avoiding
(2) Beam oscillation and travel speed can them are essential for the production of high
be used to control the shape of and the tem- quality welds in thick sections. As an example,
perature gradients in the weld pool. in welding thick sections in the horizontal posi-
(3) Low heat inputs result in low thermal tion, holes and porosity can be avoided by
stresses in the base metal and!hence, low dis- tilting the beam axis a few degrees in the plane
tortion. Also, residual stresses are symmetri- of welding. Equally important is a reliable non-
cally distributed due to the characteristic two- destructive testing method, such as ultrasonic
dimensional symmetry (parallel sides) of the inspection, to determine the presence of certain
electron beam weld zone. types of defects that are not detectable by radi-
It is, however, not always possible to ography.
realize the full potential of the process, and the
weldability of the metal ultimately is controlled POROSITY AND SPATTER
by the metallurgical factors. In this respect,
electron beam welds exhibit most of the com- Porosity in electron beam welds is caused
mon discontinuities associated with fusion by the evolution of gas as the metal is melted
welding. A possible exception is hydrogen- by the beam. The gas may form as a result of
induced cold cracking of carbon steel weld- (1) the volatilization of high vapor pressure
ments because normally there is no source of elements in the alloy, (2) the removal of dis-
hydrogen in an autogenous electron beam weld. solved gases, or (3) the decomposition of com-
One type of discontinuity sometimes found pounds such as oxides or nitrides. Copper-
in partial joint penetration welds is large voids zinc (brasses) and aluminum-magnesium alloys
at the bottom of the weld metal. In all prob- are difficult to electron beam weld because of
ability, a large number of these voids will be metal vapor formation. Both zinc and magnes-
aligned and appear as linear porosity rather than ium have low boiling points. Dissolved gases
scattered porosity. When the weld just pene- and compounds are more likely to be present
trates through the joint, root porosity will ap- in alloys originally melted in air or other pro-
pear as a lack of fill accompanied by spatter on tective gas atmospheres.
the back side of the weld. Spatter is caused by the same factors as
Another occurrence peculiar to the vacuum porosity. The rapid evolution of gas or metal
mode of welding is the release of trapped air vapor causes the ejection of drops of moiten
through the molten weld metal. This sometimes weld metal that scatter over the work surface
creates a defect. It only happens when one and interior of the chamber. Spatter and porosity
attempts to weld a gas-filled container that is can even occur in vacuum remelted alloys when
not properly vented to vacuum. a residual phase volatizes under the intense
·Other discontinuities are generally the heat of the electron beam. Examples of spatter
same as those found in other types of fusion and porosity in HP 9-4-25 steel' are shown in
welds. Electron beam weld discontinuities Figs. 5.27 and 5.28 respectively.
include: An effective means of preventing porosity
(I) Porosity and spatter and spatter is the use of vacuum melted or
(2) Shrinkage voids fully deoxidized metals for electron beam weld-
ing applications. When gas-emitting or high
(3) Cracking
(4) Undercutting vapor pressure alloys must be welded, special
(5) Underfill
(6) Missedjoints 7. A high-strength alloy steel.
Fig. 5.27-Spatter on the surface of a weldment
techniques are required to minimize porosity. may be effective in reducing porosity. In ex-
The addition of filler metal containing a deox- treme cases, it may not be possible to avoid
idizer may be helpful in welding metals that porosity completely, but remelting the joint a
are not completely deoxidized. Slow welding second or third time will reduce it. However,
speeds will provide time for gas bubbles to these techniques reduce joint strength in age-
escape from the molten metal. hardening alloys that are heat-treated prior to
The use of oscillatory beam deflection welding .
SHRINKAGE VOIDS
Shrinkage voids may occur between the
dendrites near the center of the weld metal.
These voids are characterized by irregular out-
lines in contrast to the generally round outlines
of porosity. Shrinkage voids usually occur in
alloys having high volumetric shrinkage on
solidification. In electron beam welds where the
bond lines are essentially parallel, solidification
proceeds uniformly from the base metal to the
center of the weld. When solidification shrink-
age of the metal is great, voids will form if the
face and root surfaces freeze before the center
of the weld. An example of shrinkage voids in
an electron beam weld in 15-7Mo PH stainless
steel is shown in Fig. 5 .29 . Low travel speed
or beam oscillation may eliminate or minimize
shrinkage voids by increasing the volume of
molten metal and decreasing the solidification
rate . However, these conditions will generally
Fig. 5.28-Porosity near the bottom of produce a wider fusion zone than would be
electron beam weld beads obtained otherwise.
Weld Quality /209
Fig. 5.29-Shrinkage voids in an electron beam weld
CRACKING in the base metal at the edges of the weld bead,

as shown in Fig. 5.30(8). The defect occurs
Hot or cold cracks may occur in electron when the weld metal does not wet the base
beam welds in alloys that are subject to these metal. Undercutting is promoted by very high
types of cracking. Hot cracking is generally travel speeds, improper cleaning procedures, or
intergranular and cold cracking is transgranular. beam asymmetry (usually occurs on one side
Hot cracks form in a low-melting grain bound- only). Alloy additions that reduce surface ten-
ary phase during solidification of the weld metal.
Cold cracks form after solidification as a result
of high internal stresses produced by thermal
Face
contraction of the metal during cooling . Acrack
originates at some imperfection or point of
stress concentration in the metal and propagates
through the grains by cleavage.
Hot cracking may be minimized by weld-
ing at high travel speeds with minimum beam (B)
energy. Cold cracking may be overcome by reinforcement
redesigning the joint to eliminate points of stress (A)
Oo
concentration or by changing the welding pro-
cedures to minimize porosity. Preheating
quench-hardenable steels to a suitable temper-
ature to control the fonnation of martensite in Lack of
penetration
the weld zone will prevent cracking.
(C) (D)
UNDERCUTTING
Fig. 5.30-Correct (A) and incorrect (8, C,
Undercutting refers to grooves produced and D) electron beam weld geometries
sion or increase fluidity, such as aluminum joint is not required. These applications gener-
additions to carbon steel welds, have a bene- ally use seal welds or welds subjected to shear-
ficial effect. ing forces only. In these cases, the sharp notch
at the root of the weld is acceptable. However,
when a welded joint must support a transverse
UNDERFILL
tensile stress at the root of the weld, full joint
Electron beam welds with good bead ge- penetration is required.
ometry have essentially parallel bond lines Lack of penetration may be caused by low
with a uniform crown or buildup of weld metal beam power, high travel speed, or improper fo-
on the top surface, as shown in Fig. 5.30(A). cusing of the beam. This condition is shown in
Full (100 percent) penetration welds will have Fig. 5.30(D).
a uniform root surface, the width of which is
dependent upon the welding conditions. In thick MISSED JOINTS
sections of metal, such as 3-in. stainless steel,
When a small diameter electron beam is
the face and root surface shapes are dependent
upon the surface tension supporting the column used to make a long joint in a thick section, the
of molten metal as it is being transported along beam axis must be in the same plane as the
the weld joint. At slow welding speeds, the joint faces and aligned with the joint along its
molten weld metal will sag due to insufficient entire length of travel. Otherwise, the possibility
surface tension and the force of gravity. This of missing the joint at some location is great.
will form an extremely heavy root reinforce- Even when the beam is properly aligned with
ment and the weld face will show severe under- the joint, electrostatic or magnetic forces can
fill (concavity), as shown in Fig. 5.30(C). cause beam deflection, resulting in portions of
Various techniques can eliminate this condition. the joint being missed. An electrostatic field
These include the use of a backing strip, a step can be generated by the accumulation of an
joint, or welding in the horizontal or the vertical electrical charge on an insulated surface, such
position. as the glass in the vacuum chamber windows.
Excessive sagging of the rcrv~ surface The electron beam will be deflected away from
usually results when the beam energy is too the charged surface if the beam passes too close
high or the molten weld metal is too wide. This to it.
can be reduced by proper adjustment of the Residual magnetism in a ferromagnetic
welding variables. If underfilling persists at the base metal or in the fixturing can cause unex-
best beam operating conditions, filler metal pected beam deflection. For example, a steel
must be added to fill the groove. A number of part may be magnetized during grinding if it is
techniques are effective in providing the re- held by a magnetic chuck, and the residual
quired filler metal. One is to place a narrow magnetism in the part will cause the beam to
strip over the face of the joint and then weld deflect and miss the joint. This can be avoided
through it. The thickness of the strip must be by demagnetizing all ferromagnetic parts before
slightly greater than the depth of any undercut, welding and by using nonmagnetic materials
so that the undercut will be entirely in the strip. for fix turing.
Filler metal wire may similarly be added to the Unexpected beam deflection can occur
face of the weld as it is being made or during a when welding dissimilar metals, especially
subsequent smoothing pass made with a defo- when one is ferromagnetic. An example of this
cused beam. is shown in Fig. 5.31, a weld between a non-
magnetic nickel-base alloy and a magnetic
maraging steel. Residual or induced magnetism
LACK OF PENETRATION
in the steel deflected the electron beam and
There are numerous applications of electron caused lack of fusion at the root of the joint. If
beam welding in which full penetration of the dissimilar materials are to be welded in produc-
Weld Quality /211
made with insufficient beam power. Figure

5.32 shows an example of this in an electron
beam weld in a titanium alloy. Lack of fusion
generally can be avoided by using properly ad-
justed welding variables. There are circum-
stances, however, where partial penetration
welding is required. One example is the welding
of circular joints where the beam power and
penetration must be decreased as the end of the
weld overlaps the start to avoid crater forma-
tion. A partial penetration weld is formed in
the overlap and lack of fusion can occur. An-
other example is the welding of thick sections.
1Wo partial penetration weld passes, one from
each side of the joint, may be required when
the metal thickness is too great to be penetrated
in a single pass.
Welding with a slightly defocused beam
and low travel speed (to compensate for the
lower energy density) is effective in eliminating
lack of fusion . Beam oscillation, either circular
or transverse, is sometimes effective. Preheating
Fig. 5.31-Be~m deflection when welding is helpful because it reduces the thermal grad-
dissimil~r met~ls
ient at the root of the weld.
Lack of fusion is difficult to locate nonde-
structively because it is similar to fine cracks
and usually can not be detected with x-ray in-
tion, it is important that test welds be made spection. Penetrant tests are ineffective because
and examined to determine whether beam de- the unfused areas do not usually extend to the
flection will occur. surface.
Ultrasonic testing is the only nondestruc-
tive test method that can detect lack of fusion
in electron beam welds . Experienced nonde-
LACK OF FUSION
structive test personnel are required to perform
In most cases, lack of fusion occurs in the test and interpret the results. Even then, the
partial penetration welds. However, it can also test method is not suitable for many appli-
occur near the root of full penetration welds cations.
Fig. 5.32-Lack of fusion or spiking in vertical (top) and horizontal (bottom)

sections through an electron beam weld in a titanium alloy
Safe Practices /213
SAFE PRACTICES
Since electron beam welding machines suming proper design. All high voltage ma-
employ a high energy beam of electrons to chines utilize lead lining to block x-ray emission
provide the thermal energy for welding, the beyond the chamber walls. Lead glass windows
process requires the user to observe various are employed in both high and low voltage elec-
safety precautions not normally necessary with tron beam systems. Generally, the shielded
other types of welding equipment. The four vacuum chamber walls provide adequate protec-
primary potential dangers associated with election for the operator.
tron beam equipment are: electric shock, x-radi- In the case of nonvacuum systems, a radia-
ation, fumes and gases, and damaging visible tion enclosure must be provided to assure the
radiation. Precautionary measures must be taken safety of the operator. Thick walls of high-den-
at all times to assure that proper protective pro- sity concrete or some other similar material may
cedures are always observed. AWS F2.1, Rec- be employed instead of lead, especially for
ommended Safe Practices for Electron Beam large radiation enclosures on nonvacuum instal-
Welding and Cutting, and ANSI Z49.1, Safety in lations. In addition to the normal precautions
Welding and Cutting, (latest editions) give the necessary for ensuring that large radiation en-
general safety rquirements that should be strictly closures are properly shielded, special safety
adhered to at all times. precautions should be imposed to prevent per-
sonnel from accidently entering or being trapped
ELECTRIC SHOCK inside these enclosures when equipment is in
operation.
Every electron beam welding machine op- A complete x-ray radiation survey of the
erates with high voltage that can cause fatal in- electron beam equipment should always be made
jury, regardless of whether it is referred to as a at the time of installation and at regular inter-
low voltage or a high voltage machine. The vals thereafter. This should be done by personnel
manufacturers of electron beam equipment, in trained in the proper procedures for doing a radia-
meeting various underwriter requirements, pro- tion survey to assure initial and continued com-
duce machines that are well-insulated against pliance with all radiation regulations and stan-
the danger of high voltages. However, all pre- dards applicable to the site where the equipment
cautions should be exercised with all systems in is installed.
which high voltages are present.
X-RADIATION FUMES AND GASES

The x-rays generated by an electron beam It is unlikely that the very small amount of
welding machine are produced when electrons, air left in a high vacuum electron beam cham-
traveling at a high velocity, collide with matter. ber would be sufficient to produce ozone and
The majority of x-rays are produced when the oxides of nitrogen in harmful concentrations.
electron beam impinges upon the workpiece. However, nonvacuum and medium vacuum
Substantial amounts are produced when the beam electron beam systems are capable of producing
strikes gas molecules or metal vapor in both the these by-products, as well as other types of air-
gun column and work chamber. Underwriters borne contaminants, in concentrations well
and Federal regulations have established firm above acceptable levels.
rules for permissible x-radiation exposure levels, Adequate area ventilation should be em-
and producers and users of equipment must ob- ployed to reduce concentrations of any airborne
serve these rules. contaminants around the equipment below per-
Generally, the steel walls of the chamber are missible exposure levels, and proper exhausting
adequate protection in systems up to 60 kV, as- techniques should be employed to maintain
residual concentrations in the chamber or enclo- by the molten weld metal can be harmful to eye-
sure below these same limits. sight. In the presence of intense light, proper
eye protection is necessary. Optical viewing
should be done through filters in accordance
VISIBLE RADIATION with ANSI Z87.1, Occupational And Educa-
Direct viewing of visible radiation emitted tional Eye and Face Protection (latest edition).

1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 torr= 133.3 Pa
1 W/in~ = 1.55x10:SW/m2
1 in./min = 0.423 mm/s
1 kJ/in. = 39.4 kJ/m
1 STD • cm 3 /s = 1.04x10·5 micron • ft3 /h
1 psi = 6.89 kPa

Bench, F. K. and Ellison, G. W. EB welding of nal, 55(8): 230s-240s; 1976 Aug.
304L stainless steel with cold wire feed.
Welding Journal, 53 (12): 763-766; 1974 Murphy, J. L. and Thrner, P. W., Wire feeder
Dec. and positioner for narrow groove electron
beam welding. Welding Journal, 55 (3):
Ben-Zvi, 1., Bogart, L., and Thrneaure, J. P., 181-190; 1976 Mar.
Simple device for controlling 100% pene-
tration in electron beam welds. Welding O'Brien, T. B., el a!., Suppression of spiking in
Journal, 51 (12): 842-843; 1912 Dec. partial penetration EB welding. Welding
Journal, 53 (8): 332s-338s; 1974 Aug.
Bibly, M. J., Burbridge, G., and Goldak, J. A.,
Gases evolved from electron beam welds Passoja, D. E., Heat flow in electron beam
in plain carbon steels. Welding Journal, 51 welds. Welding Journal, 45 (8): 379s-384s;
(12): 844-847; 1972 Dec. l966Aug.
Bibly, M. J., Burbridge, G., and Goldak, J. A., Privoznik, L. J., Smith, R. S., and Heverly, J. S.,
Cracking in restrained EB welds in carbon Electron beam welding of thick sections of
and low alloy steels. Welding Journal, 54 12% Cr turbine grade steel. Welding Jour-
(8): 253s-258s; 1975 Aug. nal, 50 (8): 567-572; 1971 Aug.
Dixon, R. D. and Pollard, L. Jr., Effect of Sandstrom, D. J., Bucken, J. F., and Hanks,
accurate voltage control on partial penetra- G. S., On the measurement and interpreta-
tion EB welds. Welding Journal, 53 (11): tion and application of parameters impor-
495s-497; 1974 Nov. tant to electron beam welding. Welding
Journal, 49(7): 293s-300s; 1970 July.
Duhamel, R. F., Nonvacuum electron beam
welding technique development and prog- Schumacher, B. W., Atmospheric EB welding
ress. Welding Journal, 44 (6): 465-474; with large standoff distance. Welding Jour-
1965 June .. nal, 52 (5); 312-314; 1973 May.
Fink, J. H., Analysis of atmospheric electron Schwartz, M. M., Electron Beam Welding, New
beam welding. Welding Journal, 54 (5): York: Welding Research Council, 1974July;
137s-143s; 1975 May. Bulletin 196.
Hinrichs, J. F., eta!., Production electron beam Tews, P., et a!., Electron beam welding spike
welding of automotive frame components. suppression using feedback control. Welding
Welding Journal, 53 (8): 488-493; 1974Aug. Journal, 55(2): 52s-55s; 1976 Feb.
Lubin, B. T., Dimensionless parameters for the Tong, H. and Geidt, W. H., A dynamic interpre-
correlation of electron beam welding vari- tation of electron beam welding. Welding
ables. Welding Journal, 41 (3): l40s-144s; Journal, 49 (6): 259s-266s; 1970 June.
1968 Mar. Weber, C. M. and Funk, E. R., Penetration
Mayer, R., Dietrich, W., and Sundermeyer, D., mechanism of partial penetration electron
New high-speed beam current control and beam welds. Welding Journal, 51 (2): 90s-
deflection systems improve electron beam 94s; 1972 Feb.
welding applications. Welding Journal, 56 Weidner, C. W. and Schuler, L. E,, Effect of
(6): 35-41; 1977 June. process variables on partial penetration
Metzger, G. and Lison, R., Electron beam electron beam welding. Welding Journal,
welding of dissimilar metals. Welding Jour- 52 (3): 114s-119s; 1973 Mar.
6
Laser Beam Welding and Cutting
Fundamentals of the Process .......... 218 Laser Cutting and Drilling ............. 232
Laser Welding .................... ... 223 Safety ............................. 236
Chapter Committee
R. E. SOMERS, Chairman J. I. NURMINEN

Welding Consultant Westinghouse Electric Corporation
C. M. BANAS Y. C. JOHN PENG
United Technologies GTE Sylvania
Research Center R. J. SAUNDERS
S. R. BOLIN Coherent, Inc.
Raytheon Laser Center
R. E. SOMERS
Welding Consultant
217
6
Laser Beam Welding and Cutting

DEFINITION AND (Nd-YAG) crystal rods to produce a continuous
GENERAL DESCRIPTION monochromatic output; power levels to 1 kW
have been attained. Also, electrically excited gas
The word laser is an acronym for "light lasers that produce continuous-wave (cw) energy
amplification by stimulated emission of radia- have been developed. Multikilowatt laser beam
tion." From an engineering standpoint, the laser equipment based on C0 2 is capable of full pene-
may be considered as an energy conversion de- tration, single-pass welding of steel to 3/4-in.
vice in which energy from a primary source thickness.
(electrical, chemical, thermal, optical, nuclear)
is transformed into a beam of coherent electro-
magnetic radiation at ultraviolet, visible, or in- PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
frared frequency. Transformation is facilitated by SoHd-State Lasers
certain solids, liquids, or gases which, when
excited on a molecular or atomic scale by special Solid-state lasers are based on single crystals
techniques, produce coherent "light." Such light or glasses doped with small concentrations of
is monochromatic (single wavelength) and co- transition elements (such as chromium in ruby)
herent; i.e., all waves are in phase. Because or rare earths (such as neodymium in glass and
high-energy laser beams are coherent, they can YAG). Electrons in the atoms of the transition or
be highly concentrated with transmitting or re- rare earth element can be selectively excited to
flective optics to provide the high-energy density higher energy levels upon exposure to intense in-
required for welding, cutting, and heat treating. coherent optical radiation (white light), as shown
The first laser beam was produced in 1960 in Fig. 6.1. Selective excitation of a specific
using a ruby crystal pumped by a flash lamp. energy level (pumping) is the key to laser opera-
Such lasers can produce only short pulses of tion since it permits establishment of a "popula-
light energy at a repetition frequency limited by tion inversion." A population inversion exists
heating of the crystal. Therefore, even though when the number of particles at a given energy
individual pulses may exhibit instantaneous level substantially exceeds that corresponding to
peak power levels in the megawatt range, pulsed thermal equilibrium. Without such an inversion,
ruby lasers are limited to low average powers. photons generated by stimulated emission would
Currently, pulsed and continuously-operating be absorbed within the medium and lasing could
solid-state lasers capable of welding and cutting not occur. Once excited, the electrons return to
thin sheet metal are available. The latter utilize their normal energy state in one or more steps,
neodymium-doped, yttrium aluminum garnet each involving loss of a discrete quantity (quan-
218
tum) of energy. Lasing occurs if one of these Reflecting

energy losses results in the emission of a quantum
of electromagnetic radiation {photon).
An example of a solid-state laser is a ruby
crystal consisting of aluminum oxide with a small Crystal or
concentration of chromium atoms in solution. glass laser rod
When ruby is exposed to the intense radiation
Laser
from one or more xenon or krypton flash lamps, cavity
some of the electrons in the chromium are ex~ited
to a high energy level. These electrons imme- Focusing optics
diately drop to an intermediate energy level, re- Workpiece
sulting in the evolution of heat. Then, they return Partially
to the ground energy state on emission of a photon transmitting mirror
of red light having a wavelength of0.69 JLm. An
Fig. 6.2-Eiements of a solid-state laser
electron at the intermediate energy level returns
system
to the ground state faster when it is stimulated by
the red light output of its neighbors. When a large
number of electrons is involved, amplification of spaced wavelengths may actually be seen due to
the red light output occurs. the fine structure of the energy levels in the lasing
The amplification effect is accentuated by medium. Beam divergence occurs due to diffrac-
shaping the ends of the crystal and mirror-coating tion and to system imperfections (multiple-mode
them (or by using external mirrors) so that the operation, scattering, etc.). The former is inherent
emitted light is reflected back and forth along the in any optical system of finite size, while the
crystal. If some of the light is then allowed to latter can be reduced with improved components
escape from one end through a partially transmit- and techniques. At the energy levels used for
ting mirror, a nearly monochromatic and nondi- welding, typical pulsed ruby laser beam diver-
vergent output beam is obtained. Several closely- gence falls within an included angle of 0.25 to
0.75 degrees.
The wavelength of all solid-state laser light
is determined by the fluorescence spectrum of
Energy absorbed the dopant element. Both Nd-glass and Nd-YAG
from flash lamp lasers emit near infrared radiation with a wave-
(2) Energy emitted length of 1.06 JLm. Simple optical systems can
as heat be used to concentrate the beam into a small
spot. The components of a solid-state laser sys-
tem are shown in Fig. 6.2, and an operating unit
is shown in Fig. 6.3.
The laser cavity that couples the output from
the flash lamp to the lasing medium is an in-
~:l ~~~~ons teresting feature of the apparatus. In many sys-

tems, the cavity comprises a highly polished
___{_,.,~@ Nucleus elliptical cylinder with the flash lamp and laser
medium at alternate foci. In this arrangement, the
Normal
flash lamp output is focused on the laser crystal.
electron
orbits Sometimes multiple elliptical cylinders are em-
ployed so that more than one lamp can be used
Energy emitted to pump a single crystal. Arrangements of one,
as light (photon)
two, or four lamps in conjunction with a single
Fig. 6.1-Electron energy absorption and crystal are common. Other reflective cavities are
emission during laser action used in which helical, hollow flash tubes sur-
220/ LASER BEAM WELDING AND CUTTING
round the crystal. Inert gas discharge or quartz-

iodine ("sun") lamps are used to generate a con- Laser gas Excitation
inlet power supply
tinuous output.
Because solid-state lasers are, at best, only
Gas
about 3 percent efficient and may have average exhaust
-
powers of a few hundred watts, large quantities
of heat are generated as an adjunct to the laser
process. Therefore, a high capacity cooling sys- Beam
tem is needed to remove the heat developed.
Typically, a closed-loop system is used with de-
Totally
ionized water as the cooling agent. The water
reflecting
flows around the laser rod and flash lamps and mirror
additionally cools the cavity walls . For a solid-
state laser with a 400 W average output, the cool- Fig. 6.4-Basic gas laser system
ing system must remove approximately 15 kW
gas lases when it is selectively excited between
of waste heat.
a totally reflecting mirror at one end of the tube
Gas Lasers and a partially transmitting mirror at the other.
Many gas lasers have been developed; the most
Fi~ure 6.4 is a diagram of a simple gas common of these is the red output helium-neon
laser. It consists basically of a tube through which is used in myriad alignment, measure-
which the lasing gas mixture is circulated. The ment, and other tasks. Most gas lasers are limited
Fig. 6.3-Pulsed laser welding system

to milliwatt continuous power levels. A few, have been developed. Notable among these is
such as the argon laser, have been developed the gas dynamic laser represented by Fig. 6.5.
withcw outputs of tens of watts, and one, the C0 2 In such a system, fuel and oxidizer are chosen to
laser, is capable of durable multikilowatt opera- yield combustion products suitable for lasing.
tion. For example, combustion of CO and CH 4 with
In a C0 2 laser suitable for industrial use, 0 2 and N2 yields C0 2 , N2 , and H 20, the latter
C0 2 molecules are vibrationally excited in an substituting for helium in the carbon dioxide
electric discharge. Because the direct vibrational lasing process. Vibrational excitation of N 2 and
excitation of C0 2 by an electric discharge is C0 2 occurs due to the elevated temperature of
relatively inefficient, N2 is added to the medium. the products. On rapid expansion through a su-
Nitrogen accepts energy effectively from the dis- personic nozzle, the static gas temperature is
charge and, because the vibrational energy quickly reduced. A set of small nozzles is used
levels of nitrogen are very close to some of those rather than a large single unit to decrease ex-
of carbon dioxide, the C0 2 is excited by resonant pansion time. Due to differences in the times
energy exchange with N2 ; this two-step process required for various species to assume the energy
is much more rapid and efficient than the direct distribution appropriate to the reduced temper-
C0 2 process. Transition from the upper vibra- ature, selected high-energy states may be mo-
tional energy state in C0 2 to an intermediate mentarily "frozen." A nonequilibrium condition
level then occurs with the emission of a photon; occurs which promotes establishment of the pop-
the energy difference between the two levels ulation inversion necessary for laser action.
corresponds to a characteristic wavelength of Gas dynamic laser systems developing
10.6 J.l.ffi in the infrared. Carbon dioxide mole- short duration continuous power outputs to 100
cules at the intermediate level must then return kW have been reported. One such unit, operating
to the ground state in order to complete the at 90 kW, was used to demonstrate the capability
process. Helium added to the lasing mixture for full penetration, single-pass welding of 1.5-
expedites this transition. Collisions between C0 2 inch thick steel at 120 in./min. Due to the high
molecules and helium result in the transfer of cost of operation, however, the gas dynamic
residual excitation energy to the helium; this laser is not suitable for industrial welding and
energy is then removed as waste heat. cutting applications.
As with solid-state lasers, the operation of a The convectively cooled, electrically ex-
gas laser requires the establishment of a non- cited C0 2 laser is currently the basis for high
equilibrium, population inversion condition. power, production rated equipment to 20 kW
This is accomplished electrically with a high continuous output. Rapid flow of the laser gases
voltage glow discharge. Unfortunately, a glow
discharge tends toward instability at current
levels above approximately 300 rnA independent
of chamber size. If the glow discharge trans-
forms to an arc, thermodynamic equilibrium con-
ditions are established and lasing cannot occur.
It has therefore been necessary in some cases to
stabilize the glow discharge in high power sys-
tems by an auxiliary ionization means. Radio-
frequency (r-t) electric power and high voltage
electron beams have been utilized for this pur-
pose. Currently, high power C0 2 lasers are avail-
able that operate solely with a de electric dis-
charge requiring no auxiliary ionization pro-
visions.
Other means of generating high laser power Fig. 6.5-Gas dynamic laser
is utilized to remove waste heat from the laser power levels of approximately 1 kW or above
cavity. Since such lasers typically exhibit an are required for deep penetration (keyhole)
electrical-to-optical conversion efficiency of 10 welding. Below approximately I kW, laser
to 15 percent, effective waste heat removal is welding is currently limited to the conduction
essential to continuous operation. To minimize mode.
operating costs, a gas-to-liquid heat exchanger
is used and the laser gases are recirculated Low Power Lasers
through the system. Only a small quantity of Most solid-state lasers are operated in the
gas is consumed due to the requirement for con- pulsed mode and most gas laser systems may
tinual removal and replenishment of a small also be operated in this manner. Outputs may
amount of the laser gas mixture to prevent build- be in the magnitude of hundreds of kilowatts
up of contaminants generated by dissociation of during a millisecond pulse at a pulse repetition
C0 2 and N 2 in the discharge. frequency of l Hz, yielding average powers of
Gas flow in the C0 2 laser may be coaxial several hundreds of watts. For either solid-state
with or transverse to the laser beam. Typical or gas lasers, peak power decreases as the
operating pressure is 80 torr or less, although pulse length and repetition frequency increase;
pulsed C0 2 laser operation has been attained at i.e., average power remains essentially un-
atmospheric pressure. With coaxial flow, several changed. Carbon dioxide lasers are available
tubes may be arranged electrically in parallel that will produce pulse peaks of 3 kW at fre-
and optically in series to produce high output quencies of up to 2.5 kHz from a nominal 500 W
power. Physically parallel tube arrays are used average power unit.
to reduce system length. Such configurations While their usual operating mode is pulsed,
are optically connected in series by means of neodymium-YAG lasers can also be designed for
mirrors. With transverse flow, mirrors are used continuous power output. In this case, a crystal
to reflect the beam back and forth within a single medium such as yttrium aluminum garnet
discharge chamber. Multiple beam passes are (YAG) is a more suitable host for neodymium
required to effectively remove available optical (Nd) than glass because a crystal can better with-
energy from the entire lasing medium. In both stand the temperature gradient and heat dissipa-
cases, a totally reflecting mirror is utilized at tion requirements of cw operation. A steady
one end and a partially transmitting (at the laser source of incoherent light is used instead of a
wavelength of 10.61£m) mirror is used as the out- flash lamp. Commercial versions of the Nd-
put window. For power levels to several kW, YAG laser are available to power levels of sev-
coated semiconductor materials, notably zinc eral hundreds of watts in continuous operation.
selenide (ZnSe ), serve effectively as output Another version of the Nd-YAG laser can emit a
windows. However, such materials are not dur- continuous train of extremely short pulses. An
able at higher power levels; hence, an annular example of this performance is the generation of
metal mirror is used to facilitate partial trans- pulses of 25 picosecond (25 X I0-12s) duration at
mission. Output is then beamed through an intervals of2.5 nanoseconds (25 x I0-9s).
"aerodynamic window," an opening across Solid-state lasers dominate the commercial
which a controlled high velocity flow of com- field in numbers of units in operation in the low
pressed air maintains the pressure difference average power pulsed range. In low power cw
between the laser chamber and the atmsophere. applications, C0 2 laser systems are predominant
as they are in the high power area.
PROCESS VARIATIONS
High Power Lasers
Lasers can be arbitrarily divided into low At present, all high power laser systems are
and high power types on the basis of their aver- of the continuous C0 2 type. Commercial units
age power output. From a welding viewpoint, based on either coaxial or transverse flow range
a logical division is at I kW since continuous from about 2 to lO kW output. Experimental
Laser Welding /223
transverse flow units capable of outputs to 20 kW MW/in.2 corresponds to a thermal source tem-
are in laboratory use. perature of about 13 000 K.
A laser beam can be transmitted for
CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS appreciable distances through air without se-
rious power attenuation or degradation of optical
A laser beam and an electron beam pro- quality. On the other hand, an electron beam is
duce similar welding behavior and exhibit char- rapidly dispersed by electron collisions with air
acteristic similarities and differences. The laser molecules. Out-of-vacuum working distances
beam consists of a stream of photons moving at for electron beams are therefore relatively short.
the velocity of light, and the electron beam is a A laser beam is partially reflected or de-
stream of electrons moving at a speed propor- flected by smooth metallic surfaces while an
tional to the square root of the accelerating volt- ·electron beam is not. Significant laser beam
age.' The energy of a beam photon corresponds reflection may occur, thereby inhibiting energy
to the wavelength and is of the order of 0.1 to transfer to a workpiece. Conversely, an electron
2.0 eV, while that of a beam electron is numer- beam is deflected by electrostatic or electromag-
ically equivalent to the beam voltage (typically netic fields or a magnetic material, while the
30 to 150 keY). The laser beam can be focused laser beam is not.
and directed by optical means (mirrors and lenses)
When a high power electron beam strikes
and the electron beam by electrostatic and mag-
a metal surface, x-rays are generated. Adequate
netic means. Both beams can be concentrated
x-ray shielding is therefore required to protect
into a very small area, producing power den-
personnel from exposure. Laser beams do not
sities greater than I MW per square inch. For
generate x-rays during normal metal processing
reference, it is noted that a power density of 1
operations. However, they do produce high-in-
tensity light which can damage eyesight or cause
I. An electron beam and the devices used to generate severe burns. Appropriate safety provisions and
and manipulate it are discussed in Chapter 5. procedures must therefore be established.
LASER WELDING
For welding, the laser beam must be focused nique. In conduction limited welding, the beam
to a small diameter to produce high power den- impinges on and is absorbed by the metal sur-
sity. This is accomplished with transmitting face. The inner portions of the material are heated
optics for low power lasers and with reflective entirely by conduction from the surface. This
optics for high power lasers. Minimum beam type of welding is frequently done with low
size can be adjusted by the optics design. Al- power cw and pulsed laser beams.
though variable focus optics can be designed, The keyhole (deep penetration) welding
customary practice involves control of the in- mode, illustrated in Fig. 6.6, is used to produce
cident spot diameter by varying the position of high depth-to-width ratio welds with pulsed or
the workpiece surface relative to the plane of cw laser systems. In this welding mode, the in-
optimum focus of fixed optics. The depth of tense energy concentration at the workpiece
focus determines the permissible tolerance on the surface induces local vaporization. A vapor
work-to-lens or mirror distance. cavity surrounded by molten metal is formed as
As with electron beam welding, laser welds the beam starts to move along the joint. The
can be produced by the conventional conduc- cavity is maintained against the fluid dynamic
tion limited manner and by the keyhole tech- forces of the liquid metal surrounding it by the
absorption occurs for pulsed lasers when power

density exceeds a certain threshold value. Typ-
ical threshold levels are 10• W/m 2 for carbon
steel, 10• W/m 2 for aluminum and copper, and
10 10 W/m 2 for tungsten.
In high power C0 2 laser welding, absorp-
tion is enhanced by the deep penetration cavity
which forms at power densities exceeding ap-
proximately 10 8 W/m 2• As the beam passes into
the material, multiple reflections and absorp-
tions occur. Cumulative absorption is therefore
quite high due to this geometric blackbody effect.
Direct calorimetric measurements have shown
absorption levels above 90 percent in alloy steels,
and levels greater than 50 percent have been
noted in aluminum alloys.
Fig. 6. 6- Characteristics of deep

PULSED POWER
penetration laser welding
With a pulsed solid-state laser system, the
joint penetration is primarily determined by the
pressure of the vaporized metal. Metal is pro- pulse energy and duration. Overlapping spots are
gressively melted at the leading edge of the used to form a seam weld at a speed governed by
moving molten pool and flows around the deep the pulse repetition frequency. To generate a
penetration cavity to the rear of the pool where sound weld, the laser beam must deliver suffi-
it solidifies in a characteristic chevron pattern. cient energy to the workpiece to melt adequate
In the keyhole mode, penetration is not limited material for the fusion joint. Pulse duration must
by the thermal diffusivity of the material be- be long enough to enable conduction and melt-
cause beam energy penetrates directly into the ing to the desired depth. Since pulse energy
cavity. The process may be visualized in terms and duration specifically fix beam power, power
of a taut hot wire being drawn through a cake of intensity at the workpiece surface must then be
ice. Due to beam penetration into the material, controlled by the focusing optics and the loca-
high depth-to-width ratio welds are formed tion of the surface relative to the plane of opti-
rather than the characteristic hemispherical ones mum focus. Conditions must be chosen to avoid
formed by conduction welding processes. vaporization. This requirement is complicated
Effective laser beam welding depends upon by the fact that the energy distribution across the
absorption of beam energy by the workpiece. incident spot may not be uniform. Often, the
Unfortunately, shiny metal surfaces at room tem- energy peaks at the center cause local vapor-
perature are quite reflective to light at laser wave- ization. Under these conditions it is necessary
lengths. For example, absorption of a low-inten- to defocus the beam; a slight increase in pulse
sity C0 2 beam may be only 40 percent for stain- energy may then be required to compensate for
less steel and as low as I percent for polished the reduced average power intensity. In usual
aluminum or copper. Absorption levels are practice, such adjustments can be made quickly
higher for Nd-YAG and even higher for ruby, by trial and error procedure.
but significant reflection still occurs. Pulsed weld penetration is governed by
Despite the above, acceptable absorption laser process and material variables. Increased
levels occur during welding. Absorption in- pulse energy and duration lead to increased
creases as metal temperature and incident beam penetration. The limit on penetration occurs with
power intensity increase. A sharp increase in incipient vaporization at the material surface. For
Laser Welding /225
SSt Ti AI Travel speed, mm/s

25 15 10 5 2.5 1.5 0.5
60
1.5 1.1 1.0 50
E ~
E 'S
c'
0
·.::; --....,>
0.
...~ E'
"'c "'c
"'
Cl. 0.8 0.6 0.5 20
UJ
0.4 0.3 0.2 10

0.2 0.2 0.1
100 60 40
Pulses/s
Fig. 6.7-Dependence of penetration in three metals on the operating conditions,

for pulsed lasers of three power ratings
a given pulse energy and duration, shallow in sheet metals at high speeds using the keyhole
penetration is attained in a material with high mode. The latter mode can also be used at lower
thermal diffusitivity. High pulse energy and short speeds to generate high depth-to-width ratio
pulse duration (higher power) are appropriate for welds in plate. Usually, keyhole welding cannot
such materials and the converse applies for be done at welding speeds below about 15
materials of low thermal diffusivity. Maximum in./min.
penetration for present pulsed solid-state laser Within appropriate welding conditions,
systems is approximately 1/16 inch. penetration in the keyhole mode is directly re-
Individual spot weld diameter is determined lated to power when speed and other process
by the energy absorbed, the rate at which it is variables are constant. This behavior is illustrated
delivered, and the material thermal diffusivity. in Fig. 6. 8 for rimmed steel. Below the threshold
Seam welding speed is given by the product of level of about I kW, penetration will decrease
the weld spot diameter, the fraction of overlap sharply at the speeds indicated.
required, and the pulse repetition frequency. The A penetration of 3/4 inch is attainable in
process factors are illustrated in Fig. 6. 7 for alloy steel at the 15 kW maximum power level
stainless steel, titanium, and aluminum repre- of current industrially suited systems. Heavier
senting low, medium, and high thermal diffusi- sections may be welded in two passes, one from
vity, respectively. The interdependence of aver- each side, although special precautions must be
age power, seam welding speed, pulse energy, taken to avoid defects at the root of the second
penetration, and repetition frequency is shown. weld.
At a given power level, weld penetration
decreases with increasing travel speed when the
CONTINUOUS POWER other variables remain unchanged. This relation-
Continuously operating, low power lasers ship for rimmed steel is illustrated in Fig. 6. 9.
can be used to produce conventional conduction- In high power welding, ionization of metal
limited welds at low speeds in sheet gages. With vapor atoms may lead to the formation of a
high power lasers, narrow welds can be formed plasma above the workpiece. Such a plasma
0.26 .------------------:~ V-groove may be utilized to provide for the

0.24 desired filler addition. Conventional wire feed
Welding speed, in./min
devices may be used .
0.22 • 85 As with other fusion welding processes,
0 172 abrupt termination of power can leave a crater
0.20
0 262 in the weld metal. Conversely, instantaneous ex-
0.18 posure of the workpiece to full beam power may
-~ 0.16
cause local internal porosity. Programmed up-
slope and downslope of welding power or the
s· o.14
·;::; addition of end tabs can be used to overcome
~ 0.12 such problems.
Q>
c:
-~ 0.10
APPLICATIONS
Many different metals can be satisfactorily
0.06 welded with a laser beam. With pulsed systems,
0.04 these include copper, nickel, iron, zirconium,
tantalum, aluminum, titanium, columbium, and
0.02
their alloys. Continuous systems are applicable
%~--~~--~--~~--~~ to most of these metals except that capabilities
Power, kW
are limited in copper and aluminum alloys.
Although the laser provides precise energy con-
Fig. 6.8-Dependence of weld bead trol and certain unique process features, it is a
penetration in rimmed steel on C0 2 laser fusion welding process. As such, it is constrained
power at three travel speeds by the same principles of good welding practice
effectively absorbs the laser beam and drastically

reduces beam energy input to the workpiece.
This can be prevented by sweeping the ions
from the interaction region with a flow of gas,
preferably helium. This flow is usually integrated
with weld zone shielding requirements. If ade-
quate suppression is not attained, the plasma c:
expands to the atmosphere above the workpiece ·-.0.10
c:
0
and a luminous plume is formed as shown in ·;::;
E
Fig. 6.10.
~0.05
Joint designs and fit-up requirements are ~ co 2 laser power, kW
generally similar to those for electron beam • 4.3 to 4.7
welding, as discussed in Chapter 5. A joint gap 0 4.0
in excess of 3 percent of the material thickness
A 3.0
will normally cause joint underfill. Similar con-
0 2.0
ditions will prevail if too much energy is used
for welding, resulting in drop-through. Underfill 0 · 01 o~----~10~0------2~0~0------:3~00
can be eliminated by the addition of filler metal
Welding speed, in./min
during either the primary weld pass or a "cos-
metic" second pass. Filler metal may also be Fig. 6.9-Dependence of weld bead
added to modify weld metal chemistry. In this penetration in rimmed steel on travel
case, a square-groove with a narrow gap or a speed at several C0 2 laser power levels
Laser Welding /227
Fig. 6.10- Undesirable plasma formation above the workpiece during

laser welding
and the requirements for metallurgical compat- the heat-affected zone and any thermal damage
ibility common to more conventional processes. to material adjacent to the weld are minimized.
Since laser welding equipment is more The rapid cooling of the weld pool may have
costly than conventional systems of equivalent metallurgical advantages for some applications.
power, selection of applications must be based (2) The high power density of the laser
on unique laser capabilities. Some of these cap- beam can be used to make difficult welds. These
abilities that may be used as a guideline for se- may involve welds between metallurgically com-
lection of laser applications are as follows: patible dissimilar metals with widely different
(1) The specific energy input to the work- physical properties, between metals of high
piece is very small. This means that the extent of electrical resistivity, or between parts varying
greatly in mass and size.

(3) Electrical contact with the workpiece
is not necessary since the heat source is a light
beam. Joints in restricted locations can be
welded provided a line of sight to the weld point
is available. Further, absence of contact require-
ments makes the laser ideal for use in high speed
automated welding systems . Spot welding can
take place "on the fly" with parts moving at 60
to 120 in./min. Seam welding in thin sheet can
be accomplished at speeds up to 250 ft./min. Fig. 6.11-Cross section through a weld
Additionally, the part may be held stationary between parallel 0.02-in. diameter
and the laser beam moved along the weld seam, nickel wires
or a combination of beam and part motion can
be used. This flexibility often simplifies parts The optimum configuration for joining
fixturing . electrical wires is a butt joint, but lap joints and
(4) Precision welding can be done with a cross wire configurations may prove easier to
well-defined focused spot. Spot weld sizes on fixture and weld in small diameters. For lap
the order of a few thousandths of an inch in joints, the two wires should be parallel and in
diameter can be achieved with accurate posi- contact along the overlap. The laser beam is di-
tioning. rected at the joint to melt and fuse the two wires
(5) Fusion zone purification occurs under together as shown in Fig. 6.11. When a cross
certain conditions during the welding of steels. wire configuration is used, the laser beam
Preferential absorption ofthe beam by nonmetal- should be directed at the point of contact be-
lic inclusions in the metals leads to their vapor- tween the wires .
ization and removal from the weld zone. Spot welds between overlapping sheets can
(6) Laser welding is ideally suited to auto- be produced with a pulsed laser as illustrated in
mation. Fig . 6.12 . Seam welds between sheets may be a
series of overlapping spots produced with pulsed
Pulsed Power
power or a continuous weld bead made with
Several joint configurations can be used continuous power. A protective gas shield may
for welding wires together with pulsed power. be necessary with seam welding to minimize
These include butt (end-to-end), lapped, tee, oxidation of the weld area. Other examples of
and cross wire joints. welded assemblies produced with pulsed laser
Fig. 6.12- Cross section of laser spot welds between 0.005-in.

nickel ribbons
Laser Welding /229
ages is an example.
Laser welding is being used to salvage
parts. The low heat input and the resulting low
distortion are ideal for making small repairs on
machined parts. Accessibility into confined
Fig. 6.13- HeTmetic seal weld on an

electTonic module made with a pulsed
laseTbeam
equipment are shown in Figs. 6.13, 6.14, and

6.15.
One prominent application area for pulsed
laser welding is in the electronics industry.
Miniaturization dictates stringent joining re-
quirements that very often cannot be met by
conventional welding techniques. The limited
accessibility to the joint and the need for precise
application of energy to avoid thermal damage Fig. 6.14-Titanium tube with 0.01-in. wall
to components can be met with laser welding. welded to a 0.025-in. thick titanium disc
Laser encapsulation of microelectronic pack- with a pulsed lase' beam
Fig. 6.15-A titanium capsule heTmetically sealed by lase' welding

230 /LASER BEAM WELDING AND CUTTING
Fig. 6.16-Cross sections of butt joints in 0.52 in. X-80 steel plate welded from one
and both sides with 12 kW of C0 2 laser power
space, good viewing and welding optics, and Other examples of the characteristics of
precise control of small amounts of energy are high power laser welds are the three welds in
also attributes in many repair applications. Ti-6Al-4V alloy shown in Fig. 6.17. These full
penetration welds in 0.23-inch thick plate were
Continuous Power
made at 40, 60, and 80 in./min, respectively, at
Continuous power laser systems, princi- 5.5 kW of power. The corresponding specific
pally of the C0 2 type, are gradually moving energy inputs were 8250, 5500, and 4125 J/in.,
from the laboratory into industrial applications. which resulted in decreasing fusion zone width
Numerous potential production applications are as the energy decreased.
being evaluated. Typical power requirements for a nominal
High power C0 2 lasers can generate single- welding speed of about 50 in./min in many
pass, full penetration welds in some metals up to metals are 3.0, 6.0, and 12 kW for 1/8, 1/4, and
0. 75-in. thickness. Representative laser welds 1/2-in. joint thicknesses, respectively. This
in 0.52-inch thick X-80 steel, produced with 12 approximate guideline for laser welding is appli-
kW of power, are shown in Fig. 6.16. The dual- cable to steels, titanium alloys, and nickel-base
pass weld exhibited smaller grain size than the alloys. Somewhat higher power is required for
single-pass weld due to the lower specific en- copper-nickel alloys, zirconium, and the refrac-
ergy input and the resultant higher weld zone tory metals (Cb, Mo, Ta, and W).
cooling rate. A high power beam can produce Only limited performance has been demon-
deep spot welds in a stationary workpiece that strated in laser welding of aluminum alloys.
have characteristics similar to continuous welds Traditional difficulties in aluminum welding are
(see Fig. 6.16). compounded for the laser by the high initial re-
Laser Welding/231
40 1n./min 60 in ./min
801 n./min
Fig. 6.17- C0 2 laser welds in 0.23-in. Ti-6AI-4V alloy plate produced with 5.5 kW
power at three travel speeds
flectivity of the material. High power density is requires further process development. The latter
required to overcome this problem, and the level will reflect even a 15 kW continuous beam; but
required often leads to overheating of the weld 1/4-inch penetration has been demonstrated
metal, sporadic vaporization, and intermittent with a 4 kW cw beam "pulsed" at 24 kHz.
plasma formation. These conditions will produce In addition to welding, the laser beam may
weld discontinuities. Beam spot oscillation may be rapidly scanned over a metal surface to pro-
alleviate these conditions somewhat. Fillet and duce a thin melted layer that solidifies rapidly.
tee joints, which tend to trap the incoming This procedure may be incorporated with filler
beam, are easier to weld. In general, however, wire or powder additions for surfacing applica-
laser welding of aluminum alloys and copper tions.
Generally speaking, established procedures glass and clear plastic throwaway devices are
for weld joint preparation apply to laser welding. frequently employed to hold workpieces in posi-
Flat (downhand) position welding is preferred, tion for pulsed laser welding. They are then dis-
but out-of-position (horizontal, overhead, ver- carded if the metal plasma destroys their optical
tical-up, vertical-down) welds can be made properties.
under conditions well within the keyhole welding Inert gas coverage of the molten pool is
mode. usually provided for continuous power welding.
The gas may fulfill several functions, including
TOOLING AND ACCESSOR! ES atmosphere protection for reactive metals such
Tooling for laser welding includes position- as titanium and tantalum; better wetting,· flow,
ing devices similar to those used for electron and weld bead appearance; and plasma suppres-
beam welding discussed in Chapter 5. The pur- sion above the weld. Inert gas coverage may
pose of tooling is to provide positioning of the be provided by trailing and backup shielding
weldment relative to the laser beam. Gas cover- techniques. For extremely reactive materials, a
age, operator protection, and joint fit-up and flowing gas dry box may be utilized with the
alignment can also be provided by the tooling. beam entering through one of the exhaust gas
Welding motion is established by movement of ports.
the workpiece or the beam, or by a combination Closed-circuit TV systems may be used to
of the two. position the beam on the workpiece and to view
One difference between laser and electron the welding process. This is useful for continuous
beam tooling is that transparent and magnetic welding if the workpiece location is manually
materials can be used with a laser beam. Both controlled by the operator.
LASER BEAM CUTTING AND DRILLING

A laser beam can be used as a heat source permits cutting or drilling in locations of limited
for straight or contour cutting of sheet or plate accessibility.
as is done with a plasma arc or oxyfuel gas torch. (2) The process does not require that the
It can also be used to drill holes. Continuous workpiece be a part of an electric circuit as with
power is preferred for the former, while pulsed plasma arc cutting.
power is used almost exclusively for the latter. (3) A laser beam provides very high power
Metals, ceramics, and a wide variety of other density in a small spot so that high-speed cutting
materials can be cut or drilled with a laser beam. is attained with a very narrow kerf and heat-
The mechanics by which a pulsed laser affected zone. These factors, together with the
beam removes metal during drilling involves a ease with which laser systems can be automated,
combination of melting and vaporization. Suffi- indicate application to computer numerical con-
cient vaporization is established to eject liquid trol cutting of contoured parts.
metal from the hole. With a cw beam, the ex- (4) Hole characteristics can be controlled
tremely high power density required for such a by appropriate selection of optics. The beam can
process cannot be attained; hence, a high-velocity be shaped with optics of long focal length to
gas jet is used to augment the laser beam. drill deep, small diameter holes.
Some of the advantages of laser beam cut- Some limitations on application of the pro-
ting (LBC) compared to oxyfuel gas (OFC) or cess are:
plasma arc cutting (PAC) are: (I) The laser beam generator is costly com-
(1) The laser beam generator need not be in pared to oxyfuel gas and plasma arc cutting
close proximity to the workpiece surface. This equipment, and the application must justify the
Laser Beam Cutting and Drilling /233
cost differential. coupling occurs with the workpiece despite the

(2) Although steel up to 2 inches in thick- high reflectivity of metals at room temperature
ness has been cut with a laser system, the pro- to light at laser wavelengths. For example, 0. 062-
cess is currently best suited for metal thick- in. thick aluminum alloy sheet can be cut at 300
nesses of0.5 in. and under. in./min with a 3kW C0 2 laser using compressed
air assist. Only a slight increase in cutting speed
GAS-ASSIST CUTTING is attained if the surface is initially anodized to
provide an absorptive surface. Kerf width with
Since the power density attainable with cw these conditions is about 0.02 in., and the heat-
laser systems is insufficient to promote cutting affected zone extends only about 0.001 in. into
by the vaporization-liquid metal expulsion pro- the base material.
cess, an assist gas jet is normally used to blow
In most metals, cutting speed at constant
the molten metal from the kerf. With low power
power is inversely proportional to thickness, as
cw systems, oxygen is generally used as an assist
indicated in Fig. 6.18 for Type 302 stainless
gas to take advantage of the exothermic reaction
steel. Within certain limits, cutting speed is di-
with those metals which can be oxygen cut. Sim-
rectly proportional to laser power, as shown in
ilar behavior occurs in high power cutting; how- Fig. 6.19. Representative laser beam cutting per-
ever, a wide variety of other assist gases such as formance with several metals is given in Table
compressed air, helium, argon, carbon dioxide, 6.1. Although cutting performance improves
and nitrogen may also be effectively used. Cuts with laser power, the improvement is generally
obtained with inert gas exhibit clean, nonoxi- not directly proportional to power.
dized edges but sometimes develop a tenacious
lower edge burr. With oxygen-assisted cutting,
DRILLING
the burr is usually quite brittle and therefore
easily removed. On interaction of a pulsed laser beam with
As in deep penetration welding, excellent a metal, some energy is reflected, particularly
Table6.1
Typical laser beam cutting performance
Thickness, Power, Cutting speed,
Metal in. kW in./min
Steel 0.051 0.5 142
0.063 0.5 98
0.090 0.6 70
0.125 4.0 160
0.660 4.0 45
2.125 6.0 13
Stainless steel 0.012 0.35 173
0.039 0.5 65
0.090 0.6 70
0.125 3.0 100
Nickel alloys 0.059 0.85 90
0.125 4.0 120
Titanium 0.040 0.23 193
0.200 0.6 130
1.25 3.0 50
2.00 3.0 20
Aluminum 0.125 4.3 100
0.250 3.8 40
0.500 5.7 30
at the onset of the pulse. Of the absorbed energy,

most is used in melting, a small fraction is used
for vaporization, and only a small amount is con-
ducted into the base material. The momentum of
the vaporized material is sufficient to blow the c 600
.E
molten material out of the hole. If the pulsed
power density exceeds 65 MW/in.2 and the pulse --c
ai.,
duration is longer than 0.5 ms, the volume of
metal removed is directly proportional to the .
c.
0>
400
total pulse energy. The proportionality constant c

depends upon the material; values of 160 kJ/in.' ...
·;::;
~
(.)
and 50 kJ/in.' pertain to steel and aluminum, 200
respectively.
In drilling, as in cutting, the low power
density outer fringes of a focused beam do not
contribute favorably to the process. Rather, they
may inhibit metal expulsion and increase overall Laser power, W
energy input leading to a relatively wide heat-
Fig. 6.19-Dependence of cutting speed
affected zone. For precision processing, it is
on C02 laser beam power with oxygen
therefore desirable to remove the outer low-
assist for Type 302 stainless steel
intensity fringes of the laser beam. This can be
accomplished by suitable aperturing within the
beam-shaping optics.
Pulsed ruby, YAG, and C0 2 lasers are appli-
cable to drilling. Figure 6. 20 shows a gas turbine
blade with cooling holes drilled with a ruby laser
beam. Deep, narrow holes can be drilled in
metals, including high temperature nickel-base
alloys. Holes are drilled in production as deep as
800 1/4 inch. A typical machine designed for drilling
will fixture the part, move it in three linear and
~
~
two rotational axes of motion, and automatically
adjust laser and optical variables so that many
\
600
holes may be drilled in one setup. Figure 6.21
~ shows a 0.060-in. thick nickel alloy part that
was cut and drilled with a 400 W pulsed YAG
1\
laser beam and a gas-assist nozzle.
Typical drilling conditions for a pulsed
~
ruby laser are given in Table 6.2. The range of
r'\. practical hole sizes for production drilling with a
"1'--. ...._
pulsed laser is shown in Fig. 6.22. Larger holes
... can be generated by cutting out circles (trepan-
~ ning) with a rotating continuous or pulsed beam.
Laser drilling is a thermal process subject to un-
4 8 12 16 20 24 X 10-2
controllable variations. Consequently, the wall
Thickness, in.
of a drilled hole may show random recast zones,
Fig. 6.18-Dependence of cutting speed and exact dimensional control is not possible. On
on thickness for Type 302 stainless steel the other hand, drilling performance is fast,
using an oxygen assisted 1.25 kW C0 2 easily automated, and essentially independent
laser beam of metal hardness.
Laser Beam Cutting and Drilling /235
Fig. 6.20-A gas turbine blade containing cooling holes drilled with a pulsed
laser beam
Table6.2
Typical conditions for drilling with a pulsed ruby laser 8
Material Laser Variables Holediam-
Thick- Pulse Energy eter, in.
ness, length, output,
En-
1Ype in. ms J trance Exit
Magnesium 0.062 1.8 2.1 0.014 0.008
Magnesium 0.062 2.0 3.3 0.016 0.012
Molybdenum 0.020 2.0 3.3 0.010 0.008
Molybdenum 0.020 2.25 4.9 0.010 0.008
Molybdenum 0.020 2.35 5.9 0.010 0.010
Copper 0.032 2.25 4 .9 0 .008 b
1Ype 304 stainless steel 0.036 2.35 5.9 0 .020 0.010

Thntalum 0.062 2.35 5.9° 0.012 0.006
Thnalum 0.062 2.42d 8.0d 0.01 2 0.004
Ti-6%Al-4%V 0.096 2.35 5 .9 0.016 0.006
Ti-6%Al-4%V 0.096 2.4 7.0 0.018 0.006
Ti-6%Al-4%V 0.096 2.4 7.0° 0.020 0.020
Thngsten 0.020 2.0 3.3 0 .008 0.006
Thngsten 0.020 2.1 4.0 0.008 0.008
Thngsten 0.020 2.35 5.9 0.010 0.012
a A 94.8 mm objective lens was used in each case with the beam sharply focused at the surface. One laser pulse was used for each hole
except where noted. c Two luer pulses.
b Not measured. d Extrapolated value.
.-.. . . . .
. .........
.. .. . . ..
.
. .
.. .. ...... .. .. ..
. . .· .. .
.. .. .. . .
. ....
. ..
.. ..
... .... ...
....·..
........ ........
. .... ..... .
........ ... ...........
..
Fig. 6.21-A 0.060-in. thick nickel alloy part cut and drilled with a pulsed
YAG laser beam and gas assist nozzl~
SAFETY
1.011:"'""--------- ----.
The basic hazards associated with laser
operation are:
(I) Eye damage including burns of the
cornea or retina, or both .~
(2) Skin burns -5.. 0.1
(3) Respiratory system damage due to evo-
.,c.
0
lution of hazardous materials during the beam-
workpiece interaction
(4) Electrical shock
(5) Chemical hazards
(6) Cryogenic coolants Diameter, in.
Of the above, eye damage is commonly Fig. 6.22-Relationship between diameter
associated with lasers. For laser beams operat- and depth for pulsed laser drilled holes
ing at visible or near infrared wavelengths, even in ferrous alloys
Safety/237
a 5 milliwatt beam can cause retinal damage. have appropriate interlocks on all access doors
Fortunately, safety glasses are available which and provisions for discharging capacitor banks
are substantially transparent to visible light but before entry. The equipment should be appro-
are opaque to specific laser output. Selective priately grounded.
filters for ruby, Nd-YAG, and other systems are The least obvious hazard is that of the po-
available. Care must be taken to ensure that tential products of the beam-workpiece interac-
glasses appropriate to the specific laser system tion. For example, plastic materials used for
are used. At longer infrared wavelengths (such "burn patterns" to identify beam shape and dis-
as 10.6 J.tm wavelengths of the C0 2 laser), or- tribution in high power C0 2 systems can gen-
dinarily transparent materials such as glass are erate highly toxic vapors if irradiated in an oxy-
opaque. Clear, safety glasses with side shields gen-lean atmosphere. In deep penetration weld-
may be used with these systems, so that the only ing, fine metal fumes can be formed. With some
light reaching the eye will be from incandes- metals, these may be carcinogenic. Also, severe
cence of the workpiece. At high power, extreme plasma generation can produce ozone. Conse-
brilliance will ensue on generation of a plasma, quently, adequate ventilation and exhaust pro-
and shaded glasses will then be desirable. visions for laser work areas is paramount.
Laser burns can be deep and very slow to Laser manufacturers are required to qualify
heal. Exposure is to be avoided by appropriate their equipment with the U.S. Bureau of Radio-
enclosure of the beam. This is particularly im- logical Health (BRH). Electrical components
portant for nonvisible beams that provide no ex- should be in compliance with NEMA standards.
ternal evidence of their existence unless inter- User action is governed by OSHA requirements.
cepted by a solid. In all cases, American National Standard ZI36.1,
Since high voltages as well as large capaci- Safe Use of Lasers (latest edition), should be
tive storage devices are associated with lasers, followed. Although hazards exist, they are well-
the possibility for lethal electrical shock is ever defined and readily avoided with appropriate
present. Electrical system enclosures should care.

1 W/in~ = 1.55 x 103 W/m 2
1J=1W•s
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 in~= 1.64 x 104 mm•
1 in./min. = 0.423 mm/s
1ft/min= 5.1 x 10·3 m/s
1 J.tm = 3.94 x 10~ in. or 104 angstroms
tF = 1.8tK -460

Anderson, J. D., Gas Dynamic Lasers, New 1974 Feb.
York: Academic Press, 1976.
Gerry, E. T., Application of gas dynamic lasers.
Baardsen, E. L., et al., High speed welding of Welding Journal, 51 (5); 329-42: 1972
sheet steel with a C0 2 laser. Welding Jour- May.
nal, 52 (4); 227-9: 1973 Apr.
Harry, J. E., Industrial Lasers and Their Appli-
Banas, C. M., High power laser welding-1978. cations, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974.
Optical Engineering, 11 (3), 210-16, 1978
Locke, E., et al., Deep penetration welding with
May-June.
high power C0 2 lasers. Welding Journal,
Bolin, S. R., Bright spot for pulsed lasers. Weld- 51 (5); 245s-49s: 1972 May.
ing Des. & Fab., 49 (8); 74-7: 1976 Aug.
Moorehead, A. J., Laser welding and drilling
Charschan, S. S., ed., Lasers in Industry, New applications. Welding Journal, 50 (2); 97-
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1972. 106: 1971 Feb
Crafer, R. C., Improved welding performance Morgan-Warren, E. J ., The application of laser
from a 2kW axial flow C0 2 laser welding welding to overcome joint asymmetry.
machine, Advances in Welding Processes, Welding Joural, 58 (3); 76s-82s: 1979
4th Int. Conf., Harrogate, England, 9-1 I Mar.
May 1978, Cambridge, England: The Weld-
Schwartz, M. M., Laser Welding and Cutting,
ing Institute, 1978.
New York: Welding Research Council
Duley, W. W., C0 2 Lasers, New York: Academic Bulletin, No. 167; 1971, Nov.
Press, 1976.
Seretsky, J. and Ryba, E. R., Laser welding
Engel, S. L., How to make better laser welds. dissimilar metals: titanium to nickel. Weld-
Welding Des. & Fab., 51 (1): 1978 ing Journal, 55 (7); 208s-lls: 1976 July.
Estes, C. L. and Thrner, P. W., Laser welding Sherwell, J. R., Design for laser beam welding.
of a simulated nuclear reactor fuel assem- Welding Des. & Fab.; 50 (6); 106-10:
bly. Welding Journal, 53 (2); 66s-73s: 1977 June.
7
Friction Welding
Fundamentals of the Process .......... 240 Weld Quality ....................... 255
Friction Welding Machines . ........... 246 Applications ........................ 257
Welding Procedures ................. 253 Safety ............................. 258
Chapter Committee
F. J. WALLACE, Chairman F. R. HOCH

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group, Aluminum Company of America
United Technologies D. E. SPINDLER
B. GRINSELL Manufacturing Technology, Inc.
New Britain Machine Division, K.K.WANG
Litton Industries Cornell University
C. D. WEISS
Caterpillar Tractor Corporation
I. G. Betz
Department of the Army
239
7
Friction Welding

DEFINITION AND axis of symmetry with the faying surfaces
GENERAL DESCRIPTION normal to that axis. This means that in the normal
case, one ofthe two workpieces must be circular
Friction welding is a solid-state joining in cross section at the joint location. Typical
process that produces coalescence by the heat arrangements for single and multiple welding
developed between two surfaces by mechan- operations are shown in Fig. 7.2, (A) through (E).
ically induced rubbing motion. The two sur- Figure 7.2(A) depicts the conventional and most
faces are under pressure during the welding commonly used mode in which one workpiece
cycle. In most cases, the pressure is increased at rotates while the other remains stationary. Fig-
the end of heating to facilitate forging or upset- ure 7.2(B) shows another mode in which both
ting of the heated metal. Under normal condi- workpieces are rotated but in opposite direc-
tions, the faying surfaces do not melt. Filler tions. This procedure would be suitable for pro-
metal, flux, or shielding gas is not required with ducing welds in small diameter workpieces
this process. where very high relative speeds are needed.
The basic steps in friction welding are Figure 7. 2(C) shows still another mode where two
shown in Fig. 7.1. First, one workpiece is ro- stationary workpieces push against a rotating
tated and the other is stationary as shown in Fig. piece positioned between them. This setup might
7.1(A). When the appropriate rotational speed is be desirable if the two end parts are long or are
reached, the two workpieces are brought together of such an awkward shape that rotation would be
and an axial force is applied, as in Fig. 7.J(B). difficult or impossible by the other modes. A
Rubbing at the interface heats the workpieces similar situation, shown in Fig. 7.2(0), involves
locally and upsetting starts, as in Fig. 7.1(C). two rotating pieces pushing against a long sta-
Finally, rotation of the one workpiece stops and tionary piece at the middle. The same principle
upsetting is completed, as in Fig. 7.1(0). can be applied to the making of two welds back-
A friction weldedjoint is similar in appear- to-hack at the same time with one rotating spindle
ance to joints produced by flash and upset weld- at the center, as shown in Fig. 7.2(E), for the
ing where heating is done by electrical resistance. purpose of improving productivity. This opera-
Welding cycle times are similar in magnitude. tion usually would be fully automated for mass
Many applications are similar. production.
A special case is radial welding, where the
force is perpendicular to the rotation axis. This
MODES OF OPERATION
concept is shown in Fig. 7.2(F). The sleeve or
With most friction welding applications, coupling is rotated and compressed as it is heated.
one of the two workpieces is rotated about an An internal expanding mandrel supports the pipe
240
D
(\
v (A)
(8)
( J______,l
(C)
(D)
Fig. 7.1-Basic steps in friction welding
walls and prevents penetration of upset metal into circular parts as shown in Fig. 7.2(G). The work-
the bore of the pipe. pieces are aligned with the faying surfaces in
The two pipes of Fig. 7.2(F) have beveled contact and under pressure. One piece is then
ends and are butted together and clamped se- moved in a small circular motion relative to and
curely in place . Asolid ring with a composition in contact with the faying surface of the other
similar to that of the pipe is positioned within the piece, with neither piece rotating about its central
joint groove. The ring is beveled so that it will axis. This variation provides uniform tangential
make initial contact at the apex of the joint velocity over the total interface area. When mo-
groove. This is done to promote metal flow from tion ceases, the workpieces must be rapidly
this point outward and to reduce the initial high aligned while the joint is still in a plastic state.
torque. After the necessary heat is developed
from friction, ring rotation is terminated while PROCESS VARIATIONS
the compressive load on the ring is maintained
or increased to consolidate the joint. This method There are two variations of friction welding
can also be used to join collars to solid shafts . known as continuous drive and inertia welding.
Orbital motion may be used to weld non- In the continuous drive variation, one of the
242/ FRICTION WELDING
F F F F
(A) Basic (8) Counter rotation
F F F
(C) Center drive (splicing) (D) Twin welds
F F
(E) Center drive (dual production)
(F) Radial
(G) Orbiting
Fig. 7.2-Various arrangements offriction welding
workpieces is attached to a motor drive unit. The mechanical energy as this is done . The drive is
workpiece is rotated at a constant speed by the disengaged; the workpieces are brought together;
drive , and then an axial or radial force is ap- and then a welding force is applied axially. This
plied. The workpieces rub together under pres- causes the faying surfaces to rub together under
sure for a predetermined heating time or until a pressure. The flywheel energy is dissipated
preset axial shortening takes place. The drive is through friction at the interface; the weld zone
disengaged and the rotating workpiece is braked heats as the flywheel speed decreases. At some
to a stop. Welding force is maintained or increased point in the cycle, a speed is reached where less
to upset the metal, and held until the weld cools , heat is being generated than is being dissipated.
Characteristics of typical continuous drive fric- The torque peaks rapidly as the hot weld zone
tion welding are shown in Fig. 7.3. upsets under pressure, just before rotation stops.
In the inertia welding variation, one of the In some cases , a forging force may be applied
workpieces is connected to a flywheel and the as the torque peaks. Figure 7.4 shows the char-
other is clamped in fixed position. The flywheel acteristics of inertia welding . In this variation,
is accelerated to a particular speed, and it stores rotational speed decreases with time .
BONDING MECHANISM the very hot plasticized layer increases, and the
The welding cycle can be divided into two torque drops to zero when rubbing stops.
stages: the rubbing or friction stage, and the With inertia welding, the speed decreases
upsetting or forging stage. The welding heat is with time until the same behavior occurs at the
developed during the first stage and the weld is interface. The thickness of the plasticized layer
consolidated and cooled during the second stage. is related to the rubbing speed. As the speed de-
With identical workpieces, the bonding creases, the thickness of the hot plasticized layer
mechanism occurs in steps. When the pieces increases, the generation of heat decreases, and
make contact, rubbing takes place between the the torque increases. The axial pressure forces the
faying surfaces, and strong adhesion takes place hot metal from the joint. During this time, the
at various points of contact. The unit pressure rate of axial shortening increases and then stops
is high. At some points, the adhesion is stronger as the joint cools.
than the metal on either side. Shearing takes The bonding mechanism with dissimilar
place and metal is transferred from one surface metals is more complex. A number of factors,
to the other. As rubbing continues, the torque including physical and mechanical properties,
increases and a temperature is reached at which surface energy, crystal structure, mutual solu-
the transferring fragments become plastic. bility, and intermetallic compounds, may play a
The sizes of transferred fragments grow role in the bonding mechanism. It is likely that
until they become a continuous layer of plasti- some alloying will occur in a very narrow region
cized metal. During this period, the torque de- at the interface as a result of mechanical mixing
creases to some minimum value, and then re- and diffusion. The properties of this layer may
mains reasonably constant as metal is plasticized have a significant effect on overall joint prop-
and forced from the interface. Axial shortening erties. Mechanical mixing and interlocking may
continues as the heat and pressure plasticize the also contribute to bonding. The complexity
metal. makes prediction of weldability of dissimilar
With continuous drive, the drive is discon- metals very difficult. It should be established by
nected and a brake is usually applied to decelerate evaluation for a particular application with a
rapidly. As the speed decreases, the thickness of series of tests designed for that purpose.
Heating time lt1 l

Braking 1t2 1-+--~
(tJ)
Speed (N)
Heating pressure (P 1l
Welding Welding
Time--. Time-
starts ends
Fig. 7.3-Characteristics of typical Fig. 7.4- Characteristics of typical inertia

continuous drive friction welding welding
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS indicates the combinations that have been joined
according to the literature and equipment manu-
Friction welding lends itself to joining facturers' data. It should only be used as a guide.
workpieces of the same cross-section shape and Specific weldability may depend upon a number
area, as do flash and upset welding. With friction of factors including specific alloy compositions,
welding, electrical energy is first converted to applicable process variation, component design,
mechanical energy and then to heat from rubbing and service requirements.
action. No filler metal or flux is added with any In principle, almost any metal that can be
of the processes. Normally, shielding gases are hot forged and is unsuitable for dry bearing
not required, but they are sometimes used with applications can be friction welded. Some metals
the reactive metals, such as titanium, to displace may require postweld heat treatment to remove
air from the joint during welding. the effect of the severe deformation or quench
hardening at the weld interface. Free-machining
Advantages
types of alloys should be welded with caution
(I) Surface cleanliness is not as significant because redistribution of inclusions may create
as with upset welding because the rubbing tends planes of weakness in the weld zone. Such welds
to disrupt and displace surface films. exhibit low strength, ductility, and notch tough-
(2) The heat is very localized at the inter- ness.
face when compared to that of flash and upset There are a number of dissimilar metal
welding, because all of the energy conversion combinations that have marginal weldability.
occurs there. Consequently, the heat-affected These may involve combinations that have high
zone is very narrow. and low thermal conductivities, a large difference
(3) The localized heating and the absence of in forging tempera"'tures, or the tendency to form
melting make friction welding better suited for brittle intermetallic compounds. Examples are
joining many dissimilar metal combinations than aluminum alloys to both copper and steel and
the other processes. titanium alloys to stainless steel.
(4) In most cases, welded joints produced The metallurgical structures produced by
by this process are as strong as the base metal. friction welding are generally those expected
(5) The process is easily automated for with short time at elevated temperature cycles.
mass production. Time at temperature is short, and the temper-
(6) The power requirements are much lower atures achieved are generally below the melting
than for flash welding. point. With nonhardenable metals such as mild
steel, changes in properties are negligible in the
Limitations
weld zone. On the other hand, with hardenable
(I) In general, one workpiece must have an steels, structural changes may occur in the heat-
axis of symmetry and be capable of being ro- affected zone. Consequently, they should be
tated about that axis. welded with a relatively long heating time to
(2) Preparation and alignment of the work- achieve a slower cooling rate and preserve
pieces may be critical for developing uniform toughness.
rubbing and heating, particularly with large The interface structures of dissimilar metal
diameters. combinations are significantly affected by the
particular welding conditions employed. The
(3) Equipment costs may be higher than
with flash and upset welding since precise me- longer the welding time, the greater the consid-
chanical design and construction equivalent to eration that must be given to diffusion across
machine tools are required. the interface. Proper welding conditions will
usually minimize undesired diffusion or inter-
metallic compound formation. Figure 7.6 shows
METALS WELDED
the interface between aluminum and carbon
This process can be used to join a wide steel. A very narrow diffusion zone is apparent.
range of similar and dissimilar metals. Figure 7. 5 In some cases, joints between dissimilar
Fundamentals of the Process I 245
j
~1 1 ll l·f1]11IfI ~
~ i ! 1 li
IJI~• rl.i •• 11 ~~ I!.
~~
~~-
~
1111 11 1 ~ A~
~ ~~ ~~ J i i ~~~
..
.q l<i:
•.... •• • • • • •••
l_J
Aluminum
- ••
Aluminum alloys 1..111111..11111 1..11111
••
!rass
lronze
lrbides. cementec
•
•
obalt
• • •• •• • •
:o1umb11Jm alloys
•
opper
• •
:opper·nickel alloys
Iron
••
•
.ead
•
~agnesium alloys
••
~ol ybdenum
lickel
lickel alloys
5ilver • I
11ver alloys
~I ~
tee low alloy
tee carbon
-tee free mach ini ng
.t eels. marag 1ng I -I
.....
'•V
iteels, sintered
iteels, stamless • Full strength metallurgical bond.
iteels, t ool
II n some cases, an appropriate
·anta iJ m
postweld heat treatment may be
i t anium Iii
necessary t o realize the fu II weld
•
•tan • 1m alloys
•
~_t_en strength .)
••
Jranium ~ Can be friction welded, but will
Valve mater ials [au tomot ive) not produce a full strength bond .
Zirconium alloys
Note: This list was compiled from the literature and is provided as a generalization of weldability. It
should be used only as a guide. Each case rl\ust be evaluated by appropriate tests.
Fig. 7.5-Friction weldability of similar and dissimilar metals
metals will show a mechanical mixing at the in- case of orbital welding. The rotated workpiece
terface. This probably results as the plasticized should be somewhat concentric in shape because
metals are being mechanically worked during it is revolved at relatively high speed. Prepara-
rotation under pressure. Figure 7. 7 shows this tion of surfaces to be joined is not normally
action in a joint between Type 302 stainless steel critical except in the case of alloys with distinct
and tantalum. differences in mechanical or thermal properties,
or both. Figure 7. 8 illustrates the ba.ic joint
designs for combinations of bars, tubes, and
JOINT DESIGN
plates. When bars or tubes are welded to plates,
The nature of friction welding suggests most of the flash comes from the bar or tube. This
that the joint face of at least one of the work- is true because there is less mass in the smaller
pieces must be essentially round, except in the section and the heat penetrates deeper into it.
Fig. 7.7-lnterface of a friction weld

between tantalum (top) and Type 302
stainless steel (bottom) (X200 and
Fig. 7.6-lnterface of a friction weld reduced 66%)
between aluminum (top) and carbon steel
(bottom) (X1000)
This will provide more uniform heating across
the interface.
Some joints between dissimilar metals with
Conical joints are usually designed with the widely different mechanical or thermal prop-
faces at 45 to 60 degrees to the axis of rotation. erties are better produced with appropriate
For low-strength metals, large angles are pre- adjustment of faying surface area. The metal
ferred to support the axial thrust required to of lower strength or lower thermal conductivity
produce adequate heating pressure. One advan- may have a larger faying surface area. For
tage of an angled joint over a 90 degree joint of applications where the flash cannot be removed
equivalent interface area is that the change in conveniently, clearance for it can be provided
tangential velocity across the interface is less. in one or both work pieces.
FRICTION WELDING MACHINES
A typical friction welding machine con- CONTINUOUS DRIVE

sists ofthe following components:
(I) Head
General Description
(2) Base
(3) Clamping arrangements One of the workpieces to be welded is
(4) Rotating and upsetting mechanisms firmly clamped in a self-centering vise. The
(5) Power supply other workpiece is held in a centering chuck that
(6) Controls is mounted on a rotatable spindle. The spindle
(7) Optional monitoring devices is driven by a motor through a single or variable
This is true for both process variations. speed drive.
However, the machines for each variation differ To make a weld, one workpiece is rotated
somewhat in design and method of operation. and then thrust against the stationary work-
Friction Welding Machines /247
Rod Tube Rod to tube
Rod to plate Tube to plate Tube to disc
Shaft to disc
Fig. 7.8-Typical friction weld joint designs

piece by hydraulic force to produce frictional There are two phases to the process:
heat at the contact surfaces (see Fig. 7.1 ). The heating and upsetting. The basis of the process
combination of speed and pressure raises the is to heat the faying surfaces to their forging
contact surfaces to a suitable temperature. temperature and then upset them together to
Rotation is then stopped and the pressure is produce a solid-phase bond. During the heating
maintained or increased to upset the interface phase, the faying surfaces are rubbed together
and complete the weld. (by rotation) under pressure. A particular tan-
In its basic form, the machine spindle can gential speed and pressure are usually adequate
be driven directly by a motor and allowed to for each similar metal combination.
stop under its natural deceleration characteristics Some alloys normally require preheating
and the retarding torque exerted by the weld. In before welding. This can be done using a two-
practice, however, a clutch is normally used stage pressure application during the heating
between the motor and spindle so that the motor phase. First, a low pressure is applied during
can run continuously. The spindle can be en- which heat is generated at the interface with
gaged when required for the welding operation. very little axial shortening. The pressure is then
This also conserves the starting energy that increased to that necessary to accomplish weld-
would be consumed if the motor is started for ing. This operational technique, when used with
each weld. hardenable steels, will produce a desirable con-
It is also common practice, though not dition after upsetting is complete. The preheat
essential in all cases, to include a fast-acting applied initially will reduce the cooling rate in
brake on the spindle. The function of the brake the weld heat-affected zone. This should pro-
is to rapidly terminate rotation at the end of a duce a more ductile joint and minimize the
specified heating time or after a preset axial likelihood of cooling cracks.
shortening of the weldment. This feature pro- The upsetting phase occurs at the end of
vides good control of overall weldment length the heating phase. Normally, a brake is applied
and broadens the acceptable range of welding to rapidly decrease the rotational speed to
variables for critical applications. zero. At some time during deceleration, the
The spindle can be rotated with force pressure on the weld is increased to forge the
applied for whatever time period is required components together. This forging pressure hot
by each individual set of workpieces, depend- works the heat-affected wne and also forces
ing upon their preweld length variations. Dis- plasticized metal from the interface into a
creet differences between components, such as "ram's horn" -shaped flash as shown in Fig.
saw-cut ends or rough forging surfaces, can be 7.l(D). This flash may be removed by machin-
corrected before braking and forging actions are ing in the welding machine or in a subsequent
initiated. operation. In some cases, it may be left on the
Alternatively, the spindle can be rotated joint when it is not objectionable or when it
under thrust for a preset time. This provides serves to hold a part in place.
equal amounts of energy for each weld. It is
Welding Variables
usually best to machine the surfaces to be joined
to ensure that they are flat and normal to the There are a number of variables associated
axis of rotation. This method of operation with this method as noted on Fig. 7.3. They are
should provide good overall length tolerance as follows:
after welding. (I) Rotational speed, N
Generally, the former method is selected (2) Heating pressure, P1
when friction welding components for critical (3) Forging pressure, P2
applications. In these cases, some minimum (4) Heating time, t1
loss in length must occur between the com- (5) Braking time,~
ponents to assure the removal of contaminants (6) Forge delay time, t3
at the interface and a resulting sound weld. (7) Forging time, 4
In practice, some of these variables may be applicable for making sound welds. In the case of
inherent in the machine design, such as braking mild steel, heating pressures of 4500 to 8700 psi
time(~). If constant pressure is used, the forging and forging pressures of II 000 to 22 000 psi
variables do not apply. If forging does not start are acceptable. Commonly used values are 8000
until rotation ceases, then ~ and t3 are equal. The and 20 000 psi, respectively. High-hot-strength
three important variables with this equipment are alloys, such as stainless steels and nickel-base
speed, pressure, and heating time. alloys, will require higher forging pressures.
Speed. The function of rotation is to produce a If a "preheat" effect is desired to achieve
relative velocity at the faying surfaces. For a slower cooling rate, a pressure of about 3000
steels, the tangential velocity should be in the psi is applied for a brief period. The pressure is
range of 250 to 350 ft/min. This is true for both then increased to that required for welding.
solid and tubular workpieces. Tangential speeds
Heating Time. For a particular application,
below 250 ft/min produce very high torques
heating time is determined during setup or from
that cause work clamping problems, non-
previous experience. Excessive time limits pro-
uniform upset, and metal tearing. Production
ductivity and wastes material. Insufficient time
machines are designed usually to operate with
speeds of 300 to 650 ft/min: for example, a may result in uneven heating as well as entrapped
oxides and unbonded areas at the interface.
spindle speed of 600 rpm can be used to
Heating time can be controlled in two ways.
weld steel products of 2 to 4 in. dia-
The first is with a suitable timing device that
meters (310 to 620ft/min).
stops rotation at the end of the preset time. Pre-
While high rotational speeds can be used,
axial thrust and duration of heating must be heat and forging functions could be incorporated
carefully controlled to avoid overheating of the with heating time using a sequence timer.
weld zone. This may be an advantage, however, The second method is to stop rotation after
when welding quench hardenable steels to con- a predetermined axial shortening. This method
trol cooling rate and possible cracking. is set to consume a sufficient length to assure
For certain dissimilar metal combinations, adequate heating prior to upsetting. Variations
low velocities can minimize the formation of in surface condition can be accommodated with-
brittle intermetallic compounds. From a weld out a sacrifice in weld quality.
quality standpoint, speed is not generally a crit-
ical variable. Relationships Between Variables
Pressure. The effective pressure ranges are not For a set spindle speed, low pressure limits
necessarily narrow for heating and forging, al- heating with little or no axial shortening. High
though the selected pressures should be repro- pressure causes local heating to high temper-
ducible for any specific operation. The pressure ature and rapid axial shortening. Figure 7.9
controls the temperature gradient in the weld shows that with mild steel, axial shortening is
zone, the required drive power, and the axial approximately proportional to heating pressure.
shortening. The specific pressure depends upon It also shows that for a given pressure during the
the metals being joined and the joint geometry. heating phase, axial shortening is faster at low
Pressure can be used to compensate for heat speed than at high speed. Tangential speeds
loss to a large mass, as in the case of tube-to- above 1000 ft/min require long heating time
plate welds. without adding to weld quality.
Heating pressure must be high enough to For a given axial shortening with mild
hold the faying surfaces in intimate contact to steel, the heating time will be significantly in-
avoid oxidation. Joint quality is improved in fluenced by heating pressure and speed, as shown
many metals, including steels, by applying a in Fig. 7.10. Heating time decreases at a decreas-
forging force at the end of the heating period. ing rate as heating pressure is increased. It also
For steels, a wide range of pressures is decreases with speed at the same heating pressure.
250 I FRICTION WELDING
0.3
0.75 in. diam. mild steel rods
14 0.2 in. axial shortening
0.75 in. diam. mild steel rods
0.25
12
~ 0.20 10
c QJ.
c1 E
c ·.;::; 8
'§ 0.15 c
Cl
·.;::;
0
ii I
"'QJ 6
~ 0.1
X
<( 4
0.05
2
Speed 1825 rpm
00 4 8 12 16 20 00 4 8 12 16 20 24
Heating pressure, ksi Heating pressure, ksi
Fig. 7.9-Relationship between axial Fig. 7.10-Relationship between heating

shortening and heating pressure for mild time and heating pressure for mild steel
steel with continuous drive friction with continuous drive friction welding
welding
INERTIA DRIVE then brought together and a specific axial thrust

is applied with a hydraulic cylinder. The kinetic
General Description
energy of the flywheel is transferred to the weld
With this type of machine, a flywheel is interface and converted to heat. As a result,
mounted on the spindle between the drive and the the flywheel speed decreases and finally comes
rotating chuck, as shown i'n Fig. 7.11. The fly- to rest. At the same time, the tangential velocity
wheel, spindle, chuck, and work are accelerated is decreasing with time to zero in an essentially
to a selected speed corresponding to a specific parabolic mode. Heating time is only a matter of
energy level. When that speed is attained, driving seconds.
is stopped and the flywheel and workpiece are In the majority of applications, inertia fric-
allowed to spin freely. The two workpieces are tion welding uses a single axial thrust to produce
Hydraulic cylinder
Spindle
Fig. 7.11-Basic arrangement of an inertia welding machine
heating pressure. However, the machines are W =Weight ofthe flywheel system, lbs
normally equipped to apply two levels of thrust. k = Radius of gyration, ft
When forging pressure is used, it is triggered at a s =Instantaneous speed, rpm
selected speed setting near the end of the cycle
(see Fig. 7.4). The technique can also be used to With a particular flywheel system, the en-
ergy in the flywheel is determined by its rota-
provide a preheat effect before welding occurs as
tional speed at any instant. If the mass of the
with the conveptional drive method.
flywheel is changed, the available energy at any
An inertia welding cycle can be divided into
particular speed changes. Therefore, the capacity
three stages with each blending smoothly into the
of an inertia welding machine can be modified
succeeding stage, as shown in Fig. 7.4. The first
by changing the flywheel, within the limits of
stage starts when the faying surfaces come in con-
the machine capability.
tact. It ends after the torque peaks and then drops
During welding, energy is extracted from
to a nearly steady state, as in the continuous drive
the flywheel and its speed will decrease. The
method. During this stage, the axial thrust is
total time for the wheel to come to rest will de-
rapidly applied and rubbing raises the interface
pend upon the average rate at which the energy
temperature to the plastic state. The rotational
is being removed and converted to heat.
speed decreases as does the available energy.
During the second phase, the heat is con- The heating pattern at the interface can be
adjusted to produce a bond over the entire area
ducted away from the interface at about the same
rate that it is being generated. There is little axial by varying the flywheel configuration, heating
shortening, but energy is being extracted from the pressure, and speed. The conditions for welding
flywheel and its speed continues to decrease. a rod and a tube of the same alloy and equal
When the speed decreases to some value diameters will likely be different because of the
the energy being delivered by the flywheel be: change in tangential velocity with radius. (The
comes less than that being conducted from the in- velocity at the center of a rod is zero and maxi-
terface. Torsional upsetting begins as the speed mum at the periphery.) Also the heat input can
be adjusted to control the width of the heat-
and temperature continue to drop. Torque again
rises rapidly to a much higher level during this affected zone and the cooling rate of the weld-
third stage as the metal stiffens. The speed and ment. Figure 7.12 indicates the effect of flywheel
torque then decrease to zero as the weld cools. energy, heating pressure, and tangential velocity
on the heat pattern and flash formation of welds
in steel.
Welding Variables Flywheel Configuration. The moment of in-
There are three welding variables with this ertia of the flywheel depends upon its section
method: moment of inertia of the flywheel, initial shape, diameter, and mass. For a specific ap-
flywheel speed, and axial pressure. The first two plication and initial speed, the energy available
variables determine the total kinetic energy avail- for welding can be increased by changing to a
able to accomplish welding. The amount of pres- flywheel with a larger moment of inertia (I),
sure is generally based on the material to be and vice versa.
~elded and the interface area. Axial shortening
The amount of upset near the end of the
IS controlled by adjusting initial flywheel speed.
welding cycle depends upon the remaining
The energy in the flywheel at any instant energy in the flywheel as well as the heating or
during the welding cycle is defined by the forging pressure. For low carbon steel, upsetting
equation usually starts at a peripheral velocity of about
200 ft/min. Large flywheels can prolong the
E =_!£___= Wk>s> forging or upsetting phase. If the flywheel is
5873 5873 too small, the upset may be insufficient to
where: E =Energy, ft •lb consolidate the weld and eject impurities from
I =Moment of inertia (Wk 2 ), lb •ft 2 the interface.
Energy
Medium High
Pressure
High
Velocity
( J
Medium
Fig. 7.12-Effect of welding variables on the heat pattern at the interface

and flash formation of inertia welds
The flywheel mass and its initial velocity V1 = 0.52 rs

may be varied inversely over a wide range for a where: V1 =tangential velocity, ft/min
given total energy requirement. This permits r =radius, in.
control of the size and shape of the heat-affected s = instantaneous speed, rpm
zone as well as the radial location of initial heat
With a solid rod, the velocity varies linearly
generation on the weld interface.
from zero at the center to a maximum at the
With a constant initial velocity and heating
periphery.
pressure, a larger flywheel will increase the
For each metal, there is a range of peri-
available energy. The effect of this is shown in
pheral velocities that produces the best weld
Fig. 7.12. As the available energy is increased,
properties. For welding solid bars of steel, the
the amount of plasticized metal becomes greater
recommended initial peripheral velocity of the
as do the upset and flow of metal from the in-
workpiece ranges from 500 to 1500 ft/min; how-
terface. The heating pattern remains fairly uni-
ever, welds can be made at velocities as low as
form but the excessive energy wastes metal in the
300ft/min. If the velocity is too low, whether at
form of flash.
the required energy level or not, the heating at
Velocity. The instantaneous tangential ve- the center will be too low to produce a bond
locity varies directly with the radius and rota- across the entire interface and the flash will be
tional speed according to the following equation: rough and uneven. This is illustrated at the bottom
Welding Procedures /253
of Fig. 7.12. At medium velocities of 300 to 800 velocity. As Fig. 7.12 shows, welds made at
ft/min, the heating pattern in steel has an hour- low heating pressure resemble welds made at
glass shape at the lower end of the range and high velocity with regard to the formation and
gradually flattens at the upper end of the range. appearance of weld upset and heat-affected
At initial velocities above 1200 ft/min for steel, zones. Excessive pressure produces a weld that
the weld becomes rounded and is thicker at the lacks good bonding at the center and has a large
center than at the periphery. amount of weld upset, similar to a weld made
at low velocity. The effective heating pressure
Heating Pressure. The effect of varying range for a solid bar of medium carbon steel
heating pressure is generally opposite to that of is 22 000 to 30 000 psi.
WELDING PROCEDURES
SURFACE PREPARATION piece in relation to the chuck results either in a

AND FIT-UP poor weld or in damage to the gripping device
or the workpiece.
As with any welding process, surface prep-
The gripping mechanism of the chucking
aration can affect weld quality. Weld quality and
devices must be rigid and resist the applied thrust.
consistency will be best when the faying sur-
The extension of the workpiece from the device
faces are free of dirt, oxide or scale, grease, oil,
should be as short as practical to minimize de-
or other foreign materials. In addition, the faying
flection, eccentricity, and misalignment. Grip
surfaces should mate together with very little gap.
diameter must be as large or larger than the diam-
In noncritical applications, some contami-
eter of the weld interface. Otherwise, the work-
nation and nonuniform contact of the faying
piece may shear at the grips. Serrated gripping
surface may be tolerated. This is true if suffi-
jaws are recommended for maximum clamping
cient axial shortening is used to account for the
reliability.
gap and to extrude sufficient plasticized metal
There are two basic types of tooling: rotat-
from the interface to carry away any contami-
nants. Sheared, flame cut, or sawed surfaces may ing and nonrotating. The machine in Fig. 7.13
is equipped with both types. Each type, in turn,
be used with adequate axial shortening provided
is either manual or power operated. As a rule,
the surfaces are essentially perpendicular to the
manually actuated tooling is used only for small
axis of rotation. If the surfaces are not perpen-
quantity production.
dicular, joint mismatch could result. For best
Rotating tooling must be well-balanced,
practice, the squareness should be within 0.010
have high strength, and provide good gripping
in./in. of joint diameter.
power. Collet chucks meet the above require-
Thick layers of mill scale should be re-
ments and, therefore, are most frequently used.
moved from steel workpieces prior to welding
TYpical collet tooling is shown in Fig. 7.14.
to avoid unstable heating. A thin layer of rust
Since total diametrical movement of a typical
may not be detrimental with adequate axial
collet chuck is approximately 0.020 in., dimen-
shortening.
sional and ovality tolerances of the rotated work-
Center projections left by cut-off tools are
piece must be within this limit. Specially de-
not harmful. However, pilot holes or concaved
signed collet chucks capable of larger move-
surfaces should be avoided since they may entrap
ments are available, but they have a larger mo-
air or impurities at the interface.
ment of inertia.
The most commonly used nonrotating grip-
TOOLING AND FIXTURES ping device is a self-centering, vice-like fixture
All gripping devices used for holding the with a provision for absorbing the thrust. This
workpieces must be reliable. Slippage of a work- device permits reasonable diametrical tolerance
Fig. 7.13- A large inertia welding machine with associated tooling; above, (1) ways;
below, (2) retracting cylinder, (3) rotary clamp actuator, (4) replaceable grips,
(5) steady rest, (6) backstop
Weld Quality /255
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Fig. 7.14-A collet type chuck frequently used to grip the rotating piece; (A) body,
(B) tie bar connector, (C) master collet, (D) insert collet
in the stationary workpiece and yet maintains Postweld heat treatment is generally em-
concentricity with the other piece in the collet ployed to produce the desired properties in the
chuck. More sophisticated devices may be used base metal or the welded joint, or both . The heat
where concentricity is very critical. treatments should bethose designed for the par-
Mating of faying surfaces and concentricity ticular alloy being welded. In some cases, a
of the workpieces depend upon the accuracy of postweld anneal is used to soften and stress re-
manufacture, projecting length from the clamp- lieve the joint for improved ductility.
ing fixture, and the rigidity ofthe tooling. In the case of dissimilar metal welds, a
postweld heat treatment should not contribute to
HEAT TREATMENT the formation or expansion of an intermetallic
Prior heat treatment of the workpieces layer at the interface. An intermetallic layer
generally has little effect on the ability to fric- might significantly lower joint ductility or
tion weld specific alloys. However, it may affect strength. In any case, the postweld heat treat-
the mechanical properties of the heat-affected ment should be evaluated for the application by
zone and the gripping of the workpieces. destructive tests.
WELD QUALITY
nonexistent. However, other types of discon-
JOINT DISCONTINUITIES tinuities do occur. These are normally asso-
Weld quality is primarily dependent upon ciated with improper surface preparation or
the proper selection of the welding variables. welding conditions, or both.
Fortunately, good welds can be made between Discontinuities at the center of a weld may
like metals with a rather wide range of speeds, occur for various reasons. The welding condi-
pressures, and times. Discontinuities such as tions used may not create sufficient heating at
gas pockets and slag inclusions are virtually the center for coalescence. Figure 7.15 shows
Excessive Decreasing axial shortening Insufficient

Fig. 7.15-The effect of axial shortening on the bonding and flash of friction welds
the effect of axial shortening on weld quality. NQndestructive testing methods are not
These inertia welds were made with the same generally acceptable for determining friction
speed and inertial mass but with a decreasing weld quality and soundness. However, ultra-
heating pressure from left to right. Two welds sonic techniques may be effective for the de-
exhibited center defects because insufficient tection of subsurface discontinuities such as
axial shortening (pressure) was used, but the incomplete fusion at or near the center of the
others did not. Lack of center bonding may weld. A straight beam ultrasonic test conducted
also occur in continuous drive friction welds perpendicular to the weld interface gives the
when inadequate speed, heating time, or pres- most reliable results. This test can be applied
sure is used. if one end of the weldment is accessible to
Concave faying surfaces that prevent uni- the ultrasonic transducer. Lack of bonding at
form contact during the early stages of welding the inside surface of a tube-to-tube weld may
can limit center heating and entrap oxides. be detected by ultrasonic inspection using the
Figure 7.16 shows a weld with a discontinuity angle beam technique .
that resulted when a center hole for machining Discontinuities open to the surface may be
operations was not removed prior to welding . detected by dye and fluorescent penetrant
methods. The magnetic particle inspection
INSPECTION AND TESTING method may detect discontinuities in magnetic
materials when they are at or just below the
Process control is best performed by ran-
surface. The flash should be removed from the
dom destructive or proof testing of either pro-
joint before the inspection operation is performed.
duction welds or specimens welded with the
production machines. The frequency of testing
is usually determined by service requirements,
customer specifications, or company quality
PROCESS MONITORING
control procedures. Destructive inspection may Automatic equipment is available for moni-
include metallographic examination as well as toring production friction welding operations.
tensile, impact, or bend tests. The purpose of monitoring equipment is to
Applications /257
identify machine malfunction or change in used, forging force must be applied rapidly at
operation due to part variations. It may identify the instant that drive power is disengaged.
the fault and signal the operator to stop the Excessive inconsistency in operation at this time
operation until appropriate adjustments are in the cycle can produce welds of low quality.
made. Process monitoring provides good pro- Inertia welding has only two variables: the
duction quality control. rotating speed at which axial thrust is applied,
Continuous drive friction welding equip- and the magnitude of axial thrust. These vari-
ment can be monitored for speed, heating and ables can be monitored with commercially
upsetting forces, time, and ,axial shortening. If available instrumentation.
Fig. 7.16-Discontinuity at the center of a friction weld caused

by a prior center hole
APPLICATIONS
Friction welding is frequently being used consistent part.
instead of flash or upset welding for applica- Figure 7.19 illustrates a tube-to-tube type
tions where one of the members to be joined has weld with an interface area of approximately
axial symmetry. Several typical applications 7 in.2 in a tractor track roller. This component
follow. of SAE 1046 steel is welded without preheat,
An automotive transmission input shaft but is heat treated to the desired hardness level.
assembly and its two components are shown in A fabricated jet engine compressor wheel
Fig. 7.17. The assembly is an SAE 1010 steel is shown in Fig. 7.20. It is composed of four
stamping friction welded to the shoulder of an 24-in. diameter sections of a high temperature,
SAE 1141 steel rod. The weld was made in nickel-base alloy joined by three friction welds.
about two seconds. Concentricity was held to within 0.015 in. and
The 0.060-inch-wall tubular container, the axial shortening to within 0.010-in. tol-
shown in Fig. 7.18, was welded to a base of erance. The electron photomicrograph of a cross
greater thickness in about one second. This as- section through one of these welds is shown
sembly was formerly made by copper brazing. in Fig. 7.21. The interface is free of any
The process was changed to friction welding to discontinuities.
reduce cost and to produce a more reliable and
Fig. 7.17-A friction welded automotive transmission input shaft
SAFETY
Friction welding machines are similar to Operating personnel should wear appropri-
machine tool lathes in that one workpiece is ate eye protection and safety apparel commonly
rotated by a drive system. They are also similar used with machine tool operations. In any case,
to hydraulic presses in that one workpiece is applicable OSHA. Standards should be strictly
forced against the other with high loads. There- observed.
fore, safe practices for lathes and power presses
should be used as guides for the design and
operation of friction welding machines.
Machines should be equipped with appro-
priate mechanical guards and shields as well as 1 ft/min = 5.08 x 10-3 m/s
two-hand operating switches and electrical 1 psi = 6.89 kPa
1 in. = 25.4 mm
interlocks. These devices should be designed to 1 ft. lbf = 1.356 J
prevent operation of the machine when the work 11b = 0.45kg
area, rotating drive, or force system are ac- 1ft = 305mm
cessible to the operator or others. 1 rpm = 0.105 rad/s
Safety /259
Fig. 7.18-A thin-wall tubular container friction welded to a flange
Fig. 7.19-A friction welded track roller assembly

260 I FRICTION WELDING
WELDS
Fig. 7.20-A jet engine compressor wheel fabricated by friction welding
Fig. 7.21-Eiectron photomicrograph of a section through a friction

weld in a high-temperature nickel base alloy (XSOOO)
SUPPLEMENTAL READING LIST

Adams, D. and Thylor, S., Detection of faults Paper No. AD73-221.
in friction welded studs by ultrasonics.
Weld. & Metal Fab., 37 (10): 412-21; Kuruzar, D. L., Joint design for the friction
1969 Oct. welding process. Welding Journal, 58(6):
Dickson, G. R., et al., Experiments on friction 31-5; 1979 June.
welding some nonferrous metals, Interna- Needham, J. C. and Ellis, C. R. G., Automation
tional Conference on the Welding and Fab- and quality control in friction welding. The
rication of Nonferrous Metals; 1912 May Welding Institute Research Bulletin; 12(12);
2-3; Eastbourne, Cambridge, England: The 333-9 (Part 1); 1971 Dec. 13(2); 47-51
Welding Institute; 1972: 41-53. (Part 2); 1972 Feb.
Duffin, F. D. and Bahrani, A. S., The me- Nessler, C. G., et al., Friction welding of
chanics of friction welding mild steel. titanium alloys. Welding Journal, 50(9):
Metal Construction, 8 (10): · 267-71; 1976 379s-85s; 1971 Sept.
June.
Nicholas, E. D., Radial friction welding, Ad-
Ellis, C. R. G., Continuous drive friction weld- vances in Welding Processes, 4th Inter-
ing of mild steel. Welding Journal, 51 (4): national Conference, 1978, May 9-11;
183s-197s; 1972 Apr. Harrogate, England. Cambridge, England:
The Welding Institute; 1978: 37-48.
Ellis, C.R.G. and Needham, J.C., Quality
control in friction welding, Inti. Inst. of Nicholas, F. D., Friction Welding: state of the
Welding; 1972; JIW Document lll-460- art. Welding Design and Fabrication,
72. Available from: American Welding 50 (7): 56-62; 1977 July.
Society, Miami, FL.
Rich, T. and Roberts, R., The forge phase of
Ellis, C. R. G. and Nicholas, E. D., A quality friction welding. Welding Journal, 50 (3):
monitor for friction welding, Advances in 137s-45s; 1971 Mar.
Welding Processes, 3rd International Con-
ference; 1974 May 7-9; Harrogate, Eng- Searl, J. C., The orbital friction welding process
land. Cambridge, England: The Welding for noncircular components. Engineers
Institute; 1974: 14-18. Digest, 32: 33-36; 1971 Aug.
Forster, P. B., Heat under power (HUP) friction Wang, K. K., Friction welding, New York,
welding, Advances in Welding Processes, Welding Research Council; 1975, Apr.;
3rd International Conference; 1974 May Bulletin 204.
7-9; Harrogate, England. Cambridge, Eng- Wang, K. K. and Linn, W., Flywheel friction
land: The Welding Institute; 1974: 243-8. welding research. Welding Journal, 53 (6):
Jessop, T. J., et al., Friction welding dissimilar 233s-41s; 1974 June.
metals, Advances in Welding Processes, Wang, K. K. and Nagappan, P., Transient
4th International Conference; 1978, May temperature distribution in inertia welding
9-11; Harrogate, England. Cambridge, of steels. Welding Journal, 49 (9): 419s-
England: The Welding Institute; 1978: 26s; 1970 Sept.
23-36.
Wang, K. K. and Rasmussen, G., Optimization
Johnson, T.K. and Davies, J. W., A compari- of inertia welding process by response
son of the capabilities of continuous drive surface methodology. Trans-ASME, Jour-
friction and inertia welding, Dearborn, MI; nal Engrg. Ind., 94, Series B (4): 999-
Soc. of Manufacturing Engineers, 1973; 1006; 1972 Nov.
8
Explosion Welding
Fundamentals of the Process .......... 264 Process Variables .................... 273
Applications ........................ 268 }oint Quality ........................ 274
Welding Procedures ................. 272 Safety ............................. 277
Chapter Committee
V. D. LINSE, Chairman H. E. OTIO

Battelle Columbus Laboratories Southwest Laboratories
A. POCALYKO
E. I. duPont de Nemours and Company
W. L. WILCOX
Scott Paper Company
263
8
Explosion Welding

DEFINITION AND (1) Base component
GENERAL DESCRIPTION (2) Prime component
(3) Explosive
Explosion welding is a process that uses The base component remains stationary as
energy from the detonation of an explosive to the prime component is welded to it. This base
join two pieces of metal. The explosion ac- component may be supported by a backer or an
celerates the pieces to a speed at which a metallic anvil. To do its job, the backer must have a
bond will form between them when they collide. large mass.
The weld is produced in a fraction of a second The prime component is moved toward the
without the addition of filler metal. This is base component by the explosion during weld-
essentially a room temperature process in that ing. This prime component usually is positioned
gross heating of the workpieces does not occur. parallel to the base component. However, for
The faying surfaces, however, are heated to special applications they may be at some small
some extent by the energy of the collision, and angle to each other. In the parallel arrangement,
welding is accomplished through plastic flow of the two are separated by some specified amount,
the metal on those surfaces. Welding takes place referred to as the standoff distance. In the an-
progressively as the explosion and the forces it gular arrangement, a standoff distance (at the
creates advance from one end of the joint to the apex of the angle) may or may not be used. The
other. Deformation of the weldment varies with explosion locally deforms and accelerates the
the type of joint. There may be no noticeable prime component across the standoff distance so
deformation at all in some weldments, and there
is no loss of metal. Welding is invariably done
in air, although it can be done in other at-
Detonator
mospheres or in a vacuum. Most explosion Standoff
welding is done on sections with relatively large ~----~--E_x_p_lo_s_iv_e_____d_is_ta_n~
surface areas, although there are applications for
sections with small surface areas as well.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION Jl'---------'11

A typical arrangement of the components component
for explosion welding is shown in Fig. 8.1. Fig. 8.1-Typical component arrangement
Fundamentally, there are three: for explosion welding
264
that it collides with and welds to the base com- Prime Component Velocity And Angle
ponent. Deformation and acceleration are accom-
plished increment by increment across the joint As the detonation front moves across the
as the explosion takes place. surface of the prime component, both the in-
The explosive, usually in granular form, is tense pressure in the front and the pressure
distributed uniformly over the top surface of the generated by the expanding gases immediately
prime component. The force which the explo- behind the front accelerate the prime component,
sion exerts on the prime component depends increment by increment, across the standoff
upon the detonation characteristics and the distance. By the time an increment of the prime
quantity of the explosive. component located between the detonation front
A buffer, usually of rubber material, may and the collision point reaches the base com-
be required between the explosive and the prime ponent, it has been rotated through a certain
component to protect the surface of that com- angle and accelerated to a certain velocity. This
ponent from erosion by the detonating explosive. angle and velocity depend upon the type and
amount of explosive; the thickness and me-
Explosive Detonation chanical properties of the prime component; and
the standoff distance employed.
The action that occurs during welding is
illustrated in Fig. 8.2. The manner in which the Collision, Jetting, and Welding
explosive is detonated is extremely important.
The important interrelated variables of the
Detonation must take place progressively across
process are:
the surface of the prime component. The speed
(I) Collision velocity
of the detonation front establishes the velocity
(2) Collision angle
at which the two components collide. This is
(3) Prime component velocity
known as the collision velocity and is one of
The intense pressure necessary to make a
the important variables of the process. The
weld is generated at the collision point when
selection of an explosive that will produce the
any two of these variables are within certain
required detonation velocity is of utmost im-
well defined limits. These limits are determined
portance in consistently obtaining good welds.
by the properties of the particular metals to be
Moreover, the explosive must provide uniform
joined. This pressure forces the surfaces of the
detonation so that collision velocity will be
two components into intimate contact and
uniform from the start to the finish of the weld.
causes them to flow plastically. At the same
time, a jet is formed at the collision point, as
shown in Fig. 8.2. The jet sweeps away the
original surface layer on each member, along
with any contaminating film that might be pres-
ent. This exposes clean underlying metal which
is required to make a strong metalhirgical bond.
Residual pressures within the system are main-
tained long enough after collision to avoid
springback of the metal and to complete the
weld.
Weld NATURE OF THE BOND

The interface between the two members of
component
an explosion weld may be flat or wavy, depend-
fig. 8.2-Action between components ing upon the particular conditions employed in
during explosion welding making the weld. A flat interface is formed
266/ EXPLOSION WELDING
Welds at collision velocities above the

critical value have a wavy interface, as shown in
Fig. 8.4. Welds with this interface generally
have better mechanical properties than those
with flat interfaces and can be made over a wider
range of welding conditions.
Most welds with a wavy interface contain
small pockets of jet material, as shown in Fig.
8.5 . These pockets normally are located on the
front and back slopes of the waves. The ma-
terial is composed of some combination of the
two parent metals, and partial or complete melt-
ing of this material generally occurs. The pockets
will be ductile when the metal combinations can
form solid solutions, but they may be brittle or
may show discontinuities in those combinations
Fig. 8.3-Straight interface of an explosion that form intermetallic compounds. Pockets of
weld in Type 2024 aluminum alloy the latter material may not be detrimental, if they
are very small. Good welding practices will
produce small pockets.
Large pockets, on the other hand, occur
when the collision velocity is below some critical with excessive collision conditions (prime com-
value for the particular combination of metals ponent velocity, collision velocity, and collision
being welded. As shown in Fig. 8.3, little or no angle). Such conditions may even produce a con-
melting occurs in such a weld. Welds of this type tinuous melted layer, as shown in Fig. 8.6. The
usually possess satisfactory mechanical prop- large pockets and the continuous melted layer
erties but as a rule are not sought in practice. often contain a substantial number of shrinkage
Small variations in the collision conditions can voids and other discontinuities that reduce
result in lack of bonding. strength and ductility. They are usually detri-
Fig. 8.4-Wavy interface of an explosion weld between Type 304 stainless steel
and columbium
Fig. 8.5-Typical wavy interface with discrete melt pockets (stainless

steel to mild steel)
mental to the soundness and serviceability of the the collision front. These include flat plates as
weld. For this reason, welding practices that well as cylindrical and conical structures. Welds
produce a continuous melted layer must be may also be made in certain complex configura-
avoided. tions, but such work requires thorough under-
standing and precise control ofthe process.
CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS
One attribute of the explosion welding
process is its ability to join a wide variety of
similar and dissimilar metals. The dissimilar
metal combinations range from those that are
commonly joined by other welding processes,
such as carbon steel to stainless steel, to those
that are metallurgically incompatible for fusion
welding, such as aluminum or titanium to steel.
The process can be used to join compo-
nents of a wide range of sizes. Surface areas
ranging from less than 1 in.' to over 300 ft2 can
be welded. Since the base component is station-
ary during welding, there is no upper limit on
its thickness. The thickness of the prime com-
ponent may range from 0.001 to 1.25 inches.
Geometric configurations that can be explo- Fig. 8.6-Continuous melt layer at the
sion welded are those which allow a uniform interface of an explosion weld between a
progression of the detonation front and, hence, nickel base alloy and carbon steel
APPLICATIONS
METALS WELDED general, strength and hardness increase and
ductility decreases as a result of welding. This
As a general rule, any metal can be explo- comes about from the severe plastic deformation
sion welded if it possesses sufficient strength encountered, particularly in the prime com-
and ductility to withstand the deformation re- ponent (see Fig. 8.5). Explosion welding may
quired at the high velocities associated with the increase the ductile-to-brittle transition tem-
process. Metals that will crack when exposed to perature of carbon steel. Since the prime com-
the shock of detonation and collision with ponent undergoes severe plastic deformation
another component cannot be explosion welded. during welding, these effects may be much more
Metals with elongations of at least 5 percent pronounced in that component than in the base
(in a 2 in. gage length) and Charpy V-notch component. Such effects may be erased by a
impact strengths of 10 ft • lbs or better can be postweld heat treatment (see Fig. 8.8). How-
welded by this process. In special cases, metals ever, the particular heat treatment applied
with low ductility can be welded by heating should be one that will not reduce the ductility
them to a temperature at which they will have of the weld by forming brittle intermetallic
adequate ductility. The commercially significant compounds at the interface.
metals and alloys that can be joined by explo- The magnitude of any changes in me-
sion welding are given in Fig. 8.7. chanical properties should be established and
Explosion welding can produce significant taken into consideration in the design of load-
changes in the mechanical properties and hard- bearing structures that are explosion welded.
ness of metals. This is indicated in Fig. 8.8. In This is particularly true where impact loading
N s: (")"'D Gl !!! (") -t -t z

Ql - · c:;· b'
)> ~ ~
(")
Ql
~· Ql
<0
0
0'.-+
jjj'
c:: <
0 0
=> or '?<' '0
E' ... E'
3
Ql
-·
-
<0 a-
.. .. .."'"'
::l Ql - · ::l '0
0 ~
-=>
co "'...
::l
3 Ql 0
"'"'2'
::l -c: ~ :;·
3
.-+'<: -·
~ ::l
2' C'
!!!..3 2' 3 !!!.. !!!.. c:
"'"'"'... "' ~
3 3 0
< 3 0 0
< <
3
"'
"'"'
!!!..
"' "' "' 0
<
•• ••• •••••••
"'
Zirconium
Magnesium
• •• ••• • •
Cobalt alloys
Platinum
••••• •••••• ••
Gold
Silver
•••••••••••••••
Columbium
Tantalum
•••••••••••
Titanium
Nickel alloys
•••••••
Copper alloys
Aluminum alloys
•••
Stainless steels
Alloy steels
Carbon steels
Fig. 8.7-Typical metal combinations that can be explosion

welded
Applications /269
Interface
Type 304
stainless steel Carbon
cladding steel base
400
"'X: - --- - - Preweld hardness

c:
"E' 300 Stress
As-clad
"'
.c
""0
.E Stress relieved (1150° F)
~
200
>
0.
""0
c:
0 100
E Normalized (1750° F)
Ci"'
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Distance from clad surface, in.
Fig. 8.8-Hardness profiles across stainless steel to carbon steel clad plate,
as-welded and after heat treatment
may be expected in welds in carbon steeL such as stainless and carbon steel, may be formed
by methods traditionally used for clad materials.
CLADDING Incompatible combinations such as titanium and
steel, on the other hand, may require special
Plate procedures to limit the formation of undesirable
The cladding of flat plate constitutes the intermetallic compounds at the interface. Titan-
major commercial application of explosion ium clad steel, for instance, should be hot
welding. It is customary to supply explosion formed at temperatures no higher than I400°F.
clad plate in the as-welded condition because Reducing the thickness of clad plate by
the hardening which occurs immediately ad- rolling provides a convenient means of produc-
jacent to the interface usually does not signifi- ing bimetal sheets of proper thickness for
cantly affect the engineering properties of the subsequent processing.
plate. Despite this, some service requirements Cylinders
may demand postweld heat treatment. Clad
plates usually are distorted somewhat during Explosion welding can be used to clad
explosion welding and must be straightened to cylinders on their inside or outside surfaces.
meet standard flatness specifications. Straight- One application of this is the internal cladding
ening is usually done with a press or a roller of steel forgings with stainless steel to make
leveler. nozzles for connection to heavy-walled pressure
Pressure vessel heads and other com- vessels. Clad nozzles with inside diameters of
ponents can be made from explosion clad plates 0.5 to 24 in. and lengths up to 3 ft have been
by conventional hot or cold forming techniques. made.
Hot forming must take into account the metal-
lurgical properties of the materials and the
TRANSITION )01 NTS
possibility that undesirable diffusion may occur
at the interface. Compatible alloy combinations, Fusion welded joints between two in-
270 I EXPLOSION WELDING
compatible metals are difficult or impossible to thick explosion welded plates of aluminum and
make. Some of those that can be made exhibit copper or aluminum and steel provide efficient
low strength and ductility. Transition joints conductors of electricity. This concept is
produced by explosion welding can provide a routinely used in the fabrication of anodes for
solution to that problem. Many such joints can the primary aluminum industry, an example of
be cut from a single large clad plate. Conven- which is shown in Fig. 8.9.
tional fusion welding practices may then be used When electrical connections must be dis-
to attach the members of the transition joint to connected periodically, mechanical joints be-
their respective similar metal components. Care tween copper conductors serve well. Transition
must be taken, however, to limit the service joints between copper and aluminum, in such
temperature to a level suitable for the transi- cases, are installed by fusion welding the
tionjoint. aluminum side of the joint to the aluminum
member. The copper sides are then bolted
together.
Electrical
The temperature limit for transition joints
Aluminum, copper, and steel are the between aluminum and steel should be not more
metals most commonly used in electrical sys- than 500° F for long-term service. Copper-
tems. Joints between them frequently are neces- aluminum joints should be limited to 300°F.
sary to take advantage of the special properties Transition welds are unaffected by thermal
of each. Such joints must be sound if they are to cycling below these temperatures. Short term
conduct high amperages efficiently, minimize exposure during attachment welding, for ex-
power losses and avoid overheating of the ample, may reach 6000F and 5000F, respectively,
member in service. Transition joints cut from without harm.
Fig. 8.9-Welded anode assembly using an aluminum to

steel transition joint at the arrow
Applications /271
Structural orations can be machined from thick clad plate.

The interface ofthe explosion weld is perpendic-
In the presence of an electrolyte such as salt
ular to the axis of the tube in this case .
water, aluminum and steel form a galvanic cell.
Joints can also be fabricated in an over-
In a mechanical connection, crevice corrosion
lapping or telescoping style similar to a cylindri-
can set in. A welded transition joint can minimize
cal cladding operation. They offer the advantage
such corrosion . The transition joint is metallur-
of a long overlap and frequently require little
gically bonded, and there is no crevice in which
or no machining after welding.
the electrolyte can act. Structural transition
The majority of tubular transition joints
joints are used to attach aluminum superstruc-
involve the combination of aluminum to steel
tures to the steel decks of naval vessels and com-
ranging in diameters from 2 to 12 inches. Other
mercial ships.
metal combinations for this type of joint include
titanium to stainless steel, zirconium to stainless
steel, zirconium to nickel-base alloys, and cop-
Tubular
per to aluminum . Typical tubular transition
Thbular transition joints in various config- joints are shown in Fig. 8.10.
Fig. B. tO-Typical tubular transition joints

Detonator
OTHER
Heat Exchangers
Explosion welding may be used to make
tube-to-tube sheet joints in heat exchanger
fabrication. The process is essentially a version
of internal cylinder cladding. A small explosive
charge is used to make the joint, as shown in Fig.
8.11. In most instances, the weld is located near Insert positioning
insert
the front of the tube sheet and has a length of legs
approximately 1/2 in. or five times the thickness Before welding
of the wall of the tube, whichever is greater.
Points that must be considered in determining
whether explosion welding is suitable for a par-
ticular tube-to-tube sheet application include the Collision point
diameter of the tube, the ratio of the wall thick-
ness to the diameter of the tube, the thickness of
the ligament between the holes in the tube sheet,
and the thickness of the tube sheet. Thbes may
be welded individually or in groups. The num-
ber in any group is controlled by the quantity of
explosive that can be detonated safely at any
onetime. Metal jet
Most applications of explosion welding in
During welding
tube-to-tube sheet joints involve tube diameters
in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 inches. Metal combi-
nations include steel to steel, stainless steel to
stainless steel, copper alloy to copper alloy,
nickel alloy to nickel alloy clad steel, and both
aluminum and titanium to steel.
Buildup and Repair
Explosion welding may be used for buildup
and repair of worn components. It is particularly
applicable to the repair of inside and outside sur-
faces of cylindrical components. The worn area is
Point where
simply clad with an appropriate thickness of
tube is severed
metal and machined to the proper dimensions.
In some instances, such as bearing surfaces, the Completed weld
repair can be made with a material that is su- Fig. 8.11-Tube-to-tube sheet explosion
perior to the original material. welding
WELDING PROCEDURES
overlap or have faying surfaces. In the case of
TYPES OF JOINTS cladding, the surfaces of both components have
Explosion welding is limited to joints that the same geometry and one component overlaps
Process Variables /273
the other. The same is true of transition joints be joined. These include standoff distance with
in pipe or tubing and tube-to-tube sheet joints. parallel components or initial angle with inclined
The weld in such joints should be long enough components and sufficient rigidity or suppon for
to insure that it will not fail in service by shear the base component. For cladding, a relatively
along the interface. thick prime component may need suppon only
at the edges, if deflection is not excessive.
Where deflection is troublesome, the prime
SURFACE PREPARATION component may be placed on small blocks of
rigid foam. These will be consumed during
The surfaces to be joined should be clean welding. Other supports may include sized
and free of gross imperfections to produce welds metal balls and dimpled or corrugated metal
of consistent soundness, strength, and ductility. strips. If the base component is relatively thin,
The smoothness required depends upon the it should be supponed uniformly on a massive
metals to be joined. In general, a surface finish anvil to minimize deflection. It may even be
of 150 microinches or better is required to necessary to straighten the base component
obtain high quality welds. before welding to ensure uniform contact with
the anvil.
When joining pipe or tubing, an internal
FIXTURING AND BACKUP or external mandrel normally is required to
back up the base component. An internal man-
For consistent quality, the welding condi- drel must be collapsible for easy removal after
tions should be uniform over the entire area to welding.
PROCESS VARIABLES
EXPLOSIVE (2) Nitroguanidine plus inen material
(3) Amatol and sodatol with 30 to 55 per-
Two imponant propenies of explosives for cent rock salt
welding are detonation velocity and hazard (4) Ammonium nitrate-TNT-atomized alu-
sensitivity. The latter refers to the thermal minum mixture
stability, storage life, and shock sensitivity of
the explosive. These affect handling safety.
The detonation velocity is proponional to STANDOFF DISTANCE
the density of the explosive, but the pressure
generated is proportional to density and the Standoff distance will have some influence
detonation velocity. The detonation velocity of on the wave shape of the interface. Increasing
an explosive may depend upon its thickness, the standoff distance increases the angle of ap-
the packing density, or the amount of inen proach between the prime and base components
material mixed with the explosive. Adjustments (see Fig. 8.2). This, in turn, increases the size
of the explosive for welding generally are made ofthe wave until some maximum size is attained.
to decrease its detonation velocity. Then the size of the wave will decrease as
'JYpical explosives which may be formu- standoff distance is funher increased.
lated to give suitable detonation rates are: Welding generally occurs when the angle
(l) Ammonium nitrate pellets with 6 to 12 of approach between the two components is
percent diesel fuel between 5 and 25 degrees. When welding tubes
to tube sheets, a suitable angle is achieved by tion velocity and the thickness and mechanical
tapering the hole in the tube sheet. A taper in properties of the prime component. A standoff
the range of 5 to 10 degrees generally is suitable. distance between half and one times the thick-
In the case of parallel components, the angle of ness of the prime component normally is used.
approach will depend upon other factors in addi- Those on the low side of the range are used with
tion to standoff distance. These are the detona- explosives having a high detonation velocity.
JOINT QUALITY
The quality of an explosion weld will clad steels in pressure vessels.' For such appli-
depend upon the nature of the interface and the cations, the entire plate should be examined
effect the process has on the properties of the both before and after cladding. An ultrasonic
metal components. The properties of the metal frequency in the range of 3 to 4 MHz usually
include strength, toughness, and ductility. The is adequate. Allowance needs to be made for
effect of welding on these properties can be the differences in acoustical impedance of
determined by comparing the results of tension, various metals.
impact, bending, and fatigue tests of welded The ultrasonic instrument should be cali-
and unwelded materials. Standard ASTM test- brated on standard samples containing both
ing procedures may be used. bonded and known unbonded areas which will
The quality of the bond can be determined provide a display signal amplitude of 50 to 75
by destructive and nondestructive tests. Since percent of full scale for the bonded area. Un-
the size of test samples is limited by the thick- bonded areas reflect the signal before it can
ness of the components, special destructive tests complete the circuit. This shows up in the height
are used for evaluation of the bond. The tests of the signal on the display scope. Recording
should reflect the conditions the weld will have devices can be used to give a permanent record
to endure in service. of the results of the examination.
For large clad plates where scanning 100
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION percent of the surface area is not necessary,
Due to the nature of explosion welds, the examination can be carried out on a rec-
•nondestructive inspection is restricted almost tangular grid pattern laid out on the plate. Un-
totally to the ultrasonic method. Radiographic bonded areas which are detected should be
inspection is only applicable to welds between investigated to determine whether they are small
metals with significant differences in density enough to be acceptable or are so large or so
and an interface with a large wavy pattern. numerous that they are unacceptable. The size
and number of unbonded areas that can be per-
Ultrasonic Inspection mitted in a clad plate depend upon the applica-
tion of the plate. Clad plates for heat exchangers
Ultrasonic inspection is the most widely
sometimes require over 98 percent bond, and
used nondestructive method for the examination
of explosion welds. It will not determine the I. See ANSI/ ASTM A578, Standard SpecifiCation for
strength of the weld, but it will indicate weld Straight Beam Ultrasonic Inspection of Plain and Clad
soundness. Pulse-echo techniques are used for Steel Plates for Special Applications (latest edition).
Joint Quality /275
limits are placed on the size and number of DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

unbonded areas that are permitted.
Destructive testing is used to determine the
Radiographic Inspection strength of the weld and the effect of the process
Radiography can be used to inspect explo- on the properties of the base metals. Standard
sion welds in metals that have significantly testing techniques can be used, but specially
different densities such as aluminum to steel. designed tests sometimes are required to deter-
In such cases, all unbonded and flat bonded mine bond strength for some configurations.
areas at the interface can be defined, regardless Clad Plates
oftheir size and location.
Radiographs are marked to identify the The requirements for carbon steel plates
plate and the precise location of the area they clad with copper, stainless steel, or nickel alloys
represent. The radiographs are taken perpen- are covered in appropriate ANSI/ASTM Stan-
dicular to the surface from the side with the dards.> These Standards use bend and shear tests
high density metal. The film must be in intimate to determine the strength of the bond and
contact with the surface on the low density side. tension tests for the strength of the composite.
Radiographs can delineate a wavy interface as Chisel Test
uniformly spaced light and dark lines. Unbonded
areas do not show these light and dark lines, The chisel test is widely used to quickly
and such areas are interpreted as unbonded areas ----
2. See ANSI/ASTM Standard Specifications A263,
even though a flat bond may exist. A264, A265, and B432 (latest revisions).
Fig. 8.12-A chisel tested section from an aluminutif clad steel plate
determine the integrity of the bond in an explo-

sion weld. The test is perfoi'Qled by driving a
chisel into and along the interface. The ability
of the interface to resist separation by the force
of the chisel provides an excellent qualitative
measure of the bond strength. Figure 8.12 shows
a section from an aluminum clad steel plate
under evaluation in this manner. If the weld is
not good, failure will occur along the interface
in advance of the chisel point. If the weld is Ram
good, the chisel will cut through the weaker of
the two parent metals.
Ram tensile
Tension-Shear Test specimen
This test is designed to determine the shear

strength of the weld. The specimen is shown in
Fig. 8.13. Equal thicknesses of the two com- Base component
ponents are preferred. The length of the shear Weld
zone, "d," should be selected so that little or
Prime component
no bending will occur in either component.
Failure should occur by shear, parallel to the
weld line. If failure occurs through one of the
base metals, the shear strength of the weld is
obviously greater than the strength of the base
metal. In any event, the results are useful for
comparison purposes only, using a common
test specimen.
T/2 Base block
fig. 8.14-Ram type tension test for bond

strength
L ~-- -Milled Tension Test

A special "ram" tension test can be used
for evaluation of the tensile strength of explo-
sion welds. As shown in Fig. 8.14, the specimen
Weld is designed to subject the weld interface to a
line tensile load. The cross-sectional area of the
specimen is the annulus between the outside and
inside diameters. The typical specimen has a
-'----L----' short gage length which is intended to cause
failure at the interface. The tensile strength of
fig. 8.13- Tension-shear test specimen the weld can be obtained in this manner. If
Safety /277
failure occurs in one of the base metals, the significant influence on the strength of the weld.
test shows that the weld is stronger than the Small pockets of melt can exist but these are
metal. not detrimental. A wave whose crest is bent
The test is conducted by placing the speci- over a large pocket containing voids in the
men on the base block with the ram in the hole. swirls indicates that the collision angle and
A compressive load is then applied through the velocity were too high and the weld is poor.
ram and base. Load at failure is recorded. Excessive collision velocity with metals such as
titanium and martensitic steels produces bands
Metallographic Examination
adjacent to the interface. These are a result of
Metallography can provide useful informa- adiabatic shear. Proper welding conditions
tion about the quality of explosion welds. The eliminate or minimize the occurrence of these
section for metallographic examination should bands.
be taken so that the interface can be examined Samples for metallographic examination
on a plane parallel to the direction of detonation should be taken from an area that is represen-
and normal to the surfaces of the welded com- tative of the entire weld. Edge effects may result
ponents. A well-formed, well-defined wave pat- in local unbonded areas along the edges of a
tern generally is indicative of a good weld, weld. Samples taken from such locations would
and the amplitude of the wave can vary without not be representative of the rest of the weld.
SAFETY
Explosives and explosive devices are a part and Firearms; the Hazardous Materials Regula-
of explosion welding. Such materials and de- tion Board of the U.S. Department of Transpor-
vices are inherently dangerous. Safe methods tation; the Occupational Safety and Health
for handling them do exist. However, if the Agency; and the Environmental Protection
materials are misused, they can kill or injure Agency. Many states and local governments
anyone in the area and destroy or damage require a blasting license or permit, and some
property. cities have special explosive requirements.
Explosive materials should be handled and The Institute of Makers of Explosives pro-
used by competent people who are experienced vides educational publications to promote the
in that field. Handling and safety procedures safe handling, storage, and use of explosives.
must comply with all applicable federal, state, The National Fire Protective Association pro-
and local regulations. Federal jurisdiction on the vides recommendations for safe manufacture,
sale, transport, storage, and use of explosives storage, handling, and use of explosives.
is through the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,

1 in. = 25.4 mm
ft/s = 0.305 m/s
1 ft•lb= 1.36J
tc = 0.556 (tF -32)
1 in.2 = 645 mm2
1 ft2 = 0.093 m2

Berment, L. J., Small scale explosion seam trial Newspapers Ltd., 1973: 1-31.
welding. Welding Journal, 52 (3); 147-54;
Hardwick, R., Methods for fabricating and plug-
1973 Mar.
ging of tube-to-tube sheet joints by explo-
Blazynski, T. Z., Implosive and explosive weld- sion welding. Welding Journal, 54 (4)
ing of mono- and bi-metallic duplex cylin- 238-44; 1975 Apr.
ders, Inti. Conf. on the Welding and Fabri-
Holtzman, A. H. and Cowan, G. R., Bonding
cation of Non-ferrous Metals, Eastbourne:
of Metals With Explosives, New York:
1972 May 2-3; 62-71. Cambridge, England;
Welding Research Council, 1965 Apr;
The Welding Institute, 1972.
Bulletin 104.
Carpenter, S. H. and Wittman, R. H., Explo-
Linse, V. D., The Application of Explosive Weld-
sion welding, Annual Review of Materials
ing to Turbine Components, New York:
Science, Vol. 5, 1975: 177-99.
Amer. Soc. of Mech. Engineers, 1974;
Cowan, G. R., Bergmann, 0. R., and Holtzman, Publication 74-GT-85.
A. H., Mechanism of bond zone wave for-
Onzawa, T. and Ishii, Y., Fundamental studies
mation in explosion clad metals. Met.
on explosive welding. Trans. of the Jap-
Trans., 2 (11): 3145-55; 1971 Nov.
anese Welding Society, 6 (2); 1975 Sept.;
DeMaris, J. L. and Pocalyko, A., Mechanical Welding Research Abroad, 23 (3); 28-34;
Properties of Explosion Bonded Clad Metal 1977 Mar. (Welding Research Council).
Products, Dearborn, MI; Society of Man- Otto, H. E. and Carpenter, S. H., Explosive
ufacturing Engineers, AD 66-113; 1966. cladding of large steel plates with lead.
Explosive Welding: Cambridge, England: The Welding Journal, 51 (7): 467-73; 1972
Welding Institute 1976. July.
Explosive Welding, Proceedings of the Select Popoff, A. A., Explosion welding. Mechanical
Conference, Hove, 1968, Sept. 18-19, Engineering, 100 (5): 28-35; 1978 May.
Cambridge, England: The Weldin'g Institute, Sahay, S. R. et al., Morphology and composi-
1969. tion of bond zones in some Invar-based
Ezra, A. A., Principles and Practices of Explo- explosive welds. Welding Journal 51 (1):
sive Metal-Working, Vol. 1, London: Indus- 23s-28s; 1972 Jan.
9
Ultrasonic Welding
Fundamentals ...................... 280 Process Variables .................... 298
General Applications ................ 284 Weld Quality ....................... 300
Equipment ......................... 289 Safety ............................. 309
Joining Procedures .................. 296 Supplementary Reading List ........... 3 10
Chapter Committee
P. C. KRAUSE, Chairman
F.R. MEYER
Sonobond Corporation
Christiana Metals Corporation
C. BIRO
T.RENSHAW
Bulova Systems and Instruments Company
Fairchild Republic Company
G.K.DINGLE
A.SHOH
Hughes Helicopters Division, Branson Sonic Power Company
Summa Corporation
R. G. VOLLMER
U. S. Army Aviation Research
and Development Command
I. G. Betz
Department of the Army
279
9
Ultrasonic Welding
FUNDAMENTALS
DEFINITION AND This process is being used as a production
GENERAL DESCRIPTION tool in the semiconductor, microcircuit, and elec-
trical contact industries; in the fabrication of
Ultrasonic welding is a solid-state welding
small motor armatures; in the manufacture of
process in which coalescence is produced at the aluminum foil; and in the assembly of aluminum
faying surfaces by the local application of high-
components. It is receiving acceptance as a
frequency vibratory energy while the workpieces structural joining technique in the automotive
are held together under moderately low static and aerospace industries. The process is uniquely
pressure. A sound metallurgical bond is produced useful for the encapsulation of materials, such
without melting of the base metal. There is minor as explosives, pyrotechnics, and reactive chem-
thickness deformation at the weld location. icals, that require hermetic sealing and cannot
Typical components of an ultrasonic weld- be processed by heat or electrical techniques.
ing system are illustrated in Fig. 9.1. The ultra-
sonic vibration is generated in the transducer.
PROCESS VARIATIONS
This vibration is transmitted through a coupling
system or sonotrode', which is represented by There are four variations in the process
the wedge and reed members in Fig. 9 .I. The based on the type of weld produced. These are
sonotrode tip is the component that directly con- spot, ring, line, and continuous seam welding.
tacts one of the workpieces and transmits the
vibratory energy into it. The clamping force is Spot Welding
applied through at least part of the sonotrode, In spot welding, individual weld spots are
which in this case is the reed member. The anvil produced by the momentary introduction of vi-
supports the weldment and provides reaction to bratory energy into the workpieces as they are
the clamping force. held together under pressure between the sono-
Ultrasonic welding is used for applications trode tip and the anvil face. The tip vibrates in
involving both monometallic and bimetallic a plane essentially parallel to the plane of the
joints. The process produces lap joints between weld interface, perpendicular to the axis of static
metal sheets or foils, joints of wire or ribbon force application. Spot welds between sheets are
to flat surfaces, cross wire or parallel wire joints, roughly elliptical in shape at the interface. They
and other types of assemblies that can be sup- can be overlapped to produce an essentially
ported on an anvil. continuous weld joint. This type of seam may
contain as few as 5 to 10 welds per inch. Closer
I. The sonotrode is the acoustical equivalent of the elec- weld spacing may be necessary if a leaktight
trode used in resistance spot or seam welding. joint is required.
280
Fundamentals /281
Ring Welding Clamping

force
Ring welding produces a closed loop weld
which is usually circular in form but may also be
square, rectangular, or oval. Here, the sonotrode
tip is hollow, and the tip face is contoured to
Mass
the shape of the desired weld. The tip is vibrated
torsionally in a plane parallel to the weld inter-
face. The weld is completed in a single, brief
weld cycle.
Line Welding
Line welding is a variation of spot welding
in which the workpieces are clamped between
an anvil and a linear sonotrode tip. The tip is
oscillated parallel to the plane of the weld inter-
face and perpendicular to both the weld line
and the direction of applied static force. The
result is a narrow linear weld, which can be up
to 6 in. in length, produced in a single weld
cycle.
Continuous Seam Welding
In continuous seam welding, joints are pro- Force
duced between workpieces that are passed be-
tween a rotating, disk-shaped sonotrode tip and Fig. 9.1-Wedge-reed ultr•sonic spot
a roller type or flat anvil. The tip may traverse the welding system
work while it is supported on a fixed anvil, or
the work may be moved between the tip and a stresses in the workpieces at the faying surfaces
counter-rotating or traversing anvil. Area bonds that produce elastoplastic deformation.
may be produced by overlapping seam welds. Photoelastic stress models reveal significant
aspects of these stress patterns. With applied
static force only, the stress pattern is symmetri-
MECHANISM OF THE PROCESS cal about the axis of force application. With the
superimposition of a lateral force, such as that
Ultrasonic welding involves a complex re- occurring during one-half cycle of vibration, the
lationship between the static clamping force, the force shifts in the direction of this lateral force,
oscillating shear forces, and a moderate tem- and shear stress is produced on that side of the
perature rise in the weld zone. The magnitudes axis. When the direction of the lateral force is
of these factors required to produce a weld are reversed, as in the second half of the vibratory
functions of the thickness, surface condition, cycle, the shear stress shifts to the opposite
and room temperature properties of the work- side of the axis. During welding, shear stress
pieces. shifts direction thousands of times per second.
As long as the stresses in the metal are
Stress Patterns
below the elastic limit, the metal deforms only
In all types of ultrasonic welding, static elastically. When the stresses exceed a thresh-
clamping force is applied perpendjcular to the old value, highly localized interfacial slip oc-
interface between the workpieces. The contact- curs, with no gross sliding. This action tends
ing sonotrode tip oscillates approximately par- to break up and disperse surface ftlms and per-
allel to this interface. The combined static and mits metal-to-metal contact at many points.
oscillating shear forces cause dynamic internal Continued oscillation breaks down surface
282/ ULTRASONIC WELDING
asperities so that the contact area can grow until The maximum temperature achieved is depen-
a physically continuous weld area is produced. dent upon the welding machine settings. In-
At the same time, atomic diffusion occurs creasing the power causes an increase in the
across the interface, and the metal recrystallizes maximum temperature achieved. Increased
to a very fine grain structure having the prop- clamping force increases the initial rate of
erties of moderately cold-worked metal. temperature rise, but lowers the maximum tem-
perature achieved. Thus, it is possible to control
Temperature Developed in Weld Zone
the temperature profile, within limits, by ap-
Ultrasonic welding of metals at room tem- propriate adjustment of machine settings.
perature produces a localized temperature rise The interface temperature rise is also asso-
from the combined effects of elastic hysteresis, ciated with the thermal properties of the metal
localized interfacial slip, and plastic deforma- being welded. Generally, the temperature pro-
tion. However, no melting of the weld zone duced in a metal of low thermal conductivity,
metal occurs in a monometallic weld made such as iron, is higher than that in a metal of
under proper machine settings of clamping high thermal conductivity, such as aluminum
force, power, and weld time. Sections ex- or copper.
amined with both optical and electron micro- Temperature measurements during welding
scopy have shown phase transformation, re- of metals having a wide range of melting tem-
crystallization, diffusion, and other metallurgical peratures show that the maximum temperature
phenomena, but no evidence of melting. in the weld is in the range of 35 to 50 percent of
Interfacial temperature studies made with the absolute melting temperature of the metal
very fine thermocouples and rapidly responding when suitable welding machine settings are used.
recorders show a high initial rise in tempera-
ture at the interface followed by a leveling off. Energy Delivered to the Weld Zone
The flow of energy through an ultrasonic
welding system begins with the introduction of
60 Hz electrical power into a frequency con-
verter. This device converts the frequency to
that required for the welding system, which is
usually in the range of from 10 to 75 kHz. The
high-frequency electrical energy is conducted to
one or more transducers in the welding system,
where it is converted to mechanical vibratory
energy of the same frequency. The vibratory
energy is transmitted through the sonotrode and
sonotrode tip into the workpiece. Some of the
energy passes through the weld zone and dissi-
pates in the anvil support structure.
Power losses occur throughout the system in
the frequency converter, transducer, sonotrode,
and the interfaces between these components.
However, with a well-designed system, as much
as 80 to 90 percent of the input power to the
converter may be delivered into the weld zone.
Vickers hardness number (VHN) For practical usage, the power required for
welding is usually measured in terms of the
Fig. 9.2-The rel•tionship between the
high-frequency electrical power delivered to the
minimum electric•l energy required for
ultr•sonic (cer•mic tr•nsducer) spot transducer. This power can be monitored con-
welding •nd met•l h•rdness for sever•l tinuously and provides a reliable average value
sheet thicknesses to associate with equipment performance as well
Fundamentals/ 283
as with weld quality. The product of the power can be derived for ring, line, and seam welds.
in watts and welding time in seconds is the For seam welds, the energy would be expressed
energy, in joules or watt-seconds, utilized in in terms of the unit length of seam.
welding.
ADVANTAGES AND
Power Requirements and Weldability DISADVANTAGES
The energy required to make an ultrasonic Ultrasonic welding has advantages over
weld can be related to the hardness of the work- resistance spot welding in that no heat is applied
pieces and the thickness of the part in contact during joining and no melting of the metal
with the sonotrode tip. Analysis of data cover- occurs. Consequently, no cast nugget or brittle
ing a wide range of materials and thicknesses intermetallics are formed. There is no tendency
has led to the following empirical relationship, to arc or expel molten metal from the joint as
which is accurate to a first approximation: with resistance spot welding.
E =K(HT)312
The process permits welding thin to thick
sections as well as joining of a wide variety
where: E =electrical energy, J (W•s) of dissimilar metals. Welds can be made through
K = aconstant for a given welding certain types of surface coatings and platings.
system Ultrasonic welding of aluminum, copper,
H = Vickers hardness number and other high thermal conductivity metals
T = thickness of the sheet in contact requires substantially less energy than does
with the sonotrode tip resistance welding.
The constant K is a complex function that ap- The pressures used in ultrasonic welding
pears to involve primarily the electromechanical are much lower, welding times are shorter, and
conversion efficiency of the transducer, the thickness deformation is significantly lower
impedance match into the weld, and other char- than for cold welding.
acteristics of the welding system. Different A major disadvantage is that the thickness
types of transducer systems should have sub- of the component adjacent to the sonotrode tip
stantially differentK values. must not exceed relatively thin gages because
Figure 9.2 shows the relationship between of the power limitations of present ultrasonic
energy and hardness for various sheet thick- welding equipment. The range of thicknesses of
nesses of any weldable metal based on the a particular metal that can be welded depends
above equation. It provides a convenient first upon the properties of that metal.
approximation of the minimum electrical input In addition, the process is limited to lap
energy for a ceramic transducer type spot weld- joints. Butt welds can not be made because
ing machine based on the Vickers hardness of there is no effective means of supporting the
the metal and the sheet thickness. Similar data workpieces and applying clamping force.
GENERAL APPLICATIONS
WELDABLE METALS precious metals can be satisfactorily welded to

other metals and to germanium and silicon.
Most metals and their alloys can be ultra-
sonically welded. Figure 9.3 identifies some of Refractory Metals
the monometallic and bimetallic combinations The refractory metals, including molybde-
that can be welded on a commercial basis. num, columbium, tantalum, tungsten, and some
Blank spaces in the chart indicate combinations of their alloys, are among the most difficult
that have not been attempted or have not been metals to weld ultrasonically. Thin foil thick-
successfully welded, so far as is known. nesses of these metals can be joined if they are
Various metals differ in weldability accord- relatively free from contamination and surface
ing to their composition and properties. The or internal defects.
metals considered more difficult to weld are
those that require either high power or long weld Other Metals
times, or both, and those that incur operational Nickel, titanium, zirconium, beryllium,
problems such as tip sticking or short tip life. magnesium, and many of their alloys can be
Aluminum Alloys ultrasonically welded in thin gages to them-
selves and to other metals. Metal foils and wires
Any combination of aluminum alloys forms are readily joined to thermally sprayed metals
a weldable pair. This includes the high-strength on glass, ceramics, or silicon. Such welds are
structural alloys such as Types 2014, 2020, particularly useful in the semiconductor in-
2024, 6061, and 7075. They may be joined in dustry. Typical combinations are shown in
any available form: cast, extruded, rolled, Table 9.1.
forged, or heat-treated. Soft aluminum cladding
on the surface of these alloys facilitates bond- Multiple-Layer Welding
ing. Aluminum can be welded to most other Multiple-layer welding is feasible; for ex-
metals as well as to germanium and silicon, two
ample, as many as 20 layers of 0.001-in. alumi-
semiconductor materials. num foil can be joined simultaneously with
Copper Alloys either spot welds or continuous seam welds.
Several layers of dissimilar metals can also be
Copper and its alloys, such as brass and welded together.
gilding metal, are relatively easy to weld. High
thermal conductivity does not appear to be a LIMITATIONS
deterrent factor in ultrasonic welding as it is in
the fusion welding processes. Thickness
Iron and Steel There is an upper limit to the thickness of

any metal that can be ultrasonically welded
Satisfactory welds can be produced in iron effectively because the power output of avail-
and steel of various types, such as ingot iron, able equipment is limited. For a readily weld-
low carbon steels, tool and die steels, austenitic able metal, such as Type 1100 aluminum, the
stainless steels, and precipitation-hardening maximum thickness in which reproducible high
steels. The power requirements are somewhat strength welds can be produced is approxi-
higher than for aluminum and copper. mately 0.10 in.; for some of the harder metals,
the present upper limit may be in the range of
Precious Metals
0.015 to 0.040 inch. This limitation applies
The precious metals, such as gold, silver, only to the member of the weldment that is in
platinum, palladium, and their alloys, can be contact with the. welding tip; the other member
ultrasonically welded without difficulty. Most may be of greater thickness.
General Applications /285
•• •• • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • •
AI Be Cu Ge Au Fe Mg Mo Ni Pd Pt Si Ag Ta Sn Ti W Zr
AI alloys
I•
Beal loys
cu alloys
• •• • • • • • •• • • • • •
Ge
• •• • •• •• •• • •• • •• •• ••
Au
Fe alloys
• • • • • • •• • •
Mg alloys
Mo alloys
• •• • • •• • •
Ni alloys
Pd
•• • •• Pt alloys
•• • Si
•• • • • Ag alloys
Ta alloys
••• Sn
Ti alloys
• -• W alloys
Zr alloys
Fig. 9.3-Meta/ combinations that can be ultrasonically welded
On the other hand, very thin or small sec- mit welding thicker sections with a particular
tions can be welded successfully. For example, machine size.
fine wires of less than 0.0005-in. diameter and
Geometry
thin foils of 0.00017-in. thicknesses have been
welded. Generally, ultrasonic welding can be used
Where a weld is difficult to achieve with to join a metal within the thickness limitations
available power levels, good quality joints of the process provided there is
might be made by inserting a foil of another (I) Adequate joint overlap
metal in between the two workpieces. Three (2} Access for the sonotrode tip to contact
examples of this are: (I) 0.0005-in. foil of nickel the parts
or platinum has been used between molybde- (3) An avenue for anvil support and clamp-
num components; (2) beryllium foil has been ing force application
welded to AISI Type 310 stainless steel using
an interleaf of thin Type 1100-HI4 aluminum TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
foil; and (3) the weldable range of Type 2014-T6
aluminum alloy has been extended by using a Electronic Components
foil interleaf ofT)'pe 1100-0 aluminum. The greatest application of the process is in
For some metals, use of abrasive or textured the electronics industry for the assembly of minia-
tips and anvils will decrease the required clamp- turized components. Fine aluminum and gold
ing force and the welding power. This may per- lead wires are attached to transistors, diodes,
Table9.1
Metal wire and ribbon leads that may be ultrasonically welded to thin metal
surfaces on n~nmetallic substrates
Lead
Diameter or
Metal thickness range,
Substrate film Material in.
Glass Aluminum Aluminum wire 0.002-0.010
Aluminum Gold wire 0.003
Nickel Aluminum wire 0.002-0.020
Nickel Gold wire 0.002-0.010
Copper Aluminum wire 0.002-0.010
Gold Aluminum wire 0.002-0.010
Gold Gold wire 0.003
Tantalum Aluminum wire 0.002-0.020
Chrome! Aluminum wire 0.002-0.010
Chrome! Gold wire 0.003
Nichrome Aluminum wire 0.0025-0.020
Gold Aluminum wire 0.010
Platinum Aluminum wire 0.010
Gold-platinum Aluminum wire 0.010
Palladium Aluminum wire 0.010
Silver Aluminum wire 0.010
Copper on silver Copper ribbon 0.028
Alumina Molybdenum Aluminum ribbon 0.003-0.005
Gold-platinum Aluminum wire 0.010
Gold on
Molybdenum-
lithium Nickel ribbon 0.002
Copper Nickel ribbon 0.002
Silver on
Molybdenum-
manganese Nickel ribbon 0.002
Silicon Aluminum Aluminum wire 0.010-0.020
Aluminum Gold wire 0.002
Quartz Silver Aluminum wire 0.010
Ceramic Silver Aluminum wire 0.010
and other semiconductor devices. Wires and rib- weld-clad areas. One example is the weld clad-
bons are bonded to thin films and microminia- ding of aluminum or gold foil on integrated
turized circuits. Diode and transistor chips are circuit frames to provide a surface for subse-
mounted directly on substrates. Reliable joints quent wire bonding. Another is the spot clad-
with low electrical resistance are produced with- ding of aluminum heat sinks with copper for
out contamination or thermal distortion of the subsequent attachment of semiconductor devices.
components.
The encapsulation of microcircuits and Electrical Connections
other electronic components is effectively ac- Electrical connections of various types are
complished by ultrasonic ring welding. Con- effectively made by ultrasonic welding. Both
tainers such as transistor or diode cans are her- single and stranded wires can be joined to other
metically sealed without contamination of the wires and to terminals. The joints are frequently
high-purity internal components. made through anodized coatings on aluminum
Ultrasonic welding is used to produce small or through certain types of electrical insulation.
General Applications /287
Fis. 9.5- St•rter motor •rm•ture with

wires joined in commut•tor slots by
ultr•sonic we/dins
splices, capable of withstanding annealing oper-

Fis. 9.4-Fie/d coil•ssembled by
ations, are made rapidly in foils up to 0.005 in.
ultr•sonic we/dins
thick and 72 in. wide. The splices are almost
undetectable after subsequent working opera-
Other current-carrying devices, such as electric tions. Aluminum and copper sheet up to about
motors, field coils, harnesses, transformers, and 0.020 in. thick can be spliced together by ultra-
capacitors, may be assembled with ultrasonically sonic welding using special processing and
welded connections. A typical example is the tooling.
field coil assembly for automotive starter motors
Encapsulation and Packaging
shown in Fig. 9.4. Ultrasonic welds are used
here for joining aluminum ribbon to itself, to Ultrasonic welding is used for a wide va-
copper ribbon, to consolidated stranded copper riety of packaging applications that range from
wire, and to copper terminals. soft foil packets to pressurized cans. Leaktight
For the starter motor armature of Fig. 9.5, seals are produced by ring, seam, and line
two wires are welded simultaneously into each welding.
slot of the barrel commutator. The entire process The process is useful for encapsulating
is accomplished automatically at rates up to 180 materials that are sensitive to heat or electrical
complete armatures per hour. Armatures for current. Such materials may be primary explo-
small motors in appliances, hand tools, fans, sives; slow-burning propellants and pyrotech-
computers, and other electrical devices are as- nics; high-energy fuels and oxidizers; and living
sembled in a similar manner. If the motor has a tissue cultures.
flat-faced armature, multiple-wire joints are made Since ultrasonic welding can be accom-
simultaneously with a ring welding machine plished in a protective atmosphere or vacuum,
and a castellated sonotrode tip that contacts the it permits sterile packaging of hospital supplies,
part only in the desired weld areas. precision instrument parts, ball bearings, and
Thermocouple junctions involving a wide other items that must be protected from dust or
variety of dissimilar metals can be produced contamination. This capability also permits en-
by this means. capsulation of chemicals that react with air.
Ring welds up to about 2.5-in. diameter
Foil and Sheet Splicing can be produced, but these welds are limited to
The splicing of aluminum foil by continuous thin sections of aluminum or copper. Straight
seam welding is an established production cylindrical containers are often welded with a
technique in foil rolling mills for joining broken flanging and re-forming technique such as that
and random lengths of thin sheet. Highly reliable shown in Fig. 9.6. The cylinder ends are flared
2 5
Sequence:
I. As-received container
2. Flange formed
3. Cover welded to the flange
4. Cover trimmed
5. Cylinder redrawn
Fig. 9.6- Cylinder closure by the flange-
weld-redraw technique
to form a 90-degree flange. The covers are ultra-

sonically welded to the flange, and then the
welded flange is subsequently re-formed to the
original cylindrical geometry. Fig. 9.7- Ultrasoninlly welded helicopter
access door
Line welding is used for packaging with one
or more straight line seams, such as sealing
the ends of squeeze tubes. Square or rectan-
gular packets are produced by intersecting line ultrasonic spot welds . Eight clips are attached
welds on each of the four edges. Continuous to each element, and production rates of about
seam welding is used to seal packages that can 200 elements per hour are achieved in a semi-
not be accommodated with ring or line welding. automatic setup.
Structural Welding Solar Energy Systems
Ultrasonic welding provides joints of high Ultrasonic welding has reduced fabrication
integrity for structural applications within the costs for some solar energy conversion and
limitations of weldable sheet thickness. The collection systems . Systems for converting solar
process is being used to assemble aircraft sec- heat to electricity frequently involve photovoltaic
ondary structures, such as the helicopter access modules of silicon cells which are intercon-
door in Fig. 9.7. This assembly consists of inner nected with aluminum connectors. An ultrasonic
and outer skins of aluminum alloy joined by seam welding machine, operating at speeds up to
multiple ultrasonic spot welds. Individual ultra- 30 feet per minute , joins all connectors in a single
sonic welds had 2.5 times the minimum aver- row in a fraction ofthe time required for hand sol-
age strength requirements for resistance spot dering or individual spot welding . After all
welds in the same metals and thicknesses . connections are made on one side of the as-
Assembled doors sustained loads of 5 to 10 times sembly, the same process is repeated on the
the design load without weld failure in air load opposite side.
tests. Significant savings in fabrication and Solar collectors for hot water heating sys-
energy costs were evident when compared to tems may consist of copper or aluminum tubing
those of adhesive bonding. attached to a collector plate. An automated
In another application , small clips are at- ultrasonic system makes successive spot welds
tached to cylindrical reactor fuel elements with spaced on l-in. centers between the plate and
Equipment /289
tubing as the assembly is passed beneath the exchangers. Strainer screens were welded with-
welding tip. A 36-in. tube can be welded to a out clogging the holes. Beryllium foil windows
plate in about 2 minutes, at an energy cost of for space radiation counters were ultrasonic
about 0.3 cent. The time and cost are much less ring welded to stainless steel frames to provide
than are required for soldering, resistance spot a helium leaktight bond. Currently, pinch-off
welding, or roll bonding these assemblies. weld closures in copper and aluminum tubing,
which are used with capillary tubes in refrigera-
Other Applications tion and air conditioning, are produced with
special serrated bar tips and grooved anvils.
Applications in other areas have also been Aluminum foil, surrounding fiber glass insulated
successful. Continuous seam .welding was used ducting, is overlapped and welded with a
to assemble components of corrugated heat traversing-head seam welding machine.
EQUIPMENT
GENERAL DESCRIPTION chines that operate at high frequencies and
heavy, high power machines that operate at
An ultrasonic welding machine consists of low frequencies. For example, welding ma-
the following components: chines in the power range of about 1200 to
( 1) A frequency converter to provide elec- 8000 W operate with frequencies in the 10 to
trical power at the design frequency of the 20kHz range. Conversely, small machines join-
welding system ing fine wires may have a power capacity of
(2) A transducer-sonotrode system to con- only a few watts and an operating frequency in
vert this power into elastic vibratory energy the range of about 40 to 75kHz.
and deliver it to the weld zone A machine is designed to operate at some
(3) An anvil which serves as a support for nominal frequency that may actually vary about
the workpieces I percent above or below the design frequency
(4) A force application mechanism due to manufacturing variations. Adjustments
(5) Either a timing device to control the are provided to tune the equipment to the
weld interval in spot, ring, and line welding or a optimum operating frequency.
rotating and translating mechanism for seam
Transducer-Sonotrode System
welding
(6) Appropriate electrical, electronic, and Both magnetostrictive and piezoelectric
hydraulic or pneumatic controls types of transducers are used in ultrasonic
welding systems. Magnetostricti ve materials
Vibratory Frequency
have the property of changing length under the
Ultrasonic welding can be accomplished influence of varying magnetic flux density.
over a broad frequency range from less than 0.1 Such transducers, which usually consist of a
to about 300 kHz. However, the frequencies laminated stack of nickel or nickel alloy sheets,
used for welding machines are usually in the are rugged and serviceable for continuous duty
range of 10 to 75kHz. operation but have low electromechanical con-
An ultrasonic welding machine is designed version efficiency. Piezoelectric ceramic ma-
to operate at a single frequency. There is no terials, such as lead zirconate titanate, are
critical frequency for welding of specific metals capable of changing dimensions under the in-
or thicknesses. Due to the practical funda- fluence of an electrical field. These materials
mentals of transducer-sonotrode design, it is have a conversion efficiency of more than twice
expedient to build both light, low power rna- that of magnetostrictive transducers. When they
290 I ULTRASONIC WELDING
are operated at high duty cycles, both types of have been used, but most current welding ma-
transducers must be cooled to prevent over- chines use mechanical joints because of ease of
heating and a loss of transduction characteristics. interchangeability.
The sonotrode system is designed to oper- Transducer-sonotrode systems usually have
ate at the resonant frequency of the transducer acoustically designed mounting arrangements
and usually to provide gain in the amplitude of to ensure maximum efficiency of energy trans-
the delivered vibration. Sonotrode materials are mission when static force is applied through
selected to provide low energy losses and high the system. These force-insensitive mounts
fatigue strength under the applied static and prevent shift of the resonant frequency of the
vibratory stresses. A titanium alloy and stainless system and minimize loss of vibratory energy
steel are the most commonly used sonotrode into the supporting structure.
materials.
For high reliability, the various joints in the Anvil
system must have high integrity and excellent The anvil, in addition to supporting the
fatigue life because ofthe high-frequency vibra- workpiece, provides the necessary reaction to the
tion. Brazed, welded, and mechanical junctions applied clamping force. Its geometry is seldom
ci
01100-H14
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H2024-T3
~302-SS
ci
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ci
-~
..
gj
c:
~
-"
u r-
:c... ci
~
i
.s:
~
r-.
(/)
r-.
~
ci
r- ~
~
~
~
- ~
I'
~
0
~
~
r-.
g B ~~-
4000 2400 1200 600 300
Machine size, W
Fig. 9.8- Capacities of several ultrasonic spot welding machines for joining
selected metals
Equipment /291
critical except that it must not permit the work- of such a system is the high-frequency electrical
piece to vibrate in compliance with the applied power of the ultrasonic transducer in the weld-
frequency. ing head.
Most ultrasonic welding systems utilize a
Clamping Mechanism
solid-state frequency converter of the silicon-
The static load is always applied normal to controlled rectifier (SCR) or transistor type.
the plane of the weld interface. The means for 'll'ansistors can operate efficiently at high fre-
applying this load depends upon the overall de- quencies, but their power-handling capability is
sign of the welding machine. With larger units, low. At high power levels, multiple units must
hydraulic systems are satisfactory. Intermediate be used, resulting in a more complicated and
size units may incorporate pneumatically ac- less reliable circuit. SCR's can handle more
tuated or spring loaded systems. Miniature power per device and are normally useful at
welding machines that require very small clamp- frequencies below 20 kHz. SCR's cannot be
ing loads may be spring actuated or dead-weight turned off by a control signal but require com-
loaded. Such mechanical devices are suitable for mutating circuitry, which adds to cost and in-
production applications where frequent adjust- efficiency. The overall efficiency of SCR and
ments are not required. transistor converters is approximately the same.
Automatic frequency control is a standard
Frequency Converter
feature on most frequency converters. Both SCR
The function of the frequency converter is and transistor circuits can be either controlled by
to change electrical line power of 50 or 60 Hz free-running oscillators or operated in a self-
to the design frequency of the welding system
excited mode through positive feedback derived
in an oscillator stage, and then to amplify the
from the load. The self-excited mode is prefer-
output power in an amplifier stage. The output able because such systems automatically track
the mechanical resonance of the loaded trans-
ducer, which assures optimum load matching
under all conditions.
Some ultrasonic welding machines also in-
corporate constant amplitude control. By keep-
ing the transducer mechanical arnplitud·e con-
stant, regardless of load, transducer dissipation
is held at a safe level for all loading conditions,
and the sonotrode tip amplitude is constant.
In most ultrasonic welding machines, the
frequency converter and the welding head are
separate assemblies connected by lightweight
cables. In some of the low power units, the
converter is attached to the welding head.
TYPES OF EQUIPMENT
Spot Welding Machines
Basically, these machines all operate on the
same principle. They deliver a single pulse of
high-frequency vibration to the weld interface
to produce a spot weld. 1\vo different systems
are used to apply the clamping force and transmit
Fis. 9.9-Typic•/4000 w•tt ultr•sonic the ultrasonic energy to the workpiece: the
spot we/dins m.chine wedge-reed system and the lateral drive system.
Spot welding machines range in size from about reed. Other systems have a fixed head and a
10 W to 8000 W capacity. Figure 9.8 indicates movable anvil, and force is applied through the
the capabilities of various machines for welding anvil. In both cases, the reed is acoustically
some common metals. designed for force insensitivity so that the vibra-
Wedge-Reed System. In the wedge-reed sys- tion is not damped with force application. Figure
tem, the transducer drives a wedge-shaped coup- 9. 9 shows a typical machine of the wedge-reed
ler in longitudinal vibration, as shown in Fig. 9.1. type with a movable anvil.
The wedge is rigidly attached to and produces Lateral Drive System. In this system, the
flexural vibration in the reed. The sonotrode sonotrode tip is attached to a lateral sonotrode
at the end of the reed undergoes essentially lateral which vibrates longitudinally to produce tip
vibration in a plane parallel to that of the weld motion parallel to the weld interface. Two repre-
interface. For very high powers, two or more sentative arrangements are shown in Fig. 9.10.
transducers may be used to drive the wedge. A system used in low power welding machines
Some systems have a movable head and a is shown in Fig. 9.10(A). Clamping force at the
fixed anvil, with force being applied through the tip results when a bending moment is applied to
- - 1 - - Transducer
-
(A)
Transducer Force
~ ·~----------------------~~----------~---,
0
0
0
--------~g~·~--~t------~;;;;~~~;;;;;;;;------
Weldment Anvil
I
I
I
L - _.
Force
(B)
Fig. 9.10-Two types of lateral drive spot welding systems

Equipment I 293
the sonotrode, indicated by the arrows on the Ring welding machines are available in
figure. This lateral sonotrode is surrounded by a sizes ranging from 100 W to about 4000 W
metal sleeve which has a flange located at a capacity. They are capable of making circular
vibratory node to isolate the acoustic system ring welds in diameters ranging from approxi-
from the applied force. In the system shown in mately 0.040 to approximately 2.5 inches.
Fig. 9.10(B), the lateral sonotrode is mounted
Line Welding Machines
through resilient metal diaphragms located at
vibratory antinodes. These diaphragms isolate These machines usually incorporate an
the vibration from the force application system. overhung, lateral drive, transduc~-sonotrode
A typical 100 W welding machine incor- system. The couplers extend beyond the sono-
porating a lateral drive system is shown in Fig. trode tip, and the clamping force is applied to
9.11. Low power systems, such as those used the overhung portion of the sonotrode. This
for lead wire welding in semiconductor devices, design eliminates high bending movements in
may be incorporated in a micropositioner. They the coupler when clamping forces are high.
may also include automatic wire feed, work A cluster of multiple transducer-sonotrode
manipulation, positioning, and microscopic units attached to a single sonotrode tip is used
observation. for weld lengths greater than about I inch. An
array for making 5-in. long line welds incor-
Ring Welding Machines
porates five such units with an interconnecting
Ring welding machines utilize a torsionally tip. Hydraulic cylinders apply force to each
driven coupling arrangement as shown in Fig. coupler, thereby equalizing the force for each
9.12. The axial driving coupling members are increment of weld length.
tangent to the torsional coupler. They vibrate
Continuous Seam Welding Machines
out of phase to produce a torsional vibratory
displacement of the sonotrode tip in a plane Continuous seam welding machines usually
parallel to the weld interface. incorporate lateral drive transducer-sonotrode
systems and anti friction bearings. The entire
transducer-sonotrode-tip assembly is rotated by
a motor drive. The rotating tip rolls on the work
along the desired path. Three arrangements are
used for handling the work: a roller-roller sys-
tem, a traversing anvil system, and a traversing
head system.
Fig. 9.11-Typic~I'IOO w~tt spot welding Fig. 9.12-Tr~nsducer-sonotrode system

muhine with l~ter~l drive system for ring welding m~chines
Roller-Roller System. In this arrangement, tips must be precise in dimensions and finish.
the workpiece is driven between a rotating disk For joining two wires together, the anvil may
tip and a counter-rotating anvil. A compact be grooved to support and position both wires.
100 W machine is used for thin foil materials. The tip may fit into the groove and contact the
Heavier materials are welded with a 2000 W upper wire .
unit capable of welding rates up to 450 ft/min. Ring welding tips are usually hollow mem-
bers having the shape of the desired welds:
Traversing Anvil System. In this system, circular, elliptical, square, or rectangular. The
the rotating transducer-sonotrode system is wall thickness is determined by the desired weld
mounted in a fixed position. The workpiece is width, and the edge of the tip contacting the
located on an anvil that traverses laterally under worlc is convex . Anvils may be flat or appropri-
the rotating coupler disk. ately contoured to mate with the workpiece. For
Traversing Head System . The predominant example: in welding a lid to a cylindrical
type of seam welding machine is the traversing container, the anvil is usually recessed to ac-
head system in which the disk tip rotates as it commodate the container with the flange in con-
traverses across the stationary workpiece . A tact with the anvil surface.
typical unit is shown in Fig. 9.13 . A 100 W Line welding tips have narrow, elongated
system of this type is used in aluminum foil shapes with the contacting surface any desired
mills for splicing coils . Machines of higher width up to about 0 .1 inch. The anvil is designed
power capacity are used for splicing thicker to accommodate the workpiece. For line weld-
materials. ing of can side seams, for example, the anvil
consists of a cylindrical mandrel around which
the can body blank is wrapped and supported
SONOTRODE TIPS AND ANVILS with clamping jaws (Fig. 9.14).
Tip and Anvil Geometry Continuous seam welding tips are resonant
disks. For welding flat surfaces, the disks are
Welding is most effectively accomplished machined with a convex edge. The edge of the
when the sonotrode tip and anvil are contoured disk may also be contoured to mate with the
to accommodate the specific geometry of the workpiece; for example, the entire periphery of
parts being joined. a disk can be grooved to permit continuous
For spot welding of flat sheets, the tip is seam welding of a rib to a cylinder with an ar-
contoured to a spherical radius of about 50 to rangement similar to that shown in Fig. 9.14.
100 times the thickness of the sheet adjacent to
the tip. The anvil face is usually flat. This
provides a friction type drive in which slippage
can occur between the tip and the top sheet or
between the anvil and the bottom sheet as well
as at the weld interface.
A positive type of drive is illustrated in
Fig. 9.14, which shows the arrangement for
welding a small rib to a tubular member. The
sonotrode tip is contoured to mate with the rib
so that they are locked together. With this drive,
maximum energy is delivered at the weld
interface.
When joining a wire to a flat surface , the
tip is preferably grooved to match the wire so
that the wire is not excessively deformed during Fig. 9.13-Typical traversing head,
welding. With small wires, such as those used continuous seam ultrasonic welding
for connections to semiconductor devices, the machine
Equipment /295
Tip Materials Tip Maintenance

As in resistance spot welding, wear of the When sonotrode tips begin to show wear,
sonotrode tip and anvil depends upon the proper- erosion, or material pickup, they may be recon-
ties and geometry of the parts being welded. ditioned by cleaning and burnishing. Light sand-
Tips made of high-speed tool steel are generally ing with 400-grit silicon carbide paper is usually
satisfactory for welding relatively soft materials, sufficient. If the wear is excessive, the tips
such as aluminum, copper, iron, and low carbon should be replaced. Most welding machines
steel. Tips of hardenable nickel-base alloys have mechanically attached tips to simplify
usually provide good service life with hard, replacement.
high-strength metals and alloys. The material Occasionally, the tip may tend to stick to
used for the sonotrode tip is also satisfactory the weld surface, particularly if improper ma-
for the anvil face. chine settings are used. The sticking may be
Frequently, longer tip life and more effec- alleviated by increasing the clamping force or
tive welding are possible using tips and anvils decreasing the welding time. With some mate-
with rough faces because they tend to prevent rials, it is effective to apply a lubricant, such as
gross slippage between them and the workpieces. a faint trace of very dilute soap solution, to the
The roughening may be accomplished with elec- surfaces being joined. If these measures are not
trical discharge machining (EDM) or sandblast- adequate, tip sticking may usually be eliminated
ing to a finish of about 200 microinch. Abrasive by welding with a tip having an insert of special
tips usually permit the use of lower powers grade tungsten carbide.
and clamping forces than are required with CONTROLS
smooth tips. The basic controls for an ultrasonic weld-
ing machine are relatively simple. They consist
of a master switch for introducing line power
and controls to adjust clamping force, power,
welding time, and sometimes resonance. Appro-
priate readout is normally provided for all
Force
!
adjustments.
The welding cycle is generally controlled
automatically and is usually actuated by dual
palm buttons or a foot switch. The automatic
cycle consists of lowering the sonotrode tip or
raising the anvil, application of clamping force,
introduction of the ultrasonic pulse, and retrac-
tion of the tip or anvil.
Other controls and indicators are included
on some welding machines to monitor operation
of the equipment or to provide flexibility in use.
Means may be provided for adjustment of:
(1) Sonotrode stroke length
(2) Speed of sonotrode advance and retrac-
tion from the weldment
(3) Speed of traverse for continuous seam
welding machines
(4) Height of anvil to provide clearance
for the workpiece
(5) Anvil position, particularly on ring
Fig. 9.14-Welding array for joining small welding machines where precise alignment of
longitudinal ribs to cylinders tip and anvil are essential to ensure uniform
contact around the periphery of the weld

AUTOMATED PRODUCTION
Weld quality control monitors may also be
EQUIPMENT
included. One such device is a weld power meter
which indicates the power delivered into the weld. Several features of ultrasonic welding
A substantial change in load power indicates a equipment make it particularly adaptable to
faulty weld, which may be due to changes in automated or semiautomated production lines:
part dimensions or surface finish, improper namely,
assembly of parts, or machine malfunction. On (I) The welding head can be readily inter-
some machines, the high and low limits of ac- faced with other automatic processing equip-
ceptable power can be set, and deviations from ment. It can be mounted on any rigid structure
this range can be used to trigger a visual or aud- and in any position with the tip contacting the
ible signal to alert the operator or to actuate a work from any direction.
reject mechanism. (2) The frequency converter may be located
Another type of weld quality monitor is as far as 150 ft away from the welding head.
based on a constant energy principle. This sys- (3) Welding times are usually a fraction of
tem automatically adjusts welding time so that a a second, and production rates are limited pri-
predetermined amount of energy is delivered to marily by the speed of the work-handling
each weld. When the energy can not be delivered equipment.
within the preset time, an alarm is activated. (4) The process does not involve extensive
Automated equipment may also include fre- heating of the equipment or the workpiece.
quency counters, weld counters, material-hand- (5) In automatic filling and closing lines,
ling actuators, indexing mechanisms, and other accidental spillage of the contents on the weld
devices to minimize operator functions and max- interface usually will not significantly affect
imize production rates. weld quality.
JOINING PROCEDURES
JOINT DESIGN ferred to spot welds for structural appiications.

The rings provide relatively uniform stress dis-
Joint designs for ultrasonic welding are less tribution with less stress concentration, less
restrictive than for some other types of welding. tendency toward cracking, and generally no parts
Edge distance is not critical. The only restriction resonance (see below).
is that the sonotrode tip should not crush or gouge
the sheet edge. Welds in structural aluminum CONTROL OF PARTS RESONANCE
alloys of several thicknesses have shown the
same strength at both 1/8 in. and 3/4 in. from Sometimes the workpiece may be excited
the edge. Weight and material savings are to vibration by the ultrasonic welding system.
achieved by using the minimum acceptable When this occurs, inferior welds may result,
overlap. previously made welds may fracture, or cracks
Ultrasonic welding places no restrictions may be generated in the workpiece. Any of
on spot spacing or row spacing with any of the several remedies may be applied singly or in
four types of welds. Consecutive or overlapped combination.
welds have no effect on the quality of previously Resonance vibration may be eliminated by
made welds, except perhaps under resonance altering the workpiece dimensions or the orienta-
conditions described below. tion of the workpiece in the welding machine.
Ring welding offers unique capabilities for Damping of vibration in thin sections can fre-
hermetic sealing, as indicated by the joint de- quently be accomplished by applying pressure-
signs in Fig. 9.15. Ring welds may also be pre- sensitive tape to the part. Clamping of masses
m
Joining Procedures /297
ffi
and may require only the removal of surface
~
lubricants with a detergent. Normally, thin oxide
films do not inhibit welding since they are dis-
rupted and dispersed during the process.
Stud type FIat cover to Formed cup to
welds formed vial formed cup Metals that are heavily oxidized or contain
i1ir
surface scale require more careful surface prep-
aration. Mechanical abrasion or descaling in a
~ chemical etching solution is usually necessary
tzrDJ
I @4
I to provide a clean surface for welding. Once

Cover to pI ate Tube to header the surface scale is removed, the elapsed time
i
before welding is not critical as long as the ma-
~
•
terials are stored in a noncorrosive environment.
It is possible to weld metals through certain
Electronic
surface films, coatings, or insulations, but some-
Cover to machined packages what higher ultrasonic energy levels are required.
container
Some types of films can not be penetrated and
Fig. 9.15-Typical ultrasonic ring must always be removed prior to welding.
welding applications
SPECIAL WELDING ATMOSPHERES
to the workpiece or clamping into a compara- Ultrasonic welding usually does not require
tively massive fixture usually suffices in even special atmospheres. With some metals, the pro-
the most difficult cases. cess may produce discoloration of the surface
in the vicinity of the weld. When such a surface
SURFACE PREPARATION is undesirable, it can be minimized by use of
inert gas protection, such as small jets of argon
A good surface finish contributes to the impinging around the tip contact area. For pack-
ease with which ultrasonic welds are made. aging applications in which sensitive materials
Some of the more readily weldable metals, such must be protected from contamination, welding
as aluminum, copper, or brass, can be welded in can be accomplished in a chamber filled with
the mill finish condition if not heavily oxidized, inert gas.
PROCESS VARIABLES
The variables of ultrasonic power, clamp- time indicates insufficient power. High power
ing force, and welding time or speed are estab- and a short welding time will usually produce
lished experimentally for a specific application. welds that are superior to those achieved with
Once determined, they usually require no adjust- low power and a long welding time. Excessive
ment unless there are alterations to the equip- welding time causes poor surface appearance,
ment, such as sonotrode tip changes or changes internal heating, and internal cracks.
in the workpiece. The same factors of power and unit time
are significant in continuous seam welding.
ULTRASONIC POWER With available equipment, the travel speed for
hard, thick metals may be as low as 5 ft/Inin.
The power setting may be indicated in
Thin aluininum, 0.001-in. thick, can be welded
terms of the high-frequency power input to the
at speeds up to about 500 ft/Inin.
transducer or the load power (the power dis-
sipated by the transducer-sonotrode-workpiece FREQUENCY ADJUSTMENT
assembly). As previously noted, the power re-
Adjustment of the frequency converter
quirement varies with the material and thickness
output to match the operating frequency of the
ofthe workpiece adjacent to the sonotrode tip.
welding system is necessary for good perfor-
The Ininimum effective power for a given
mance. A system has a given nominal frequency,
application can be established by a series of tests
but the best operating frequency may vary with
from which a threshold curve for welding is
changes in the sonotrode tip, the workpiece, or
plotted. Details of this procedure are described
the clamping force. The method of frequency
later.
adjustment varies with different types of fre-
CLAMPING FORCE quency converters. After the setting is estab-
An ultrasonic welding machine usually lished for a specific welding setup, usuBily no
provides a fairly broad range of clamping forces. further adjustment is necessary.
Table 9.2 shows typical ranges for machines of
various power capacities. The clamping force
INTERACTION OF
iange of machines with hydraulic or pneumatic
WELDING VARIABLES
force systems can be modified by changing the For a given application, there is an opti-
pressure cylinder. mum clamping force at which Ininimum vibra-
The function of clamping force is to hold tory energy is required to produce acceptable
the workpieces intimately together. Excessive welds. This condition can be established by
force produces needless surface deformation and plotting the threshold curve. This curve, illus-
increases the required welding power. Insuffi- trated in Fig. 9.16, defines the conditions of
cient force permits tip slippage that may cause best dynainic coupling between the sonotrode
surface damage, excessive heating, or poor tip and the workpiece and, thus, the Ininimum
welds. Clamping force for a specific applica- energy to produce strong welds.
tion is established in conjunction with ultra- The technique consists of making welds at
sonic power requirements. selected power and clamping force settings and
conducting cursory evaluation of weld quality as
WELDING TIME OR SPEED noted on Fig. 9.16. For ductile, thin sheets
The interval during which ultrasonic energy and fine wires, a useful criterion of successful
is transinitted to the workpieces in spot, ring, or bonding is the ability to pull a nugget from one
line welding is usually within the range of0.005 of the workpieces when peel tested. Welds in
second for very fine wires to about 1 second for hard or brittle metals may be evaluated on the
heavier sections. The need for a long welding basis of weld strength or evidence of material
Process Variables /299
Max
Table9.2
Typical clamping force ranges for
ultrasonic welding machines of various
power capacities
Gi Set
Machine power Approximate clamping p
~
capacity, force range,
w
20
lbf
0.009-0.39
~
c..
u.
50-100 0.5-15 a:
300 5-180
600 70-400
1200 60-600 o Unacceptable or no weld
4000 250-3200
8000 800-4000 Min
Min F Max
Static clamping force
transfer when peel tested. The threshold curve
is normally derived as follows: Optimum conditions for minimum power
(1) The welding time is set at a reasonable are clamping force F and power P
value. One-half second is a good starting point Fig. 9.16-Typical threshold curve relating
for most metals. For very thin metals, a shorter RF power and clamping force
weld time is usually used.
(2) Welding is started at low values of
clamping force and power, and a series of test cordingly. The threshold curve is a practical
welds is made with incrementally increasing and efficient method for determining proper
machine settings for all types of ultrasonic welds.
values of clamping force at a fixed power level.
The welds are evaluated and the results plotted
as in Fig. 9.16, indicating acceptable and un- POWER-FORCE PROGRAMMING
acceptable welds. Certain materials, such as the refractory
(3) This procedure is then repeated at other metals and alloys, are more effectively welded
values of ultrasonic power until an inverted when power-force programming is used. Weld
bell-shaped curve is obtained. strength is higher and cracking of the weld
These data will generate a curve separating metal is minimized.
the acceptable from the unacceptable welds. Power-force programming involves incre-
Welding is ordinarily done using the clamping mental variations in power and clamping force
force value for minimum acceptable power and during the welding cycle. The cycle is initiated
a power level somewhat above the minimum. at low power and high clamping force. After a
The product of the selected power and weld time brief interval, the power is increased and the
is the total energy required. If welding time is force reduced. The cycle is accomplished auto-
decreased, then power must be increased ac- matically with special logic circuitry.
WELD QUALITY
INFLUENCING FACTORS Surface Appearance

Variations in weld quality may result from The surface of the work at a weld location
several factors which are generally associated is usually roughened slightly by the combined
with the workpieces and the welding machine compressive and shear forces. The roughness
or its settings. Weld quality is ordinarily not can be minimized with adjustments in the ma-
affected by normal manufacturing variations in chine settings and with careful sonotrode tip
metal parts. Metals that meet the specification maintenance. The surface contour depends pri-
requirements can usually be consistently welded marily on tip geometry. Spot welds usually
without varying machine settings. Problems are leave an elliptical impression because of the
sometimes encountered, however, if close toler- linear displacement of the tip. A weld spot
ances are not held; for example, nickel, copper, impression is larger in soft, ductile metals, such
and gold platings on metal surfaces frequently as aluminum, than in hard metals of the same
have thickness variations that affect weld qual- thickness with appropriate adjustment in ma-
ity. Surfaces for ring welding must be flat and chine settings. Spot size can be increased by
parallel to ensure uniform welding around the using a larger tip radius.
periphery. The actual bond area does not necessarily
If there is any change in the workpieces duplicate the surface impression, except in thin
during a production operation, the welding sheet. Sometimes, spot welds have unbonded
schedule must usually be adjusted to accommo- areas in the center. This condition can usually
date such change. Variations in weld quality be eliminated by decreasing the tip radius or
during production runs have been traced to un- reducing the clamping force.
authorized changes in metal alloy, geometry, or
surface finish. Wires such as magnet wires that Thickness Deformation
are lubricated to facilitate coil winding may
A weld may show some thickness deforma-
be ultrasonically welded without cleaning. A
tion because of the applied clamping force.
change in the type of lubricant may cause
Such deformation in sheet metals is usually less
unacceptable welds unless machine settings
than 20 percent of the total joint thickness, even
are appropriately adjusted.
with soft metals. With contoured parts such as
Uniform quality welding also depends
wires, deformation is somewhat greater unless
upon the mechanical precision of the welding
the tip contour mates with the workpiece.
machine. Lateral deflection of the sonotrode or
looseness of the anvil can produce unacceptable Microstructural Properties
aberrations in the welds. Erratic weld quality
Metallographic examination of ultrasonic
may result from the use of a force-sensitive
welds in a wide variety of metals shows that a
machine if power is lost and the frequency
number of different phenomena occur as a result
shifts as clamping force is applied. Sonotrode
of the vibratory energy introduced into the
tips must be acoustically designed and preci-
weld zone. Three important ones are:
sion ground to the desired contour. Their sur-
(I) Interfacial phenomena, such as inter-
faces must be properly maintained to ensure
penetration and surface film disruption
reproducible welds.
(2) Working effects, such as plastic flow,
grain distortion, and edge extrusion
PHYSICAL AND METALLURGICAL (3) Heat effects, such as recrystallization,
PROPERTIES precipitation, phase transformation, and diffusion
Ultrasonic welds have distinctive charac- Ultrasonic welding is usually accompanied
teristics when examined both internally and by local working along the faying surfaces, by
externally. interdiffusion or recrystallization at the inter-
Weld Quality I 301
..
'.
... ~
. .. ·.
·.... . ..... ,.
~ -:· .:·
•,
'. I o ,II.
...
·; o ...
~ . .. . .~
'·
(A) 0.003-in. nickel foil (top) to 0.003-in. gold-plated Kovar foil ( x150)
(B) 0.005-in. nickel foil (top) to 0.020-in. molybdenum sheet ( x100)
(C) 0.008-in. arc-cast molybdenum sheet to itself ( x70)
Fig. 9.17-Photomicrogr•phs oftypic•l ultr•sonic welds
-... -
; .
.~
·,.
.' .. ..... .. '•
...... .. -
.· :· _...
...
........,..
. .-
.. . . .. . .....
,. . . ...
,. .•.
·o
.~ ..:.·
-..
...,. _, •:
'. i
..
· ...
•• • , •
-.
'"". -·
ff'>
... '(' .......:

o,.
. .-... .....
...• o I
. . .....
·-
.-_... .·
•.
·~.,.
:., ....
'· • :. ·.. ·. .-
(D) 0.012-in. Type 110Q-H14 aluminum sheetto itself ( x 250)

(E) 0.032-in.Type 2024-T3aluminum alloy sheet to itself (x 75)
Fig. 9.17 (cont.)-Photomicrogr•phs of typic•/ ultr•sonic welds

Weld Quality /303
(F) 0.040-in. Type 2020 aluminum alloy sheet to itself ( x 375)

(G) 0.014-ln. half-hard nickel sheetto Itself (x250)
Fig. 9.17 (cont.)-Photomicrogr~phs of typic~/ ultr~sonic welds

.. . ..
• b
•--
----· , .
•I
.H I•·
-
•
(H) 0.012-in. solution heat-treated and aged lnconel X-750 sheetto itself (x 75)
(J) 0.032-in. die steel (0.9% C) (top) to 0.032-in. ingot iron ( x500)
FitJ. 9.17 (cont.)-l'hotomicrosr~Jphs oftypic~JI ultr~Jsonic welds

Weld Quality /305
face, and by interruption and displacement of tural aluminum alloys, beryllium, low carbon
oxide or other barrier films. Surface films, which steel, and other metals, even though they were
are broken up by the stress reversals and plastic not in the cold-worked condition prior to weld-
deformations that occur along the interface, may ing. For instance, in the Type 2020 aluminum
be displaced in the vicinity of the interface or alloy weld in Fig. 9.17(F), mutual deformation
may simply be interrupted in continuity in ran- of the surfaces and subsequent recrystallization
dom areas within the bpnd zone. The actual are evident. In Fig. 9.17(0), the elevated tem-
behavior of such films depends upon several perature during welding resulted in recrystalliza-
factors, including the machine settings, the tion of prior cold-worked nickel.
properties of the film and the base metal, and Still another effect of interfacial heating is
the temperature achieved at the interface. illustrated in Fig. 9.17(H), which shows a weld
The temperature effect is significant in in solution treated and aged Inconel X-750'
welding certain metals. Recrystallization of the alloy. In the aged condition, a precipitate
metal frequently occurs in the weld nugget. normally appears throughout the grains and in
Sufficient heat may be generated in certain the grain boundaries. In the vicinity of this inter-
alloys that exhibit precipitation behavior or face, the oxide scale is dispersed and the grain
phase transformation to induce these effects. boundaries appear to stop short of the interface,
Although diffusion may occur across the inter- indicating that the precipitate was dissolved
face, the extent of atom movements is limited during welding. An example of alloying that
by the short weld time. may occur in the bond between ferrous metals
More than one of the above effects may be of different carbon content is shown in Fig.
apparent in the same weld, and different effects 9.17(1).
may occur in welds in the same metal produced
at different machine settings. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Several typical examples are illustrated in
Fig. 9.17. An extreme example of interpene- A variety of mechanical tests may be used
tration across an interface is shown in Fig. to evaluate weld quality. The property most
9.17 (A), in which a Kovar 2 foil has intruded into frequently tested is shear strength. In addition,
as much as 75 percent of the thickness of a data are reported on cross-tension strength,
nickel foil. A gold plate on the surface of the microhardness, corrosion resistance, and her-
Kovar has been dispersed throughout the highly metic sealing properties. All available informa-
worked region. Interfacial ripplets in a nickel- tion indicates that the ultrasonic technique,
to-molybdenum weld, shown in Fig. 9.17(B), properly applied, produces welds of acceptable
illustrate the plastic flow that occurs locally. strength and integrity.
Entrapped oxide is indicated by the dark patches Shear Strength
on the extreme right of the figure. The weld
between two sheets of arc-cast molybdenum, Shear tests are usually conducted on simple
Fig. 9.17(C), shows very little interpenetration, lap joints containing single- or multiple-spot
and the bond line is thin. Figure 9.17(0) illus- welds or predetermined lengths of seam or line·
trates the surface oxide film dispersion that may welds. For convenience, test specimen prepara-
occur during welding of aluminum sheet. Gen- tion and testing procedures essentially duplicate
eral plastic flow along the interface is observed those used for resistance spot and seam welds.
in the 'JYpe 2024-T3 aluminum alloy weld of Figure 9.18 shows the increase in shear
Fig. 9.17(E) where the metal has recrystallized strength with sheet thickness for single-spot
to a fine grain size. specimens in two aluminum alloys. Usually in
Evidence of recrystallization has been the thin gages of aluminum sheet, and often in
observed in ultrasonic welds in several struc- the intermediate gages, failure under tension-
shear load occurs by fracture of the base metal
2. A low-expansion iron-base alloy containing 29 per-
cent nickel and 17 percent cobalt. 3. Tradename
2800 Min. av. for RSW 700

per MIL-W-6858C - - -
2400 600
1500
,Q
~400
<::
~
t;;
~ 1200
~ !300
<::
0 <::
·;;; 0
"iii
~ 800 ~ 200
400 100
o-._...~...-a~~--~*-~--'-~
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Sheet thickness, in. Sheet thickness, in.
Fig. 9.20-Typical shear strengths of ultra-
Fig. 9.18-Typical shear strengths of ultra· sonic spot welds in several refractory
sonic spot welds in aluminum alloy sheet metals and alloys
or by tear-out of the weld button rather than by
shear of the weld itself. Similar data for sev-
eral ferrous and nickel alloys are shown in Fig.
2500 9.19 and for several refractory metals and
alloys in Fig. 9.20.
.,., Typical spot weld strengths in a variety of
!2000 metals are summarized in Table 9.3. Of par-
,Q ticular interest is the low variability associated
£ with the strength data. In most instances this is
g.1500 less than 10 percent.
~
t: Line welds and seam welds show approxi-
... mately the same strength as the base metal, at
:ll
~ 1000 least with thin gages. As an example, spot-seam
<::
0
"iii
welds in structural aluminum alloys have shown
strengths equivalent to 85 to 95 percent of the
~ 500 ultimate tensile strength of the material under
both shear and hydrostatic tests. Line welds in
0.001-in. type 5052-Hl6 aluminum alloy average
o-....._.~oo.oo~__.._....__._--'--'-...._...~..........,
85 to 92 percent of the base metal strength.
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 Continuous seam welds in thin gage 1100 alumi-
Sheet thickness, in. num show 88 to 100 percent joint efficiency.
a. Trade name Elevated temperature tests on welded
Fig. 9.19-Typical shear strengths of ultra- specimens of several metals and alloys indicate
sonic spot welds in stainless steel and that weld strength is no lower than that of the
nickel-base alloys base material at the same temperature.
Weld Quality I 307
1000
- - Mean strength
Max _ _ _ Standard deviation range
!Avof 3 (950 ± 821b)
!Min
Day
Fig. 9.21-Typic•l v•ri•nce in ultr•sonic weld she•r strength in 0.040-in. Type 2024·T3
•luminum •lloy
Table9.3
Typical shear strengths of ultrasonic spot welds in several alloys
Mean shear strength
Sheet with 90%
thickness, confidence interval,
Metal Alloy or type in. lbf
Aluminum 2020-T6 0.040 1240 ±50
3003-Hl4 0.040 730 ± 40
5052-H34 0.040 750 ± 30
6061-T6 0.040 800 ± 40
7075-T6 0.050 1540 ± 90
Copper Electrolytic 0.045 850 ± 20
Nickel Inconel X-750 8 0.032 1520 ± 100
Monel K-500 8 0.032 900 ± 60
Rene41 0.020 380
Thoria dispersed 0.025 910
Steel AISI 1020 0.025 500 ± 20
A-286 0.015 680 ± 70
AM-350 0.008 310 ± 20
AM-355 0.008 380 ± 40
Titanium 8%Mn 0.032 1730 ± 200
5% Al-2.5% Sn 0.028 1950 ± 120
6%Al-4% v 0.040 2260 ± 180
a. 'Ifade names
Tensile Strength A number of postweld nondestructive tech-

niques are also available. Ultrasound, .radi-
Cross-tension tests on welds in selected
ography, and infrared radiation techniques may
metals indicate tensile strengths usually within
be used in specific applications. If hermetic
the range of 20 to 40 percent of the tension-
sealing is the primary requirement of the weld,
shear strength. With resistance welds, the ratio
helium leak tests are effective.
of direct tension to shear strength is usually
taken as a criterion of weld ductility. The sig- Destructive Testing
nificance of this ratio for ultrasonic welds has
An approach used for some applications
not been established.
involves destructive testing of randomly selected
CORROSION RESISTANCE specimens during a production run. For rela-
tively thin ductile sheet, a peel test will indicate
The cast nugget of a resistance spot weld adequate weld strength if failure occurs by
is frequently the site of localized corrosion nugget tear-out or fracture of the base metal.
attack when the weldment is exposed to an un- Metallographic sectioning for examination pro-
favorable environment. This is not true of ultra- vides a reliable indication of weld quality, but
sonic welds. Weld specimens in aluminum alloys it is slow and expensive.
and stainless steels that have been exposed in For most applications, tension-shear test-
boiling water, sodium chloride solutions, and ing is the most practical destructive test.
other corrosive materials have shown no prefer- Figure 9.21 shows typical variations in shear
ential attack in the weld. strength of random spot weld samples in 0. 040-
in. Type 2024-T3 aluminum alloy, produced
QUALITY CONTROL with a specific machine setting for a number
of days at different times of the day. The maxi-
Nondestructive Evaluation
mum, average, and minimum strength values
The weld power monitor, discussed pre- for each set of weld samples are shown. The
viously, provides an effective means of monitor- horizontal lines indicate the mean value and
ing weld quality at the time the weld is made. standard deviation range for the entire group.
The operator can immediately detect an im- The process began to show poor control on the
proper cycle and reject the part, or logic may seventh and eighth days. Control was restored
be provided for automatic rejection of a part on the ninth day by making whatever adjust-
that is made at an unsatisfactory power level. ments were needed.
Safety /309
SAFETY
Ultrasonic welding equipment presents no Because of hazards associated with appli-
unusual hazards to operating personnel. Most cation of clamping force, the operator should
equipment is designed with interlocks and other never place hands or arms in the vicinity of the
safety devices to prevent operation under un- welding tip when the equipment is energized.
safe conditions. Nevertheless, consideration For manual operation, the equipment is usually
must be given to the health and safety of the activated by dual palm buttons that meet the
operators, maintenance personnel, and other requirements of the Occupational Safety and
personnel in the area of the welding operations. Health Administration (OSHA). Both buttons
Good engineering practice must be followed in must be pressed simultaneously to actuate a
the design, construction, installation, operation, weld cycle, and both must be released before
and maintenance of equipment, controls, power the next cycle is initiated. For automated sys-
supplies, and tooling to assure conformance to tems in which the weld cycle is sequenced
Federal safety Jaws (OSHA), State safety Jaws, with other operations, guards should be installed
and safety standards of the using company. for operator protection. Such hazards can be
With high power equipment, high voltages further minimized by setting the welding stroke
are present in the frequency converter, the to the minimum that is compatible with work-
welding head, and the coaxial cable connecting piece clearance.
these components. Consequently, the equipment Ring welding machines may be used for
should never be operated with the doors open closure of containers filled with detonable ma-
or housing covers removed. Door interlocks are terials. While no instance is known of premature
usually installed to prevent introduction of ignition of such materials during ultrasonic weld-
power to the equipment when the high voltage ing, adequate provisions should always be made
circuitry is exposed. The cables are shielded for remote operation by placing the welding ma-
fully and present no hazard when properly chine either in a separate room from the control
connected and maintained. station or behind an explosion-proof barrier.
1 in. = 25.4 mm = .025 m

1ft/min= 5.08 x10·3 m/s
1 microinch = 25 nm
1ft= 0.305 m
11bf = 4.45 N
1 ksi = 6.89 MPa

Alden, J. H., Ultrasonic sealing of foil. Modern Jones, J.B., et al., Phenomenological con-
Packaging, 34 (7): 129-133; 1961. siderations in ultrasonic welding. Welding
Journal, 40 (4): 289s-305s; 1961 Apr.
Avila, A. J ., Metal bonding in semiconductor
manufacturing-a survey. Semiconductor Koziarski, J., Ultrasonic welding: engineering,
Products and Solid-State Technology, 7 manufacturing and quality control prob-
(11): 22-26; 1964. lems. Welding Journal, 40(4): 349-358;
Chang, U. I. and Frisch, J ., An optimization of 1961 Apr.
some parameters in ultrasonic metal weld- Littleford, F. E., Welding electronic devices by
ing. Welding Journal, 53 (1 ): 24s-35s; ultrasonics. Industrial Electronics, 6 (3 ):
1974 Jan. 123-126; 1967.
Estes, C.L. and Thmer, P.W., Ultrasonic clos- Meyer, F. R., Ultrasonic welding process for
ure welding of small aluminum tubes. detonable materials. National Defense, 60
Welding Journal, 52 (8): 359s-369s; 1973 (334): 291-293; 1976.
Aug.
Meyer, F. R., Assembling electronic devices by
Gencsoy, H.T., Adams, J.A., and Shin, S., On ultrasonic ring welding. Electronic Pack-
some fundamental problems in ultrasonic aging and Production, 16 (7): 27-29; 1976.
welding of dissimilar metals. Welding
Journal, 46 (9): 145s-153s; 1967 Sept. Meyer, F. R., Ultrasonics produces strong
oxide-free welds. Assembly Engineering,
Hazlett, T. H. and Ambekar, S. M., Additional 20 (5): 26-29; 1977.
studies of interface temperatufP. "Hd bond-
Rhines, F. N., Study of changes occurring in
ing mechanisms of ultrasonic welds. Weld-
metal structure during ultrasonic welding.
ing Journal, 49 (5): 196s-200s; 1970 May.
Metallurgical Research Laboratory, Uni-
Jones, J. B., Ultrasonic welding. Proceedings versity of Florida, 1962; Summary Report
of the CIRP International Conference on TP 82-162.
Manufacturing Technology, Ann Arbor,
MI, 1387-1410; 1967 Sept. Shin, S., and Gencsoy, H.T., Ultrasonic weld-
ing of metals to nonmetallic materials.
Jones, J.B. and Meyer, F.R., Certain struc- Welding Journal, 47(9): 398s-403s; 1968
tural properties of ultrasonic welds in Sept.
aluminum alloys. Welding Journal, 38 (7):
282s-288s; 1959 July. Yeh, C.J., Libby, C.C., and McCauley, R.B.,
Ultrasonic longitudinal mode welding of
Jones, J. B. and Powers, J. J., Ultrasonic weld- aluminum wire. Welding Journal, 53 (6):
ing. Welding Journal, 36 (8): 761-766; 252-260; 1974 June.
1956 Aug.
10
Diffusion Welding and Brazing
Fundamentals of the Processes ......... 312 Diffusion Brazing . ................... 324
Surface Preparation .................. 316 Applications ........................ 325
Diffusion Welding ................... 317 Inspection .......................... 334
Chapter Committee
M. M. SCHWARTZ, Chairman D. F. PAULONIS

Sikorsky Aircraft Division, Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Group,
United Technologies United Technologies
A.WPENSE
Lehigh University
311
10
Diffusion Welding and Brazing
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCESSES
DEFINITIONS AND
(4) Dissimilar metals may be joined with a
GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS
third metal between the faying surfaces to en-
Diffusion welding (DFW) is a joining hance weld formation either by accelerating
process wherein the principal mechanism for diffusion or permitting more complete initial
joint formation is solid-state diffusion. Coales- contact in a manner similar to category (2) above.
cence of the faying surfaces is accomplished Diffusion brazing (DFB) is a process that
through the application of pressure at elevated produces coalescence of metals by heating them
temperature. No melting and only limited macro- to a suitable temperature and by using a brazing
scopic deformation or relative motion of the filler metal or in situ liquid phase. The flller metal
parts occur during welding. A solid filler metal may be preplaced or formed between the faying
(diffusion aid) may or may not be used between surfaces or distributed by capillary action in the
the faying surfaces. Terms which are sometimes joint. Pressure may or may not be applied. The
used synonymously with diffusion welding in- filler metal is diffused into the base metal to the
clude diffusion bonding, solid-state bonding, extent that the joint properties approach those of
pressure bonding, isostatic bonding, and hot the base metal. A distinct layer of brazing filler
press bonding. metal does not exist in the joint after the dif-
Several kinds of metal combinations can be fusion brazing cycle is completed. This charac-
joined by diffusion welding: teristic distinguishes the process from brazing
(1) Similar metals may be joined directly per se. The process is sometimes called liquid
to form a solid-state weld. In this situation, re- phase diffusion bonding, eutectic bonding, or
quired pressures, temperatures, and times are activated diffusion bonding.
dependent only upon the characteristics of the The distinction between diffusion welding
metals to be joined and their surface preparation. and diffusion brazing may not be clear since a
(2) Similar metals can be joined with a thin filler metal may be used with both processes.
layer of a different metal between them. In this However, it is understood that melting actually
case, the layer may promote more rapid diffu- takes place at the faying surfaces during the early
sion or permit increased microdeformation at the stage of a diffusion brazing cycle. The filler
joint to provide more complete contact between metal layer itself may melt or a eutectic liquid
the surfaces. This interface metal may be dif- may form from alloying between the filler metal
fused into the base metal by suitable heat treat- and base metal. Diffusion at the interface con-
ment until it no longer remains a separate layer. tinues with time at elevated temperature and any
(3) Two dissimilar metals may be joined distinct layer of brazing alloy will finally dis-
directly where diffusion-controlled phenomena appear. Then the joint properties are nearly the
occur to form a bond. The mechanisms are sim- same as those ofthe base metal.
ilar to category (1) above with the added effects If a filler metal is used and it does not melt
that dissimilar metals create. or alloy with the base metal to form a liquid
312
Fundamentals ofthe Processes /313
phase, the process is diffusion welding. The- pur- For conventional diffusion welding without
pose of the ftller metal is to aid bonding, par- a diffusion aid, a three-stage mechanistic model,
ticularly during the first stage of diffusion weld- shown in Fig. 10.2, adequately describes weld
ing. It helps to eliminate voids at the interface formation. In the first stage, deformation of
that result when two rough surfaces are mated the contacting asperities occurs primarily by
together. By proper selection, the filler metal yielding and by creep deformation mechanisms
will soften at welding temperature and flow un- to produce intimate contact over a large fraction
der pressure to fill the interface voids. Also, it of the interfacial area. At the end of this stage,
will diffuse into the baSe metal and produce a the joint is essentially a grain boundary at the
joint with acceptable properties for the applica- areas of contact with voids between these areas .
tion. The filler metal is considered to be a diffu- During the second stage, diffusion becomes
sion aid, not a brazing filler metal. more important than deformation, and many of
the voids disappear as grain boundary diffusion
DIFFUSION WELDING PRINCIPLES
As illustrated in Fig. 10.1, metal surfaces Oxide and
have several general characteristics: contam inant layers
(I) Roughness
(2) An oxidized or otherwise chemically
reacted and adherent layer
(3) Other randomly distributed solid or
liquid products such as oil, grease, and dirt
(4) Adsorbed gas or moisture, or both
Because of these characteristics, two nec-
essary conditions that must be met before a satis-
factory diffusion weld can be made are:
(1) Mechanical intimacy of metal-to-metal
contact must be achieved.
(2) Interfering surface contaminants must Fig. 10.1-Ch~ruteristics of~ met~/
be disrupted and dispersed to permit metallic surf~ce showing roughness ~nd
bonding to occur. cont~min~nts present
Initial asperity contact First stage deformation and

interfacial boundary formation
Second stage grain boundary Third stage volume diffusion

migration and pore elimination pore elimination
fiJ. 11.2-Titree-.ta,. -.ciNitistk 11t0flel of dilf11Sion weldinJ
314/ DIFFUSION WELDING AND BONDING
of atoms continues. Simultaneously, the inter- The barrier film is largely an oxide. Proper
facial grain boundary migrates to an equilibrium cleaning methods reduce the other components
configuration away from the original plane of of film to negligible levels. Two actions tend to
the joint, leaving many of the remaining voids disrupt and disperse the oxide film. The first is
within the grains. In the third stage, the remain- solution of the oxide in the metal; the second is
ing voids are eliminated by volume diffusion of spheroidization or agglomeration of the film.
atoms to the void surface (equivalent to diffu- Oxide films may be dissolved in titanium, tanta-
sion of vacancies away from the void). Of course, lum, columbium, zirconium, and other metals
in a real system, these stages overlap, and mech- in which interstitial elements are highly soluble.
anisms that may dominate one stage also op- If the oxide is relatively insoluble in the metal,
erate to some extent during the other stages. as is the case for aluminum, the disruption ac-
This model is consistent with several ex- tion for the trapped film is spheroidization. This
perimentally observed trends: leaves a few oxide particles along the weld line.
(1) Thmperature is the most influential vari- However, if the weld is properly made, these
able since it determines the extent of contact area oxide particles are no more detrimental than the
during stage one and the rate of diffusion which inclusions normally present in most metals and
governs void elimination during the second and alloys.
third stages of welding. Both actions require diffusion. Solution
(2) Pressure is necessary only during the occurs by diffusion of interstitial atoms into
first stage of welding to produce a large area of the metal and spheroidization by diffusion as a
contact at the joining temperature. Removal of result of the exeessi ve surface energy of the thin
pressure after this stage does not significantly films. The time for solution of a film of thickness
affect joint formation. However, premature re- X is proportional to X 2 /D, where D is the diffu-
moval of pressure before completion of the first sion coefficient. The film must be kept very thin
stage is detrimental to the process. if diffusion welding times are to be within ac-
(3) Rough initial surface finishes generally ceptable limits. Spheroidization occurs more
adversely affect welding by impeding the first rapidly if the oxide films are thin. Hence, control
stage and leaving large voids that must be elim- of the film thickness after cleaning and any in-
inated during the later stages of welding. crease in thickness during heating to welding
(4) The time required to form a joint de- temperature are critical fa~tors in diffusion
pends upon the temperature and pressure used; welding.
it is not an independent variable. Once actual metal-to-metal contact is estab-
This model is not applicable to diffusion lished, the atoms are within the attractive force
brazing or hot pressure welding processes where fields of each other and a high strength joint is
intimate contact is achieved through the use of generated. At this time, the joint resembles a
molten filler metal and extensive (macro) de- grain boundary because the metal lattices on each
formation, respectively. side of the line have different orientations. How-
At the same time that intimate contact is ever, the joint may differ slightly from an inter-
being achieved as described above, various in- nal grain boundary because it may contain more
tervening films must be disrupted and dispersed impurities, inclusions, and voids that will remain
so that metallic bonds can form. During initial if full asperity deformation has not occurred.
mating surface contact (stage 1), the films are (Stage 2 in the model for achieving intimate
locally disrupted and metal-to-metal contact be- contact is not yet complete.) As the process is
gins at places where the surfaces move together carried to completion, this boundary migrates to
under shear. The subsequent steps in the process a more stable non-planar configuration, and any
involve thermally activated diffusion mecha- remaining interfacial voids are eliminated
nisms that complete film disruption and achieve -through vacancy diffusion.
intimate metal contact through void elimination An intermediate metal (diffusion aid) is of
(stages 2 and 3). significant practical importance in many sys-
Fundamentals of the Processes/ 315
terns, although the mechanisms so far described The other approach is to braze with a metal
do not consider its use. When a diffusion aid is that will alloy with the base metal to form one or
used or dissimilar alloys are welded, the addi- more eutectic compositions. When the brazing
tional factor of interdiffusion must be considered temperature is slightly higher than the eutectic
to develop a complete understanding of the DFW temperature, the ftller metal and base metal will
process. alloy together to produce a eutectic composition.
The filler metal itself does not melt but an alloy
(eutectic) is formed in situ. This method is also
known as eutectic bonding. An example is the
DIFFUSION BRAZING PRINCIPLES
diffusion brazing of titanium alloys with copper.
Diffusion brazing produces joint properties With either approach, the assembly is held
that are significantly different from those of at temperature for a sufficient time for diffu-
conventional brazed joints. The main objective sion to produce a nearly uniform alloy compo-
of the process is to produce joints having me- sition across the joint. As this takes place, the
chanical properties approaching those of the base melting temperature and the strength of the joint
metal in: increase. The processing time depends upon the
(I) Alloys that are not fusion weldable for degree of homogeneity desired, the thickness of
their intended application, such as cast nickel- the initial filler metal layer, and the temperature.
base superalloys for high temperature service and The relationship of heating rate to brazing tem-
beryllium alloys perature may also be important. A low heating
(2) Dissimilar alloy combinations that are rate will allow more solid-state diffusion to take
not weldable place, and more filler metal will be required to
(3) Alloys where a combination joining and provide sufficient liquid to fill the joint. Con-
heat treating cycle is desirable to minimize dis- versely, if a large quantity of filler metal and
tortion of the assembly during processing fast heating are used, the molten metal may run
(4) Alloys where conventional brazed joint out of the joint and erode the base metal. The
properties are too low for the intended appli- thick joint so formed will require a longer diffu-
cation, particularly at elevated temperature, such sion time to achieve a suitable composition
as in the application of high strength titanium gradient across it.
alloys in aircraft The composition gradient across the joint
(5) Large, complicated assemblies where it may be important with respect to response to
is economical to produce many strong joints subsequent heat treatment. This is particularly
simultaneously and conventional brazing is 1m- true for metals that undergo phase transforma-
suitable. tion during heating and cooling. Alloy compo-
1\vo approaches to diffusion brazing are sition will determine the transformation temper-
used. One utilizes a brazing filler metal that has ature and rate of transformation. Therefore, the
a chemical composition approximately the same phase morphology and mechanical properties of
as the base metal but with a lower melting tem- the joint can be controlled by the joint design
perature. Melting temperature is suppressed by and the brazing cycle.
adding certain alloying elements to the base
metal composition or to a similar alloy compo-
sition. For example, the melting temperature of
a nickel-base high temperature alloy can be Diffusion welding and brazing have a num-
lowered by a small addition of silicon or boron. ber of advantages over the more commonly used
In this case, the brazing ftller metal melts and welding processes and conventional brazing, as
wets the base metal faying surfaces during the well as a number of distinct limitations on their
brazing cycle. This approach is sometimes called applications.
activated diffusion bonding or transient liquid Some of the advantages ofthe two processes
phase bonding. are as follows:
(I) Joints can be produced with properties (2) Equipment costs are usually high, and
and ·microstructures very similar to those of the this can limit the size of components that can be
base metaL This is particularly important for produced economically.
lightweight fabrications. (3) The processes are not adaptable to high
(2) Components can be joined with mini- production applications, although a number of
mum distortion and without subsequent machin- assemblies may be processed simultaneously.
ing or forming. (4) Adequate nondestructive inspection
(3) Dissimilar alloys can be joined that are techniques for quality assurance are not avail-
not weldable by fusion processes or by processes able, particularly those that assure design prop-
requiring axial symmetry. erties in the joint.
(4) A large number of joints in an assembly (5) Suitable filler metals and procedures
can be made simultaneously. have not yet been developed for all structural
(5) Components with limited access to the alloys.
joints can be assembled by these processes. (6) The surfaces to be joined and the fit-up
(6) Large components of metals that require of mating parts generally require greater care in
extensive preheat for fusion welding can be preparation than for conventional hot pressure
joined by these processes. An example is thick welding or brazing processes. Smoothness and
sections of copper. uniformity of joint clearance are important fac-
(7) Defects normally associated with fusion tors in quality control in the case of diffusion
welding are not encountered. brazing.
The two processes have limitations on their (7) The need to simultaneously apply heat
applications. The important ones follow: and a high compressive force in the restrictive
(I) Generally, the duration of the thermal environment of a vacuum or protective atmo-
cycle is longer than that of conventional welding sphere is a major equipment problem with diffu-
and brazing processes. sion welding.
SURFACE PREPARATION
The surfaces of parts to be diffusion welded cold worked surfaces tends to increase the dif-
or diffusion brazed must be carefully prepared fusion rate in the weld region across the inter-
before assembly. Surface preparation involves face between them.
more than cleanliness. It also includes (I) the Chemical etching (pickling), commonly
generation of an acceptable finish or smoothness, used as a form of preweld preparation, has two
(2) the removal of chemically combined fllms effects: The first is the favorable removal of
(oxides), and (3) the cleansing of gaseous, aque- nonmetallic surface films, usually oxides; the
ous, or organic surface films. The primary sur- second is the removal of part or all of the cold
face finish is obtained ordinarily by machining, worked layer that forms during machining, if
abrading, grinding, or polishing. that is done. The need for oxide removal is ap-
One property of a correctly prepared sur- parent because it prevents metal-to-metal contact.
face is its combined flatness and smoothness. A Degreasing is a universal part of any pro-
certain minimum degree of flatness and smooth- cedure for surface cleaning. Alcohol, trichlor-
ness is required to assure uniform contact for ethylene, acetone, detergents, and many other
diffusion welding or uniform joint gap for dif- cleaning agents may be used. Frequently, the
fusion brazing. Conventional metal cutting, recommended degreasing technique is intricate
grinding, and abrasive polishing methods are and may include multiple rinse-wash-etch cycles
usually adequate to produce the needed surface in several solutions. Since some of these clean-
flatness and smoothness. A secondary effect of ing solvents are toxic, proper safety precautions
machining or abrading is the cold work intro- should be followed when they are used.
duced into the surface. Recrystallization of the Heating in vacuum may also be used to ob-
Diffusion Welding /317
tain clean surfaces. The usefulness of this method a corollary, with lower temperature or pressure,
depends to a large extent upon the type of metal better prepared and preserved surfaces are an
and the nature of its surface films. Organic, asset.
aqueous, or gaseous adsorbed layers can be easily Preservation of the clean surface is neces-
removed by vacuum heat treatment at elevated sary following the surface preparation. One re-
temperature. Most oxides do not dissociate dur- quirement is the effective use of a protective
ing a vacuum heat treatment. It is possible to environment during the diffusion welding or
dissolve adherent oxides in some metals at ele- brazing cycle. A vacuum environment provides
vated temperature.'JYpical metals are zirconium, continued protection from contamination. A pure
titanium, tantalum, and columbium. Cleaning hydrogen atmosphere will minimize the amount
in vacuum usually requires subsequent vacuum of oxide formed and it will reduce existing sur-
or controlled atmosphere storage and careful face oxides of many metals at elevated tempera-
handling to avoid the recurrence of surface ad- ture. However, it will form hydrides with zir-
sorbed or chemisorbed layers. conium, columbium, and tantalum that may be
Many factors enter into selecting the total detrimental. Argon, helium, and sometimes
surface treatment. In addition to those already nitrogen can be used to protect clean surfaces
mentioned, the specific welding or brazing con- at elevated temperature. When these gases are
ditions may affect the selection. With higher used, their purity must be very high to avoid
temperature or pressure, it becomes less impor- recontamination. Many of the precautions and
tant to obtain extremely clean surfaces. Increased principles applicable to brazing atmospheres can
atomic mobility, surface asperity deformation, be applied directly to diffusion brazing or
and solubility for impurity elements all contrib- welding.'
ute to the dispersion of surface contaminants. As
DIFFUSION WELDING
PROCESS VARIABLES Kinetic theory provides a means for under-
standing the quantitative effects of temperature
Temperature in diffusion welding. Diffusivity can be ex-
Temperature is an important diffusion weld- pressed as a function of temperature as
ing process variable for a number of reasons:
(l) It is readily controlled and measured. D = D 0 e·f)/kT
(2) In any thermally activated process, an
incremental change in temperature will cause the
where
greatest change in process kinetics when com-
pared to most other process variables. D = diffusion coefficient at T
(3) Virtually all the mechanisms in diffu- D 0 = a constant of proportionality
sion welding are temperature-sensitive. Q = activation energy for diffusion
(4) Elevated temperature physical and me- T = absolute temperature
chanical properties, critical temperatures, and k = Boltzmann's constant
phase transformations are important reference
From this, it is apparent that the diffusion
points in the effective use of diffusion welding.
controlled processes vary exponentially with
(5) Temperature must be controlled to pro-
mote or avoid certain metallurgical factors,
such as allotropic transformation, recrystalliza- I. Brazing atmospheres are discussed in Vol. 2, Weld-
tion, and solution of precipitates. ing Handbook, 7th ed., 400-7.
temperature. Thus, relatively small changes in When the system has thermal and mechanical
temperature produce significantly large changes (or hydrostatic) inertia, welding times are long
in process kinetics. because of the impracticality of suddenly chang-
In general, the temperature at which diffu- ing the variables. When there are no inertial
sion welding will take place is above 0.5 TM, problems, welding time may be as short as 0.3
where TM is the melting temperature of the metal. min, as is the case when joining thoria-dispersed
Many metals and alloys can best be diffusion nickel to itself. On the other hand, it may be as
welded at temperatures between 0.6 and 0.8 TM. long as 4 hours, as when joining columbium to
For any specific application the temperature, itself with zirconium as a diffusion aid. For
pressure, time at temperature, and surface prep- economic reasons, the time necessary for dif-
aration are interrelated. fusion welding should be a minimum for best
production rates.
Time
Time is closely related to temperature in that Pressure
most diffusion controlled reactions vary with Pressure is an important variable. It is more
time. The diffusion length, x, is the average dis- difficult to deal with as a quantitative variable
tance traveled by the average atom during a than either temperature or time. Pressure affects
diffusion process.lt can be expressed as several aspects of the process. The initial phase
of bond formation is certainly affected by the
X= C(Dt) 112
amount of deformation induced by the pressure
where applied. This is the most obvious single effect
and probably the most frequently and thoroughly
x = diffusion length considered. Higher pressure invariably produces
D = diffusion coefficient at T better joints when the other variables are fixed.
t =time The most apparent reason for this effect is the
C = a constant
greater interface deformation and asperity break-
down. The greater deformation may also lower
Thus, diffusion reactions progress with the recrystallization temperature and accelerate the
square root of time (longer times become less and process of recrystallization at a given tempera-
less effective), whereas they progress expo- ture.
nentially with temperature, as was previously The welding equipment and the joint ge-
shown. ometry place practical limitations on the magni-
Experience indicates that increasing both tude of welding pressure. The pressure needed
time at temperature and pressure increases to achieve a good weld is closely related to the
joint strength up to a point. Beyond this point temperature and time; there is some range of
no further gains are achieved. This illustrates pressure in which good welds can be made. Pres-
that time is not a quantitively simple variable. sure has additional significance when dissimilar
The simple relationship that describes the aver- metal combinations are considered. From eco-
age distance traveled by an atom does not reflect nomic and manufacturing aspects, low welding
the more complex changes in structure that re- pressure is desirable. High pressure requires
sult in the formation of a diffusion weld. Al- more costly apparatus, better control, and gen-
though atom motion continues indefinitely, erally more complex part-handling procedures.
structural changes tend to approach equilibrium. The pressures and temperatures employed
An example of similar behavior is the recrystal- are largely interdependent, but the pressure need
lization of metals. not exceed the bulk yield stress of the material
In a practical sense, time may vary over an at the welding temperature. Thus, unless retain-
extremely broad range, from seconds to hours. ing dies are used, the pressure is usually kept
Production factors influence the overall practical slightly below the bulk yield stress at the tem-
time for diffusion welding. An example is the perature employed, which itself is selected to
time necessary to provide the heat and pressure. produce a weld in an acceptable time.
Metallurgical Factors diffusion of alloying elements from the base

In addition to the process variables, there metal into the soft layer reduces the composi-
are a number of metallurgically important factors tional gradient across the joint.
to be considered. 1\vo factors of particular im- Intermediate diffusion aids may be neces-
portance with similar metal welds are allotropic sary or advantageous in certain applications in
transformation and microstructural factors that order to
tend to modify diffusion rates. Allotropic trans- (l) Reduce welding temperature
formation (phase transformation) occurs in some (2) Reduce welding pressure
metals and alloys. Heat treatable alloy steels are (3) Reduce process time
the most familiar of these, but titanium, zir- (4) Increase diffusivity
conium, and cobalt also undergo allotropic (5) Scavenge undesirable elements
transformation. The importance of the transfor- Diffusion aids can be applied in many
mation is that the metal is very plastic during forms. They can be electroplated, evaporated,
that time. This tends to permit rapid interface or sputtered onto the surface to be welded, or
deformation at lower pressures, in much the they can be in the form of foil inserts or powder.
same manner as does recrystallization. Diffu- The thickness of the interlayer should not ex-
sion rates are generally higher in plastically ceed 0.010 inch.
deformed metals as they recrystallize. Generally, the diffusion aid is a more pure
Another means of enhancing diffusion is version of the base metal being joined. For ex-
alloying or, more specifically, introducing ele- ample, unalloyed titanium often is used as an in-
ments with high diffusivity into the systems at terlayer with titanium alloys, and nickel is
the interface. The function of a high diffusivity sometimes used with nickel-base superalloys.
element is to accelerate void elimination. In Silver can be used with aluminum. Diffusion
addition to simple diffusion acceleration, the aids containing rapidly diffusable elements also
addition of these alloying elements may have can be used: for example, beryllium can be used
secondary effects. The elements should have with nickel alloys to decrease diffusion time. A
reasonable solubility in the metal to be joined, properly selected diffusion aid will not melt at
but not form stable compounds. Alloying must welding temperature or form a low melting eu-
be controlled to avoid melting at the joint in- teotic with the base metal. An improperly chosen
terface. diffusion aid can
When using a diffusion-activated system, (l) Decrease the temperature capability of
it is desirable to heat the assembly for some the joint
minimum time either during or after the welding (2) Decrease the strength of the joint
process to disperse the high diffusivity element (3) Cause microstructural degradation
away from the interface. If this is not done, the (4) Result in corrosion problems at the
high concentration of the element at the joint may joint
produce metallurgically unstable structures. This
is particularly important for joints that will be PROCESS VARIATIONS
exposed to elevated temperature service.
Conventional
Diffusion Aids Conventional diffusion welding involves the
It is sometimes advantageous to use some application of pressure and heat to accomplish a
form of diffusion aid or interlayer between the weld along the entire length of one or more joints
faying surfaces. One purpose of a diffusion simultaneously. An interlayer may or may not be
aid is to provide a layer of soft metal between the used. Pressure may be applied using gas pressure
surfaces. A soft metal layer permits plastic flow or a press (mechanical or hydraulic). Heat may
to take place at lower pressures than would be be applied by any convenient means but electri-
required without it during the first stage of weld- cal resistance heaters are the most common
ing (see Fig. 10.2). After the joint is formed, the source. Forming parts to shape is done prior to or
after welding using equipment designed for that by gas pressure over the first skin and inserts.
purpose. Diffusion welding of the formed sheets and in-
serts is achieved by hot isostatic pressing in an
Continuous Seam
autoclave. This method eliminates the need for
A relatively new process called continuous
precision machined die sets and close dimen-
seam diffusion bonding (CSDB) joins compo-
sional tolerances in parts.
nents by "yield-controlled diffusion welding." The other process variation takes advantage
With this process, the parts are positioned with
of the same properties of titanium and its alloys
tooling and then fed through a machine with four
described previously; however, the welding is
rollers. The top and bottom rollers are made of
performed under low pressure conditions. This
molybdenum and function much like resistance
variation is called "superplastic forming diffu-
seam welding wheels. The two side rollers are sion bonding" (SPF/DB). Since superplastic
used to maintain the shape of the components. forming and diffusion welding of selected titan-
The wheels and parts are heated by electrical re- ium alloys can be accomplished using identical
sistance to the desired temperature. A special process temperatures, the two operations can be
control system monitors part temperature. Weld-
combined in a single fabrication cycle. The weld-
ing temperature is usually between 1800 and ing is accomplished under low pressure con-
2000° F for titanium and between 2000 and 2200°
ditions.
F for nickel-base superalloys. The hot wheels
The superplastic forming of the sheet can be
apply pressure in the range of I to 20 ksi on the
done first, followed by welding, or the steps can
seam. The actual pressure depends upon the be reversed. The order depends upon the design
metal being joined, the joint design, the temper- of the component. Forming is done first if this
ature, and the welding speed. An application of
is required to bring the faying surfaces of the
this process could be the joining of two flanges to joint together for welding. If the faying surfaces
a web to form a structural beam.
are in contact, welding is done first and
then the part is formed to shape in the die using
Combined Forming and Welding inert gas pressure. A suitable nonmetallic agent
Two process variations take advantage of can be used to prevent welding of areas where
the superplastic properties of certain metals or subsequent forming is to occur.
alloys. The alloys can deform or flow signifi- Superplastic forming of Ti-6%Al-4% V
cantly at elevated temperatures under very small alloy sheet can be done by the application of
applied loads without necking or fracture. Ti- low pressure argon at 1700° F in a sealed die.
tanium and its alloys exhibit this superplastic Gas pressure of about 150 psi is used for both
behavior in the temperature range of 1400 to forming and welding.
17000 R Complex shapes can be formed using
moderate gas pressures; then the shapes can be
diffusion welded together, or vice versa.
EQUIPMENT AND TOOLING
One of these process variations is called
creep isostatic pressing (CRISP). It is a two-step A wide variety of equipment and tooling is
process combining creep or superplastic forming employed for diffusion welding. The only basic
of titanium sheet structures with hot isostatic requirement is that pressure and temperature
pressing to produce a diffusion welded one-piece must be applied and maintained in a controlled
structure. environment. Various types of equipment have
Inherent in the CRISP process is the mating been developed, each with its special advan-
of two external skins. This is accomplished tages and disadvantages. There are numerous
during the production of a structure. First, one variations of a given type of equipment or ap-
skin is creep formed by gas pressure to the con- proach depending upon the specific application.
tour of a die. Then, shaped inserts are positioned A general description of four types of diffusion
on the skin and a second skin is creep formed welding equipment follows.
Rupture disk assembly
Coolant line
heater
Fig. 10.3-A typical high temperature, cold

wall autoclave
Very high pressures can be applied using an
Isostatic Gas Pressure
autoclave, but the assembly must be capable of
The pressure for welding can be applied withstanding the applied pressure without macro-
uniformly to all joints in an assembly using gas deformation. Some designs may require internal
pressure. One important requirement is that the support tooling with provisions for removing it
assembly to be welded be evacuated of air during after welding.
the welding cycle . The assembly itself may be The primary component of hot isostatic
evacuated and sealed by fusion welding, if this is equipment is a cold wall autoclave, which can
possible. Otherwise, the assembly must be sealed be designed for gas pressures up to 150 ksi and
in a thin, gas-tight envelope which is evacuated for part temperature in excess of 3000° F. A
and sealed. Electron beam welding in vacuum is typical autoclave is shown in Fig. 10.3. Work to
a convenient process for evacuating and sealing be isostatically welded is placed in the heated
in one operation. cavity. Internal water cooling is usually pro-
Gas pressure is applied externally against vided to maintain a low wall temperature. Clo-
the evacuated assembly at welding temperature. sures on each end provide access to the vessel
cavity. Utilities and instrumentation are brought capacity, (2) an available means for heating, and
into the vessel through high pressure fittings lo- (3) the maintenance of uniform pressure for the
cated in the end closures.The high temperatures required time. It is often necessary to provide
are produced with an internal heater. Resistance a protective atmosphere chamber around the
heaters of various designs are used. Alumina or weldment. Press equipment that can be adapted
silica insulation is used to reduce heat losses to to diffusion welding applications is frequently
the cold wall. Temperature is monitored and available in a manufacturing or development
controlled by thermocouples located throughout organization.
the furnace and vessel. Pressurization is achieved There is no standard press design. Some
by pumping inert gas into the autoclave with a units provide a vacuum or an inert atmosphere
multiple-stage piston type compressor. Thmpera- around the parts. Radiant, induction, and self-
ture and pressure are controlled independently, resistance types of heating are used. An advan-
and anycombination of heating and pressurizing tage of a press setup is the ease of operation and
rates can be programmed. The autoclave is a the excellent process control available. A disad-
pressure vessel, and it must be designed to meet vantage is the practical limitation of press size
applicable code requirements. when large component fabrication is considered.
The most important consideration is the gas- This approach does not lend itself to high pro-
tight envelope or can in which the specimen duction rates and rapid tum-around or batch
must be contained. If a leak develops in the can, operations.
pressure can not be applied to or maintained on Some of the limitations on size can be over-
the joint. Sufficient gas pressure is applied so come by operating in a large forming or forging
that local plastic flow will occur at the joint in- press without an inert atmosphere chamber.
terface and all void space will be filled as a Heated platens are used to apply both heat and
result of local deformation. With proper condi- pressure to the components. The platens may be
tions, essentially no macrodeformation and no metallic or ceramic, depending upon the temper-
change in part dimensions will occur during ature and pressure employed. Castable ceramics
the operation. are particularly useful because contours can
The chief advantage of this technique is the easily be accommodated without extensive ma-
ability to handle complex geometries. It is also chining. Heating elements can be cast into a ce-
well suited to batch operations where large quan- ramic die to provide uniform heat during weld-
tities of relatively small assemblies can be pro- ing. Close tolerances must be maintained
cessed simultaneously. The major drawbacks are between the die and the part so that uniform
the capital equipment costs and the size limita- pressure will be applied to the joint. This is a
tions imposed by the internal dimensions of the major problem with press type equipment. It is
autoclave. Operational equipment ranges up to extremely difficult to maintain uniform pressure
36 in. inside diameter and inside lengtM of up to on the joint, and variations in weld quality can
108 inches. result.
The gas pressure process variables are not Tooling requirements vary with application.
uniform for different metals and combinations If no lateral restraint is provided, upsetting may
of metals. Usually joints are made at the highest occur during the welding cycle. In such cases,
possible pressure to minimize the temperature lower pressure or temperature is usually required.
needed. This method is well suited for welding Heated dies are required because of the time
brittle metals or metals to ceramics and cermets factor and die materials can be a problem. The
because the isostatic pressure eliminates tensile die must be able to withstand both the tempera-
stresses in the materials. ture and the pressure and must be compatible
with the metal to be welded. Interaction between
Presses the part and the die can be controlled by stopoff
A very common approach for diffusion agents and sometimes by oxidizing the die sur-
welding employs a mechanical or hydraulic face. Atmosphere protection is often achieved
press of some design. The basic requirements by sealing the parts in evacuated metal cans
for the press are (1) sufficient load and size that are designed to conform to the die shape.
Diffusion Welding I 323
Retorts can be used in conjunction with the speed at which diffusion welds can be made.
presses for diffusion welding of titanium parts. Each weld is made in a very short time; how-
Tooling blocks and spacers of TYpe 22-4-9 ever, only a small area is welded in each cycle
stainless steel may be used to fill any voids be- and a number of welds are needed to join a large
tween the titanium pieces to maintain their area.
shapes. Presses with side and .end restraining
Tooling
jacks can exert up to 2 ksi pressure on the retort
in all directions. In actual production, the com- A number of important considerations must
pleted assembly pack (retort, heating pads, and be observed when selecting tooling materials.
insulation) is preheated before it is placed in the The main criteria are
press. Large structures may require a preheat of (1) Ease of operation
as long as 40 hours. Several packs may be in (2) Reproducibility of the welding cycle
assembly and preheat at one time. The actual (3) Operational maintenance
time in the press will vary from 2 to 12 hours, (4) Weld cycle time
depending upon the shape of the structure and (5) Initial cost of tooling
the mass of titanium. The assembly pack is cooled Furthermore, the materials must be capable
to room temperature, dismantled, and the retort of maintaining their proper positions and shapes
is then cut open. This approach is quite slow and throughout the heating cycle.
may not be scaled readily to high production Suitable fixture materials may be limited
rates. when welding temperatures are above 2500° E
Only the refractory metals and certain nonmetal-
Resistance Welding Machines
lic materials have sufficient creep strength at
Resistance welding equipment may be used such high temperatures: for example, tantalum
to produce round diffusion spot welds between and graphite may be suitable for fixturing tung-
sheet metal parts. In general, modification of sten. Ceramic materials are suitable for fixtures
standard equipment is not necessary to achieve provided they are completely outgassed prior to
successful diffusion welds. The interface is re- welding.
sistance heated under pressure with this equip- Since pressure is required for diffusion
ment. The cycle is designed to avoid melting of welding, fixtures should be designed to take
metal at the interface. Weld times are generally advantage of the difference in thermal expan-
less than 1 second. sion between the metals being joined and the
As in standard resistance welding, selection fixture material. It is possible to generate at least
of a suitable electrode material is important. The part, if not all, of the pressure required for weld-
electrodes must be electrical conductors, possess ing by appropriate selection of the fixture mate-
high strength at welding temperatures, resist rial and the clearances between the fixture and
thermal shock, and resist sticking to the parts. part. These principles have been used to join
There is no universal electrode material because TYpe 2219 aluminum alloy tubing to TYpe 321
of potential interaction with the workpiece. stainless steel: A precise method was devised
Therefore, each system must be carefully eval- to apply the correct welding pressure to a tubular
uated from a metallurgical compatibility stand- assembly. Tooling was developed that provided
point. a uniform and reproducible welding pressure
For some applications, a small chamber by taking advantage of the difference in the
surrounding the electrodes is used to provide an thermal expansions of low alloy steel and stain-
inert atmosphere or vacuum during welding. less steel.
One advantage of this type of equipment is
DIFFUSION BRAZING
PROCESS VARIABLES the formation of a molten eutectic. The voids at
the faying surface will not be filled with "filler
Diffusion brazing operations are similar to metal."
those for conventional brazing.2 Different meth- The maximum brazing temperature may be
ods of heating, atmospheres, joint designs, and established by the characteristics of the base
equipment can generally be used interchange- metal: for example, incipient melting in some
ably. With diffusion brazing, the brazing alloy, nickel-base alloys. It may also be limited by the
the processing temperature, and the time at tem- effect of temperature on the final metallurgical
perature are selected to produce a joint with structure and by the heat treatment requirements
physical and mechanical properties almost iden- for the weldment.
tical to those of the base metal. To do this, it is After brazing is accomplished, the part tem-
necessary to essentially eradicate the braze layer perature may or may not be reduced to solidify
by diffusion with the base metal. the brazing layer. Temperature is then maintained
Temperature and Heating Rate while solid-state diffusion takes place.
The temperature cycle used for diffusion Time

brazing depends upon the base metal and the The duration of the diffusion brazing cycle
design of the brazing system. When the brazing will depend upon (1) the brazing temperature,
alloy composition is similar to that of the base (2) the diffusion rates between the filler metal
metal, the assembly must be heated to the melt- and the base metal at temperature, and (3) the
ing temperature of the brazing alloy as in con- maximum concentration of interlayer metal per-
ventional brazing. As the brazing alloy melts, it missable at the joint. The alloy composition at
wets the base metal and fills the voids in the the joint may influence the response to heat
joint; then the temperature can be maintained or treatment and the resulting mechanical properties
reduced to solidify the brazing alloy. of the joint. Therefore, the joint must be held at
Some diffusion brazing systems form a temperature for some minimum time to reduce
filler metal in situ during the brazing cycle. The the concentration of interlayer metal to an ac-
systems are generally designed to form a molten ceptable value.
eutectic that flows and fills the voids in the joint
at brazing temperature. The brazing temperature Pressure
is somewhat higher than the eutectic temper- Normally, brazing is done with very little
ature. For example, a plating of copper on a sil- or no pressure on the joint. In some cases, fix tur-
ver base metal faying surface will form a eutectic ing may be necessary to avoid excessive pres-
when heated to 1500° F. The eutectic melting sure. This is particularly so when the molten filler
temperature is 1435° F. metal is to flow into the joint by capillary ac-
In systems where several eutectic and peri- tion. When the filler metal is preplaced in the
tectic reactions take place at different temper- joint, excessive pressure may force low melting
atures, both the brazing temperature and the heat- constituents to flow out of the joint before braz-
ing rate are important. Although a liquid phase ing temperature is achieved. In that case, the
can form at the lowest eutectic temperature, molten filler metal may not be sufficiently fluid
diffusion rates will be faster at higher temper- to fill interface voids.
atures. The heating rate will determine whether
a molten eutectic is formed. If the heating rate Metallurgical Factors
is too low, solid-state diffusion will prevent
The metallurgical events that may transpire
during diffusion brazing are similar to those
that occur during diffusion welding. An addi-
2. Conventional brazing is covered inCh. 10, Welding tional factor is the variation in alloy content
Handbook, Vol. 2, 7th ed. 370-438. across the joint. It is well known that compo-
Applications I 325
sitional vanatwns can significantly affect the Preformed metal foil or wire shapes are better
response of a particular alloy to heat treat- suited for many applications.
ment. With metals that experience an allo- In the case of nickel- and cobalt-base heat-
tropic transformation at elevated temper- resistant alloys, elements commonly added to
ature, alloying can raise or lower the transforma- brazing alloys to depress the melting temper-
tion temperature and the rate of transformation. ature also increase alloy hardness and brittle-
Thus, the response to heat treatment across a dif- ness. Consequently, these brazing alloys can
fusion brazed joint may vary with the concentra- only be produced in powder form. This presents
tion of the metal used to lower the melting tem- a problem in diffusion brazing where precise
perature of the base metal: for example, copper amounts of filler metal are required. Boron in
stabilizes the beta phase in titanium and de- the range of 2.0 to 3.5 percent is used in nickel-
creases the beta-to-alpha transition temperature. base brazing alloys. This element can be dif-
fused into the surfaces of nickel alloy foil or wire
Intermediate Metals shapes to produce brazing alloy preforms. These
preforms can provide good control of brazing
The intermediate metal may be either a alloy placement for diffusion brazing appli-
brazing alloy or a metal that will alloy with the cations.
base metal at some elevated temperature to form
a brazing alloy. In the latter case, a eutectic EQUIPMENT AND TOOLING
must form that melts at a temperature compat-
ible with the metallurgy and design properties of The equipment and tooling used for diffu-
the base metal. The metal or alloy may be in sion brazing are essentially the same as those
powder, foil, or wire form, or it may be plated used for conventional brazing. If furnace braz-
onto the surface of the base metal. Close con- ing is used, the entire cycle can be done in the
trol of the amount of metal or alloy in the joint same equipment. In some cases, it may be more
is essential for consistent joint properties in economical and convenient to braze with one
production. piece of equipment and then follow with a dif-
Application of pure metals and simple al- fusion heat treatment with other equipment: for
loys by electroplating or vapor deposition can be example, the brazing could be done with resis-
accurately controlled. Films of desired thickness tance welding or induction heating equipment,
can be deposited on the joint faces. However, and the diffusion heat treatment could be per-
these processes are not economical for all cases. formed in a furnace.
APPLICATIONS
A wide variety of similar and dissimilar On the other hand, nickel-base heat-resis-
material combinations can be successfully joined tant alloys are difficult to join, particularly in the
by diffusion welding and brazing. Most appli- solid state, because their creep strengths are
cations involve alloys of titanium, nickel, and high, requiring high pressures for diffusion weld-
aluminum, as well as dissimilar metal combina- ing. In addition, chromium oxides are stable at
tions. The ability to produce joint properties high temperatures and remain on the faying sur-
approaching those of the base metal depends faces. Unless a proper interlayer metal is utilized,
largely upon the characteristics of the metals stable intermetallic precipitates can form at the
being joined: for example, excellent joint prop- interface and produce brittle joints.
erties are readily produced in titanium alloys. The ability to achieve a joint with base
The relatively low creep strength of titanium metal properties depends upon the mechanism
alloys and their ability to dissolve the oxide at (cold work or heat treatment) used to develop the
the elevated temperature contribute to this. design strength of the base metal. If cold work
is used, then the strength of the base metal will be beta transus temperature: for example, Ti-6%Al-
irreversibly lowered by either process. On the 4% V alloy with a beta transus of approximately
other hand, heat treatablealloys can generally be 1825° F is best diffusion welded between
strengthened with a thermal treatment combined 1700 and 1750° E The time required to achieve
with or subsequent to the joining operation. high weld strength can vary considerably with
other factors, such as mating surface roughness,
TITANIUM ALLOYS welding temperature, and pressure. Welding
times of 30 to 60 minutes should be considered
Many diffusion welding and brazing appli- a practical minimum, with 2 to 4 hours being
cations involve titanium alloy components, the more desirable. Mating surface finish and pre-
majority of which are Ti-6%Al-4% V alloy.' The weld cleaning procedure are two other important
popularity of the processes with titanium alloys considerations. Although the general rule that a
stems from the following factors: smooth mating surface makes welding easier
(1) Titanium is readily joined by both still applies, parts with relatively rough (milled
methods without special surface preparation or or lathe-turned) mating surfaces can be success-
unusual process controls. fully diffusion welded as long as welding tem-
(2) Diffusion welded or brazed joints may perature, time, and pressure are adjusted to ac-
have better properties for some applications than commodate such rough finishes. Freshly ma-
conventional fusion welded joints. chined mating surfaces only need to be degreased
(3) Most titanium structures or components with a suitable solvent prior to welding. Hydro-
are used principally in aerospace applications carbon and chlorinated solvents should not be
where weight savings or advanced designs, or used. A preferred cleaning method is acid clean-
both, are more important than manufacturing ing in a HN0 3-HF solution. Any residue re-
costs, within limits. maining from the cleaning operation must be
A number of well-established diffusion removed by thorough rinsing.
welding and brazing methods are available for A solid-state diffusion weld in Ti-6%Al-
joining titanium alloys. Welding can be accom- 4% V alloy is shown in Fig. 10.4. The weld zone
plished using pressures in the range of several is virtually indistinguishable from the base metal
hundred to several thousand psi. High pressures in both appearance and properties. This weld
are used in conjunction with low welding tem- was made at 17000 F for 4 hours using an applied
peratures and when the assembly is welded in a pressure of about 500 psi. The mating surfaces
closed container (retort). Inserts may be used to were machined on a lathe and acid cleaned prior
hold the structure to dimensions. When welding
to welding. Extensive testing of welds of this
at higher temperatures without an enclosure, quality has demonstrated that the mechanical
maximum pressure is usually limited by the
properties of the welds are equivalent to the
allowable deformation in the part, and this pres-
base metal.
sure must be determined empirically. Pressures Several industries have taken advantage of
of 300 to 500 psi work well in many cases. In the benefits of the diffusion welding process,
some applications, total assembly deformation
particularly the aerospace industry with its in-
and deformation rate, rather than pressure per se,
creased potential usage of titanium alloys. 1\vo
are controlled during welding for process control. new vehicles, one for space travel and the other
Welding temperature is probably the most a long range bomber aircraft, are utilizing this
influential variable in determining weld quality; process extensively. The engine mount of each
it is set as high as possible without causing space shuttle vehicle will have 28 diffusion
irreversible damage to the base metal. For the
welded titanium parts, ranging from large frames
commonly used alpha-beta type titanium alloys,
to interconnecting box tubes. This structure is
this temperature is about 75 to 100° F below the
capable of withstanding three million pounds of
thrust. Square tubes of 0. 75-in. thick wall and
3. The weldability of titanium alloys is discussed inCh.
73, Sec. 4, Welding Handbook, 6th ed. This chapter approximately 8-in. long sides were fabricated
will be revised in Vol. 4, 7th ed. by diffusion welding in lengths up to 180 inches.
Applications /327
Fig. 10.4-A diffusion weld in Ti-6%AI-4%V ~/loy made at

1700°F for 4 hours with ~n applied pressure of
500 psi (x2SO) ·
Fig. 10.5-A tit~nium alloy stiffened sheet structure f~bric~ted by continuous seam
diffusion bonding
The advanced airplane has 66 diffusion

welded parts of Ti-6%AI-4%V alloy. The wing
carry-through structure is the largest diffusion
welded composite structure in existence. It is the
most critical structure in the vehicle.
The use of diffusion welding in the gas
turbine industry reached a milestone with the
production application of the Ti-6%Al-4% V
component for an advanced, high thrust engine.
This application marks the first production use
of diffusion welding in a rotating engine com-
ponent.
(A) Continuous seam diffusion bonding has
been used to produce stiffened skins fabricated as
an integral one-piece structure. An example is
shown in Fig. 10.5. One of the first applications
of this method was the fabrication of curved
Ti-6%Al-4% V alloy 1-beams used as structural
members to support boron-aluminum composite
on a fighter airplane. These beams were made
from 0.025-in. sheet.
The superplastic-forming diffusion bonding
of titanium parts is also being investigated.
Figure 10.6 shows two typical parts that were
fabricated by the process.
Diffusion brazing techniques are also used
for joining titanium alloys. Cycle times, tem-
(B) peratures, and preweld cleaning procedures are
Fig. 10.6-Two titanium alloy parts much the same as for diffusion welding. How-
fabricated by superplastic-forming ever, pressure is just sufficient to hold the parts
diffusion bonding: (A) a door; (8) a in contact, and mating surface finish require-
windshield hot air nozzle ments are not stringent.
(A) Electroplated metal layers on the edge (B) A diffusion brazed joint
of a sheet
Fig. 10.7-A diffusion brazed T-joint between Ti-6%A1-4%V and

Ti3%A1-2.5%V alloys
Applications /329
The mating surfaces are electrolytically joints. The assemblies are held at temperature for
plated with a thin film of either pure copper or a one to four hours to reduce the composition
series of elements, such as copper and nickel. gradient at the joint by diffusion. A typical diffu-
When heated to the brazing temperature of 1650 sion brazed titanium alloy honeycomb structure
to 1700° F, the copper layer reacts with the is shown in Fig. 10.8.
titanium alloy to form a molten eutectic at the
joint interface. The assembly is then held at tem-
NICKEL ALLOYS
perature for at least 1.5 hours, or is given a sub-
sequent heat treatment at this temperature for Many nickel alloys, specifically the high
several hours, to reduce the composition gradient strength heat resistant alloys, are more difficult
in the joint. Diffusion brazed joints made with a to solid-state diffusion weld than most other
copper interlayer and a cycle of 1700° F for 4 metals. These alloys must be welded at temper-
hours had tensile, shear, smooth fatigue, and atures close to their melting temperatures and
stress corrosion properties equal to those of the with relatively high pressures because of their
base metal. However, they had slightly lower high temperature strengths . In addition, extra
notch fatigue and corrosion fatigue properties, care must be taken in preparing the surfaces to
and significantly lower fracture toughness. A be welded to ensure mutual conformity and
typical photomicrograph of a diffusion brazed cleanliness. Surface oxides that form on these
T-joint between Ti-6%Al-4%V and Ti-3%AI- alloys are stable at high temperatures and will
2.5%V alloys is shown in Fig. 10.7. A Widman- not dissolve or diffuse into the alloy. During the
statten structure formed at the joint because the welding operation, the ambient atmosphere must
plated interlayer stabilized the beta phase. be carefully controlled to prevent interface con-
Diffusion brazing is being used to fabricate tamination.
light-weight cylindrical cases of titanium alloys Pure nickel or nickel alloy interlayers,
for jet engines . In this application, the titanium typically an electroplated layer or thin foil , are
core is plated with a very thin layer of selected commonly used when diffusion welding nickel
metals that react with the titanium to form a eu- alloys. These interlayers, generally from 0 .0001
tectic. During the brazing cycle in a vacuum of to 0.001-in. thick, serve several functions . Their
10"5 torr, a eutectic liquid forms at 1650" E This relatively low yield strength allows surface con-
liquid performs the function of a brazing alloy formity to take place at relatively low welding
between the core and face sheets. The eutectic pressures. More important, they are used during
quickly solidifies due to rapid diffusion at the welding to prevent the formation of stable pre-
Fig. 10.8-Diffusion brazed titanium alloy honeycomb structure (81 in. long, 61b
total weight)
330 / DIFFUSION WELDING AND BONDING
Table10.1
Typical diffusion welding conditions for some nickel-base alloys
Welding Pressure, Time,
Interlayer temp., oF psi h
lnconel600 Ni 2000 100-500 0.5
Hastelloy X Ni 2050 100-500 4
Wrought Udimet 700 Ni-35%Co 2140 1000 4
Cast Udimet 700 Ni-35%Co 2175 1200 4
Rene 41 Ni-Be 2150 1550 2
Mar-M200 Ni-25%Co 2200 1000-2000 2
a. Tradenames
cipitates, such as oxides, carbides, or carboni- hill" diffusion of aluminum and titanium into
trides, at the joint interface. The diffusion weld- the nickel interlayer. This led to the formation of
ing time must be adequate to allow sufficient excessive amounts of the strengthening precip-
interdiffusion to occur in the joint region. itate Ni 3(Al, Ti) in the joint. The addition of 35%
Some nickel base heat resistant alloys that cobalt to the interlayer resulted in a completely
have been diffusion welded are listed in Table homogeneous joint region because of the effect
10.1, as are the welding conditions. of cobalt on the formation of Nia(Al, Ti)
The pressure required for satisfactory weld- Nickel-base heat resistant alloys can be
ing is influenced strongly by the geometry of the diffusion brazed using specially designed braz-
parts being welded; therefore, the required pres- ing filler metals and procedures. There are two
sure for each application must be determined reported variations that differ primarily in pro-
empirically. gramming the thermal cycle to accomplish diffu-
The significance of an interlayer and its sion. Both utilize specially tailored interlayers
composition was demonstrated by a series of dif- that melt at brazing temperature. Then, through
fusion welds in wrought and cast Udimet 700 diffusion, either by extending the original ther-
alloy.• Welds were made without an interlayer mal cycle or with a subsequent cycle, both
and with 0.0002-in. interlayers of both pure methods produce high strength joints that re-
nickel and Ni-35%Co alloy. The welding condi- semble the base metal in both structure and
tions were the same as those listed for this alloy mechanical properties.
in 'Thble 10 .1. With the flrst variation, a thin interlayer
The microstructure of the welds in wrought alloy of specific composition and melting point,
Udimet 700 alloy are shown in Fig. 10.9. With 0.001 to 0.004-in. thick, is used as brazing filler
no interlayer, fine Ti(C,N) and NiTi0 3 precip- metal. The parts are held together under slight
itates formed at the interface during welding and compressive pressure (under 10 psi) and heated
pinned the interfacial boundary, causing very to the brazing temperature (typically 2000 to
poor joint properties. The nickel inter layer con- 2200° F) in vacuum or an argon atmosphere.
sisted of an electroplated layer on each surface. At brazing temperature, the interlayer initially
These layers probably welded together early in melts, filling the voids between the mating sur-
the cycle, and no precipitates were present to in- faces with a thin, molten layer. While the parts
terfere with welding. Subsequent diffusion and are held at temperature, rapid diffusion of alloy-
grain boundary movement resulted in much im- ing elements occurs between the interlayer and
proved mechanical properties. The pure nickel the base metal. This change of composition at the
interlayer, however, resulted in preferential "up- interface region causes the joint to isothermally
4. 'fradename solidify, thus forming a solid bond while still at
Applications /331
temperature. After isothermal solidification oc-

curs, the joint microstructure generally resembles
that of the base metal except for some composi-
tional and structural variations. ~·
At this stage the joint has good properties,
although not fully equivalent to those of the base
metal. By permitting the part to remain at the
.. ;
brazing temperature for a longer time, the joint
can be homogenized both in composition and
structure until it is essentially equivalent to the
base metal.
·. •I
The second variation involves joining
nickel-base components with a specially de-
signed brazing filler metal that completely melts
(A)
at some elevated temperature ~low the incipient
melting point of the alloy or alloys being joined.
Subsequent to this, the brazed component is
given a diffusion heat treatment to homogenize
the brazing filler with the base metal. This is
followed by an appropriate aging heat treatment
designed for the base metal.
Melting point depressants, such as silicon,
boron, manganese, aluminum, titanium, and co-
lumbinum, are added to the base alloy to pro-
duce a brazing filler metal. The base alloy is
simply "doped" with sufficient amounts of
depressants so that the resultant alloy is molten
at a temperature that does not impair the prop-
erties of the alloy to be joined. Ideally, brazing
is accomplished at the normal solution heat treat- (B)
ing temperature for a given alloy. Figure 10.10
shows a diffusion brazed joint made in wrought
Udimet 700 using the first described procedure.
An interlayer of 0 .003-in. thick Ni-15%Cr-
15%Co-5%Mo-3%Be filler metal was used in
the joint with a processing cycle of 2140° F for
24 hours in vacuum. A microprobe chemical
analysis across a joint showed a uniform chem-
ical composition, essentially that of the base
metal . Stress rupture tests at 1600° F and 1800° F
showed that the diffusion brazed joints had essen-
tially the same properties as the Udimet 700
base metal.
Diffusion brazed joints produced at lower
temperatures and with shorter time cycles may (C)
not be uniform in composition. As a result, some
elevated temperature mechanical properties of Fig. 10.9-Diffusion welds in wrought
the joints may be lower than those of the base Udimet 700 ~lloy with (A) no interl~yer,
metal, particularly under stress-rupture con- (B)~ nickel interl~yer, ~nd (C)~ Ni-35%Co
ditions. ~lloy interl~yer ( X250)
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Aluminum alloys can be successfully diffu-
sion welded as long as some means is employed
to avoid, disrupt, or dissolve the tenacious sur-
face oxide. A wide range of temperatures, pres-
sures, and times may be utilized: for example,
with Type 6061 aluminum alloy, welding con-
ditions as divergent as 725° F and a pressure of
3800 psi for several hours or 1000° F and a
pressure of 1000 psi for one hour have been
satisfactory. However, the main boundary con-
dition is the melting point of the specific alloy
being joined. The welding operation is normally
carried out in vacuum or inert gas although Fig. 10.10-A diffusion brazed joint in
aluminum-boron fiber composites can be diffu- wrought Udimet 700 alloy ( X100)
sion welded in air. For applications where little
or no local deformation of the parts can be
tolerated, the mating surfaces are first coated
with a thin layer of silver or gold-copper alloy
by electrolytic or vapor deposition. The coating
STEELS
prevents surface oxidation during welding. Steels are not normally diffusion welded
Aluminum and aluminum-silicon alloys can because they are more easily joined by conven-
be diffusion brazed using a copper interlayer. tional brazing or fusion welding methods, for
Sound, strong joints can be produced in alu- most applications. Diffusion welding may be
minum by limiting the copper thickness to 20 x utilized successfully for specialized applications
10'6 in. and restricting the brazing temperature to where high quality joints are required between
between 1030 and 1060° F. The time at tem- large, flat surfaces: for example, plain carbon
perature should not exceed 15 minutes at the steels have been welded without an interlayer
lower temperature limit or 7 minutes at the upper over a wide range of conditions. Two sets of
limit. TYpe A356.0 aluminum-?% silicon cast- variables that produced excellent welds in AISI
ing alloy can be diffusion brazed by electro- 1020 steel are 1800 to 2200° F with a pressure
plating one of the joint members with copper of 1 ksi for 1 to 15 minutes and 2000 to 2200° F
that will form a eutectic with the aluminum and with a pressure of 5 psi for 2 hours. Welding
silicon in the casting alloy when heated to 975° F. can be accomplished either in a protective at-
To ensure optimum joint properties, copper mosphere or in air, provided the joint is first
thickness, brazing temperature, and time-at-tem- seal welded around the periphery to exclude air.
perature must be selected to promote isothermal Stainless steels can be diffusion welded
solidification during brazing and thereby prevent using conditions similar to those used for plain
the formation of the compound CuA1 2 • Proper carbon steel; however, these steels are normally
balancing of these variables results in strong covered by a thin adherent oxide that must be
joints that can withstand quenching from above removed prior to welding. This can be accom-
the solution treating temperature which is re- plished either by welding at high temperatures
quired for heat treating TYpe A356.0 alloy to the in dry hydrogen or by copper plating the faying
T61 condition. Electroplating the cover sheets surfaces after anodic cleaning. Copper oxide on
with 150 to 200 micro inches of copper and hold- the plating is relatively easy to reduce in hydro-
ing between 980 and 10000 F for one hour are gen during heating to welding temperature. For
satisfactory conditions. After quenching and illustrative purposes, sound welds were made in
aging, the joint strength will equal that of the AMS 5630 martensitic stainless steel at 20000 F
casting itself. Microstructurally, the brazed joint with a pressure of 100 psi for 1.5 hours using
will be indistinguishable from the casting. a 0.0001-in. thick copper interlayer.
Applications /333
Table10.2
Diffusion welding conditions for some dissimilar metal combinations
Pressure,8
Metal combinations Interlayer Temp., op Time,h ksi Atmosphere
Cu toAl 950 0.25 vacuum
Cu to 316 sst Cu 1800 2 a vacuum
Cu toTi 1560 0.25 0.7 vacuum
Cu to Cb-1 %Zr Cb-l%Zr 1800 4 a vacuum
Cu-10%Zn to
Ti-6%Al-6% V-2%Sn 900 8 a vacuum
4340 steel c to
Inconel718b 1730 4 29 vacuum
Nickel 200 to
Inconel600b 1700 3 not reported
Pyromet X-15bto
T-Ill Ta alloy Au-Cu 1100 4 30 not reported
Cb-1 %Zr to 316 sst Cb-l%Zr 1800 4 a vacuum
Zircaloy-2 to 304 sstd 1870-1900 0.5 a vacuum
a. Pressure is applied with differential thermal expansion tooling.

b. Tradenames
c. Outgassing of the 4340 steel at 10"5 torr and 1850" F for 24 hours prior to welding was critical to the
formation of satisfactory welds.
d. This combination formed a liquid eutectic phase at the welding temperature. Temperature and time must
be controlled to minimize the thickness of the alloy zone.
sidered. Interdiffusion can cause certain prob-

DISSIMILAR METAL
lems as a result of the following metallurgical
COMBINATIONS
phenomena:
Diffusion welding is particularly well suited (1) Intermediate phase or brittle intermetal-
for joining many dissimilar metal combinations, lic compound formation at the interface. Selec-
especially when the melting points of the two tion of an appropriate interlayer can usually
metals differ widely or when the materials are not prevent problems associated with this effect.
metallurgically compatible. In such cases, con- (2) Low melting eutectic phase formation.
ventional fusion welding is not practical because This effect can be used to advantages in some
it would either result in excessive melting of one applications.
of the metals or in the formation of a brittle weld (3) Joint porosity due to dissimilar rates of
zone. Diffusion welding is also suitable when the metal transfer by diffusion in the region adja-
high temperatures of fusion welding would cause cent to the weld interface (Kirkendall porosity).
an alloy to become brittle or lower its strength Proper welding conditions or the use of an appro-
drastically, as is the case with some refractory priate interlayer, or both, may prevent this
metal alloys. Interlayer metals are sometimes problem.
used to prevent the formation of brittle interme- One problem which often exists and which
tallic phases between certain metal combinations. is not unique to diffusion welding is the differ-
When determining conditions and interlayer ence in the thermal expansion characteristics of
requirements for diffusion welding a particular the two metals. Simply stated, any combination
dissimilar metal combination, the effects of inter- of dissimilar metals which is heated and cooled
diffusion between the two metals must be con- during welding or brazing will develop shear
stresses in the joint if the thermal expansion or ductility, or both, are low and the shear stresses
characteristics of the dissimilar metals are not are high.
identical. The severity of the problem will vary Representative conditions used for diffu-
depending upon the temperature span, the net sion welding some dissimilar metal combinations
difference between the rates of expansion, the are presented in Table 10.2. Often the tempera-
size and shape of the parts, and the nature of the ture and the time used for a particular combina-
bond formed between them. This becomes a tion are selected as part of the necessary heat
design problem, in part, since distortion can re- treatment for one of the alloys to develop design
sult. The most severe difficulty is cracking properties for the application.
through the joint in cases where the bond strength
INSPECTION
Establishing the quality of a diffusion to locate and a practical limit of about 0.04 in.
welded or brazed joint is difficult with current exists. With special methods and very sophisti-
nondestructive testing procedures. This is due to cated equipment, it has been reported that defects
the nature of the joints. Usually, little or no po- equivalent to 0.005 in. diameter can be detected
rosity exists if the joint is made with properly in some metals. These approaches cannot be con-
developed procedures. The main defect in a dif- sidered routine and they only work under spe-
fusion weld is lack of grain growth across the cial conditions.
original interface. Efforts to distinguish intimate Ultrasonic inspection can not differentiate
contact without grain growth across the interface between complete intimate contact and an actual
from a perfect bond have not been successful. bond. The only method available to assure com-
Radiography, eddy current, and thermal plete welding or brazing is metallographic ex-
methods are relatively unsatisfactory for inspec- amination. Since this is a destructive test, it can-
tion of most applications. Dye penetrant methods not always be performed on the part in question.
are relatively successful for edge inspections. Fortunately, the processes are extremely repro-
Ultrasonic inspection has proved the most ducible if good process control is exercised. Ran-
useful for internal inspection, especially if a hair- dom destructive sampling coupled with ultra-
line separation exists. The sensitivity varies with sonic inspection will provide a high confidence
the metal being tested, the ultrasonic frequency, level. This approach has been used in production
the skill of the operator, and the degree of so- with yields in excess of 95 percent, including
phistication of the equipment. In general, de- parts deliberately cut up for evaluation.
fects of less than 0.1 in. diameter are difficult

tc = 0.556 (tF -32)
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa
1 psi = 6.895 kPa
1 lbf = 4.448N
1 torr= 133.3Pa
1 in. = 25.4mm
Supplementary Reading List / 335

Bartle, P. M., Introduction to diffusion bonding. bonding ofboron-aluminum structural com-
Metal Construction and British Welding ponents. Welding Journal, Part 1, 53 (4);
Journal, I (5); May 1969. 175s-84s; 1974 Apr.; Part 2, 53 (8); 35ls-
9s: 1974Aug.
Bartle, P. M., Diffusion bonding: a look at the
future. Welding Journal, 54(11): 799-804; Niemann, J. T. and Wille, G. W., Auxless dif-
1975 Nov. fusion brazing of aluminum castings. Weld-
ing Journal, 57 (10): 285s-9ls: 1978 Oct.
Bartle, P. M. and Ellis, C. R. G., Diffusion
bonding and friction welding, two newer O'Brien, M., Rice, C. R., and Olson, D. L.,
processes for the dissimilar metal joint. High strength diffusion welding of silver
Metal Construction and British Welding coated base metals. Welding Journal, 55(1);
Journal, 1 (125): 88-95; 1969 Dec. 25-27; 1976 Jan.
Bryant, W. A., A method for specifying hot Schwartz, M. M., Diffusion brazing titanium
isostatic pressure welding parameters. Weld- sandwich structures. Welding Journal,
ing Journal, 54(12): 433s-35s; 1975 Dec. 57(9); 35-8: 1978 Sept.
Doherty, P. E. and Harraden, D. R., New forms Signes, E. G., Diffusion welding of steel in air.
of filler metal for diffusion brazing. Weld- Welding Journal, 47(12); 571s-4s; 1968
ing Journal, 56 (l 0): 37-39; 1977 Dec.
Duvall, D. S., Owczarski, W. A., and Paulonis, 'JYlecote, R. E, The Solid State Welding of
D. E, TLP*Bonding: anew method for join- Metals; New York: St. Martins Press, 1968:
ing heat resistant alloys. Welding Journal, 301-18.
53(4): 302-14; 1974 Apr.
Weisert, E. D. and Stacher, G. W., Fabricating
Duvall, D. S., Owczarski, W. A., and Paulonis, titanium parts with SPF/DB proces-s. Metal
D. E, and King, W. H., Methods for diffu- Progress, 111 (3): 32-7: 1977 Mar.
sion welding the superalloy Udimet 700,
Wells, R. R., Microstructural control of thin-
Welding Journal, 51(2); 4ls-49s; 1972 Feb.
film diffusion brazed titanium. Welding
Hoppin, G. S. and Berry, T. E, Activated dif- Journal, 55(1): 20s-8s; 1976 Jan.
fusion bonding. Welding Journal, 49(11): Witherell, C. E., Diffusion welding multifila-
505s-9s; 1970 Nov. ment superconducting composites. Welding
King, W. H. and Owczarski, W. A., Additional Journal, 57 (6), 153s-60s; 1978 June
studies on the diffusion welding of titanium. \\\1, K. C., Resistance Nor-Ti-Bond joining of
Welding Journal, 47(10): 444s-50s; 1968
titanium shapes. Welding Journal, 50 (9):
Oct. 386s-93s; 1971 Sept.
Mohamed, H. A. and Washburn, J., Mecha-
Zanner, E J. and Fisher, R.W., Diffusion weld-
nism of solid state pressure welding. Weld- ing of commercial bronze to a titanium
ing Journal, 54(9): 302s-10s; 1975 Sept. alloy. Welding Journal, 54 (4): 105s-12s;
Niemann, J. T. and Garrett, R. A., Eutectic 1975 Apr.
11
Adhesive Bonding of Metals
Fundamentals of the Process .......... 338 Surface Preparation .................. 356
Adhesives .......................... 344 Assembly and Cure .................. 358
}oint Design ........................ 350 Quality Control ..................... 361
Sandwich Construction ............... 355 Safe Practices ....................... 363
Chapter Committee
C. R. RONAN, Chairman J. P. McNALLY

Rohr Industries Rohr Industries
N. J. De LOLLIS J. D. MINFORD
Sandia Corporation Aluminum Company ofAmerica
M. J. HRABONZ D. K. RIDER
3M Company Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
R. L. FROHLICH
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
337
11
Adhesive Bonding of Metals

DEFINITIONS AND metals to themselves or to nonmetallic structural
GENERAL DESCRIPTION materials is covered in this chapter.
Adhesive bonding is similar to soldering
Adhesive bonding (ABD) is a materials and brazing of metals in some respects but a
joining process in which a nonmetallic adhesive metallurgical bond does not take place. The
material is placed between the faying surfaces of surfaces being joined are not melted, although
the parts or bodies, called adherends. The ad- they may be heated. An adhesive in the form of
hesive then solidifies or hardens by physical or a liquid or tacky solid is placed between the
chemical property changes to produce a bonded faying surfaces of the joint. After the faying
joint with useful strength between the adherends. surfaces are mated with the adhesive in between,
During some stage of processing, the adhesive heat or pressure, or both, are applied to accom-
must become sufficiently fluid to wet the faying plish the bond.
surfaces of the adherends. In general, an adhesive system must have
Adhesive' is a general term that includes the following characteristics:
such materials as cement, glue, mucilage, and (I) At the time the bond is formed between
paste. Although natural organic and inorganic an adhesive and the metal, the adhesive must be
adhesives are available, synthetic organic poly- either a liquid or a readily deformed solid. This
mers are usually used to adhesive bond metal is required for the adhesive to flow or deform and
assemblies. Various descriptive adjectives are then conform to the surfaces of the adherends.
applied to the term adhesive to indicate certain There must be adequate adhesive to completely
characteristics, as follows: fill the joint.
(I) Physical form: liquid adhesive, tape (2) In general, the adhesive cures, cools,
adhesive dries, or otherwise hardens during the time the
(2) Chemical type: silicate adhesive, resin bond is formed or soon thereafter.
adhesive (3) The adhesive must have good mutual at-
(3) Materials bonded: paper adhesive, traction with the metal surfaces, and have ade-
metal-plastic adhesive, can label adhesive. quate strength and toughness to resist failure
(4) Application method: hot-setting adhe- along the glue line under service conditions.
sive, sprayable adhesive (4) As the adhesive cures, cools, or dries,
Although adhesive bonding is used to join it must not shrink excessively. Otherwise, unde-
many nonmetallic materials, only the bonding of sirable internal stresses may develop in the joint.
(5) To develop a strong bond, the metal
I. Tenns relating to adhesives are defined in ANSI/ surfaces must be clean and free of dust, loose
ASTMD907. oxides, oil, grease, or other foreign materials.
338
(6) Entrapped air, moisture, solvents, and ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

other gases trapped at the interface between the
adhesive and metal must have a way of escaping Adhesive bonding has several advantages
from the joint. and limitations for metals joining when com-
(7) The joint design and adhesive must be pared to resistance spot welding, brazing, solder-
suitable to withstand the intended service. ing, or mechanical fasteners such as rivets or
screws.
Advantages
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION Bonding Dissimilar Materials. It is possible
At some stage in its application, an adhe- to bond dissimilar metals with minimal galvanic
sive for metal bonding must become fluid. It may corrosion in service provided the adhesive layer
be a solid dissolved in a solvent, a chemically maintains electrical isolation between the metals.
active liquid, or a solid transformed to the liquid Many types of adhesive formulations are flex-
state by heat only or by heat and pressure. The ible enough to permit the bonding of dissimilar
liquid must wet the surface of the adherends and metals with widely different coefficients of
come into close proximity so the forces of at- thermal expansion. Such possibilities depend,
traction will operate. of course, upon the size of the pieces and the
When an adhesive is placed on a metal sur- degree of joint strength required. A single adhe-
face, the adjacent adhesive molecules are being sive may be used for joining a number of dis-
attracted by neighboring molecules as well as similar metal combinations in a single assembly.
the metal atoms or foreign matter on the metal Adhesive bonding also makes it possible to join
surface. If the surface energy of the adhesive is metals to nonmetallic materials such as various
greater than that of the adherend surface, the types of plastics. Figure II. I shows the bond-
adhesive will not wet. To accomplish wetting, ing of rigid urethane foam to sheet steel with a
the surface energy of the metal must be greater free-flowing, room-temperature-curing, epoxy
than that of the adhesive. Cleanliness of the adhesive in the fabrication of insulating panels.
metal surface is very important for providing
Bonding Thin Gage Metals. Very thin metal
the high surface energy required for wettability. parts can be adhesive bonded in any combina-
Oil or grease on the surface will seriously lower tion of adherends. Three examples of this are:
the metal surface energy and impair bonding. (I) multiple layers of thin metal sheets can be
The spreading of the adhesive on a metal bonded together to form electric motor lami-
surface is also influenced by other surface con- nates; (2) various metal foils can be joined to
ditions and by the mobility of the adhesive.
themselves or to other materials; and (3) thin-
In general, a metal surface contains a micro-
gage metal sheets may be used as sandwich
scopic series of peaks and valleys which presents
panel skins.
a larger exposed surface area than a perfectly
flat surface. This gives a high adsorption force Low Processing Temperatures. The temper-
and good capillary action. atures used for the heat curing of most adhesives
For the liquid adhesive to spread, it must are between 150 and 350" F, temperatures that
have the proper viscosity. The higher its vis- are below the normal soldering range. Room-
cosity, the greater is the probability that the temperature-curing formulations are available
adhesive will not completely fill the valleys on that provide sturdy structural bonds for service
the metal surface but will possibly entrap gases, temperatures up to 150" F under humidity con-
liquid, or vapors in them. There is a tendency ditions that do not exceed 70 percent relative hu-
during bonding for the adhesive to absorb and midity. They can be used to join heat-sensitive
then expel these foreign materials at the edge of components without damage. Adhesive bonding
the bondline. To assist in the desorption, the should be considered when high temperature
adhesive can be heated or subjected to pressure. operations would cause metallurgical or struc-
340/ ADHESIV E BONDING OF METALS
Fig. 11.1-Rigid urethane foam bonded to sheet metal
tural damage to the parts . acteristics similar to those of the base material.
Some adhesives can operate at tempera- An adhesive may also serve as an insulator be-
tures somewhat higher than their curing tem- tween adjacent conductors.
peratures, which is not the case with metal The addition of certain metallic or carbon
solders. fillers to adhesive formulations can make them
electrically conductive. Some testing before
Combination Bonding and Sealing . The adhe-
acceptance should be done under simulated
sive that bonds the components may also serve
service conditions because corrosion may occur
as a sealant or coating to provide protection
in some metal structures bonded with electri-
from oils, chemicals, moisture, or a combina-
cally conductive adhesives that are exposed to
tion of these. In Fig. 11.2, a room-temperature-
moisture . Metal powder additives can improve
curing adhesive is being applied to seal the ends
the thermal conductivity of adhesives.
of an antenna circuit in the handle of a marine
radio. The same adhesive is also used to bond
Uniform Stress Distribution. Joints can be de-
neoprene tubing and plastic-coated lead-in wires
signed to distribute the load over a relatively
to aluminum at three points within the radio
large bonded area to minimize stress concen-
housing.
trations . In wall panel construction, for example ,
Thermal and Electrical Insulation. Adhesives metal skin sheets are bonded to metal or paper
can provide thermal or electrical insulating honeycombs, foamed polystyrene, or other core
layers between the two surfaces being joined: materials.
for example, almost all mass-produced printed
circuits use adhesive bonding. In this applica- Smooth Surface Appearance . Adhesives can
tion, the adhesive used to bond the copper con- ensure smooth, unbroken surfaces without pro-
ductor to the base material has electrical char- trusions, gaps, or holes . Atypical example is the
Fig. 11.2-Application of an epoxy adhesive to seal the end of a marine

radio antenna
vinyl-to-metal laminate widely used in the pro- Weight Savings. Adhesive bonding may per-
duction of television cabinets, housings for mit significant weight savings in the finished
electronic equipment, and automotive trim. product by utilizing lightweight fabrications.
Figure 11.3 shows adhesive-bonded truck door Honeycomb panel assemblies, used extensively
panels where broad, smooth areas are required. in the aircraft industry and the construction
Hood and roof stiffeners on automobiles are ad- field, are excellent examples of lightweight
hesive bonded rather than resistance spot welded fabrications. TYpical panels are shown in Fig.
to the panels to avoid marks that would be sus- 11.4. Not only is the honeycomb core material
ceptible to rusting and might require filling, bonded to the metal face sheets, the honeycomb
grinding, and polishing prior to painting. core itself is generally adhesive bonded. Al-
though weight reduction can be important in the
Good Vibration and Sound Damping. Flex-
function ofthe product, it may also provide con-
ible adhesives can absorb shock and vibration siderable cost savings in packing, shipping, and
which gives the joints good fatigue life and installation labor.
sound-dampening properties. The use of adhe-
sives rather than rivets has increased joint fa- Simplification ofDesign. Adhesives often per-
tigue life by a factor of ten or more, as was ex- mit design simplification. In Fig. 11.5, alumi-
perienced with helicopter rotor blades. A com- num die cast pump sections have been adhesive
bination of adhesives and rivets for joints in bonded to a steel core. Previously, the part was
very large aircraft structures has increased the cast as one piece of steel, but blow holes in the
fatigue life of joints from 2 x 10' cycles for casting resulted in an excessive number of re-
rivets alone to more than 1.5 X 10• cycles for jects. Redesigning to an adhesive-bonded as-
the bonded and riveted joints. The large bonded sembly reduced the number of rejects to near
area also dampens vibration and sound. zero.
342/ ADHESIVE BONDING OF METALS
Fig. 11.3-Truck door panels of aluminum adhesive bonded to

chipboard
Limitations to 900° F, but they are costly and difficult to

Adhesive bonding has certain limitations process.
which should be considered in its applications, (3) Capital investment for equipment and
the most important of which are as follows : tooling to process components may be high
(I) Adhesives will not support high peel when large bonding areas and special service
loads above 250° F, not even elastomeric adhe- requirements are involved. The benefits of an
sives that have high tensile shear strengths at adhesive-bonded joint must be balanced against
temperatures as high as 300° F. For applications the cost of autoclaves, presses, tooling, and
where high peel strength is essential, some other special equipment needed to perform the
mechanical reinforcement may be necessary. bonding operation.
(2) Adhesives, including epoxy-phenolics (4) Process control costs may be higher
that are designed for low creep at elevated tem- than those for other joining processes. Surfaces
peratures, have an operational temperature ceil- must be properly cleaned, treated, and protected
ing of about 500° F. Some new high temper- from contamination prior to bonding if the best
ature adhesives derived from heat stable poly- bond durability is required. Surface preparation
imides, polybenzimidazoles, and related com- can range from a simple solvent wipe to multi-
pounds show promise for use at temperatures up step cleaning , etching, anodizing, rinsing, and
drying procedures which must be very carefully normally used for other joining methods are
followed in critical structural bonding applica- not generally applicable to the evaluation of
tions . Control of ambient temperature and hu- adhesive bonds. Both destructive and nonde-
midity may also be necessary. structive testing must be used with process con-
(5) To develop full strength, joints must trols to establish the quality and reliability of
be fixtured and cured at temperature for some bonded joints .
time . On the other hand, mechanical fasteners (7) Service conditions may be restrictive .
provide design strength immediately and usually Many adhesive systems degrade rapidly when the
do not require extensive fixturing . joint is both highly stressed and exposed to a hot,
(6) Nondestructive inspection methods humid environment.
Fig. 11.4-Adhesive bonded honeycomb p~nels

Fig. 11.5-Aiuminum die cast pump sections adhesive

bonded to a steel core
ADHESIVES
hesives may soften or weaken at high temper-
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
ature and ultimately decompose.
Adhesives may be either thermosetting or Thermoplastic resins are long chain
thermoplastic. The principal ingredients in most molecular compounds that soften upon heating
adhesive formulations are: and harden upon cooling. They undergo no
(I) A synthetic resin system chemical change upon heating, so the cycle can
(2) An elastomer or flexibilizer be repeated. However, they will oxidize and
(3) Inorganic materials break down at excessively high temperatures.
Thermosetting resins are the most important Many thermoplastic resins can also be softened
materials on which metal adhesive formulations at room temperature with organic solvents. They
are based. Their properties can be modified for harden again as the solvent evaporates. Limited
specific applications by the addition of modify- resistance to heat, solvents, and load-induced
ing agents and fillers . Thermosetting adhesives stresses makes thermoplastic resins generally
harden or cure by chemical reactions such as unsuitable as structural adhesives . However,
polymerization, condensation, or vulcanization. some thermoplastic resins or elastomers are com-
These reactions occur with the addition of a bined with thermosetting resins such as epoxies
hardener (curing agent) or catalyst. Heat, pres- and phenolics for improved flexibility, peel
sure, radiation, or other energy can accelerate strength, and impact resistance.
the hardening or curing rate. Once they harden Flexibilizers or elastomers are added to ad-
or cure, these adhesives cannot be remelted, and hesive formulations to add resiliency, improve
a broken joint cannot be rebonded by heating. peel strength, and increase resistance to shock
Depending upon composition, thermosetting ad- and vibration. Most nonvulcanizing, elastomeric-
Adhesives /345
based adhesives may be considered as thermo- hardener, or by the application of heat. Bond
plastics and most vulcanizing formulations as strength is achieved from the chemical reaction
thermosetting types. that takes place during the curing time. Catalysts
Inorganic materials are added as fillers to or hardeners may be incorporated by the adhe-
improve the mechanical and physical properties sive manufacturer or may be added by the user
of the adhesives. Fillers can add greatly to the just prior to application. Such formulations gen-
stability of bonded joints by reducing shrinkage erally must be used within a prescribed period of
and thermal expansion and by increasing the time after mixing to avoid premature setting.
modulus of elasticity of the adhesive. Other chemically reactive, one-part adhesives
contain a latent hardener that activates and cures
the adhesive at elevated temperatures. Shelf life
TYPES at room temperature for one-part adhesives may
be limited to a few weeks unless it is prolonged
Solvent by refrigerated storage. The time required for
bonding is approximately 24 hours for room-
The solvent type contact adhesives are
temperature-curing adhesives and from a few
predominantly elastomeric thermoplastics pro-
seconds to several hours for heat-curing formu-
duced as solutions. They achieve their bond
strength upon removal of the solvent. The liquid lations.
adhesive is applied to the adherend surfaces and, Anaerobic
for metal adherends, time is allowed for the Anaerobic adhesives are unique in that they
solvent to evaporate. The adhesive-coated sur- are shelf-stable, solventless, ready-to-use formu-
faces are then joined under contact pressure. lations that cure at room temperature. Their cure
Sometimes heat is applied to fuse the coated is inhibited by the presence of air (oxygen) in
surfaces after drying. the package and during application. Once the
joint is assembled and air excluded from the
Hot Melt
liquid adhesive, curing begins. Newer heat-
The hot-melt adhesives are thermoplastics.
curing anaerobics are capable of higher bond
Mter the adherends have been coated with ad-
strengths than the room-temperature-curing
hesive and mated, heat and pressure are applied
products.
to the assembly. The joint is then cooled to so-
lidify the adhesive and achieve a bond. These
adhesives are not normally used for structural STRUCTURAL ADHESIVES
applications. The ultimate objective of a structural adhe-
Pressure Sensitive sive is to create a bond that is as strong as the
materials it joins. Since this goal is not always
Pressure sensitive adhesives are formula- attainable, a structural adhesive can be defined
tions that instantly provide a relatively low- as one that is used to transfer required loads
strength bond upon the brief application of pres- between adherends in a structure for its life ex-
sure. They may be applied to any clean, dry pectancy when exposed to its service environ-
surface. Since they are capable of sustaining only ment. There are two general types of structural
very light loads because of retention of their adhesives, both of which are thermosetting. They
flow characteristics, they are not considered are the phenolic resin-base and the epoxy resin-
structural adhesives. base adhesives.
Phenolic resins are modified with thermo-
Chemically Reactive
plastics or elastomers for structural adhesive
The chemically reactive adhesives consist applications. These modified phenolics are avail-
primarily of thermosetting resins in liquid and able as solutions in organic solvents and also as
solid forms, including films and tapes. They are films, both supported and unsupported. Such
activated either by the addition of a catalyst or adhesives feature high peel strengths, and tensile
and shear strengths in the range of 3000 to 5000 proved peel strengths, especially those modified
psi.> with nylon or carboxylic functional, nitrile co-
The epoxy resins combine the properties of polymer rubber. Modified epoxy adhesives fea-
excellent wetting action, low shrinkage, high ture joint shear strengths in excess of 7000 psi
tensile strength, toughness, and chemical inert- and high peel strengths.
ness to produce adhesives noted for their strength An epoxy-phenolic resin cured with dicy-
and versatility. Unlike phenolic adhesives, andiamide is an adhesive that performs well in
epoxies do not form volatile products during the 400 to 500° F temperature range. It will pro-
curing. They can be applied in liquid form with- duce a bond having good shear and creep prop-
out a solvent carrier. Because of this, volatile en- erties at 5000 F, but relatively poor peel resis-
trapment is minimized. Only low pressure is tance when cured in a representative cycle of 2
necessary to maintain intimate contact between hours at 3500 F and 150 psi pressure. Better "all-
the adherends during bonding, resulting in around" strength properties are often obtained
greatly simplified equipment requirements. by using this adhesive in conjunction with a
Epoxy adhesives are available as free- specially formulated primer having a high peel
flowing liquids, films, powders, stocks, pellets, strength. The elastomer-modified phenolics,
and mastics. This variety of forms permits con- which require curing at temperatures from 300 to
siderable latitude in the selection of application 350° F and pressures up to 100 psi, offer good
technique and equipment. Fillers or plasticizers resistance to heat and water in service.
may be added to minimize stresses that can de- Another class of high-temperature-resistant
velop when the adhesive and adherends have resin systems, polybenzimidazole (PBI) and poly-
different coefficients of thermal expansion. imide (PI), is available for structural adhesives
The wide choice of hardeners available for for service temperatures in the range of -425 to
epoxy formulations offers curing cycles ranging 1000° R These systems have been evaluated for
from a few seconds at elevated temperatures to bonding aluminum, stainless steel, titanium,
several minutes or hours at room temperature. beryllium, and other metals as well as reinforced
However, the heat-resistant formulations require plastics with excellent results. Shear strengths of
high temperature cures. over 2000 psi were obtained with stainless steels
A large selection of hardeners makes it pos- using a 1/2-in. lap joint. After exposure at 1000°
sible to produce an adhesive system having the F for 15 minutes, lap joints had shear strengths
best possible balance of properties for a given in excess of 1000 psi with stainless steel, titan-
application. Figure 11.6 illustrates the effect of ium, and beryllium adherends. These adhesive
various hardeners on the bonding properties of an systems have also been successfully utilized for
intermediate strength epoxy adhesive as com- fabricating stainless steel honeycomb sandwich
pared to a specially formulated high-strength constructions.
epoxy. This evaluation shows that different Although structural bonding has been suc-
strength properties can be imparted to a single cessfully applied in aerospace applications for
adhesive simply by changing the hardener. Other more than 25 years; stress corrosion problems
properties will also vary, depending upon the were detected in bonded structures that were
hardener selected. subjected to adverse service conditions. The com-
The epoxy-based adhesives, as a general bination of continuous or cyclic stress and a hot,
class, feature high shear and tensile strengths, humid atmosphere drastically affected the bond
but low creep and peel strengths. However, spe- durability. Under this conditions, bonds have
cially formulated epoxy adhesives provide im- degraded and failed at stresses as low a 20 per-
cent of the ultimate strength of the adhesive. The
2. The mechanical properties stated for these adhesive mechanism of this stress corrosion effect is
systems pertain to bonded structures which have not
been stressed prior to testing and are stored in a low or not fully understood and is still under investi-
nonnal relative humidity condition (i.e., less than 70 gation. However, some generalizations can be
pen:ent relative humidity). made. Time to failure decreases as the applied
Adhesives /347
stress level increases. Initial failure occurs at (2) Pastes

the bond line between the adhesive and adherend (3) Mastics
when moisture permeates the adhesive. The (4) Solids
moisture reacts with any oxide on the surface of (5) Powders
the adherend by hydration. This weakens the (6) Supported and unsupported films
oxide layer. Room-temperature-cured adhesives The method used for application of a partic-
degrade more rapidly in a hostile service en- ular adhesive should be selected after careful
vironment than heat-cured adhesives. consideration ofthese factors:
(1) Available forms of the selected adhesive
(2) Methods available for applying the var-
FORMS AND
ious forms
APPLICATION METHODS
(3) Joint designs and order of assembly
Industrial adhesives are available in anum- (4) Production rate requirements
ber of forms: (5) Equipment costs
(I) Liquids, ranging in viscosity from free- Adhesives may be applied with rollers,
flowing to thick syrups brushes, caulking guns, trowels, spray guns, or
Testing temperature
70oF~180°F
3000 t - - - - - ~..::2:::;60~o_:F_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _---i
·;;;
c.
-::::·
"'c:~
t:
...
"'"'
.<::
en
A B c D E High strength
epoxy
Hardener
Fig. 11.6-Effect of various hardeners on the shear strength of an epoxy base

adhesive compared to a high-strength epoxy adhesive
by dipping. The form ofthe adhesive and method be taken to avoid overheating the adhesive during
of application must be compatible. application.
Liquid Adhesives FUm Adhesives
For small assembly work, liquid adhesives
Adhesives in film or tape form are ex-
are commonly applied by brush, short-napped
tremely simple to use and produce a bond line
paint roller, or dipping. The more viscous li-
quids are often applied by trowel, extrusion. gun, having relatively constant thickness and coating
weight per unit area. These are important factors
or plastic squeeze bottle. Polyethylene nozzles
of bottle or tube containers should not be rubbed in most bonding applications. Films made from
across prepared surfaces such as etched alu- adhesives that are thermoplastic, thermosetting,
minum. This action may deposit a wax-like coat- or pressure sensitive are supplied in rolls or
ing to which the adhesive will not adhere. Small sheets that can be blanked or cut to the required
applicators, resembling a ballpoint pen or a hy- shape with scissors. Film adhesives are par-
podermic needle, may be used to deposit very ticularly useful for bonding large areas such as
narrow glue lines for spot application. The silk honeycomb sandwich panels. Special films are
available for use as adhesive backing on items
screen process is also useful for applying an
adhesive to selected areas. Automatic dispensing such as nameplates and decals.
Generally, the film adhesive is placed in
machines, which simplify the proportioning and
the mixing of many two-component formula- position between the adherends and activated
with heat or solvent. In the case of pressure-
tions, are also available.
For large areas such as curtain wall panels, sensitive film, pressure is applied to accomplish
bonding. For applications demanding high
liquid adhesive may be applied by spraying,
strength at elevated temperatures, the films
flow coating, roller coating, or troweling. De-
pending upon the application method, consider- usually require both heat and pressure to create
ation must be given to the viscosity and working the bond.
(pot) life ofthe adhesive formulation. Solvent reactive and pressure sensitive
films are intended primarily for bonding large
Paste and Mastic Adhesives sheets where only nominal pressure is required.
These types of films do not need special heating
Pastes and mastic adhesives may be applied
equipment. They are particularly useful for
with a smooth or serrated trowel, knife roller, or
short-run production and for bonding parts at
an extrusion device.
room temperature.
Some paste formulations contain a thixo-
Duplex bonding films, which combine the
tropic additive that inhibits sag or flow during
properties of elastomeric adhesives and epoxies,
application and cure. This feature permits their
are sometimes used for honeycomb sandwich
use on vertical or overhead surfaces and may
constructions. The elastomeric side, usually a
eliminate or significantly reduce the need for
nitrile phenolic, is bonded to the facing to pro-
special clean-up operations.
vide peel resistance. The epoxy side forms
Solid Adhesives fillets around the cell walls, and this increases
the effective bonding area and the resulting
One method for applying a solid adhesive
joint strength.
is to first heat the substrate to a temperature
slightly above the melting point of the adhesive
and then add the adhesive to the hot surface as PRIMERS
it melts. Some rod and powder forms of epoxy
adhesives are applied in this manner. Specially Certain service conditions may require the
developed flame spray guns can also be used, but use of primer for improved corrosion resistance,
this method may require powders with a particle flexibility, shock resistance, or peel resistance
size within narrow tolerances. Also, care must of the adhesive bond. Primers may also be used
Adhesives /349
to wet or penetrate the substrate or to protect a (2) Operating temperature range

treated surface of a substrate prior to the appli- (3) Chemical resistance
cation of adhesive. Most primers are low-vis- (4) Weather and climatic resistance
cosity solutions commonly applied by spraying. (5) Flexibility
Brush applications may be satisfactory when (6) Differences in thermal expansion rates
relatively small areas are to be coated. In some (7) Odor or toxicity problems
cases, roll coating or dipping may be employed. (8) Color match
Several primer coats may be required to build Once the service requirements are known,
up the desired thickness, particularly if the adhesive systems with good durability potential
adherends are porous. Air drying and full or can be selected. The desired form of the ad-
partial curing are generally necessary prior to hesive and method of application can then be
further processing. chosen based on availability of production
equipment and scheduling requirements.
ADHESIVE SELECTION In adhesive selection, the tendency to over-
design must be avoided. Requirements for
The selection of the proper adhesive for higher strength or greater heat resistance than is
production depends basically upon the answers actually required for the specific application
to four key questions: may exclude from consideration many formula-
(I) What materials are being joined? tions that are adequate for the job, and perhaps
(2) What are the service requirements? less costly or easier to handle in production.
(3) What method of adhesive application is In adhesive selection for a specific applica-
most suitable? tion, there are certain physical properties of the
(4) Are bonding costs competitive with adhesive itself and mechanical properties of
other joining methods? bonded joints that should be considered. These
The service requirements of the completed properties pertain to the behavior of an adhesive
assembly must be studied thoroughly. Several from the time that it is made until the bond is
factors to be considered in describing the bond- accomplished, as well as its performance in ser-
ing application are: vice. Table 11.1 lists some of the properties
(I) JYpe of loading and the applicable ASTM Standards.
Table 11.1
ASTM standards for determining adhesive properties
Property ASTM Designation(s)
Physical
Aging 01151, 01183, 03236
Chemical 0896
Corrosivity 03310, 03482
Curing rate 01144
Flow properties 02183
Storage life 01337
Viscosity 01084
Volume resistivity 02739
Mechanical
Cleavage strength 01062, 03433
Creep 01780, 02293,02294
Fatigue 03166
Flexural strength 01184
Impact strength 0950
Peel 0903, 01781, 01876, 02918
Shear 01002,02182,02295,02919,03528
Tensile 0897, 01344, 02095
350 /ADHESIVE BONDING OF METALS
JOINT DESIGN
To incorporate as many of the advantages (1) The design loading should produce
of adhesive bonding as possible, joint design shear or tensile loading on the joint; cleavage or
should be a part of the early stages of product peel loading should be minimized.
planning. If bonding is being considered as part (2) The joint design should ensure that the
of a redesign program, structural adhesives static loads do not exceed the adhesive plastic
should not be substituted directly for other join- strain capacity.
ing methods. The joint should be redesigned to (3) If the joint will or might be exposed to
take advantage of adhesive bonding. low cyclic loads, the joint overlap should be
Although the primary objective is a strong increased sufficiently to minimize the possibility
assembly capable of meeting service require- of creep in the adhesive.
ments, proper joint design can often lead to other These rules may be difficult to achieve in
cost-saving benefits. Through good design, it practice. Some stress concentrations are un-
may be possible to achieve satisfactory results avoidable, and it is difficult to design a joint
with an economical adhesive formulation, to that will be stressed in one mode only.
utilize a simple bonding process, and to mini- The four main types of loading are illus-
mize the quality control steps needed to ensure trated in Fig. 11.7. An adhesive bonded joint
reliability. performs best when loaded in shear: that is, when
Joint design often influences the form and the direction of loading is parallel to the plane of
characteristics of the bond line. The design must the faying surfaces. With thin-gage metal bonds,
provide space for sufficient adhesive and a means joint designs can provide large bond areas in
of getting the adhesive into the joint area. It must relation to the metal cross-sectional area. This
also play an important role in determining the makes it possible to produce joints that are as
thickness of the bond line. Thin bond lines, in strong as the metal adherends.
the range of 0.003 to 0.005 in., are better than The relationship between joint strength and
thick lines for high-strength adhesives for the overlap length for a double-shear lap joint is
following reasons: shown in Fig. 11.8. The joint strength and over-
(1) Less likelihood that the adhesive will lap distance are proportional up to some limit
creep or flow (point A on Fig. 11.8). Then, the unit increase
(2) Smaller deformation under pressure in strength decreases as the overlap distance in-
(3) More resistance to cracking, especially creases. Beyond some overlap (point B), the
with hard adhesives failure load does not change significantly with
(4) Less danger of internal stresses and overlap distance.
gross porosity in the adhesive Figure 11.9 indicates the shear stress dis-
(5) Greater saving in adhesive tribution across lap joints caused by load P with
When considering a new design or a rede- short, medium, and long overlaps. With short
sign for adhesive bonding, three rules that should overlap, Fig. 11.9 (A), the shear stress is uniform
be observed are: along the joint. In this case, the joint can creep
Tensile Shear Peel

Cleavage
Fig. 11.7-Four princip•l types of lo•ding

Joint Design /351
to a slight bending moment that creates a

cleavage load. Another example is a single lap
B joint that is designed to withstand expected
shear stress but sees cleavage or peel loads when
the joint rotates slightly as the load forces tend
Constant to align, as shown in Fig. 11.10. These problems
load zone can usually be minimized by selecting an ad-
hesive designed to carry the type of loading
expected and by employing the proper joint
design.
Overlap, L Several of the more common types of joints
for sheet metal are shown in Fig. 11.11. A butt
Fig. 11.8-Rel•tionship between joint
joint design, shown in Fig. ll.ll(A), is not
strength and overlap in she;u
under load with time and failure may occur pre-

maturely. When the overlap exceeds some value,
the adhesive at the ends of the joint carries a
p ~s::::::::::::t=::::j:l=::::r---''- p
larger portion of the load than the adhesive at the
center. Therefore, the shear stress at the center is ~
lower, as shown in Fig. 11.9 (B), and the likeli-
hood of creep is decreased. With long overlap,
Fig. II. 9 (C), the portion of the joint overlap that
i
en
I
!
sees low shear stress is a greater percentage of the (A) Short overlap (plastic zone)
total, and creep potential is minimized. The
joint overlap for minimum creep will depend
upon the mechanical properties of the base metal,
the adhesive properties and thickness, the type
of loading, and the service environment.
Difficulties may arise when cleavage or peel
type loading is present. Cleavage loading pro-
duces nonuniform stress across the joint, and this
causes failure to initiate at the edge of the ad-
hesive. Obviously, such a joint is considerably (B) Medium overlap (transition zone)
weaker than the same bonded area under uniform
shear or tensile stress.
The situation is even more critical when
the adhesive is subject to peel type loading. A
very narrow line of adhesive at one edge of the
p ; I I ,_,
HC\Vl
joint must withstand the load. Peel loading pro-
duces failure at only a fraction of the tensile load
needed to rupture a bond of the same area.
As noted earlier, unidirectional loading is
rarely accomplished. Most joints are subjected (C) Long overlap (constant load zone)
to loads which combine cleavage or peel load-
ing with tension or shear stress in the bond. One Fig. 11.9-Change in shear stress
example is a straight butt joint that is designed distribution with overlap for constant
to be stressed strictly in tension but is subjected load, P
p that are to be assembled by adhesive bonding.

The tongue and groove joint not only aligns the
load-bearing interfaces with the plane of shear
stress but also provides good resistance to bend-
ing. The landed-scarf tongue and groove joint
offers production advantages. Its configuration
automatically aligns the parts to be mated,
controls the length of joint, and establishes the
thickness of the glue line. It is a good design for
an assembly that will see high compressive
forces, and it offers a clean appearance.
Comer and T-joint designs are shown in
p Fig. 11.13. The use of beveled or tapered rein-
forcing members requires a cost analysis to de-
Fig. 11.10-Lap joint rotation as a result termine if the improved joint properties are
of loading justifiable. Joints requiring machined slots or
complex comer fittings are seldom of interest
recommended. Cleavage loading may develop if in sheet metal designs.
the applied loading is eccentric. A scarf joint Adhesive bonding is also useful for tube
(Fig. 11.11B) is a better design because the joints, a number of examples of which are
bonded area can be greater than with a butt shown in Fig. 11.14. Large bonded areas give
joint. Cleavage stress concentrations at the very strong joints with clean appearance.
edges are minimized by the tapered edges of the Processing may be complicated with some de-
adherends. Although widely used in wood bond- signs. During assembly of designs (A) and (B),
ing, this configuration is difficult to make in the adhesive may be pushed out of the joint.
metals with regard to alignment and pressure Design (C) partially overcomes this problem.
application during curing. Adhesive in the corners is forced into the joint
The single lap joint, Fig. 11.11 (G) is prob- by a positive pressure filling action during as-
ably the most commonly used type and is ade- sembly. Tapered or scarfed tubular joint designs
quate for many applications. The beveled lap (D), (E), and (F) will produce a positive pres-
joint, Fig. ll.ll(H), has less stress concentra- sure on the adhesive during assembly to com-
tion at the edges of the bond because of the pletely fill the gap, but they are costly to
beveled edges. The thin edges of the adherends produce. Design (G) shows a tubular sleeve
deform as the joint rotates under load, and this joint that can be filled by injecting the adhesive
minimizes peel action. under a positive pressure through a hole in the
If joint strength is critical and the com- sleeve. This technique results in completely
ponents are thin enough to bend under load, a filled and bonded joints at reasonable fabrication
joggle lap joint, Fig. 11.11(1), is better. The load cost.
is aligned across the joint and parallel with the Adhesive bonded assemblies comprise over
bond plane, thus minimizing the possibility of 50 percent of the total area of at least one mod-
cleavage loading. em airplane. They include about 400 major
If sections to be bonded are too thin to per- assemblies including sections measuring 3 by
mit edge tapering, a double-strap joint, Fig. 13 in., tapered spar caps 408 in. long, and
11.11 (E), will give good results. The best design panels measuring up to 52 by 192 inches.
is the beveled double-strap joint, Fig. 11.11(F), Bonded stiffeners are used on all single curva-
with its tapered straps. ture panels forming the fuselage skin. Use of
Adhesive bonding can be used to advantage bonding resulted in an appreciable reduction of
on extruded, cast, or machined components. weight because areas of high stress concentra-
The butt joints shown in Fig. 11.12 can easily be tion can be reinforced locally with built-up
incorporated into machined or extruded shapes laminations of material. Extensive testing has
Joint Design/ 353
II
(A) Butt · poor
(F) Beveled double strap · excellent
I
(B) Scarf · fair
(Gl Single lap· good
.. 'I
(C) Double butt lap · excellent
'<:=_·_ ____,
n (H) Beveled lap · very good
(Dl Single strap · fa ir
\ II I
(E) Double strap · good

{I) Joggle lap · good
(J) Double lap · good
Fig. 11.11-Adhesive bonded joint designs for sheet met~/
indicated that adhesive bonded joints may have

up to 20 times the fatigue life of conventional
riveted joints.
The automotive industry is a large user of
adhesives. Nonstructural uses are common;
load-bearing bonded assemblies are designed to
be reliable throughout the expected life of the
vehicle. Automatic transmission bands and
brake linings are major applications of adhesive
bonding. Double shell panels are bonded with
a high-strength vinyl plastisol adhesive. Adhe- Tongue and Landed - scarf Scarf
sive bonding reduces the number of subassembly groove tongue and groove
details in a panel by about 50 percent, provides a
smooth exterior surface, reduces noise level, and Fig. 11. 12-Adhesive bonded butt joint
improves corrosion resistance. designs for m~chined or extruded sh~pes
Geometry Efficiency Geometry Efficiency
~
~
Good when unbeveled;
Poor excellent beveled
~
Poor without strap;
Good excellent with strap
v Excellent
Poor without straps;
excellent with straps
v Poor
Good without strap;
excellent with strap
v Excellent Good; excellent when

beveled
Fair
l
[S Good when unbeveled;
excellent beveled
Good
[] Fair
Corner joints T-joints
Fig. 11.73-Corner •nd T-joint designs for •dhesive bonding

Sandwich Construction /355
(A) (8) (C) (D)
(E) (F) (G)
Fis. 11.14-Tubul•r joint desisns for •dhesive bondins
SANDWIC H CONSTRU CTION

The greatest advantages of structural adhe- weight ratio is achieved by placing the two load
sive bonding are probably realized in sandwich carrying skins as far from the neutral axis as
construction. First used in the aircraft industry possible with the lightweight core bonded to
to meet the demand for a high stiffness-to-weight them. In a sense, the face sheets perform the
ratio, sandwich panels are now widely used same functions as the flanges of an 1-beam, and
throughout industry. Their characteristics make the core performs as the beam web.
them equally valuable in the fabrication of walls, The selection of skin and core materials
truck bodies, refrigerators, cargo pallets, and a for sandwich construction is dictated by service
great many other commercial applications . requirements and economic considerations, in-
The sandwich skins, or facings, behave cluding the cost of fabrication and materials.
approximately as membranes stabilized by a Many different skin and core materials may be
lightweight core material that transmits shear be- used as sandwich components. Sheets of metal,
tween the skins . Basically, a high stiffness-to- plastic, wood, and frre-resistant inorganics are
all commonly used as skin materials. Core ma- Expanded plastic cores may be supplied in
terials are of the following three basic types: a preformed state that requires a separate bond-
ing step, or the plastic may be foamed in place
(1) Solid types such as hardwood, balsa, and thus simultaneously formed and bonded to
cement-asbestos board, or metal the skins of the sandwich.
(2) Honeycomb or corrugated types made Special consideration should be given to
of various materials, typically metal foils, resin- selecting the material combination that will
impregnated paper, or reinforced plastics produce the optimum composite structure for a
(3) Open- or closed-cell foamed materials specific application: for example, a honeycomb
such as polystyrene, polyurethane, polyisocyan- core between thin metal skins can provide high
urate, and glass strength and low weight; a foamed plastic core
Metal foil honeycomb cores are available can be used to assure high thermal insulation
with and without perforations in the cell walls. with almost any skin material.
The perforations permit equalization of pressure Several basic types of adhesives with very
in the completed panel and also vent gases pro- similar properties are used in sandwich manu-
duced by some types of adhesives during bond- facture. These basic formulations are modified
ing. Cores are also available in truss and waffle to meet specific environmental conditions. A
configurations that are produced by corrugating careful study of the design, environmental fac-
and folding or by pressing the material to shape tors, and material properties should be made
between matched dies. before selecting the adhesive.
SURFACE PREPARATION
Frequently, the weakest link in an adhesive- however, to remove all cleaning agents from the
bonded joint is the interfacial bond between the surface by rinsing and drying thoroughly prior to
adhesive and the adherends. Exactly the right the application of the adhesive. However, for the
adhesive may have been selected for the job, the best joint performance, the surfaces must be pre-
joints may have been designed properly, and pared using procedures that will provide the best
correct application and cure procedures and bond between the adhesive and adherend.
equipment used. However, if the adherends are It is equally important to avoid recontamina-
not properly cleaned and prepared to receive the tion of the clean surfaces during processing.
adhesive, the bond will fail. Surfaces should be Components should be handled with clean gloves,
cleaned by procedures that ensure that the bond tongs, or hooks, and all contact with the bonding
between the adhesive and metal surfaces is as area should be avoided. Priming, bonding, or
strong as the adhesive itself. Failure should occur a combination of these should be accomplished
in the adhesive rather than at the bond line when as soon after surface cleaning as possible. In the
the joint is tested under simulated service interim, parts should be stored in a clean, dry
conditions. place.
The degree of surface preparation depends
chiefly upon the nature of the material and also, METAL PREPARATION
to some extent, on the service requirements, Metal surfaces may be cleaned by chemical
bonding cycle, and probable nature of contami- means or mechanical abrasion. These are the
nants. For some less critical applications, a sol- two basic methods, but some variation in pro-
vent wipe or washing in a detergent solution may cedures is advised by various adhesive manu-
prove to be adequate. Care should be taken, facturers. Metal faying surfaces should be free
Surface Preparation /357
from oxide scale, deep scratches, burrs, and for chemical cleaning varies from one manufac-
other irregularities. Cleaning should be done turer to another. It depends upon the kind of metal
after machining, heat treating, welding, sand- being treated.
blasting, abrading, deburring, polishing, or sim- Forced drying in an oven after water rinsing
ilar treatment that might leave foreign material is preferred since this reduces the possibility of
on the metal surface. recontamination from dust and impurities when
The surface preparation procedure should air drying at room temperature. Forced drying
be reproducible, easily controlled, and produc- temperatures must be selected judiciously. Tem-
tion oriented if it is to be economical. In addition, peratures that are too high can adversely affect
it should satisfy the following requirements: the surface condition.
(l) Remove all contaminants from the Mechanical abrading is sometimes used to
surface clean metal surfaces and increase the effective
(2) Make the surface chemically receptive bonding area by roughening. Grinding, filing,
to the adhesive or primer and give satisfactory wire brushing, sanding, and abrasive blasting are
wetting characteristics some methods. Abrasive cleaning is not usually
(3) Prevent poorly adhering or low-strength as effective as chemical treatment, but it may be
compounds from forming on the adherends adequate in certain applications. It is best to
(4) Remove minimum amounts of metal follow abrading with degreasing in case the
(5) Not cause embrittlement or corrosion, abrading material was contaminated.
nor form a surface prone to environmental attack For magnesium, one of the corrosion-
Surface preparation methods for aluminum inhibiting pretreatments developed specifically
alloys, stainless steels, camon steels, magne- for this metal should be used. It is possible to
sium alloys, titanium alloys, and copper alloys clean magnesium mechanically, but care must be
are given in ASTM 02651, Standard Recom- taken to prevent the exposure of any magnesium
mended Practice for Preparation of Metal Sur- dust to an open flame. Mechanical pretreatments
faces for Adhesive Bonding. The best corrosion- should not be used for structural magnesium
resistant surface preparation for aluminum alloys joints or for joints that will be subjected to
is stated in SAE Aerospace Recommended Prac- severe environments. Some treatments for mag-
tice (ARP) No. 1524. nesium have been found to be effective. only
To obtain optimum strength characteristics with certain adhesives. Certain corrosion-inhibit-
on aluminum, surface preparation is usually done ing pretreatments produce a weak surface layer
in steps that include: that fails before the adhesive; these are not
(1) Vapor de greasing satisfactory for structural applications. If such
(2) Drying pretreatments are used, the joints should be rein-
(3) Chemical cleaning such as an alkaline forced with mechanical fasteners.
precleaning and rinse followed by an acid etch A thorough check oftreating solution com-
(4) Anodizing position should be made periodically. Special
(5) Careful rinsing in clean water consideration should be given to the rate of metal
(6) Air drying, forced drying, or a combina- processing over a given period of time. Failure
tion of these to control the concentration of strong acid or
The vapor degreasing solution should be alkali solutions may result in excessive metal
checked periodically for oily contaminants and loss. Aluminum and magnesium alloys are more
decomposition products, and the solvent changed reactive than stainless steel and titanium alloys,
when necessary. Solvent degreasing is rarely and exposure of these metals to high concentra-
recommended, but if it is used, the adherends tions of acid or alkali may affect adhesion char-
should only be wiped with clean cloths or dis- acteristics with certain kinds of adhesives. The
posable tissues. time between composition checks depends upon
The recommended composition of the bath the rate of exhaustion of the treating solution.
PREPARATION water is the most common test for a chemically

OF OTHER MATERIALS clean surface. It is called the water-break test. If
Rigid plastics can be lightly sanded to re- clean water from the rinse bath spreads smoothly
duce gloss and remove mold release compounds. over the metal surface as it runs off, it indicates
Then they should be wiped and flushed with an that the surface is clean. If it collects in droplets,
oil-free solvent. Certain types of plastics, such there is probably a thin film of oil on the sur-
as fluorocarbon isomer and polyethylene, are face. The oil should be removed completely, and
difficult to bond and may require chemical the water-break test repeated.
treatment. If water drops placed on a flat, dry, treated
Glass is easily cleaned by wiping with a surface spread rapidly and uniformly, this indi-
suitable solvent. Joint durability can be greatly cates that the surface is free of oil or grease. If
enhanced, particularly in moist environments, the contact angle of the water drop is low (10
by first cleaning with a laboratory glassware degrees or less), the surface has been cleaned
cleaning solution or with a 30 percent hydrogen adequately to remove greases, oils, and other
peroxide solution and then priming the surfaces nonpolar contaminants. When contact angle
with a silane finish. measurement is used as a quality control device
for cleanliness, inspection should be made im-
INSPECTION OF mediately after the metal has been dried. If the
PREPARED SURFACES water remains in droplet form, the surface has
The affinity of a clean metal surface for not been suitably prepared.
ASSEMBLY AND CURE

The procedures and equipment used for until the solvent has evaporated. It is also essen-
assembly and cure of bonded components de- tial that coated parts be mated before the tack
pend upon: range ofthe adhesive has expired.
(1) The type of adhesive used Parts may be mated immediately after they
(2) The type, size, and configuration of the are coated with chemically reactive adhesives.
assembly Mating may be delayed, but it must be done
(3) The service requirements of the com- before the adhesive starts to "body" or thicken
pleted assembly excessively.
ASSEMBLY FIXTURING
Drying time is an important factor when Provision should be made for positioning
solvent-dispersed adhesives are used. Since this the components for mating and holding them in
time varies with different formulations, it is place while the adhesive cures or sets. Assembly
essential that the adhesive manufacturer's recom- fixtures are frequently used for positioning. They
mendations be followed. Solvent evaporation may be simple jigs or self-contained equipment
rate may be increased by moderate heating with with provision for applying pressure or heat, or
infrared lamps, a hot air oven, or other methods. both. The fixture design depends upon the
If there is sufficient porosity in one com- amount of heat and pressure needed to cure the
ponent to allow the solvent to escape, the parts adhesive and the size and configuration of the
may be mated during the drying time. In any assembly.
case, the assembly must not be heated for curing Fixturing is particularly important when a
Assembly and Cure / 359
E9~
\ ~Adhesive
contact adhesive is used. Care should be taken
1.----~~~~~~--~
to align the parts accurately before they are I
mated since a strong bond is created instantly SPOt or seam weld
upon contact of the two coated surfaces. The use
of release sheets, untreated kraft paper for ex- Weldbonding
ample, is often helpful to avoid premature con-
tact. Positioning may not be so critical with some
formulations of less aggressive tack if the as- \
sembly can be slightly adjusted after mating
without damage to the bond.
The fixture should properly position the
parts to meet assembly tolerances and glue line Rivbonding
thickness requirements. It should be lightweight
for ease of handling and heat transfer. A heavy
fixture presents a large heat sink which may
retard heating and cooling rates. This may be
detrimental for some adhesive systems. Never-
theless, the fixture must be strong enough to
maintain dimensions under the curing conditions
for the assembly. The fixture material also affects
Fig. 11.15-Adhesive bonding in
heating and cooling rates: for example, a ma-
combin•tion with resist•nce welds •nd
terial of low thermal conductivity will retard
mech•nic•l f•steners
heating and cooling. The expansion rate of the
fixture material should nearly match that of the
assembly to minimize part distortion and subse- (I) Produce a uniformly thin glue line over
quent stressing of the adhesive. the entire bonded area for optimum strength
Pressure-sensitive tape may be used to hold characteristics
parts in position if it can withstand the curing (2) Facilitate flow or spreading of viscous
temperature. Thpes are particularly useful with adhesives
epoxy formulations that cure at room temper- (3) Counteract any internal pressure caused
ature or slightly warmer and require only mod- by the release of volatiles
(4) Overcome minor imperfections in the
erate pressures.
Adhesive bonding may be combined with faying surfaces
resistance welding or mechanical fasteners to (5) Compensate for .solvent loss and di-
improve the load carrying capacity of the joint. mensional changes
The adhesive is applied to the adherends first. Pressure may be applied to the joint by
Then the components are joined together with several methods which include the following:
spot welds or mechanical fasteners to hold the (I) Dead weights such as bags of sand or
joints rigid while the adhesive cures. Figure shot
(2) Mechanical devices such as clamps,
11.15 illustrates typical design combinations.
These techniques significantly reduce or elim- wedges, bolts, springs, and rollers
(3) Inflated tubes
inate fixturing requirements and decrease assem-
(4) Air pressure bearing on the assembly
bly time when compared to conventional adhe-
located in a flexible, evacuated bag
sive bonding methods.
(5) Mechanical or hydraulic presses
(6) Autoclaves
PRESSURE APPLICATION
Inflated tubes are used in conjunction with
With certain adhesive formulations, It IS a rigid backing fixture. When inflated, the tube
necessary to apply and maintain adequate pres- presses uniformly along the bond line. Ambient
sure during cure to: air pressure is adequate for some applications.
It is applied by enclosing the assembly in a thin, Most phenolic-based structural adhesives

air-tight bag and then evacuating the bag. Auto- require curing at elevated temperatures, gen-
claves are used in a similar fashion in that the erally from about 300 to 400" F, for periods
assembly is placed in a thin, gas-tight bag vented ranging from 0.5 to 2 hours. Many one-part
to ambient pressure. The bagged assembly is epoxy adhesives can be cured at temperatures
placed in an air-tight chamber which then is as low as 250° R A great number of two-
pressurized to several atmospheres. The pressure component epoxy systems cure at room temper-
forces the bag to conform to the part and transmits ature; however, their properties are generally
the pressure to the assembly. better when they are cured at elevated tem-
Phenolic-based adhesives generally require peratures.
curing pressures in the 300 psi range, although When neoprene contact-bond adhesives are
adequate bonds may be attained with pressures used, the adhesive-coated surfaces are frequently
as low as 50 psi. heated during the drying cycle and mated under
Flat panels coated with a neoprene contact pressure while still warm. When design require-
bond adhesive are generally mated by passing ments are not so stringent, the adhesive may be
them through rollers under as much pressure as dried and the components mated at room tem-
the components will withstand without crushing. peratures. Joint properties tend to be more vari-
A weighted hand roller or other pressure device able, however, than those obtained when the hot
can also be used. contact bonding procedure is used.
For sandwich panel fabrication, the upper As a general rule, curing time decreases
pressure limit is governed by the compressive as the curing temperature is increased within
strength of the core material. The lower limit limits. Even the epoxies designed to cure at
depends upon the minimum requirements of the room temperature will cure faster when heated
adhesive formulation. For sandwich panels con- to moderately elevated temperatures. Curing
taining solid inserts or edgings, special fixtures time may be reduced from a number of hours
may be used to apply higher pressure at the to several minutes by heating. On the other
specific locations. hand, some room-temperature-curing adhesives
Throughout the curing cycle, pressure will not cure properly below 60° R This may be
should be as uniform and constant as possible an important factor in field applications.
over the entire bond area. If necessary, irregular In some instances, longer curing times at
surfaces can be built up with pads of compres- elevated temperatures will improve the bond
sible material. In some cases, soft rubber pads strength of the joint for service above room
are used to compensate for variations in the di- temperature. Post-curing of the bonded joint
mensions of sheet material and fixtures. The without pressure can also improve the heat re-
mass of such materials should be minimized to sistance of the bond.
avoid heat sink and insulating effects. Matched
tooling is not often used for curved panels be- OVENS
cause ofthe high cost. A better method is to use a
male or female tool in conjunction with the vac- Ovens are a widely used, inexpensive
uum bag or autoclave technique. method for heat curing when only moderate
pressure or simple positioning of the parts is
CURING TEMPERATURE required. They can be heated by gas, electricity,
or steam. Adhesives that give off flammable
Since variations in the thermal conductivity vapor or solvent during cure should not be ex-
of the components influence the amount of heat posed to open flame or electrical elements.
transmitted to the adhesive layer, curing tem- Ovens should be vented, temperature-controlled,
perature should be measured at the glue line. and fitted with an air-circulating fan for uni-
Otherwise, the adhesive may not develop the formity of heat throughout. Infrared lamps and
desired properties for the application because of ovens are commonly used for contact-bond rapid
improper curing temperature. drying neoprene formulations.
Quality Control/361
HEATED PRESSES of less than 10" F per minute result in better

Hydraulic platen presses are frequently shear strength at elevated temperatures for cer-
used for applying heat and pressure to flat assem- tain nitrile-phenolic film adhesives. Other ad-
blies. These are usually heated by electric heat- hesives, such as epoxy-phenolics, require either
ing elements, high-pressure steam, hot water, or stepped heat input or release of pressure (breath-
some other heat-exchanging fluid. ing) at specific temperatures to allow volatiles
When the work is placed in the press at tem- to escape. Nonvolatile adhesives, such as
peratures below about 150° F, it is called "cold epoxies, are not affected to any great extent by
entry." Entry at the adhesive curing temperature entry temperature or by the rate of heat input.
is known as "hot entry." In general, adhesives Large autoclaves are used for bonding air-
that release volatiles perform better when cold craft assemblies and other extremely large parts.
entry is employed. Certain adhesives are also The typical operating range of such autoclaves is
affected by the rate of temperature rise or heat 200 psi maximum pressure and 350° F maximum
input. These factors influence the chemical re- temperature. Pressure is generally provided by
actions, the flow, and the density of cured ad- compressed air, and curing temperature is
hesives of the volatile releasing types. For ex- achieved with steam heated tubes or electrical
ample, cold entry and a rate of temperature rise elements.
QUALITY CONTROL
TESTING specimens can be used to evaluate the compat-
ibility of a metal surface condition with an adhe-
Adhesive bonded joints are inspected and sive system and to evaluate the effect of any un-
tested to determine their quality and performance usual environmental exposure. If an adhesive is
under the specific loading and environmental to be used in a structural joint under stress in a
conditions they will see in service. Based on the certain environment, test joints should be simul-
test results, quality requirements can be estab- taneously subjected to both the stress and the
lished. Inspection methods and procedures can environmental conditions expected in service.
be specified to assure that quality. The advan-
tages and limitations of inspection and testing
PROCESS CONTROL AND
procedures must be understood in order to apply
them successfully. There are a number of mili-
QUALITY ASSURANCE
tary and industry standard specifications for test- Good process control usually requires in-
ing adhesive bonded joints (Table 11.1). spection of all cleaning and processing equip-
Testing may also consist of accelerated, ment, evaluation of all materials, and control of
simulated, or actual use tests of the end product storage time and conditions.
devised by the individual manufacturer or an Adhesives and primers should be evaluated
industry group. For this reason, industry asso- to assure conformance to the requirements of
ciations may be good sources of information on the design and the user's or adhesive manufac-
testing procedures. turer's specifications. Certified test reports from
If an adhesive is to be used with a metal for the manufacturer may be acceptable in lieu of
which no performance data exist, or if it is to be actual performance tests.
used in an unusual environment, it should be Periodic tests should be performed to de-
subjected to some testing. Single overlap shear termine that cleaning, mixing, and bonding
procedures are adequately controlled. Lap shear maximum acceptable increase in adhesive crack
tests are generally satisfactory for control of length. It is also used for adhesive durability
mixing, priming, and bonding. Peel tests should characteristics and surface preparation pro-
be performed to ascertain the adequacy of clean- cedures. The test was originally designed for
ing procedures. The climbing drum method, de- adhesive bonded aluminum. However, it may be
scribed in ASTM 01781, as well as a recently suitable for other metals with design modifica-
developed crack extension (wedge) test, may tions to account for differences in stiffness and
also be used for this purpose. yield strength.
The crack extension (wedge) test is designed The frequency of testing will depend upon
for rapid screening of adhesive joint durability the volume of parts produced and the require-
in a controlled humidity and temperature envi- ments for the application. However, many manu-
ronment. The test specimen design for aluminum facturers who employ adhesive bonding in critical
alloys is shown in Fig. 11.16. One or more applications perform suitable quality control
specimens are cut from an adhesive bonded tests at least daily to ensure that the process is
panel. The wedge is forced between the adher- within specifications. Any production parts re-
ends and bends them apart. This separates the jected for dimensional reasons or structural
adhesive and produces cleavage loading at the damage should be destructively inspected for
apex of the separation. The location of the apex joint quality.
of the sheet separation is recorded.
EVALUATION OF FABRICATED PARTS

After the mechanical and processing prop-
erties of an adhesive system have been deter-
mined through destructive laboratory testing,
the ability of manufacturing departments to
duplicate these properties should be established.
Therefore, rather complete testing of the first
part or the first few parts of the production run
is recommended.
Test loads should be applied in the same
manner in which the part will be loaded in use.
However, actual loading conditions are often
before exposure difficult to simulate. In cases involving multi-
directional loads, design loads may be applied
Dimensions are in inches
in each plane individually. The part can then be
Fig. 11.16-Crackextension (wedge) loaded to failure in the most critical load path
specimen to determine if it meets the minimum design
strength.
When it is impractical to load a completed
The wedged specimens are then exposed at part for test because of geometry or difficulty
120" F to an air environment of 95 to 100 per- in mounting, many companies fabricate test
cent relative humidity for 60 to 75 minutes. The specimens that are either an integral part of the
water should contain less than 200 parts per assembly or separate panels processed in the
million total solids. The distance that the apex same manner as the part. Mechanical properties
moved during exposure is measured within two of such specimens closely represent the actual
hours after exposure. strength of the part. This procedure can provide
The test is used for surface preparation close control over materials and processing
process control by comparing test results with a equipment.
Safe Practices /363
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (l) Design and configuration of the struc-

There are several nondestructive inspection ture
methods other than visual that may be applicable (2) Materials of construction
to adhesive bonding. These are: (3) '!ypes of joints
(1) Ultrasonic (4) Material thicknesses
(2) Acoustic impact (tapping) (5) '!ype of adhesive
(3) Liquid crystals (6) Accessibility to the joints
(4) Birefringent coatings In some cases, it may be necessary to in-
(5) Radiography corporate features in the component design or the
(6) Holography adhesive to utilize an inspection process. For
(7) Infrared example, a ftller may be required in the adhesive
(8) Proof test to increase its thermal or electrical conductivity
(9) Leak test or its density. To determine the applicability of
Which methods can be used for a specific a particular inspection method, the manufac-
application will depend upon one or more ofthe turers of the particular type of equipment should
following factors: be consulted.
SAFE PRACTICES
Adequate safety precautions must be ob- Toxic Materials
served with adhesives. Corrosive materials,
Severe allergic reactions can result from
flammable liquids, and toxic substances are com-
direct contact, inhalation, or ingestion of phe-
monly used in adhesive bonding. Therefore,
nolics and epoxies as well as most catalysts and
manufacturing operations should be carefully
accelerators. The eyes or skin may become sensi-
supervised to ensure that proper safety proce-
tized over a long period of time even though no
dures, protective devices, and protective cloth-
signs of irritation are visible. Once a worker is
ing are being used. All federal, state, and local
sensitized to a particular type of adhesive, he
regulations should be complied with, including
may no longer be able to work near it because of
OSHA Regulation 29CFR 1900.1000, Air Con-
allergic reactions. Careless handling of adhesives
taminants.
by production workers may expose others to
toxic materials if proper safety rules are not ob-
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS served: for example, coworkers may touch tools,
Flammable Materials door knobs, light switches, or other objects con-
taminated by careless workers.
All flammable materials such as solvents For the normal individual, proper handling
should be stored in tightly sealed drums and methods that eliminate skin contact with the ad-
issued in suitably labeled safety cans to prevent hesive should be sufficient. It is mandatory that
fires during storage and use. Solvents and flam- protective equipment, protective creams, or
mable liquids should not be used in poorly venti- both be used to avoid skin contact with certain
lated, confined areas. When solvents are used
types of formulations.
in trays, safety lids should be provided. Flames, Factors to be considered in determining the
sparks, or spark-producing equipment must not extent of precautionary measures to be taken
be permitted in the area where flammable ma- include:
terials are being handled. Fire extinguishers
should be readily available. (l) The frequency and duration of exposure
(2) The degree of hazard associated with the areas should contain the following facilities in
specific adhesive addition to the proper fire equipment:
(3) The solvent or curing agent used (1) A sink with running water
(4) The temperature at which the operations (2) An eye shower or rinse fountain
are performed (3) First aid kit
(5) The potential evaporation surface area (4) Ventilating facilities
exposed at the work station Ovens, presses, and other curing equipment
All these elements should be evaluated in should be individually vented to remove fumes.
terms ofthe individual operation. Vent hoods should be provided at mixing and
application stations.
Protective Devices
PRECAUTIONARY PROCEDURES Plastic or rubber gloves should be worn at
A number of measures are recommended all times when working with potentially toxic
in the handling and use of adhesives and auxil- adhesives. When contaminated, the gloves must
iary materials. not contact objects that others may touch with
their bare hands. Contaminated gloves should be
Personal Hygiene discarded or cleaned using procedures that will
remove the particular adhesive. Cleaning may
Personnel should be instructed in the proper
require solvents, soap and water, or both. Hands,
procedures to prevent skin contact with solvents,
arms, face, and neck should be coated with a
curing agents, and uncured base adhesives.
commercial barrier ointment or cream. This type
Showers, wash bowls, mild soaps, clean towels,
of material may provide short term protection
refatting creams, and protective equipment
and facilitate removal of adhesive components
should be provided.
by washing.
Curing agents should be removed from the
Full face shields should be used for eye
hands with soap and water. Resins should be
protection whenever the possibility of splashing
removed with soap and water, alcohol, or a suit-
exists, otherwise glasses or goggles should be
able solvent. Any solvent should be used spar-
worn. In case of irritation, the eyes should be im-
ingly and be followed by washing with soap and
mediately flushed with water and then promptly
water. In case of allergic reaction or burning,
treated by a physician.
prompt medical aid should be obtained.
Protective clothing should be worn at all
Work Areas times by those who work with the adhesives.
Areas in which ad~esives are handled Shop coats, aprons, or coveralls may be suit-
should be separated from other operations. These able and they should be cleaned before reuse.

1 psi = 6.895 kPa
1 in. = 25.4 mm
tc = Q.556(tF -32)

Bethune, A. W., Durability of bonded aluminum Minford, J. D., Evaluating adhesives for joining
structure. SAMPE Journal, 1975 July- aluminum. Metals Engineering Quarterly,
Aug-Sept: 4-10. 1972 Nov.
Bodner, M. J., ed., Symposium on Adhesives for Patrick, R. L., ed., Structural Adhesives-With
Structural Applications, New York: Inter- Emphasis On Aerospace Applications, Vol.
science Publishers (Div., John Wiley and 4, New York: Marcel Dekkar, Inc., 1976.
Sons), 1962 and 1968.
Peters, R. A. and Logan, T. J., Microvoid epoxy
Bruno, E. J., ed., Adhesives in Modern Manu- adhesives for high peel and shear strength.
facturing, Dearborn, MI: Soc. of Manufac- Adhesive Age, 1975 Apr.
turing Engineers, 1970.
Rider, D. K., How to prepare surfaces for bonded
Cagle, C. V., Handbook of Adhesive Bonding, metal assembly. Product Engineering, 35
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973. (12), 1965: 75-78.
De Lollis, N. J., Adhesives For Metals-Theory Rogers, N. L., Surface Preparation of metals for
And Technology, New York: Industrial adhesive bonding, Applied Polymer Sym-
Press Inc., 1970. posia No. 3., Structural Adhesive Bonding,
New York: Interscience Publishers; 1966:
Houwink, R. and Solomon, G., eds., Adhesive
327-340.
and Adhesives, New York: Elsevier Pub-
lishing Co., Vol. I, 1965; Vol. 2, 1967. Rolf, R. L., et a!., Adhesive bonded structural
joints in aluminium. Adhesive Age, 1971
Kantner, R. and Litvak, S., Adhesives for Bond-
July.
ing Large High Temperature Sandwich
Structures, Warrendale, PA: Society of Schneberger, G. L., Polymer structures and ad-
Automotive Engineers, 1967; Report No. hesive behavior. Adhesive Age, 1974 April:
670858. 17-23.
Katz, I. ,Adhesive Materials, Their Property and Skeist, 1., ed., Handbook of Adhesives, 2nd ed.,
Usage, Long Beach, CA: Foster Publishing New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold; 1976.
Co., 1971.
12
Thermal Spraying
Fundamentals of the Process .......... 368 Post-Treatments ..................... 381
Flame Spraying ..................... 369 Surface Finishing .................... 382
Plasma Spraying .................... 372 Quality Control ..................... 383
Arc Spraying . ....................... 375 Properties .......................... 384
Detonation Flame Spraying ........... 377 Applications ........................ 388
Preparation for Spraying .............. 378 Safety ............................. 390
Fused Spray Deposits ................ 379 Supplementary Reading List ........... 393
Chapter Committee
W. B. MEYER, Chairman* M. A. LEVENSTEIN

St. Louis Metallizing Compa.ny Consultant
R W. GARTNER, JR. RN.LONGO
F. W. Gartner Company Metco, Inc.
E.S.HAMEL R.E.MAHOOD
Norton Company St. Louis Metallizing Company
J.D. HAYDEN D.R.MARANTZ
Hayden Corporation Flame Spray. Inc.
R J. HERMANEK J. RITCHIE
General Electric Company Bender Machine, Inc.
G. M. HERTERICK 'f. J. ROSEBERRY
Bay State Abrasives Division Battelle Columbus Laboratories
K.LEOVICH N.L.RUNDLE
Barrington Manufacturing, Inc. Union Carbide Corporation
J. WATSON
Hardfacing Welding and
Machine Company
J.R.CONDRA
E. I. duPont de Nemours and Company
*Deceased
367
12
Thermal Spraying
DEFINITION AND Thermal spraying is widely used for sur-
GENERAL DESCRIPTION facing applications to attain or restore desired
dimensions; to improve resistance to abrasion,
Thermal spraying (THSP) is a process in wear, corrosion, oxidation, or a combination of
which a metallic or nonmetallic material is these; and to provide specific electrical or ther-
heated and then propelled in atomized form onto mal properties. Frequently, thermal sprayed
a substrate. The material may be initially in the deposits are applied to new machine elements
form of wire, rod, or powder. It is heated to the to provide surfaces with desired characteristics
plastic or molten state by an oxyfuel gas flame, for the application.
by an electric or plasma arc, or by detonation of
an explosive gas mixture. The hot material is PROCESS VARIATIONS
propelled from the spray gun to the substrate by
a gas jet. Most metals, cermets, oxides, and There are four variations of thermal
hard metallic compounds can be deposited by spraying:
(I) Flame spraying (FLSP)
one or more of the process variations. The pro-
cess can also be used to produce free-standing (2) Plasma spraying (PSP)
objects using a disposable substrate. It is some- (3) Arc spraying (ASP)'
times called "metallizing" or "metal spraying." (4) Detonation flame spraying
When the molten particles strike a sub- These variations are based on the method of
strate, they flatten and form thin platelets that heating the spray material to the molten or plas-
ti~ state and the technique for propelling the
conform to the surface. These platelets rapidly
solidify and cool. Successive layers are built up atomized material to the substrate.
to the desired thickness. The bond between the In flame spraying, the surfacing material
spray deposit and substrate may be mechanical, is continuously fed into and melted by an oxy-
metallurgical, chemical, or a combination of fuel gas flame. The material may be initially in
these. In some cases, a thermal treatment of the the form of wire, rod, or powder. Molten par-
ticles are projected onto a substrate by either an
composite structure is used to increase the bond
strength by diffusion or chemical reaction be- air jet or the combustion gases.
In plasma spraying, the heat for melting the
tween the spray deposit and the substrate.
surfacing material is provided by a non-trans-
The density of the deposit will depend
ferred plasma arc? The arc is maintained be-
upon the material type, method of deposition,
the spraying procedures, and subsequent pro-
I. This method is commonly called "electric arc
cessing. The properties of the deposit may de- spraying."
pend upon its density, the cohesion between the 2. For information on plasma arc systems, refer to
deposited particles, and its adhesion to the Chapter 9, Plasma Arc Welding, Welding Handbook,
substrate. Vol. 2, 7thed.
368
Flame Spraying /369
tween an electrode, usually tungsten, and a con- ing between them. The molten metal is atomized
stricting nozzle which serves as the other elec- and projected onto a substrate by a high velocity
trode. An inert or reducing gas, under pressure, gas jet, usually air. This method is restricted to
enters the annular space between the electrodes spraying of metals that can be produced in con-
where it is heated to a very high temperature tinuous wire form.
(above about 15 000° F). The hot plasma gas The detonation flame spraying method
passes through and exits from the nozzle as a operates on principles significantly different
very high velocity jet. The surfacing material from the other three methods. This method re-
in powder form is injected into the hot gas jet peatedly heats charges of powder and projects
where it is melted and projected onto the sub- the molten particles onto a substrate by rapid,
strate. successive detonations of an explosive mixture
The surfacing materials used with arc spray- of oxygen and acetylene in a gun chamber. The
ing are metals or alloys in wire form. Two con- particles leave the gun at much higher velocity
tinuously fed wires are melted by an arc operat- than with the other methods.
FLAME SPRA Yl NG
Flame spraying is used to deposit surfacing The gun design depends upon the type of
materials in the forms of metal wires, ceramic material to be sprayed and its physical form
rods, and metallic and nonmetallic powders. (wire, rod, or powder). When automated, the
A wide variety of materials in these forms can gun or the workpiece, or both, are driven by
be sprayed with this method. Two exceptions are mechanisms designed to produce the desired de-
materials that cannot be melted with an oxyfuel posit configuration.
gas flame and those that will burn when melted Three common fuel gases are used for flame
in the presence of an air jet. spraying: acetylene, propane, and methylacety-
Materials are normally deposited in multiple lene-propadiene (MPS)? Acetylene in combina-
layers, each of which is less than 0.010-in. thick. tion with oxygen produces the highest flame
The total thickness of a material that should be temperature. The distinct characteristics of an
deposited will depend upon several factors in- oxyacetylene flame make it rather easy to adjust
cluding the following: the combustion ratio to produce oxidizing, neu-
(I) Type of surfacing material and its tral, or reducing conditions. The significant
properties changes in flame appearance are not so evident
(2) Type and properties of the workpiece with the other two gases. Hydrogen, which is
material used occasionally, and propane are suitable for
(3) Service requirements of the composite flame spraying metals with low melting points
(4) Postspray treatment ofthe composite such as aluminum, tin, zinc, and babbitt metal.
A typical flame spraying arrangement con-
sists of the following: GAS CONTROLS
(I) A flame spray gun
Oxygen and fuel gas flowmeters should be
(2) A source of surfacing material and the
used to provide good control of the flame mix-
associated feeding equipment
(3) Oxygen and fuel gas supplies, pressure
ture and intensity. Their use usually permits
regulators, and flowmeters higher spraying rates than with valve control of
(4) A compressed air source and control
3. Properties of these and other fuel gases are discussed
unit, when required in Chapter 13, Arc and Oxygen Cutting, Welding Hand-
(5) Workpiece holding device book, Vol. 2, 7th ed.
370 I THERMAL SPRAYING
gas flows. Since the molten particles are ex- in Fig. 12.2. A wire type gun consists essentially
posed to oxygen, an oxide film will form on of two subassemblies: a drive unit which feeds
them, even when a reducing gas mixture is used. the wire, and a gas head which. controls the flow
The thickness of the oxide film does not appear of fuel gas, oxygen, and compressed air. The
to vary greatly with minor changes in the fuel principles of operation of all wire type guns are
gas-to-oxygen ratio. very similar.
The wire drive unit consists of a motor and
COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY drive rolls. They may be air or electrically
The cleanliness of the compressed air, powered with adjustable speed controls. Speed
when used to atomize and propel the molten controls may be mechanical, electromechanical,
surfacing material, is important in producing a electronic, or pneumatic, depending upon the
quality deposit. Oil or water in the compressed type of power.
air will cause a fluctuation in the flame, produce The gas head consists of valves to control
poor or irregular atomization of the spray ma- the fuel gas, oxygen, and compressed air, and a
terial, and ultimately affect the quality of the gas nozzle and air cap. The wire is fed through a
central orifice in the nozzle. Va~ous nozzles and
deposit. In most cases, aftercoolers and chemical
filters should be installed between the air source air caps are used to accommodate different wire
and the spray unit. Sometimes, filters on both sizes or metals. The arrangement of the oxyfuel
sides of the pressure regulator are advantageous. gas jets and compressed air orifices differs with
Accurate regulation of the air pressure is impor-. the various manufacturers, as do the mechanisms
for feeding the wire through the flame.
tant for uniform atomization.
If the wire feed rate is excessive, the wire
tip will extend beyond the hot zone of the flame
WIRE FLAME SPRAYING
and it will not melt and atomize properly. This
With wire flame spraying, the metal wire will produce very coarse deposits; If the feed is
to be deposited is normally supplied to the gun too slow, the metal will oxidize badly, and the
continuously from a coil or spool. In some cases, wire may fuse in the nozzle. The spray deposit
cut lengths of metal rods are used. will have a high oxide content.
A typical wire flame spray system is shown Wire spraying units vary in size. Small
in Fig. 12.1, and across section of a gun is shown hand-held units are manipulated in much the
Shop air line
Oxygen and
fuel gas supply
Flame spray
gun
Fig. 12.1-Typica/ wire flame spray system
Flame Spraying /371
Gas
- st-:::Y
Wire no~zzle
~ircap . Spraydeposit
or rod3 ~~ Burnmg gases
~ --==== -::::::==.
)'---;::;:;::;:;:;:;::;:;:;;:;:;::;:;:;~~- ~ -
Fu~x;:e~~~ Spray =====
Air channel _j
Prepared substrate
Fig. 12.2-Cross section of a typical wire flame spray gun
same manner as paint spray guns. They are often ment because of the higher melting points and
used to apply protective coatings of aluminum lower thermal conductivities of ceramics com-
or zinc to large objects such as tanks, ship hulls, pared to metals. Some ceramic materials that are
and bridges. Larger units are usually designed applied by thermal spraying are:
to be mechanically manipulated for spraying (1) Alumina-titania
moving parts. (2) Alumina
(3) Zirconia
CERAMIC ROD FLAME SPRAYING (4) Rare earth oxides
(5) Zirconium silicate
Ceramic rod flame spraying is similar to (6) Magnesium zirconate
wire flame spraying. Straight lengths of ceramic (7) Barium titanate
rod are successively fed into the flame by driven (8) Chromium oxide
plastic rollers in the gun. The ceramic material (9) Magnesia-alumina
is melted in the flame, then atomized and pro- (10) Mullite
pelled from the nozzle by a compressed air jet. (ll) Calcium titanate
The molten particles flatten on impact with the Each ceramic surfacing material has specific
substrate and interlock to form a rattier dense, characteristics, economics, advantages, and lim-
coherent deposit. itations. The material is usually selected to pro-
The bond between the ceramic deposit and vide specific properties for the expected service
the substrate is primarily mechanical in nature. with proper consideration of the following
The molten particles deform and take the shape factors:
of the prepared surface. Proper surface prepara- (1) Thermal, electrical, and chemical char-
tion is a prerequisite for a firmly bonded acteristics
deposit. (2) Melting point
(3) Adherence or bond strength
Equipment and Materials
(4) Density
The equipment for ceramic rod spraying is (5) Cost
similar to wire spraying equipment (Fig. 12.1) Some of the important characteristics of
except that the wire feed unit is replaced by a ceramic spray deposits are:
mechanism to drive the rollers in the gun. The (1) Good adherence to a variety of sub-
gun design is somewhat different with respect to strate materials
the gas nozzle, air cap, and feed system. This (2) Economically applied in controlled
equipment requires greater care in adjusting the thicknesses
spraying variables than does wire spraying equip- (3) Good physical and chemical stabilities
372/ THERMAL SPRAYING
(4) Low thermal and electrical conduc- A special case is a powder flame spray gun
tivities which is similar to an oxyacetylene welding
(5) High wear resistance torch. Powder to be sprayed is metered into the
(6) Good finishing characteristics gas stream before it leaves the tip. Compressed
air is not used. The torch can be used for pre-
heating or fusing spray deposits when powder
is not being injected into the gas stream.
POWDER FLAME SPRAYING
Metals, ceramics, and ceramic-metal mix-
With this method, the material to be sprayed tures can be flame sprayed by the powder
is supplied to the gun in powder form from a method. The metals are usually hard alloys de-
hopper. The hopper may be remote from the signed for specific wear or corrosion resistant
gun or mounted onto it. The powder may be applications. Very hard metallic compounds,
aspirated or carried into the flame by an air feed such as carbides and borides, can be blended
system, by the oxygen stream, or by gravity. The with metal powders to form a composite, wear-
powder is melted by the flame and propelled resistant coating. The degree of melting of the
onto the substrate by either a compressed air jet particles of spray powder depends upon both the
or the combustion gases. melting point of the material and the time that the
Powder flame spraying equipment is more particles are exposed to the heat of the flame
simple and less costly than plasma spray equip- (ca!led the dwell time). Powders with low melt-
ment. However, the spray rate with flame spraying points will become completely molten,
ing is lower. The equipment can be designed for and those with high melting points, such as
easy portability. ceramics, may melt only on the particle surface.
PLASMA SPRAYING
GENERAL DESCRIPTION EQUIPMENT
Plasma spraying utilizes the heat of a Torch Design
plasma arc to melt the surfacing material. The Several types of plasma spray torches are
term "plasma arc" is used to describe a family available. In each instance, the arc is generated
of metal working processes that use a constricted between an electrode and a water-cooled cham-
electric arc to provide high density thermal en- ber into which a plasma gas is injected.The gas
ergy. Arc constriction is usually accomplished picks up arc energy and exits from a nozzle in a
by forcing the arc plasma through a water-cooled configuration that resembles an open welding
copper orifice. The purpose of this is to control flame. A typical gun is shown in Fig. 12.3.
and increase the energy density of the arc Two types of gas-stabilized torches are used
stream. Plasma arc processes are employed for for spraying. One type is vortex-stabilized and
welding, cutting, and surfacing of metals. In the other is gas-sheath stabilized. With vortex
plasma spraying, a non-transferred arc is con- stabilization, gas is introduced into the chamber
stricted between an electrode and a constricting with a swirling motion and produces an intense
nozzle. A plasma spray unit will consist of a gun, vortex at the exit through the nozzle. This causes
power source, gas source, spray material supply, the arc plasma to travel from the electrode out
and associated fixturing and traversing devices. through the nozzle and back to the face of the
Plasma Spraying /373
Plasma gas inlet
Spray material injection
Fig. 12.3-A typical plasma spray gun
chamber. In a gas-stabilized torch, the arc re- only about 2 X 1Q-5g, slight variations in the loca-
mains within the nozzle and is prevented from tion of the feed point may significantly change
striking the chamber wall prematurely by a the amount of heat transmitted to the powder.
sheath of gas passing through the nozzle. The Current torch designs have power capacities
arc, when properly adjusted, penetrates through of from 40 to 100 kW. Direct current of 100 to
this gas sheath some distance down the nozzle. 1100 A is used at 40 to 100 V. High power is
Arc positioning with respect to the nozzle is necessary when spraying with high particle
accomplished by control of the gas flow pattern velocities. Particle velocity is an important
and turbulence. variable with respect to bond strength, deposit
In reference to Fig. 12.3, the rear electrode density, and deposit integrity.
may be fixed or adjustable, but it must be prop-
erly aligned with the nozzle or front electrode
during operation. The flow of gas through the
Power Supply
orifice is governed by the gas pressure. Several
nozzle configurations can be used to accommo- Power supplies for plasma spraying should
date different plasma gases and to spray dif- have the following characteristics:
ferent types of powders. (I) Constant current output at 100 percent
An important factor in producing quality duty cycle
deposits is the introduction of powder at the (2) Variable open-circuit and load voltages
proper point in the arc plasma and at the correct (3) Variable current control
feed rate. Since the particles are in the plasma for (4) Good regulation
(5) Arc starting capability, either high- the plasma gas; and a powder-carrying gas,
frequency or high voltage de pulse usually the same as the primary plasma gas.
Rectifier type, solid-state units can gen- Monatomic and diatomic gases can be used
erally meet the above requirements. Units are for plasma spraying. Argon and helium are the
easily operated in parallel for high power opera- two most frequently used monatomic gases.
tions. In general, they resemble arc welding With monatomic gases, it is possible to attain
power sources.• plasma temperatures sufficiently high for most
applications. Plasmas generated with polyatomic
Powder Feed Devices
gases have greater heat contents. They not only
Powder feed mechanisms are of two types: release ionization energy but also the energy of
aspirator and mechanical. The latter is the more molecular recombination. The choice of gas de-
popular type. It utilizes the metering action of a termines the quality of the plasma. The gases
screw or wheel to deliver powder at a constant should be welding grade with low moisture and
rate to a mixing chamber. Here, the powder is oxygen contents.
introduced into the carrier gas stream. The four gases commonly used for plasma
Units are available to cover a wide range spraying and their important characteristics are
of spray rates. The range of a particular design as follows:
is determined by the specific gravity of the sur- (l) Nitrogen is widely used because it is in-
facing material. Modifications are usually avail- expensive, diatomic, and permits high spraying
able to meet specific spray rate requirements. rates and deposit efficiencies. Nozzle life will be
shorter than with monatomic gases, but this
System Control
factor can be offset by the lower cost of this gas.
A complete system, including the spray unit, (2) Argon provides a high velocity plasma.
can be operated from a control console. The It is used to spray materials that would be ad-
console provides adjustment of the plasma gas versely affected if hydrogen or nitrogen were
flow rates, plasma current, starting and stopping used .. Carbides and high temperature alloys are
functions and, in some cases, operation of the most commonly sprayed with argon.
powder fed unit. These functions are common (3) Hydrogen may be used as a secondary
to all plasma spray systems. gas with nitrogen or argon in amounts of 5 to 25
percent. Hydrogen addition raises the arc volt-
Controlled Environment
age and, thus, the power. It may be detrimental
Plasma spraying can be done in a sealed with certain metals.
chamber containing an inert gas atmosphere at (4) Helium is usually used as a secondary
or below atmospheric pressure. This technique gas mixed with argon. It will also tend to raise
provides improved oxidation protection for the the arc voltage.
molten particles and the substrate. The substrate
can then be preheated to a higher temperature SURFACING MATERIALS
without excessive oxidation. Deposition effi-
ciency and deposit quality are better than when It is usually necessary to use plasma spray-
spraying in air. ing equipment for powders with melting points
above 5000° F. Because this method is well
GASES qualified for depositing refractory metals and
ceramics, it can also deposit powdered materials
Gases are utilized for three purposes in that are normally applied by flame spraying but
plasma spray systems: the primary plasma gas; at a higher rate.
a secondary gas mixed in small volumes with A partial list of surfacing materials applied
by this method is given in Table 12.1. It does
4. Arc welding power sources are discussed in Chap- not include all available materials. Many com-
ter 1, Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, 7th ed. mercial compositions are proprietary and de-
Arc Spraying /375
Table 12.1
Materials commonly applied by plasma spraying
Metals Carbides• Oxides Cermets
Aluminum Chromium carbide Alumina Alumina-nickel
Chromium Titanium carbide Chromium oxide Alumina-nickel
Copper Thngsten carbide Magnesia aluminide
Molybdenum Titania Magnesia-nickel
Nickel Zirconia Zirconia-nickel
Nickel-chromium alloys Zirconia-nickel
Tantalum aluminide
Thngsten
a. Normally combined with a metal powder that serves as a binder.
signed for specific applications. procedures can be designed to overcome dif-

Plasma sprayed ceramic deposits exhibit ferences in coefficients of thermal expansion
higher densities and hardnesses than flame of a ceramic and a metal substrate. This can be
sprayed deposits. High densky, plasma sprayed achieved by spraying mixtures of the ceramic
deposits can be thinner in some cases, but may and a suitable metal in various proportions to
be more susceptible to cracking. Deposition produce graded (layered) deposits.
ARC SPRAYING
GENERAL DESCRIP TION The velocity of the gas as it leaves the gun
nozzle can be regulated over a broad range to
Arc spraying (ASP) utilizes an arc between
control the deposit characteristics. Molten metal
two wires to melt their tips. A jet of compressed
particles are ejected from the arc at the rate of
gas, normally air, atomizes the molten metal
several thousand particles per second, some of
and projects the particles onto a prepared sub-
which are in the superheated state. These molten
strate. A simple version of arc spraying is shown
particles will bond to minute protrusions of a
in Fig. 12.4.
properly cleaned and roughened substrate. The
The apparatus simultaneously and contin-
uously feeds two wires through electrical con-
tacts at uniform speeds. The contacts also serve
as guides to direct the wires toward a point of Insulated
intersection.
Spray
Direct current power is normally used for
deposit
arc spraying; one wire is positive (anode) and Wire
the other is negative (cathode). The cathode wire Arc
tip is heated to a higher temperature than the
anode wire tip and melts at a faster rate. Conse-
quently, the particles atomized from the cathode
wire are much smaller than those from the anode
wire when the two wires are identical. When Wire
dissimilar metals are sprayed, the deposit is a Wire
heterogeneous blend of the two metals with guide
some alloying. Fig. 12.4-Arc spraying
resulting deposit is highly adherent to the sub- insulated, flexible conduits into the spray gun.
strate and has strong interparticle cohesive The wires may be pushed through the conduits
strength. to the gun by wire feeders or pulled into the gun
In addition to the strong bond strength, by a drive unit incorporated in it.
other advantages of this process over wire flame
spraying are: SYSTEMS OPERATION
(I) The quantity of metal oxides in the de-
Arc spray systems can be operated from a
posit can be controlled by spray conditions.
console control or the spray unit. Controls are
(2) Spray rates are generally higher.
provided for atomizing gas pressure and flow,
(3) It may be more economical.
wire feed rate, and arc power. On most equip-
Arc spraying may be more economical
ment, switches are provided at the spray gun to
than other spraying methods in some cases.
energize the wire feed and the atomizing gas
Energy and labor costs may be lower because of
flow.
the higher spray rates and deposition effi-
Arc voltage is adjusted at the power source.
ciences available with this method. One adverse
The arc is self-igniting as the two wires are ad-
effect of the high energy state of the atomized
vanced to their intersecting point. In some cases,
particles is their tendency to change composition
special circuitry provides high voltage (approx-
through selective oxidation or vaporization, or
imately 75 volts) to initiate the arc. Correct and
both. The nature of these effects is complex,
proper preparation of the base material is one of
but they can be minimized by judicious selection
the most important parts of the spraying pro-
of wire composition.
cedure. A partial metallurgical bond can some-
The arc method is less versatile than the
times be produced between the surface and the
plasma method because only wire can be sprayed.
deposit. To achieve this, the substrate surface
Particle temperatures and velocities are generally
must be chemically clean.
lower than with plasma spraying but higher
High-strength bonds can be achieved by
than with wire flame spraying.
spraying the first pass using a high arc voltage,
a low gas flow, and a short gun-to-work dis-
EQUIPMENT
tance. These conditions will produce coarse, hot
There are several equipment designs that particles that will adhere well to the substrate.
may be used for arc spraying. They generally To avoid overheating of the substrate, the travers-
consist of four major components: ing speed should be fast, especially with manual
(I) A solid-state de power source, usually spraying.
of the constant voltage type After the first pass has been uniformly
(2) A dual wire feeding system applied over the entire surface, subsequent
(3) A control assembly with compressed spraying is done using the standard gas pressure,
gas attachments the lowest possible arc voltage, and the normal
(4) An arc spray gun spray distance. The shortest arc length consistent
The de power source and the control system with arc stability is desired. This ensures:
supply the correct amount of electrical energy, (I) Fine spray particle size
atomizing air, and wire to the arc spray gun. (2) Minimum loss of alloy constitutents
Wire sizes of from 0.057 to 0.125 in. are nor- (3) A concentrated spray pattern
mally employed. The wires are first drawn (4) High melting capacity for the amount
through straighteners and then passed through of electrical energy consumed.
Detonation Flame Spraying /377
DETONATION FLAME SPRAYING

Detonation flame spraying• is done with a tion flame spray gun strike the surface with an
specially designed gun, such as the one shown energy at least 25 times greater than those from a
in Fig. 12.5. The gun contains a chamber into flame spray gun. As a result, coatings with only
which are injected metered quantities of oxygen, 0.25 to I percent porosity are commonly achieved
acetylene, and a powdered surfacing material with this equipment. These include the following
suspended in nitrogen. The oxyacetylene mixture materials:
is detonated by an electric spark several times (I) Alumina
per second. This creates a hot, high velocity (2) Alumina-titania
gas stream that heats the powder to its plastic (3) Chromium carbide with a nickel-chrom-
state and then accelerates the particles to a speed ium alloy binder
of about 2500 ft/s as they leave the gun barrel. (4) Tungsten carbide with a cobalt binder
The molten particles impinge on the surface of (5) Tungsten carbide-tungsten chromium
the workpiece. Successive detonations in the gun carbide mixture with a nickel-chromium alloy
build up the deposit to the desired thickness. binder
The high bond integrity of detonation These are primarily wear resistant coatings
sprayed deposits is due to the high velocity at for elevated temperature service. Sprays of
which the particles strike the substrate. It is liquid carbon dioxide are used to cool the work-
roughly 2.5 to 5 times faster than the velocities of piece during spraying. Consequently, metallurg-
particles from a plasma or powder flame spray- ical changes or warpage of the workpiece does
ing gun. Since kinetic energy is a function of the not normally occur with this spraying method.
square of the velocity, particles from a detona- Since the spraying operation is a series of
rapid detonations, the noise level is quite high.
Spraying is normally done in a specially con-
5. This is a proprietary process. structed application room to contain this noise.
Fig. 12.5-Detonation flame spraying equipment

PREPARATION FOR SPRAYING
The type of bonding between the spray de- supply. Any residue from the blasting operation
posit and the substrate may be mechanical, must be removed prior to spraying because it
metallurgical, chemical, or combinations of will interfere with good bonding.
these. It depends upon the substrate material,
surfacing material and form, the thj!rmal spray- BOND LAYER
ing method and procedures, and surface prepara-
tion. Of these, suitable surface preparation is Thermal sprayed molybdenum, nickel-
most important to obtain a strong bond. chromium alloy, or an exothermically reactive
First, the surface and adjacent areas must nickel-aluminum composite is widely used as a
be free of all oil, grease, oxides, dust, and other base for ceramic spray deposits, particularly on
foreign matter. Cleanliness must be maintained mechanical components. These materials are
before and during the spraying operation. Spe- self-bonding to most clean, blasted metal sur-
cific handling and storage procedure should be faces, except copper and its alloys. Molyb-
established to ensure this. denum, tungsten, exothermic materials, and cer-
Some materials, such as cast iron, may tain other metals with high melting points can
absorb lubricants or other chemicals in service. form a metallurgical bond with a metal substrate.
Prior to surfacing, workpieces of these materials Nickel-chromium alloy is mostly used as a
should be heated in air to a temperature between bond layer for ceramic deposits to obtain a strong
400° and 600° F for 4 to 6 hours to evaporate mechanical bond and to provide an oxidation
these contaminants. A hot caustic soaking treat- resistant layer with some applications. Molyb-
ment followed by hot water rinsing may also be denum is not recommended for applications
effective in removing these types of contami- where operating temperatures will exceed 750° F
nants. Nonporous workpieces may be cleaned by in an oxidizing atmosphere. Nickel-aluminum
vapor degreasing, steam, hot detergent washing, composites may be used at temperatures up to
or manually applied solvents. 1500° F. These bond layers can be applied di-
rectly to most machined, sanded, or abrasive
SURFACE ROUGHENING blasted surfaces. The desired spray deposit is
applied directly to the bond layer.
Since mechanical bonding is the most prev- A 9 percent aluminum-bronze alloy is a
alent mechanism with thermal spraying, some very reliable bond layer for copper, copper al-
form of mechanical roughening is usually em- loys, and aluminum. It also has good adhesion to
ployed. For applications where the surface must steel. When the spray deposit will be less than
be machined undersize to accommodate the spray about 0.05-in. thick, the bond layer for most
deposit, a rough surface can be produced during metal deposits can be the same compostion as
this operation by such techniques as threading the spray deposit. For deposit thicknesses greater
or grooving. than about 0.05 in., Ni-Cr or Ni-Cr-Fe alloy
In any case, the surface should be blasted should be used for a bond layer for all ferrous
with a suitable hard, sharp abrasive or hardened deposits and aluminum-bronze for all nonferrous
and crushed steel grit. The type and size of blast- deposits.
ing particles depend upon the composition and
the size or thickness of the workpiece. Coarse
particles can be used on heavy or thick sections, PREHEATING
but only fine abrasives should be used on thin
sections or small diameter parts. The blasting For most base metals, the part should be
operation itself should not contaminate the sub- preheated to within the 200° to 300° F range and
strate with dirty blasting materials, embedded maintained at temperature during the thermal
particles, or oil or water from the compressed air spraying operation. This prevents the formation
Fused Spray Deposits /379
of surface condensate, expands the substrate, desirable deposit properties. Jets of air, inert
and reduces stresses in the deposit as it cools. gas, or liquid C0 2 may be used for cooling. In
Since heat is being transferred to the workpiece the case of brittle deposits, wide temperature
during spraying, some form of cooling may be excursions may cause them to crack or spall
needed to prevent overheating and resulting un- during the spraying operation.
FUSED SPRAY DEPOSITS

GENERAL DESCRIPTION SELF-FLUXING ALLOYS
A fused spray deposit is a self-fluxing alloy Most self-fluxing alloys fall into two gen-
deposited by thermal spraying and subsequently eral groups:
heated to coalescence within itself and with the (1) Nickel-chromium-boron-silicon alloys
substrate. The materials will wet the substrate (2) Cobalt-chromium-boron-silicon alloys
without the addition of a fluxing agent, provided In some cases tungsten carbide or chromium
the substrate is properly cleaned and prepared to carbide particles are blended with an alloy from
receive it. The materials are basically alloys one ofthe above groups.
based on nickel or cobalt in powder form, and The boron and silicon additions are crucial
are normally applied with powder flame spraying elements that act as fluxing agents and as melting
equipment. Plasma spraying is also a suitable point depressants. They permit fusing at tem-
method. peratures compatible with steels, certain cast
The application of a fused deposit involves irons, and some nickel base alloys.
four operations: The hardness of fused deposits will range
(1) Surface preparation from about 20 to 60 HRC, depending upon alloy
(2) Sprayingthe self-fluxing alloy composition. It is virtually unaffected by the
(3) Fusing the coating to the substrate thermal spraying procedures since there is almost
(4) Finishing the coating to meet surface no dilution with the base metal.
and dimensional requirements Selection of an alloy composition for a par-
A finishing operation is not always required ticular application should be based on certain
if the as-fused surface is suitable for the appli- considerations including the following:
cation. Pump packing sleeves, pump plungers, (1) Fusion temperature of the alloy and the
piston rods, and process rolls are examples of thermal effects on the base metal
surfaced machine parts that require a subsequent (2) Relative difference in the coefficients of
finishing operation on fused deposits. Centrifuge thermal expansion of the base metal and the
screw flutes, buffing fixtures, and process pip- alloy deposit
ing are examples of components that may be used (3) Service requirements of the part
in the as-fused condition. (4) Finish requirements of the fused deposit
A properly sprayed and fused deposit will and available finishing equipment
be nearly homogeneous, metallurgically bonded
to the substrate, and have no open or visible
EQUIPMENT
porosity. It normally will have a higher hardness
than an equivalent mechanically bonded deposit, In addition to cleaning, blasting, thermal
and will withstand pressures and environments spraying, and work-handling equipment, some
better than non-fused deposits. device or method is needed to fuse the spray
deposit. Fusing can be done with an oxyfuel bon and low alloy steels with more than 0.25
gas torch or in a furnace. percent carbon and AISI 400 series stainless
steels, except Types 414 and 431. 1)rpes 414,
Fusing Torches
431, and the precipitation hardening stainless
A fusing torch can have a single or multiple steels are not recommended as base metals for
jet tip, depending upon the mass of the work- self-fluxing alloys.
piece. The fusing gas is usually acetylene, and a Cracking of some types of fused spray de-
neutral or reducing flame can be used. Other posits on hardenable steels can be avoided by
fuel gases may be used except for cobalt-base isothermal annealing of the parts from the fusing
alloys. An oxyacetylene torch with a reducing temperature to avoid martensitic transformation.
flame is recommended for these alloys. A com- Fused deposits with hardnesses above 25 HRC
bination spraying and fusing torch is available will likely crack when a martensitic steel is
for applying these types of deposits. The coating hardened because of the expansion that takes
is alternately deposited and fused with it. This place during transformation. However, there are
type of equipment is particularly suited for repair applications in which cracks in the fused de-
work, but not for large workpieces nor for pro- posit are not detrimental to service requirements.
duction work.
FUSING
~using Furnaces
Fusing of a sprayed deposit is accomplished
Spray deposits can be fused by placing the
by heating the workpiece to the fusing temper-
sprayed workpiece in an atmosphere furnace
ature range for the particular self-fluxing alloy.
operating at fusing temperature. Argon, dry
The fusing temperatures of nickel-chromium-
hydrogen, or vacuum atmospheres may be used.
boron-silicon alloys range from 18(5° to 2150° E
Furnace fusing is advantageous for high produc-
The cobalt-chromium-boron-silicon alloys fuse
tion applications, intricate part geometries, or
in the range of 2150° to 22500 E The. actual
parts with significant variations in section
fusing temperature depends upon the composi-
thickness.
tion of the alloy.
The most common method of fusing is with
BASE METALS one or more oxyfuel gas heating torches using a
Fused thermal sprayed deposits can be reducing flame. A typical torch fusing operation
applied to a wide variety of metals. However, is shown in Fig. 12.6. First, the torch is directed
varying degrees of skill, technique, and pro- on the workpiece which is heated to a dull red
cedures are required. Some base metals are color (about 14000 to 1600° F). Then, the torch
decidedly easier to surface than are others. Those is moved across the spray deposit to gradually
which can be readily thermal sprayod with one increase the surface temperature until the deposit
or more self-fluxing alloys and then fused are shows a glossy or greasy appearance. This indi-
as follows: cates that the deposit has fused. Overheating
should be avoided to prevent flow of the molten
(I) Carbon and low alloy steel with less alloy. The temperature of the workpiece and
than 0.25 percent carbon deposit should be maintained as uniform as
(2) AISI 300 series stainless steels, except possible.
Types 303 and 321 The fusing operation may also be done with
(3) Certain grades of cast iron other methods of heating including furnace and
(4) Nickel and nickel alloys that are free induction. With such processes, heating should
of titanium and aluminum be done in a neutral or reducing atmosphere to
Metals that require special procedures to avoid oxidation of both the deposit and the base
avoid undesirable metallurgical changes are car- metal before the fusing temperature is attained.
Post-Treatments /381
Fig. 12.6-Fusing a deposit on a large roll with oxyacetylene torches
POST- TREATMENTS
SEALING Pressure cylinders of all types are reclaimed by
thermal spraying . Prior to finish grinding, the
Sealing of sprayed deposits is used occa- cylinder bore is sealed with a phenolic. This
sionally to either lengthen their lives or prevent prevents grinding wheel particles from embed-
corrosion of the substrate, or both. Thermal ding in the pores of the sprayed metal and caus-
sprayed deposits of aluminum or zinc may be ing premature wear.
sealed with vinyl coatings, either clear or alu- Epoxies , silicones, and other similar ma-
minum pigmented. The sealer may be applied to terials may be used as sealants for certain cor-
fill only subsurface pores in the deposit or both rosive conditions. Vacuum impregnation with
subsurface pores and surface irregularities. The plastic solutions is also possible.
latter technique will provide a smooth coating to
resist industrial atmospheres. The vinyl coatings DIFFUSING
can be applied with a brush or spray gun.
Sealing is also sometimes used on surfaced A thin layer of aluminum may be diffused
machine parts. Where the spray deposit will be into a steel or silicon bronze substrate at 1400" F.
exposed to acids, it is often advisable to seal the The diffused layer can provide corrosion protec-
surface with either a high-melting-point wax tion against hot gases up to 1600" F. After de-
sealer or a phenolic plastic solution. Spray depositing the aluminum, the part should be coated
posits on high-pressure hydraulic rams, pump with an aluminum pigmented bitumastic sealer
shafts, and similar parts should be sealed with or other suitable material to prevent oxidation
air-drying phenolics to prevent the seepage of the of the aluminum during the diffusion heat
liquid through the deposit around the packing. treatment.
SURFACE FINISHING
Techniques for surface finishing of thermal and a rake angle of three degrees should be used.
sprayed deposits differ somewhat from those On outside diameters, the tip of the tool should
commonly used for metals. Most sprayed de- be set three degrees below center; in bores, this
posits are primarily mechanically bonded to the should be three degrees above center. This will
substrates, except for fused coatings. Excessive help to limit the stress on the deposit. Peripheral
pressure or heat generated in the deposit during speed should not exceed 75 ft/min. The feed
the finishing operation can cause damage such should be slow with light cuts for best surface
as cracking, crazing, or separation from the finish.
substrate. Special cutting tools, such as oxide-coated
Since an as-sprayed deposit is composed of carbide, cubic boron-nitride, ceramics, cermets,
an aggregation of individual particles, improper and diamonds, may be used to machine very
finishing techniques can dislodge particles singly hard metal, ceramic, and cermet deposits. In
or in clusters. This may cause a severely pitted many cases, machining with these tools is re-
surface. The deposited particles should be cleanly placing grinding of intricate shapes and
sheared and not pulled from the surface. Even so, large pieces. Machining of flat deposits requires
an ideally finished surface will probably not be extreme care at the corners and edges to avoid
shiny, but may have a matte finish due to porosity damage. Depth-of-cut and feed rate should be low.
in the deposit.
The selection of a finishing method depends
GRINDING
upon the type of deposit material, its hardness,
and its thickness. Consideration should be given Metal Deposits
to the properties of the substrate material as
well as dimensional and surface roughness re- Wet grinding is the preferred method. Large,
quirements. Spray deposits of soft metals are wide wheels can be used, and the required amount
often finished by machining, especially those of stock can be removed with one operation.
applied to machine components. A good finish Wet grinding permits closer tolerances than does
can be obtained using high cutting speeds and dry grinding. Grinding wheel manufacturers can
carbide tools for most such applications. More recommend wheel types and grinding pro-
often, however, sprayed deposits are finished by cedures for various metal deposits using a partic-
grinding, particularly the hardfacing and ceramic ular type of grinding machine.
types. If it is necessary to grind metal deposits
Various other finishing methods are occa- dry, as is done with portable grinders mounted
sionally used. These include buffing, tumbling, on a lathe, the major amount of materials should
burnishing, belt polishing, lapping, and honing. be removed first by machining. Then, the deposit
can be ground to the required finish and di-
mensions.
MACHINING
Wheels used for dry grinding operations
Tungsten carbide tools are commonly used are either aluminum oxide or silicon carbide,
for machining sprayed metal deposits and fused depending upon the metal to be ground. The
coatings. Proper tool angles play a critical role factors to be considered in selecting a wheel for
in the success of machining these coatings. The a spray deposit are similar to those for grinding
surface speeds and the depth of cut are of equal the same metal in wrought or cast form. The
importance. Improper tool angle and tool pres- grinding technique should be designed to mini-
sure can result in excessive surface roughness mize heat buildup in the deposit. The structure
and in the destruction of the bond between the of the wheel should be as open as possible and
deposit and the substrate. the grain size as coarse as possible, consistent
A cutting tool with a slightly rounded tip withthe finish requirements. The wheel should
Quality Control/383
be narrow, the infeed light, and the traverse as Although the individual particles of a ceramic de-
fast as possible without spiraling. posit have extreme hardness, the deposit can be
When grinding equipment is not available, finished by conventional grinding techniques on
metal deposits can be machined to within standard equipment. However, it is necessary
0.002 to 0.006 in. of final size. Then they can be to use the proper grinding wheel and to follow
finished to size with a belt polishing unit. Close correct procedures. General recommendations
tolerances and fine finishes are possible with for grinding ceramic deposits are available from
belt polishing by proper ~election of abrasive grinding wheel manufacturers.
type and grit size. Flood cooling should be employed during
grinding. Water containing a rust inhibitor is
Fused Deposits
best. Water-soluble coolants are likely to stain
Because most fused deposits are designed light-colored ceramic deposits.
for hardfacing purposes, grinding is usually the
most economical method for finishing them.
Although most fused deposits can be ma- OTHER METHODS
chined with the proper type of cutting tool, close Other methods of surface finishing are
tolerance work is difficult because of rapid tool sometimes used for as-sprayed and fused de-
wear and the large amount of heat generated. posits. These include:
Dry grinding may be suitable for some opera- (1) Manual buffing or polishing
tions but, in this case also, heat and fast wheel (2) Abrasive tumbling
wear make close tolerance work difficult. Wet (3) Honing
grinding can produce close tolerance parts, fine (4) Lapping
finishes, and economical stock removal rates. As-sprayed or machined deposits may be
Nickel-base alloys are best ground with silicon buffed or polished manually with abrasive stones,
carbide grinding wheels and cobalt-base alloys cloth, or paper. Abrasive tumbling of small parts
with aluminum oxide grinding wheels. will polish the surface by removing the "high
Grinding wheel manufacturers may recom- spots." An abrasive medium, cleaners, and us-
mend the appropriate type for the job. Good ually a liquid are vibrated or rotated in a drum
practice usually suggests a coarse wheel, con- in which the parts are placed.
sistent with finish requirements; an open struc- Honing is done with abrasive stones
ture or soft bond; as large a wheel as possible; mounted in a loading device. The part normally
and good wheel dressing techniques. Surface moves in one direction or rotates while the
finish of fused coatings can often be improved stones are oscillated under pressure, transverse
after grinding by polishing with fine grit belts. to the work motion. Lapping is done with a fine,
loose abrasive mixed with a vehicle, such as
Ceramic Deposits
water or oil. The mixture is spread on lapping
The as-coated surface finish of flame shoes or plates that are then rubbed against the
sprayed ceramics is, in general, in excess of 150 spray deposit. The lap rides against the deposit,
x 10·6 in. Many applications require a better fin- and their relative movements are continually
ish, and this can be accomplished by grinding. changed.
QUALITY CONTROL
A properly designed quality control pro- piece after the spraying is complete. Each step
gram can ensure consistent quality in thermal in the operation should be monitored by an
sprayed deposits. Proper quality control consists inspector. This includes not only the spraying
of more than just the examination of the work- and fusing steps but also the preparation of the
substrate and the various stages of handling and In general, sprayed deposits are inspected
storage of the workpiece between operations. visually for quality and soundness. With fused
In addition, the quality of the spray materials deposits, lack of bonding may be detected by
must be controlled. Since bond strength and localized torch heating of the suspected area.
spray deposit soundness are difficult to deter- Lack of bonding will be indicated by a hot spot
mine by nondestructive techniques, the proced- or spalling of the deposit material. Ultrasonic
ures for accomplishing each step of the thermal techniques may also be used to detect lack of
spraying operation should be documented. The bonding. Penetrant or magnetic particle inspec-
procedures should be qualified by appropriate tion can detect exposed cracks or surface con-
destructive tests of sample parts. nected pores.
PROPERTIES
The quality and the properties of thermal fabricated material.
sprayed deposits are largely determined by (1) Oxide spray deposits tend to retain their
the size, temperature, and velocity of the spray physical properties with only some decomposi-
droplets as they impinge on the substrate and tion. In many cases, the deposit will have a
(2) the degree of oxidation of both the drop- crystalline structure. Alumina, which may be
lets and the substrate durin~ spraying. These alpha originally, may deposit with a metastable
factors will vary with the method of spraying gamma structure. The chemical compositions
and the procedures employed. of reactive type ceramics, such as carbides,
Metal alloys deposited by the thermal spray silicides, and borides, normally change when
process do not retain their original chemical the materials are sprayed in air with the flame
composition unless special techniques are used. or plasma methods.
Their properties may change significantly be-
cause of this, depending upon the spray method
MICROSTRUCTURE
used. With the plasma and arc methods, appre-
ciable amounts of low melting point constituents The microstructure of a transverse section
may be lost by vaporization. Oxidation of the through a flame sprayed metal deposit will
droplets may also be significant when air is show a heterogeneous mixture of layered metal
used as the propellent. particles (white), metal oxide inclusions (gray),
The physical and mechanical properties of and pores (black). Figure 12.7 is a photomicro-
a spray deposit normally differ greatly from graph of a transverse section through a flame
those ofthe original material. The deposit struc- sprayed deposit of AISI 1080 steel. The light
ture is lamellar and non-homogeneous. Its co- layered particles are bonded to one another by
hesion is generally the result of mechanical in- chemical and mechanical interactions. Figure
terlocking, some point-to-point fusion, and 12.8 is a photomicrograph of a transverse sec-
sometimes oxide-to-oxide bonding. The tensile tion through a copper deposit and its substrate at
strengths of these structures are low compared the bond line. The roughness of the prepared
to those of the same materials in wrought or substrate surface is apparent.
cast form. Sometimes, the compressive strength The microstructure of the polished and
is quite high but the ductility is low. Deposits etched surface of the AISI 1080 steel deposit
from wire or rod are less dense than the original is shown in Fig. 12.9. It has an emulsified
material. In any case, spray deposits should be appearance because the flattened steel particles
considered as a separate and distinct form of (light) are separated by the oxide (gray).
Properties /385
Fig. 12.7-Transverse section through a Fig. 12.8-Transverse section through a

flame sprayed AISI1080 steel deposit thermal sprayed copper deposit (top) and
(XSOO reduced on reproduction) the substrate (bottom) (xSOO reduced
on reproduction)
Fig. 12.9-Section parallel to the surface Fig. 12.10-Microstructure of a fused

of a flame sprayed deposit of AISI1080 coating of a self-fluxing nickel-chromium
steel ( xsoo reduced on reproduction) alloy (top) on a substrate (bottom) (X250
reduced on reproduction)
As-sprayed, self-fluxing alloy deposits are not entirely satisfactory for determining the true
similar in appearance to any typical metal de- hardness of heterogeneous spray deposits, but
posit, except that there is significantly less they can be used for spot checks and shop
oxide. These materials are oxidation resistant guides. Microhardness tests can be used to de-
in nature. After fusing, the deposit will have an termine the hardness of individual particles.
equiaxed cast structure with some porosity and Since the deposited particles are relatively thin,
inclusions. The microstructure of a fused nickel- hardness impressions should be taken on a
chromium self-fluxing alloy deposit is shown in transverse section. The Knoop indentation hard-
Fig. 12.10. The roughness of the prepared sub- ness test is best suited for this.
strate is evident here also.
BOND STRENGTH
HARDNESS
The strength of the bond between a spray
The heterogenous structures of spray de- deposit and the substrate depends upon many
posits generally have a lower macrohardness factors including the following:
than the original rod or wire supplied to the (I) Substrate material
gun. However, the hardness of individual de- (2) Preparation ofthe substrate surface
posit particles (microhardness) may be much (3) Preheat
higher than that of the overall deposit. The (4) Bond layer material and its application
type of hardness test should be selected to give method. and procedures
either the overall deposit hardness or the particle (5) Deposit material and its application
hardness. The thickness of the deposit must also method and procedures
be considered in selecting the type of test. If the (6) Thickness of the deposit
deposit is too thin, the indenter may penetrate (7) Postspraying thermal treatment
through it and into the substrate. This would (8) Design of the bond strength test
obviously give a false reading. (9) Technique of attachment to the deposit
The Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests surface
can be used to determine the hardness of fairly (10) Effect of the attachment on the de-
thick metallic deposits. Superficial Rockwell posit properties
and Vickers hardness tests may be suitable for A standard test for determining the bond
thin metallic deposits. Requirements for various or cohesive strength of thermal spray deposits
hardness tests are covered in the appropriate is described in ASTM C633, Standard Test
ASTM Standards. Table 12.2 relates the mini- Method for Adhesion or Cohesive Strength of
mum spray deposit thicknesses to the various Flame Sprayed Coatings. The arrangement for
Rockwell hardness tests. this test is shown in Fig. 12.11.
Hardness tests with diamond indenters are In this test, each specimen is an assembly
of a substrate block to which the deposit is ap-
plied and a loading block. The flat end of the
Table12.2 substrate block is prepared, and the deposit is
Minimum deposit thicknesses for applied to it. Then, the deposit is machined or
Rockwell hardness tests ground flat and uniform in thickness using pro-
Minimum cedures appropriate for the deposit material. The
Rockwell thickness, loading block is then adhesive bonded to the
scale in.
flat deposit surface to produce a tension speci-
15N 0.015 men. The specimen is loaded in tension at a
30N 0.025
45N 0.035 constant rate using the self-aligning device. The
A 0.040 maximum load is recorded. From this, the bond
B 0.060 strength or the cohesive strength of the deposit
c 0.070 can be calculated, depending upon the fracture
D 0.050 location. The bond strengths of several self-
Properties /387
bonding spray materials are presented in Table

12.3
This test method is limited to deposit thick-
nesses greater than 0.015 in. because adhesive
bonding agents tend to infiltrate porous deposits.
If the bonding agent penetrates to the substrate,
it will affect the test results.
I
I 0 .JI
L___
DENSITY
Thermal sprayed deposits have densities
less than 100 percent because they are porous
and contain some oxide. The densities of the
flame sprayed deposits and the original wire for
several metals are given in Table 12.4. In these
cases, the deposits have densities greater than
80 percent.
Loading Porosity in spray deposits consists of iso-
block lated and interconnected pores. It is difficult to
determine the amount accurately. However, it
Adhesive can be estimated by several methods. The sim-
bond
plest one is to superimpose a grid over the mi-
Spray crostructure. of a prepared surface and then
deposit count the number of grid squares occupied by
Substrate
pores. Other methods include water or toluene
block immersion and paraffin absorption. Because of
lack of total interconnection of the pores, how-
ever, no method is perfect.
The porous nature of spray deposits can be
used to advantage, especially for bearing sur-
faces. The porosity permits oil retention and
provides an escape for foreign material from
actively loaded areas. Where corrosion is a
factor, porosity is a disadvantage. It limits the
Pins use of deposits to those that are anodic to the
base material unless special overcoatings of
paints or sealers are used.
SHRINKAGE
l
Spray deposits contract upon cooling. The
amount of shrinkage varies widely with dif-
p ferent materials and spraying methods, but it
will not be the same as that of the original ma-
Fig. 12.11-Standard test arrangement for terial in cast or wrought form. Contraction sets
determining the bond or cohesive strength up tensile stresses in the deposit as well as
of thermal spray deposits shear stresses across the bond betwc;en the de-
Table12.3
Typical bond strengths of self-bonding materials a
Bond strength, psi
Plasma Flame sprayed
Material sprayed Powder Wire
Columbium 2400
Molybdenum 3200 3600 3300
Nickel-aluminide 3000 2750 3150
Tantalum 2750
a. Applied to a smooth, unprepared metal surface.
posit and substrate. These stresses tend to crack these problems. Metals having low coefficients
the deposit or spall it from the substrate. Sur- of thermal expansion should be used wherever
face preparation and the selection of material possible, especially for thick deposits and
for spraying are important factors in preventing buildup of internal surfaces.
APPLICATIONS
heated because expansion of the air bubbles
CORROSION AND
may rupture the sealer.
OXIDATION PROTECTION
Hard alloy deposits are often used on ma-
Thermal spray deposits can provide pro- chine components such as pump plungers, pump
tection against many types of corrosive attack rods, hydraulic rams, packing sections of steam
on iron and steel. Zinc, aluminum, stainless turbine shafts, and valves. When sealed, these
steel, bronze, hard alloys, and ceramics are materials provide both corrosion and wear
used as surfacing materials. Service conditions resistance.
determine both the material type and its appli- Several different materials may be used to
cation procedures. Undercoatings for organic give oxidation protection. The choice depends
materials, such as paints and plastic finishes, upon the operating temperature. For applica-
can be applied by this process. A thick layer of tions up to 1600° F, the part can be aluminized
zinc or aluminum can protect steel against oxi- by depositing a thin layer of aluminum. The
dation and provide a strong bond for an organic aluminum is then diffused into the surface by a
coating. suitable heat treatment. For temperatures above
The porosity of anodic deposits is not im- 1600" F, a nickel-chromium alloy deposit may
portant because they protect steel by electro- be used. This is followed by a spray deposit of
chemical action. Sealing these deposits with aluminum. Often, this combination deposit is
paint or plastic solutions can impart a longer life. then covered with an aluminum pigmented
Nickel, a nickel-copper alloy, stainless bitumastic sealer. The part is then diffusion
steels, and bronzes are some metals that are heat-treated in a furnace or it is placed directly
cathodic to steel. They should be used as a in service if the operating temperature is above
deposit on steel only if they are made imperme- 1600° F. Such deposits are sometimes used for
able to corrosive agents by sealing. The sealer is cyanide pots, furnace kiln parts, annealing
likely to entrap air bubbles in the pores of the boxes, and furnace conveyors.
spray deposit. The component should not be Zirconia and alumina ceramics are some-
Applications I 389
times used for thermal barrier layers. When the design of spray deposits for electrical conduc-
workpiece will be exposed to thermal cycling, tors. Such applications include spraying of
a bond layer of nickel aluminide or nickel- copper on electrical contacts, carbon brushes,
chromium alloy may help to minimize thermal and glass in automotive fuses as well as silver
stresses in the ceramic deposit. on copper contacts.
In the field of electrical insulation, various
MACHINE ELEMENTS ceramic deposits can be used for insulators.
Magnetic shielding of electrical components
In the mechanical field, thermal spray
may be done with deposits of zinc applied to
hard facing materials can' be used to combat
electronic cases and chassis. Condenser plates
many types of wear. The ability of metal spray
can be made by spraying aluminum on both
deposits to absorb and maintain a film of lubri- sides of a cloth tape.
cant is a distinct advantage in many applica-
tions. Spray deposits often give longer life than FOUNDRY
the original surfaces, except where severe con-
Changes in contour of expensive patterns
ditions of shock loading or abrasion are encount-
and match plates can be readily accomplished
ered. A low cost base metal can be protected on
by the application of thermal spray deposits
only the areas of wear with a high quality,
wear resistant deposit. followed by appropriate finishing. Patterns and
Some metal deposits, such as nickel- molds can be repaired with wear resistant de-
copper alloy, nickel, and stainless steel, are posits. Blow holes in castings that appear during
virtually impervious to penetration by corrosives machining can be filled to salvage the parts.
when they are applied in sufficient thickness
and are exposed only to moderate pressure. BRAZING AND SOLDERING
These surfaces can be vacuum impregnated with Thermal spraying is frequently used for the
various phenoiic or vinyl solutions or with preplacement of soldering or brazing filler
fluorocarbon resins for high-pressure operation. metals. The usual practice is to apply the filler
For applications where extreme wear or corro- metal in place using standard thermal spraying
sion resistance, or both, are encountered, fused techniques.
spray coatings may be used.
AIRCRAFT AND MISSILES
ELECTRICAL
The process may be used for air seals and
The electrical resistance of a metal spray wear resistant surfaces to prevent fretting and
deposit may be 50 to 100 percent higher than galling at elevated temperatures. Deposits of
that of the same metal in cast or wrought form. alumina and zirconia may be used for thermal
This should be taken into consideration in the insulation.
Table 12.4
Comparison of the densities of flame sprayed metal deposits and the wire
Density, Ib/in~
Flame sprayed
Metal deposit (wire) Wire
Type II 00 Aluminum 0.087 0.098
Copper 0.271 0.324
Molybdenum 0.326 0.369
AISI I 025 steel 0.244 0.284
TYpe 304 stainless steel 0.249 0.29
Zinc 0.229 0.258
SAFETY
The potential hazards to the health and accordance with the manufacturer's recommen-
safety of personnel involved in thermal spraying dations. Each operator should be familiar with
operations and to persons in the immediate the operation of the flame spray gun and should
vicinity can be grouped as follows: read the instruction manual thoroughly before
(l) Electrical shock using it.
(2) Fire A friction lighter, a pilot light, or arc igni-
(3) Gases tion should be used to ignite the gun. Matches
(4) Dust and fumes are not safe. A flame spray gun and its hoses
(5) Arc radiation should not be hung on gas regulators or cylinder
(6) Noise valves because of the danger of fire or ex-
These hazards are not unique to thermal plosion.
spraying methods. For example, flame spraying
Plasma and Arc Spraying Equipment
has hazards similar to those associated with the
oxyfuel gas welding and cutting processes. The plasma and arc methods of thermal
Likewise, arc spraying and plasma spraying are spraying use equipment where high voltages
similar in many respects to gas metal arc and and amperages present a hazard. Operators
plasma arc welding respectively. However, should be thoroughly instructed and trained in
thermal spraying does generate dust and fumes the operation of the unit. They should be fa-
to a greater degree. miliar with the operating and safety recom-
mendations and, at the same time, observe
proper safety precautions for electrical equip-
EQUIPMENT ment.
Gas Systems The plasma or arc spraying equipment
itself should be safe to operate. Exposed elec-
Local, state, and federal regulations rela-
trodes of plasma guns should be grounded or
tive to the storage of gas cylinders should be adequately insulated. Periodic inspections
investigated and their rules complied with. Stor- should be made of cables, insulation, hoses,
age, handling, and use of gas cylinders should and gas lines. Faulty equipment must be re-
be done in accordance with ANSI Z49.1, Safety
paired or replaced immediately. The entire sys-
in Welding and Cutting, and CGA P-1, Safe . tern, including the power supply, must be shut
Handling of Compressed Gases. Improper stor-
down before repairing any part of the power
age, handling, and use of these cylinders con-
supply, console, or gun.
stitute safety hazards in thermal spraying opera-
Arc spray guns should be cleaned fre-
tions. Oil or grease must not be used on oxygen
quently according to the manufacturer's opera-
equipment; only special oxidation resistant
tion manual to prevent the accumulation of
lubricants may be used.
metal dust. If the plasma or arc spray gun is
Acetylene pressures in excess of 15 psi (103
suspended, the suspension hook must be insu-
kPa) are dangerous and should not be used.
lated or grounded. Contact between any un-
When acetylene pressure of 15 psi is too low
grounded portion of the plasma or arc spray gun
for the application, another fuel gas should be
and the spray booth or chamber must be avoided.
used. Alloys containing more than 67 percent
copper or silver must not be used in acetylene
FIRE PREVENTION
systems because dangerous explosive com-
pounds may be formed . Airborne finely divided solids, especially
metal dusts, must be treated as explosives. To
Flame Spray Guns
minimize danger from dust explosions, adequate
Flame spray guns should be maintained in ventilation should be provided to spray booths.
Safety /391
A wet collector of the water-wash type is recom-

Table 12.5
mended to collect the spray dust. Bag or filter
Recommended eye filter plates for
type collectors are not recommended. Good
thermal spraying operations
housekeeping in the work area should be main-
Filter shade
tained to avoid accumulation of metal dusts,
Operation numbers
particularly on rafters, tops of booths, and in
floor cracks. Wire flame spraying
(except molybdenum) 2to4
Paper, wood, oily rags, and other combus- Wire flame spraying
tibles in the spraying area can cause a ftre and of molybdenum 3 to 6
should be removed before the equipment is Flame spraying
operated. of metal powder 3to6
Flame spraying
of exothermics
PROTECTION OF PERSONNEL or ceramics 4 to 8
Plasma and
The general requirements for the protection arc spraying 9 to 12
of thermal spray operators are the same as for Fusing operations 4to6
welders as set forth in ANSI Z49.1, Safety in
Welding and Cutting; ANSI Z87.1, Practices for
Occupational and Educational Eye and Face
Protection; ANSI Z88. 2, Practices for Respira- Occupational Safety and Health, or other ap-
tory Protection; and ANSI Z89 .I, Safety Require- proving authority for the purpose intended.
ments for Industrial Head Protection.
Ear Protection
Eye Protection
Ear protectors or properly fttted soft rubber
Helmets, hand shields, face shields, or ear plugs should be worn to protect the operator
goggles should be used to protect the eyes, face, from the high-intensity noise from the gun. Such
and neck during all thermal spraying opera- protection should reduce the noise level to be-
tions. These are described in ANSI Z87.1 and low 80 decibels. Cotton wads should not be
Z89 .I. Safety goggles should be worn at all used for ear protection as they are ineffective
times. Helmets, hand shields, or goggles must against high-intensity noise. Federal, state, and
be equipped with suitable filter plates to protect local codes should be checked for noise protec-
the eyes from excessive ultraviolet, infrared, tion requirements.
and intense visible radiation. Table 12.5 is a
guide for the selection of the proper filter shade Protective Clothing
number.
Appropriate protective clothing required
Respiratory Protection for a thermal spraying operation will vary with
Most thermal spraying operations require the size, nature, and location of the work to be
that respiratory protective devices be used by performed. When working in confined spaces,
the operator. The nature, type, and magnitude flame resistant clothing as well as leather, rub-
of the fume and gas exposure determine which ber, or asbestos gauntlets should be worn. Cloth-
respiratory protective device should be used. ing should be fastened tightly around the wrists
The selection of these devices should be in and ankles to keep dusts from contacting the skin.
accordance with ANSI Z88.2. This Standard For work in the open, ordinary clothing
contains descriptions, limitations, operational such as overalls and jumpers may be used. How-
procedures, and maintenance requirements for ever, open shirt collars and loose pocket flaps
standard respiratory protective devices. All de- are potential hazards. High-top shoes should be
vices selected should be of a type approved by worn, and cuffless trousers should cover the
the U.S. Bureau of Mines, National Institute for shoe tops.
The intense ultraviolet radiation of plasma be sufficient. For exposure to more intense
arc spraying can cause skin burns through nor- radiatien, leather capes may be necessary. Pro-
mal clothing. When using this process, the cloth- tection against radiation with arc spraying is
ing should provide protection against such radia- practically the same as that used for normal
tion. Thick, tightly-woven wool clothing may electric arc welding.

tc = 0.56 (tf -32)
1 in. = 25.4 mm
11b/in~ = 2.77 x 10• kg/m 3
1 psi = 6.89 kPa
1 ft/s = 0.305 m/s
Supplementary Reading List I 393

AWS C2 .1-73, Recommended Safe Practices thermal shock qualities of zirconia coatings
for Thermal Spraying, Miami: American on thin gage Ni-Mo-C metal. Metal Pro-
Welding Socirty, 1973. gress, 97 (3): 104; 1970 March.
AWS C2.2-67, Recommended Practices for Ingham, H. S., Jr. and Fabel, A. J., Compari-
Metallizing With Aluminum and Zinc for son of plasma flame spray gases. Welding
Protection of Iron and Steel, Miami: Amer- Journal, 54 (2): 101-5; 1975 Feb.
ican Welding Society, 1967.
Irons, G. C., Laser fusing of flame sprayed
AWS C2.13-70, Flame Spraying of Ceramics, coatings. Welding Journal, 57 (12): 29-32;
Miami: American Welding Society, 1970. 1978 Dec.
AWS C2.15-75, Recommended Practices for Longo, F. N., Use of flame sprayed bond coat-
Fused Thermal Sprayed Deposits, Miami: ings. Plating, 61(10): 306-11; 1974 Oct.
American Welding Society, 1975.
Longo, F. N. and Durmann, G. J., Corrosion
AWS C2.16-78, Guide for Thermal Spray Op- prevention with thermal sprayed zinc and
erator and Equipment Qualification, Mi- aluminum coatings. Welding Journal, 53
ami: American Welding Society, 1978. (6): 363-70; 1974June.
AWS C2.17-78, Recommended Practices for Papers of the Eighth International Thermal
Electric Arc Spraying, Miami: American Spraying Conference, Miami Beach, FL:
Welding Society, 1978. Sept. 27 to Oct. I, 1976; American Weld-
ing Society, 1976.
Hermancek, F. J ., Determining the adhesive/
cohesive strength of thin thermally sprayed Phelps, H. C., Fuel gas additive helps solve
deposits. Welding Journal, 57 (II):· 31- problem of rejects during thermal spraying
35; 1978 Nov. operation. Welding Journal, 56 (7): 32-35;
1977 July.
Hermancek, F. J., Thermal conductivity and
13
Other Welding Processes
Thermit Welding .................... 396 Carbon Arc Welding ................. 427
Cold Welding ....................... 405 Bare Metal Arc Welding .............. 430
Hot Pressure Welding ................ 416 Atomic Hydrogen Welding . ........... 431
Chapter Committee
L. J. PRIVOZNIK, Chairman H. D. FRICKE

Westinghouse Electric Corporation U.S. Thermit, Inc.
P. B. DICKERSON A.N.KUGLER
Aluminium Company of America Consulting Engineer
T.J.MOORE
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
L. J. PRIVOZNIK
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
395
13
Other Welding Processes
THERMIT WELDING
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCESS than that of the metal, as in the case of steel and
aluminum oxide, they separate immediately.
Definition
The slag floats to the surface and the molten
Thermit' welding is a process that pro- steel can be used for welding purposes.
duces coalescence of metals by heating them Typical thermochemical reactions and the
with superlteated molten metal from an alum- thermal energies produced are as follows:
inothermic reaction between a metal oxide and
3 Fe 30 4 + 8 AI-+ 9 Fe +4Al 20 3 : ~H=3350 kJ
aluminum. Filler metal is obtained from the
3 FeO + 2 AI-+ 3 Fe + Al 20 3 : ~H=880kJ
liquid metal. The process had its beginning at
Fe20a + 2 AI-+ 2 Fe + Al 20 3 : ~H=850kJ
the end of the 19th century when Hans Gold-
3 CuO + 2 AI-+ 3 Cu + Al 20 3 : ~H=1210 kJ
schmidt discovered that the exothermic reaction
3 Cu 20 + 2AI-+ 6 Cu + Al 20 3 : ~H =I 060 kJ
between aluminum powder and a metal oxide
can be initiated by an external heat source. In the above reactions, aluminum is the
Once the reaction is started, it is self-sustain- reducing agent. Theoretically, the elements
ing because of its exothermic nature. magnesium, silicon, and calcium can be used
as well; but, for general applications, mag-
Principles of Operation•
nesium and calcium have found limited use
The thermochemical reaction takes place ac- because of technical disadvantages. Silicon is
cording to the following general equation: often used in Thermit mixtures where a liquid
Metal oxide + aluminum (powder)-+ product is not wanted, such as for heat treat-
aluminum oxide + metal + heat ment. In other cases, an alloy of equal parts of
The reaction can only be started and com- aluminum and silicon is used as a reducing
pleted if the oxygen affinity of the reducing agent.
agent (aluminum) is higher than the oxygen The first of the reactions above is the one
affinity of the metal to be reduced. The heat most commonly used as a basis of mixtures for
generated by this exothermic reaction results in Thermit welding. The proportions of such mix-
a liquid product consisting of metal and alum- tures are usually about three parts by weight of
inum oxide. If the density of the slag is lower iron oxide to one part of aluminum. The theo-
retical temperature created by this reaction is
I. Thennit is the term commonly used to identify this
about 5600° F. Additions of nonreacting con-
welding process even though it is a registered trademark.
2. See also Ch. 2, "Physics of Welding," Vol. I, 7th stituents, as well as heat loss to the reaction
ed.,43-44. vessel and radiation, reduce this temperature to
396
Thermit Welding I 397
about 4500° F. This is about the maximum APPLICATIONS

temperature that can be tolerated, since alu-
minum vaporizes at 4530° F. On the other hand, Rail Welding
the maximum temperature should not be much
The most common application of the
lower because the aluminum slag (Al 20 3 )
process is the welding of rail sections into con-
solidifies at 3 700° F.
tinuous lengths. It is an effective means of
The heat loss dept<nds very much upon
minimizing the number of bolted joints in the
the quantity of Thermit being reacted. With
track structure. In coal mines, the main haulage
large quantities, the heat loss per pound of
track is often welded to minimize maintenance
Thermit is considerably lower and the reaction
and to reduce excessive coal spillage caused
more complete when compared with small
by uneven track. Crane rails are regularly
quantities ofThermit. welded to minimize joint maintenance and vi-
Alloying elements can be added to the
bration of the building as heavily loaded wheels
Thermit compound in the form of ferroalloys
pass over the joint.
to match the chemistry of the parts to be
Thermit mixtures are available for all types
welded. Other additions are used to increase
of rail steels. The majority of rails are C-Mn
the fluidity and lower the solidification tempera-
steels, but Cr, Cr-Mo, Cr-V, and Si alloy rail
ture of the slag.
steels are manufactured abroad. Addition of rare
The Thermit reaction is nonexplosive and
earth metals or alloys may decrease the amount
requires less than one minute for completion,
of sulfur and phosphorous in steel made by the
regardless of quantity. To start the reaction,
Thermit process, resulting in an improvement
a special ignition powder or ignition rod is re-
in mechanical properties.
quired; both can be ignited by a regular match.
The ignition rod or powder will produce enough Welding with Preheat. Premanufactured
heat to raise the Thermit powder in contact with molds of split design are generally used for
it to its ignition temperature, which is about welding standard rail sizes. The mold should
2200° F. be aligned so that its center coincides with the
The parts to be welded must be lined up center of the gap between the rail ends. The rail
properly; the faces to be joined must be free of ends are preheated in the range of II 00° F to
rust, loose dirt, and grease. A proper gap must 1800°F with a gas torch flame directed into the
be provided between the faces, the size depend- mold as shown in Fig. 13.1. The refractory-
ing upon the cross section of the joint. A mold, lined crucible containing the Thermit charge is
which is either built up on the parts or pre- positioned above the mold halves after preheat-
manufactured to conform to the parts, is placed ing is completed. The charge is then ignited and
aound the joint to be welded. the molten steel pours into the joint. In some
To accomplish a butt weld, the ends of the procedures, the metal is fed into the middle of
parts must be preheated sufficiently to provide the joint gap (top-poured); in other procedures
conditions for complete fusion between the the metal enters the bottom of the mold at the
molten steel and the base metal. Even though outer leg of the rail base and rises vertically in
it is called a welding process, Thermit welding the middle (bottom-poured).
resembles metal casting where proper gates A self-tapping seal (disk) is used in the bot-
and risers are needed to: tom of the crucible. A few seconds after the
(I) Compensate for volume shrinkage Thermit reaction is complete, the molten metal
during solidification melts the seal and pours out of the bottom of
(2) Eliminate typical defects that appear the crucible into the gap between the two rail
in castings sections. The liquid slag separates from the
(3) Provide proper flow of the molten steel steel within the crucible because of its lower
(4) Avoid turbulence as the metal flows density. It does not reach the mold cavity until
into the joint all of the molten steel has entered and filled
398/ OTHER WELDING PROCESSES
Fig. 13.1-Prehe•ting r.il ends with • g•s torch

prior to Thermit welding
both the cavity between the rail sections and The rail ends are preheated by a portion of the
the mold itself. The slag remains on top of the molten metal produced by the Thermit reaction.
weld and solidifies there. When the metal has The crucible and mold are a one-piece design as
solidified, the mold halves are removed and shown in Fig. 13.2. The molds, commonly
discarded. The excess metal is removed by hand known as shell molds, are premanufactured of
grinding or by hydraulic or manual shearing sand bonded with phenolic resins. They are very
devices. light, non-hygroscopic, and moisture-free with
Thermit welding with short preheating time unlimited shelf life. After the Thermit reaction
usually requires a larger Thermit charge than is is completed, the molten steel automatically
needed with long preheating time. The heat flows from the crucible into the joint rather
dissipated into the work during welding has to than passing through the atmosphere, as is the
be provided by a larger mass of molten steel. case with a separate crucible.
Welding without Preheat. The self-pre- Figure 13 .3, a section through a mold,
heating method is designed to eliminate the shows the shape of the cavity in which the
variables associated with torch preheating and molten filler metal flows. There is a hollow
the equipment needed to perform that operation. chamber in the mold underneath the weld area
Thermit Welding /399
Preparing the Joint. The pieces to be

joined should be properly positioned in contact
and aligned for welding. Firm marks should
then be made on the pieces outside the area to
be covered by the mold box. They will be used
to reposition the pieces after the groove faces
are prepared for welding. The metal may then
be cut with a cutting torch along the line of
fracture to provide a parallel-sided gap. The gap
width depends upon the size of the section to be
welded as shown in Table 13.1. All loose oxide
and slag from torch cutting, as well as dirt and
grease, must be removed from the pieces where
the mold will be located.
To allow for contraction of the weld during
cooling, the pieces are initially spaced 1/16 to
1/4 in. further apart than their original positions,
using the markers on the pieces for reference.
The exact increase depends upon the size of the
weld and the gap length. The amount of con-
traction allowance required can be judged quite
Fig. 13.2-Combin•tion mold-crucible

in position for Thermit welding
without prehe•t Slag
that receives the first molten metal to allow it

to preheat the rail ends. This metal is called the
preheat metal. By the time the chamber is filled,
sufficient molten metal should have passed over
the rail ends to preheat them to the required
temperature to assure complete fusion with the
base metal. Thermit portions for this process are
about twice the size of those used for the ex-
ternal preheat method.
The heat-affected zones in the adjacent rail
sections are considerably smaller than when Preheat
metal
external preheating is used. Figure 13 .4 shows
chamber-- --M-
a typical section through a Thermit rail weld
made with the self-preheating process.
Repair Welding
Repair welds are normally nonrepetitive
and, therefore, premanufactured molds are not Fig. 13.3-Section through •
used. A mold must be made for each weld so mold-crucible h•ving • prehe•t
that it will conform to the shape of the part. met•/ ch•mber
400 /OTHER WELDING PROCESSES
Table 13.1
Examples of Thermit weld dimensions and mold requirements
Connecting
Section Risers Pouring gates Heating gates gates Thennit
size or Gap, Collar, Diam., Diam., Diam., Diam., req'd, 8
diam., in. in. in. No. in. No. in. No. in. No. in. lb.
Rectangular sections
2x2 7/16 1-1/2x7/16 I 3/4 I 3/4 I 1-1/4 6
2x4 9/16 1-5/16x9/16 I 3/4 I I I 1-1/4 12
4x4 11/16 2-5/8xll/16 I I I I I 1-1/4 25
4x8 7/8 3-7/16x7/8 I I I I 2b 1-1/4 50
8x8 1- 1/8 4-5/8xl-1/8 I 1-3/4 I 1-1/4 2b 1-1/4 125
8xi2 1- 1/4 5-1/2xl-l/4 I 1-3/4 I 1-1/4 I 1-1/4 I 1-1/4 175
12xl2 1- 7/16 6-1/2xl-7/16 I 2-1/2 I 1-1/2 2b 1-1/2 I 1-1/2 300
12xl8 1-11/16 7-3/4xl-ll/16 I 2-1/2 I 1-1/2 2b 1-1/2 I 1-1/2 500
16xl6 1- 3/4 8-15/16xl-3/4 I 2-3/4 2 2 2 1-1/2 2 1-1/2 700
16x24 2 9-15/16x2 I 2-3/4 2 2 2 1-1/2 2 1-1/2 1150
24x24 2- 5/16 11-13/16x2-5/16 2 2-1/2 2 2 2 1-3/4 2 1-3/4 1875
24x36 2- 5/8 14-1/8 x2-5/8 2 2-1/2 2 2 2 2 4 2 3125
Round sections
2 7/16 1-3/8x7/16 I 3/4 I 3/4 I 1-1/4 5
4 5/8 2-3/8x5/8 I I I I I 1-1/4 25
8 I 4-3/16xl I 1-1/2 I 1-1/4 I 1-1/4 75
12 1- 5/16 5-7/8xl-5/16 I 1-3/4 I 1-1/2 I 1-1/112 I 1-1/2 200
16 1- 5/8 7-1/2xl-5/8 I 2 I 1-1/2 I 1-1/2 I 1-1/2 425
a. Thennit required includes provision for a l<Yl- excess of steel in slag basin for a single pour and a 20% excess for a double pour.
b. Includes one separate back heating gate.
accurately with experience.' equal sections are being welded together, the
heating gate is directed toward the larger section
Applying the Mold. When a single large to provide somewhat uniform heating of the two
weld is to be made, a wax pattern is used to parts. Where there are one or more high points
shape the mold cavity at the joint, similar to on a joint of complex cross section, riser gates
the lost-wax casting process. The wax is placed will be required at all of them. The top of the
in the gap and on the surfaces of the parts to mold is hollowed out to provide a basin for the
produce the exact shape desired for the finished slag produced by the thermit reaction. The mold
weld, including the collar of weld reinforce- must be adequately vented to facilitate the es-
ment. A sand mold is then built up around the cape of moisture during the preheating process.
pattern, using a suitable mold box to contain Finally, the wood patterns are removed. Figure
the mold sand. 13.5 shows a section through a completed
Wood patterns of pouring and heating gates Thermit weld mold with the crucible in position.
and risers are positioned within the mold as it The quality of the molding sand requires
is being rammed. Where two pieces of the same special attention. It must have high refractori-
size are to be welded together, the heating gate ness, high permeability, and adequate shear
is centered directly on the wax pattern. If un- strength. It should be free of clay components
with low melting points.
3. Transverse shrinkage in butt welds is discussed in
Ch. 6, "Residual Stresses and Distortion," Vol. 1, Preheating. Preheating is accomplished by
7th ed: 250-255. directing a gas flame into the ch~mber through
Upon completion of the preheating, the

heating gate must be blocked. A short length of
steel rod of appropriate diameter is pushed into
the gate against a shoulder and then backed
with molding sand.
Charging the Crucible. The Thermit reac-
tion, as in the case of preheated type rail
welding, takes place in a refractory-lined, cone-
shaped crucible as shown in Fig. 13.6. A hard
refractory (magnesite) stone at the bottom of the
crucible holds a replaceable refractory orifice or
thimble. The thimble is plugged by inserting a
tapping pin through it and then placing a metal
disk on top of the pin. The disk is covered
with a layer of refractory sand. The Thermit
mixture should be placed in the crucible in a
manner that will not dislodge the sand layer.
Low carbon steel punchings are sometimes
added to the Thermit mixture to augment the
metal produced. The quantity of Thermit mix-
ture required for a joint can be calculated by
the following equation:
X= _ __:£::....__
0.5 + O.OIS
Fig. 13.4-Photom•crogr•ph of •
vertic•/ section through • typic•/
thermit r•il weld
the heating gate. A torch designed specifically

for the purpose may burn propane, natural gas,
kerosene, or gasoline.
The initial purpose of preheating is to' re-
move the wax. The heat is applied gradually, Slag basin --+,+ ...
and the torch is frequently removed from the Riser--!~~TI0T~
heating gate to allow the melted wax to flow Section to
out. After the wax has been removed, the heat is be welded - 4 4 -.._
gradually increased to preheat the faces of the
base metal and thoroughly dry the mold. The
mold must be completely dried to avoid weld
Molding sand
porosity generated by residual moisture in the
molding sand. Preheating is continued until the
ends of the parts to be welded are cherry red Fig. 13.5- Cross section of • typic•/
in color, an indication that their temperature is thermit mold for repMr welding with
between 1500°F and 1800° F. extern•/ prehe•t
Magnesite stone
Magnesite thimble
Plugging material
Metal disc
Tapping pin
Fig. 13.6- Cross section of a thermit crucible
where: and the gate are removed with an oxyfuel g@s

X =quantity ofTherrnit required, lb cutting torch.
E = quantity of molten steel required to
fill the gap, including lO percent for Applications of Repair Welding. Thermit
losses, lb welding is employed in the marine field for the
S = percent of steel punchings to be in- repair of heavy sections of ferrous metal such as
cluded in the charge broken stem frames, rudder parts, shafts, and
struts.
As a rough rule, the amount of Thermit is Broken necks, pinions, and pinion teeth of
25 pounds for each pound of wax in the pattern. sheet and plate rolls are replaced with entirely
new pieces, cast or forged slightly oversize to
Making the Weld. The reaction can be ini- permit machining. They are Thermit welded to
tiated by two methods: (1) starting powder that the main section.
can be ignited by a match or regular gas striker, Badly worn wobblers on the ends of steel
or (2) an ignition rod. mill rolls may similarly be replaced with a suf-
After the reaction is completed and the ficiently tough Thermit metal deposit that is
action of the molten steel subsides, the crucible machinable. The method is particularly appli-
is tapped by striking the tapping pin with a cable for repairs involving large volumes of
sharp upward blow. The molten steel flows into metal, where the heat of fusion cannot be raised
the mold and fills the joint. satisfactorily or efficiently by other means or
The mold is stripped away after the weld where fractures or voids in large sections
metal has solidified. Whenever possible, the require a large quantity of weld metal.
entire weldment should be annealed to stress Thermit welding can be used for the repair
relieve it. of ingot molds at significant savings over
If required, the collar around the weld may replacement: the bottom of the mold can be cut
be removed by machining or grinding. Risers off and completely rebuilt with Thermit metal,
or an eroded cavity in the bottom can be filled mold. The Thermit powder is placed in the
with Thermit metal. The first method of repair crucible and the reaction initiated. After comple-
is more sophisticated and requires larger quan- tion of the reaction, the molten steel melts
tities of Thermit, but the lifetime of the ingot through the closure disk and fills the gap be-
mold will be more than doubled. The latter tween the bars. The initial molten steel entering
type of repair has to be repeated after every the mold chamber preheats the bar ends as it
second or third pour. flows over them into a preheat metal chamber.
With large dredge cutters, the blades may The molten steel fills the joint gap and con-
be Thermit welded to a center ring. Quantities summates a weld. Reinforcing bars can be welded
up to several thousand pounds are poured at by this process in any position with properly
one time. In this case, Thermit welding is a pro- designed molds . Thermit welded reinforcing bar
duction tool rather than a repair method. specimens tested in tension and bending are
shown in Fig. 13.8.
Reinforcing Bar Welding As an alternative to welding, reinforcing
Thermit welding without preheat is one bars can be joined end-to-end by casting
way of splicing concrete reinforcing steel bars . steel between a steel sleeve and the enclosed
Continuous reinforcing bars permit the design bars. The joint is primarily mechanical. Ar-
of concrete columns or beams smaller in sec- rangements for horizontal and vertical connec-
tion than when the bars are not welded together. tions are shown in Fig. 13 .9. The sleeve is
The two mold halves, which are preman- placed around the abutted bars. Its inside diam-
ufactured by the C0 2 or shell-mold process, are eter is somewhat larger than the diameter of the
positioned at the joint in the aligned bars and bars to provide space for the cast steel. Both
sealed to them with asbestos and sand to avoid the inner surface of the sleeve and the surfaces
loss of molten metal. The arrangements for of the bars are serrated. A graphite or C0 2 mold
horizontal and vertical welding are shown in is mounted over an orifice in the sleeve through
Fig. 13. 7. A closure disk is located in a well at which the molten steel flows into the annular
the base of the Thermit crucible section of the space between the bars and sleeve. The Thermit
le cap
Reaction crucible
with channel
{sand)
Molding sand
Horizontal Vertical
Fig. 13.7-Thermit welding concrete reinforcing steel b~rs

mix is placed above a metal closure disk within the sleeve, and then solidifies. About five
the mold. minutes are required to make a joint with this
Upon ignition of the Thermit powder, technique.
molten steel is produced. It melts the metal disk,
Electrical Connections
flows into the annular space between the bars
A Therrnit mixture of copper oxide and
aluminum is used for the welding of joints in
copper conductors. The reaction between the
two materials produces superheated molten
copper and slag in I to 5 seconds. Other metals
in the form of slugs or powder can be added to
produce alloys for particular applications of the
process.
The process is primarily used for welding
copper bars, cables, and wires together, as well
as copper conductors to steel rails for grounding.
For the latter application, a graphite mold is
clamped to the rail section at the joint. As soon
as the Thermit reaction is complete, the molten
copper melts the disk and flows into the joint
cavity. It solidifies in a few seconds and creates
a weld between the base metal and the copper
cable. Then the mold is removed. It can be used
again after removing the slag from the reaction
chamber.
Heat Treatment of Welds
Fig. 13.8-Thermit welded reinforcing
steel bars after tensile and bend testing The development of high alloy steels and
Reaction crucible
Reinforcing bar
Crucible cap
Reaction crucible
:.o •
' 0 •••
:·o
0
o .utlet closure : ~ .o
diSC ..J _..!:..
Asbestos --".:•;r
disc or card -·-i-L.o..~J:H :e-'
--.:--~~~lig~;;~~~
Asbestos disc or card
Horizontal Vertical
Fig. 13.9-Thermit sleeve joint for reinforcing bars

Cold Welding /405
the application of the Thermit process for weld-

ing them created a need for special types of
Thermit mixtures that produce heat only. Molten
metal is not produced. This particular type of
Thermit is designed to create sufficient heat for
heat-treating purposes.
Using special binders, the Thermit mixture
itself is formed to the configuration of the parts
to be heat treated. It keeps its exact shape during
and after the Thermit reaction. The maximum
temperature produced in the part can be adjusted
by the design of the Thermit compound. Figure
13.10 shows Thermit blocks in place for heat
treating a rail section.
SAFETY
The presence of moisture in the Thermit
mix, in the crucible, or on the workpieces can
lead to rapid formation of steam when the Fig. 13.10-Bonded Thermit blocks in place
Thermit reaction takes place. This may cause for heat treating a rail section
ejection of molten metal from the crucible.
Therefore, the Thermit mix should be stored in a
dry place, the crucible should be dry, and mois-
ture should not be allowed to enter the system
before or during welding. tion against hot particles or sparks. This includes
The work area should be free of com- full face shields with filter lenses for eye pro-
bustible materials that may be ignited by sparks tection and headgear. Safety boots are recom-
or small particles of molten metal. The area mended to protect the feet from hot sparks.
should be well ventilated to avoid the buildup Clothing should not have pockets or cuffs that
of fumes and gases from the reaction. Starting might catch hot particles.
powders and rods should be protected against Preheating should be done taking safety
accidental ignition. precautions applicable to all oxyfuel gas equip-
Personnel should wear appropriate protec- ment and operations.
COLD WELDING
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCESS of the process is the absence of heat, either
applied externally or generated by the welding
Definition and General Description process itself. A fundamental requisite for satis-
factory cold welding is that at least one of the
Cold welding (CW) is a solid-state process metals to be joined is highly ductile and does
in which pressure is used at room temperature not exhibit extreme work-hardening. Both butt
to produce coalescence of metals with substan- and lap joints can be cold welded. Typical
tial deformation at the weld. A characteristic joints are shown in Fig. 13.11.
(A)
lEVi (E)
a
(B)
(F)
(C)
~
f--WF--t
(G)
f-- If -~
f- "~]
~
~
(D) (H)
(AI lap weld, poth sides indented; (B) lap weld, one side indented; (C) edge weld, both sides
indented; (D) butt joint in tubing, before and after welding; (E) draw weld; (F) lapped wire,
before and after welding; (G) mash cap joint; (H) butt joint in solid stock, before and after
welding
Fig. 13.11- Contour of typical cold welded joints
welded ·readily are gold, silver, palladium, and

Materials Welded
platinum.
Metals with face-centered-cubic (FCC) The joining of copper to aluminum by cold
lattice structure are best suited for cold weld- welding is a good application of the process,
ing, provided they do not work-harden rapidly. especially where aluminum tubing or electrical
Soft tempers of metals such as aluminum and conductor grade aluminum is joined to short
copper are most easily cold welded. It is more sections of copper to provide transition joints
difficult to weld cold-worked or heat-treated between the two metals. Such cold welds are
alloys of these metals. Work-hardening at the characterized by substantially greater deforma-
interface becomes pronounced or fracture occurs tion of the aluminum than the copper because
elsewhere in the piece when ductility becomes of the difference in the yield strengths and
exhausted. Other FCC metals that may be cold work-hardening behaviors ofthe two metals.
Cold Welding /407
Dissimllar Metal Welds form depends upon the specific diffusion con-
stants for the particular metals in the weld as
Numerous dissimilar metals may be joined
well as the time and temperature of exposure.
by cold welding whether they are quite soluble
or relatively insoluble in one another. In some Thus, bimetal cold weldments iequire careful
consideration of the diffusion couple and the
cases, the two metals may combine to form
service environment. For example, a layered
intermetallic compounds. Since cold welding is
structure forms at the interface in an aluminum-
carried out at room temperature, there is no
copper weldment at elevated temperatures as
significant diffusion between dissimilar metals
shown in Fig. 13.12. The layered structure con-
during welding. The alloying characteristics of
tains a brittle Al-Cu intermetallic compound that
the metals being joined do not affect the manner
weakens the weldment. Figure 13.13 shows how
in which the cold welding operation is carried
rapidly the thickness of the diffused zone in-
out. However, interdiffusion at elevated tem-
creases at high service temperatures. Mechani-
peratures can affect the choice of postweld
thermal treatments and the performance of the cal tests have shown that the strength and
ductility of the joint decrease when the thickness
weld in service.
of the interfacial layer exceeds about 0.002
Welds made between metals that are essen-
inch. Consequently, aluminum-copper cold
tially insoluble in each <;>ther are usually stable.
welds should be used only in applications
Diffusion can form an intermetallic compound
at elevated service temperatures. In some cases, where service temperatures are low and peak
this intermetallic layer can be brittle and cause temperatures seldom, if ever, exceed 150° F.
a marked reduction in the ductility of the weld.
Metallurgical Structure
Such welds are particularly sensitive to bending
or impact loading after an intermetallic layer In butt joints, the lateral flow of metal
has formed. between the dies during upset produces a cross-
The rate at which intermetallic compounds grained structure adjacent to the interface of the
•n
Fig. 13.12-hyered structure in •luminum-copper cold weld
•fler exposure •t 500°F for 60 d•ys
1.5x 10- 3
.,·
~
-~ 1.0
c:
0
·;:;;
:J
:;
"0
.....0
0.5
--------------~;~---ti
.,~
c:
-"
.!::!
.<:
I-
0
0 2 3 4 6
Time, months
Fig. 13.13- Change in thickness of the diffusion layer in
aluminum-copper cold welds with time at three elevated temperatures
weld, as shown in Fig. 13.14. This cross- Surface Preparation

grained material is essentially a narrow trans-
Cold welding requires that clean metal
verse section in the weldment. The presence of
faces come into intimate contact for a strong
this section is not important in metals that are
essentially isotropic, such as aluminum and joint. Proper surface preparation is very im-
portant to assure joints of maximum strength.
some aluminum alloys. In nonisotropic metals,
Dirt, adsorbed gas, oils, or oxide films on the
fatigue or corrosion resistance may be sub-
surface interfere with metal-to-metal contact and
stantially lower at the welded joint.
must be removed to obtain strong welds.
The best method of surface preparation for
lap welds is wire brushing at a surface speed
of about 3000 ft per minute. A motor-driven
rotary brush of0.004-in. diameter stainless steel
wire is commonly used. Softer wire brushes
may burnish the surface; coarser types may
remove too much metal and roughen the surface.
The surfaces should be de greased prior to brush-
ing to avoid contamination of the wire brushes.
It is important that the clean surface not be
touched with the hands because grease or oil on
the faying surfaces impairs the formation of a
strong joint. Welding should take place as soon
as practical after cleaning to avoid interference
with bonding from oxidation. In the case of
aluminum, for example, welding should be done
within about 30 minutes.
Chemical and abrasive cleaning meth-
Fig. 13.14- Transverse flow lines in a ods have not proved satisfactory for cleaning
cold welded butt joint surfaces to be joined by cold welding. The
Cold Welding /409
The bar type indentation, Figs. 13 .17(A)

and (B), causes metal deformation along both
of its sides. Indentations in the form of a ring,
Fig. 13.17(C), may cause undesirable curvature
of the sheet surfaces. A ring weld may have a
smooth convex dome of metal within the ring.
This dome is formed when the metal is forced
from between the dies as pressure is applied.
Continuous seam welding, Fig. 13.17(E), can be
employed in the manufacture of thin-wall tubing
or lap welds in sheet.
Symmetrical dies that indent both sides of
the joint, Figs. 13.ll(A) and (C), are generally
used. If one surface must be free of indenta-
tion, a flat plate or anvil may be used on one
side to produce the weld shown in Fig. 13.11(8).
Thinner gages of sheet metal or wire can be cold
Fig. 13.15-A manually operated

cold welding machine
residue from chemical cleaning or abrasive

particles embedded in or left on the surface
may prevent the formation of a sound weld.
EQUIPMENT
Pressure for welding may be applied to
overlapped or butted surfaces with hydraulic or
mechanical presses, rolls, or special manual or
pneumatically operated tools . Ahand tool of the
toggle cutter type is suitable for very light work .
A common manually operated press, as shown
in Fig. 13.15, may be used for medium size
work . Very heavy work requires power operated
machines such as the one in Fig. 13 .16. The rate
of pressure application does not usually affect
the strength or quality of the weld.
Regardless of how pressure is applied, the
proper indentation for lap welds is important.
The indentation may take the form of a narrow
strip, a ring, or a continuous seam. 'JYpical lap
weld indentor configurations used for cold weld-
ing are presented in Fig. 13.17. The selection
of indentation configuration is largely deter-
mined by the desired appearance and perfor- Fig. 13.16-A hydraulically operated
mance characteristics. cold welding machine
!-: -1 f f
(A)
i
I
(B)
I }
(C)
g-----2] (E)
~
(F)
(A) and (B), bar type; (C) ring type; (D), (E), and (F), intermittent and continuous
seam types
Fig. 13.17- Typical lap weld indentor configurations

used in cold welding
welded using simple dies mounted in hand- 13.11(0) and (H) illustrate butt joints in tubing
operated tools. and solid forms. The weld is frequently as strong
Draw welding is a form of lap weldin.e: used as the base metal when correct procedures
to seal containers. Both the lid and the can are are used.
flared before welding. The components are placed Preparation for Welding
in a close fitting die. A punch forces the com- A short section is usually sheared from
ponents into the die which cold welds the flared the ends of the parts to be joined to expose fresh,
metal as it is drawn down over the punch. Figure clean surfaces. The shear should be designed to
13 .li(E) illustrates such a joint. produce square ends so that the parts do not de-
Dies are usually subjected to high pressures flect from axial alignment as welding force is
and should be made of tool steel hardened to applied. During shearing, a thin film of a par-
about 60 Rockwell C. Pressures of from 150 to ticular metal being cut can accumulate on the
500 ksi are required to weld aluminum depend- shear blades. If the shear is then used to cut a
ing upon alloy composition and temper. Copper different metal, accumulated metal on the blade
requires pressures that may be two to four times may transfer to the cut surface and inhibit
greater than those required for aluminum. Alu- welding. Therefore, the shear blades should be
minum can be cold welded to copper using spe- cleaned before shearing parts of another metal
cially designed dies to compensate for the dif- . for cold welding.
ference in yield strengths. It is not usually necessary to degrease parts
to be cold welded before shearing if the residual
BUTT JOINTS film of lubricant is very thin. However, de greas-
ing may be necessary if there is a heavy oil film
Cold welding is commonly used to produce on the metal to avoid contamination of the cut
butt joints in wire, rod, tubing, and simple ex- surfaces and to prevent the parts from slipping
truded shapes of like and unlike metals. Figures in the clamping dies.
Cold Welding /411
Welding Procedure
The parts must be positioned in the clamp-
ing dies with sufficient initial extension of each
part between the dies to ensure adequate upset
to produce a weld. However, extension of the
parts should not be excessive to avoid bending
of the parts. The upsetting force will cause the
parts to bend or assume an S-shaped curve, as
shown in Fig. 13.18, if the initial die opening
is too large. The ends can deflect and slide past
one another when force is applied if the project-
ing length of each part exceeds about twice the
thickness or diameter of the parts. In other
words, the initial opening between the dies
should be no greater than four times the diameter
or thickness of the parts. This distance is the
maximum total upset that can be used to effect
welding. The minimum upset distance varies
with the alloy being joined.
The welding dies must firmly grip the parts
to prevent slippage when upset force is applied.
Any slippage will reduce the amount of upset.
For a firm grip, the dimensions of the parts must
be within close tolerance so that the dies can
nearly close to hold each part securely. The
allowable tolerance depends on (I) the design of
the die and die holder, and (2) the gripping
surface finish. Deep knurling on the gripping
surfaces will indent into the part. In most cases,
the allowable tolerance for a round part is about
3 percent of the diameter. Fig. 13.19- St•tes of upset during
Somewhat wider tolerances are permis- butt cold welding
sible for rectangular-shaped parts because the
dies usually bear on only two sides. The gap
between the closed grips must, however, be
small to obtain uniform upsetting of metal. It
should be no more than about 10 percent of the
part thickness.
The application of upset force causes the
metal between the dies to upset laterally as
illustrated in Fig. 13.19. This lateral flow of
metal
(I) Breaks up the oxide film present on the
abutting surfaces and carries most of it out of
the joint.
(2) Enables oxide-free metal on one side of
the interface to achieve intimate contact with
Fig. 13.18-Bending produced during oxide-free metal on the other side
upset from excessive projecting lengths (3) Provides the energy that enables the
contacting surfaces to achieve a submicroscopic

bond registry with one another
Thus, all requirements needed to form a
metal bond are fulfilled and a metallurgical
union forms. The flash formed by the lateral
flow of metal can be pinched off by the dies
as they close together.
Cold welds are usually insensitive to the
rate of upsetting of the metal, within limits.
Regardless of upset speed, welding will take
place if there is sufficient upset.
Multiple Upset
The amount of upset required to produce
a full-strength weld in some alloys sometimes
exceeds that which can be provided in one step
because of a limitation on part extension. If an
initial upset will produce a bond of sufficient
strength to hold the parts together, additional
upset can be applied to produce a full-strength
weld by repositioning the weldment in the dies.
Surface preparation prior to welding is relatively Fig. 13.21 -Multiple upset cold weld in
unimportant when a multiple upsetting tech- Type 1100 aluminum wire using an offset
nique is used. This technique will completely flash technique
displace contaminants from the interface.
Single upset welding is not normally used

for welding butt joints in wires smaller than
3/16-inch in diameter. A cross section of a
single upset butt joint in type 1100 aluminum
wire is shown in Fig. 13.20. C::ompare this weld
with the multiple upset weld in Type I 100
aluminum alloy illustrated in Fig. 13 .21. The
multiple upset, offset-flash technique is com-
monly used in wire drawing to splice 0 .025 to
0.128-in . diameter wires as well as those alumi-
num alloy wires that cannot be welded effec-
tively with single upset. Figure 13 .22 illustrates
the various stages involved in making a multiple
upset butt weld between strips .
Offset Welds
Figure 13.23 illustrates a cold weld being
made in a die designed to produce an offset
flash. This technique will produce a discon-
tinuous flash that is easy to remove as well as
a weld joint that is at an angle to the wire axis .
Fig. 13.20-Single upset cold weld in The weld joint being at an angle to the axis will
Type 1100 aluminum wire be less influenced by discontinuities in the weld.
Cold Welding /413
1st Stage 4th Stage
2nd Stage 5th Stage
3rd Stage 6th Stage

Fig. 13.22- Stages in multiple upset welding of butt joints between strips
(A) Before welding (B) After welding

Fig. 13.23- Cold welding of wire with an offset flash technique
Applications LAP WELDING

Procedures
Cold welded butt joints are used in the
manufacture of aluminum, copper, gold, silver, Lap welds can be used for joining alumi-
and platinum wire. The most common use is to num sheet or foil to itself and also to copper
join successive reels of wire for continuous sheet or foil. Pressure is applied to the lapped
drawing to smaller diameters. Butt joints are parts by dies that indent the metal and cause it
also used to repair breaks in the wire that occur to flow at the interface. This pressure ranges
during the drawing operation. Diameters rang- between 150 and 500 ksi for aluminum, depend-
ing from 0.0025 to 0.50-in. have been welded ing upon the compressive yield strength of the
successfully. The aluminum alloys that have alloy being welded. Excellent lap welds can be
been welded with good results include TYpes produced in non-heat-treatable aluminum al-
EC, llOO, 2319, 3003, 4043, all of the 5000 loys, such as TYpes EC, llOO, and 3003. How-
series, 6061, and 6201. With most of these ever, aluminum alloys containing more than 3
alloys, the as-welded wire can be drawn suc- percent magnesium, the 2000 and 7000 series of
cessfully to smaller diameters after removal of wrought alloys, and castings are not readily
the flash. Cold welded joints in wire of very lap welded.
high-strength alloys, such as TYpes 2014 and Table 13.2 gives recommended deforma-
7178, usually must be annealed to prevent breaks tions and typical joint efficiencies for lap welds
during subsequent drawing operations. Alumi- in several common aluminum alloys. For most
num alloys that contain lead and bismuth (TYpes alloys, joint strength is maximum when de-
20ll and 6262) are difficult to cold weld. formations between 60 and 70 percent are used.
Where welding is permitted by ASTM It is apparent that the intrinsic strength of the
Specifications, cold welding is used to join weld may increase at deformations exceeding 70
successive lengths of wire to permit stranding of percent, but the overall strength of the assembly
long lengths of multiple-strand electrical con- is decreased. Lap welds exhibit good shear and
ductors. The weld flash is removed and the weld tensile strengths but have poor resistance to
is dressed with a file or suitable abrasive to bending or peel loading.
obtain a smooth, uniform appearance. Equal deformations can be achieved when
Welds in annealed wire of any of the weld- lap welding aluminum to copper or welding
able aluminum alloys exhibit tensile strengths dissimilar aluminum alloys together by using
exceeding 95 percent of the base metal. In cold dies with the bearing areas approximately in
worked TYpe EC or 5005 aluminum wire and inverse proportion to the compressive yield
heat-treated TYpe 6201 wire, weld efficiencies strength of each metal.
of 92 to 100 percent are attained. In bend test-
Applications
ing, the welded joint can be bent or twisted
about half as many times before failure as un- Commercial applications of lap welding
welded wire ofthe same alloy. are shown in Figs. 13.24 and 13.25. They in-
Seven-strand No. 4 AWG aluminum alloy clude packaging as well as electrical applica-
conductors with a cold weld in one strand have tions. The latter is probably the field in which
shown the same breaking strength as similar lap welding finds the greatest application. It is
conductors without welded strands. TYpes EC, especially useful in the fabrication of electrical
5005, and 6201 aluminum alloys were used in devices in which a transition from aluminum
making these tests. windings to copper terminations is required. The
For copper wire, work hardening at the range of electrical applications covers large
cold weld increases the metal strength to that of distribution transformers to small electronic
the drawn wire. devices.
Cold Welding /415
two across the midpoint of the weld. As with

sheet, the interior of the tubing must be clean
to accomplish a leak-free weld across the flat-
tened tube.
The die face radius and width must be
designed to accomplish cold welding and ulti-
mately cut the tubing in two. The opposing dies
must be carefully aligned for welding. The face
radius is the key to successful cold welding and
must be determined experimentally for the metal
and tube wall thickness.
Fig. 13.24-Application of cold welding in

the manufacture of an electrical
component
A variation of cold lap welding is the seal-

ing of commercially pure aluminum, copper, or
nickel tubing by pinching it in two between two
dies. The tubing is placed transversely between
two radius-faced linear dies. As the dies are
forced together, the tubing is pinched flat against
itself. As the force on the dies is increased,
the metal between the dies is upset and ex-
truded from between them as in lap welding.
The force is increased until the tube walls are Fig. 13.25-Application of cold welding in
cold welded together and then finally parted in the manufacture of industrial packaging
Table13.2
Lap type cold welds in selected aluminum alloys
Recommended Joint
Alloy Temper deformation, % efficiency, %
3003 0 50 85
3003 Hl4 70 70
3003 Hl6 70 60
3003 HIS 60 55
3004 0 60 60
3004 H34 55 40
5052 0 60 65
5052 H34 60 45
6061 T6 60 50
7075 T6 40 10
AIclad
416/ OTHER WELDING PROC ESSES
HOT PRESSURE WELDING
PRESSURE GAS WELDING sure intimate contact. The metal at the joint is
then heated to welding temperature with a gas
Detinition and General Description flame. Finally, the metal is upset sufficiently to
Pressure gas welding is an oxyfuel gas consummate a weld.
welding process which produces coalescence Heating is generally done with water-
simultaneously over the entire area of abutting cooled, multiflame oxyacetylene torches. These
surfaces by heating them with oxyfuel gas flames torches are designed to generate ~ufficient heat
and then applying adequate pressure.• No filler and distribute it uniformly throughout the entire
metal is used. The two variations of the process section to be welded. For sections over l-in.
are the closed joint and open joint methods. In thick, it is advisable to heat the joint uniformly
the closed joint method, the clean faces of the from all sides as shown in Fig. 13 .27.
parts to be joined are abutted together under Solid or hollow round sections , such as
moderate pressure and heated by gas flames shafts or piping , are usually welded with cir-
until a predetermined upsetting of the joint oc- cular ring torches. The torch head may be a split
curs. In the open joint method, the faces to be type for easy loading and removal of work from
joined are individually heated by the gas flames the welding machine. A typical head of this
to the melting temperature and then brought into type for welding 2.5-in. dia meter tubing with
contact for upsetting. Both methods are easily a 0 .25-in . wall thickness is shown in Fig. 13.28.
adapted to mechanized operation. Pressure gas More elaborate heating heads are required for
welding can be used for welding low and high more complicated shapes. They should conform
carbon steels, low and high alloy steels, and sev- to the shape of the part to provide uniform
eral nonferrous metals and alloys. heating.
In the closed joint method, since the metal The apparatus for pressure gas welding
along the interface does not reach the melting must be designed to apply the desired pressure
point, the mode of welding is different from and maintain alignment during welding. Pro-
that of fusion welding. Generally speaking, vision for maintaining uniform pressure is
welding takes place by the action of grain essential.
growth, diffusion, and grain coalescence across
the interface under the impetus of high temper-
ature (about 2200° F for low carbon steel) and
upsetting pressure. The welds are characterized
by a smooth-surfaced bulge or upset, as shown
in Fig. 13.26, and by the general absence of
cast metal at the weld line.
In the open joint method, the joint faces are
melted, but the molten metal is squeezed from
the interface t o form a fl ash when the joint is up-
set. These welds resemble flash welds in general
appearance.
Closed Joint Method. The faces to be welded
are butted together under initial pressure to as-
4. This process is covered more fully inCh. 22, "Pres- Fig. 13.26-Typical pressure gas welds in
sure Gas Welding," Section 2, 4th ed., 1958. 1 and 1.25-in. diameter steel bars
Hot Pressure Welding /417
Fig. 13.27-Torch arrangement for pressure gas welding a Type 321 stainless
steel ring with 1.88 by 2.63-in. cross section
The quality and type of end preparation of diameter by 1/4-in. wall steel pipes are to be
the parts to be welded depend upon the type of pressure gas welded end-to-end using a butt
steel. In general, the abutting ends should be joint. The general procedures are as follows: A
machined or ground to a smooth, clean surface. split torch head that will provide small oxyacety-
Freedom from oil, rust, grinding dust, and other lene flames for the full circumference of the
foreign material is of great importance. joint is selected. The head is mounted in the
The geometry of the abutting faces depends same plane as the interface with provision for
upon the application and the alloy. Some con- axial oscillation. The abutting ends of the pipe
trol of the shape of the upset metal can be ob- are beveled to an included angle of 6 to 10 de-
tained by beveling one or both of the parts. Fig- grees with a smooth, clean finish. The pipes are
ure 13 .29 illustrates typical joint preparations for placed in the machine and aligned. Then a
pressure gas welding and the effect of beveling force of 5850 lbs is applied to produce a low
on the shapes of the completed welds . compressive pressure of 1500 psi. While this
For illustration, assume that two 5-in. force is maintained, the torch flames are oscil-
Fig. 13.28-Split annular torch for pressure welding piping, tubing,

or solid rounds
lated axially a short distance across the weld chromium steels , and nonferrous metals. For
joint. As the joint heats up, the metal will upset. example, the constant pressure method is recom-
The joint faces will close together preventing mended for welding high carbon steel parts.
oxidation at higher temperatures. As the metal Another variation of the basic method is
temperature increases, the compressive strength applicable to high chromium steels and some
of the steel decreases and the joint begins to nonferrous metals. A high initial pressure in the
upset uniformly. At this time, the metal is at range of 6000 to 10 000 psi is applied before
welding temperature throughout its full thickness heating is started and is maintained until the
and an upsetting pressure of 4000 psi (15 600 metal in the weld zone starts to upset. This high
lb force) is applied until the weld zone is upset pressure forces the joint faces together to prevent
for a distance of 3/16 inch. The torches may oxidation. Pressure is then decreased until weld-
then be extinguished and the assembly removed ing temperature is reached when the high pres-
from the machine. sure is again applied to upset the joint.
There are a few variations of this basic Examples of typical pressure cycles used
procedure, the principal one being the sequence for pressure gas welding several metals are given
of pressure application. These variations are in Table 13.3. Table 13.4 gives the average
introduced to meet special requirements of cer- dimensions of closed joint pressure welds in
tain metals such as high carbon steels, high parts of various thicknesses.
Joint preparation Finished pressure weld Desired finished section

(AI ) I c:::::::J \ {
(B)ce} ~
(C) [=c:::::J c::=:::J l r
IDlc::c=J
- I
Fig. 13.29-Joint designs for pressure gas welding
The quality of a weld depends to an im- pressure gas welding must provide more
portant degree upon proper upsetting during the accurate alignment and be of rugged construc-
welding operation. The upset distance or short- tion to withstand rapidly applied upset forces.
ening of the weld zone increases with metal Machines similar to those used for flash welding
thickness. Recommended amounts of upset are are suitable.
given in Table 13.4. These values are usually The most satisfactory heating head is a flat,
measured from fixed points on the parts or the multiflame type burner, such as the one shown in
welding machine. Fig. 13.30, that produces a uniform flame pat-
tern conforming to the cross section ofthe mem-
Open Joint Method. Machines for open joint bers to be welded. Good alignment of the heat-
Table 13.3
Typical upset pressure cycles for pressure gas welds
End pressure, psi
"JYpe of metal Method
Initial Intermediate Final
Low carbon steel Closed joint 500-1,500 4,000
High carbon steel aosedjoint 2,700 2,700
Stainless steel Closed joint 10,000 5,000 10,000
Monel alloy Closed joint 6,500 6,500
Steel (camon and alloy) Open joint 4,000-5,000
Table13.4
Joint dimensions of pressure gas welds, squared end preparation,
dosed joint method
t=Lj
~------~ '------~
Metal thickness Length of Approx. upset Total upset,

(T), in. upset (L), in. hgt (H), in. in.
1/8 3/16-1/4 1/16 1/8
1/4 5/16-1/2 3/32 1/4
3/8 9/16-5/8 1/8 5/16
1/2 3/4-7/8 3/16 3/8
3/4 1-1/16-1-3/16 1/4 1/2
I 1-1/4-1-1/2 3/8 5/8
ing head with the faces of the joint is important able torch tip properly spaced between the joint
to minimize oxidation and to obtain uniform faces (Fig. 13.30). When thin sections are
heating and subsequent upsetting. A removable welded, the torch tip is placed just outside the
spacer block can be used during alignment. joint with the flames directed at the joint faces .
Saw cut surfaces are satisfactory for weld- The tip is designed to heat the full cross section
ing since the ends are thoroughly melted before of the faces. The flames are maintained in th.is
the weld is consummated. A thin layer of oxide position until a molten film entirely covers both
on the joint faces has little effect on weld quality, faces. The torch is then withdrawn, and the parts
but major amounts of foreign substances, such are rapidly brought together with a force that
as rust or oil, should be removed before welding. will produce a constant pressure of 4000 to 5000
The general procedure for open joint pres- psi at the interface . This step is shown in Fig.
sure gas welding is to align the parts with a suit- 13 .31. Pressure is maintained until upsetting of
Water·cooled
Water-<:ooled torch
Open position,
no pressure
Closed position,
full pressure
Fig. 13.30-Torch and general setup for Fig. 13.31-An open joint pressure gas
open joint pressure gas welding weld as upsetting starts
the metal ceases . The total upset is controlled vices for regulating the process during welding .
by both the applied pressure and the temperature The complexity of the machine depends
of the hot metal. It is not preset on the equip- upon the configuration and size of the parts to
ment. be welded and the degree to which the process
Equipment is mechanized. In most cases, it is advisable to
Machines. The apparatus for pressure gas use special heating torches and tips as well as
welding comprises: special apparatus for gripping and applying force
(I) Equipment for applying upsetting force to the parts.
(2) Suitable heating torches and tips de- Figure 13.32 illustrates a simple, manually
signed to provide uniform and controlled heat- operated gas pressure welding machine capable
ing of the weld zone of welding bars and tubes up to 3 inches in
(3) Necessary indicating and measuring de- diameter.
Fig. 13.32-A sm.JI pressure gt~s welding mt~chine for rods t~nd tubes up
to 3-in. dit~meter
Auxiliary Equipment. Some auxiliary equip- alloy, and high alloy steels, and to several non-
ment is necessary. The gas supply must be ade- ferrous metals, including nickel-copper, nickel-
quate for the maximum flow requirement, and chromium, and copper-silicon alloys. It has
the gas regulators must be capable of maintain- been very useful for joining dissimilar metals.
ing a uniform flame adjustment. Quick-acting
Rails. The first commercial application of
gas shut-off valves are very desirable. In many
this process was the welding of railroad rails,
instances, needle valves are advantageous for
and thousands of joints were made. However,
fine adjustment of the flame. The best control of
this process has largely been replaced by the
gas flow and heat input is obtained when the
flash welding process. When pressure gas weld-
pressure gages are located close to the torch. This
ing is used, the closed butt method is usually
permits the operator to check gas pressures
employed with equipment specifically designed
readily. Flowmeters may be used to assure uni-
for this application.
form gas flow.
The rail ends are carefully prepared by
An ample supply of water is needed for
power sawing and then are cleaned. The rails
cooling the torches and, in some cases, the
are gripped by special clamps and a force ap-
clamps and parts of the press. Adequate jigs for
plied to produce of about 2800 psi on the joint.
aligning and supporting the parts are usually
The joint is then heated with specially shaped
needed. Automatic control units for regulating
heating tips or heads that are oscillated auto-
the upset force and heating cycles and then
matically across the joint until the metal reaches
terminating the operation can be incorporated
welding temperature. Adequate pressure is then
in a machine.
applied to produce the required upset. Typical
rail welding equipment is shown in Fig. 13.33.
Applications
Most of the upset metal on the ball and edges
Metals Welded. Pressure gas welding has of the base is removed by oxygen cutting. In
been successfully applied to plain carbon, low the next position, the weld zone is normalized
Fig. 13.33-Pressure g~s welding r~ilro~d r~ls

to refine the grain size and restore normal hard- usually normalized and relatively stress-free.
ness. Finally the weld is ground to rail contour, Pressure gas welding has been used with low
examined by magnetic particle inspection, and alloy and high carbon steels for fabricating
oiled for protection against rusting. Rails that assemblies subject to high service stresses, and
have been welded, normalized, and inspected in postweld heat treatment was necessary. Heat
this manner have given satisfactory service treatment may frequently be done with the same
under both heavy and fast traffic for extended heating heads used for welding. In rails, for
time periods. example, the annealed zone on each side of the
weld may be too soft. To overcome this prob-
Other Applications. Pressure gas. welding
lem, the weld zone can be heated to normalizing
has been largely superseded by other welding
temperature using heating heads and then air
processes. The basic elements of the process
cooled to restore the desired hardness. Simi-
assisted in the development of similar processes,
larly, heat treatment with the welding flame
such as flash and friction welding, that use
may be suitable for developing desired mechani-
other sources of energy. Automatic welding of
cal properties in welded joints in some low alloy
pipe, a former application, is now accomplished
steels such as those used for oil well drilling
using automatic gas metal arc welding.
tools. Such heat treatment, which is essentially
Properties and Heat Treatment a normalizing operation, will refine the grain
size in the weld zone and improve ductility and
In general, pressure gas welding has a toughness. For highly hardenable steels, anneal-
minimum effect on the mechanical and physical ing or slow cooling after the welding operation
properties of the base metals. Because of the may be necessary to prevent hardening or sur-
relatively large mass of hot metal in the weld face cracking in the weld zone. To develop
zone, its cooling rate is usually quite low. Tests optimum properties in welds in heat-treatable
have shown that with steel over l-in. thick, the steels, furnace heat treatment is commonly used.
cooling rate approximates that at the far end of a
Jominy end quench specimen. Weld Quality
In the closed joint method, the maximum
temperature of the metal is below the tempera- Mechanical Properties.• Since there is no
ture at which overheating and rapid grain deposited metal in pressure welds, the mechani-
growth occur. In the open joint method, the cal properties of welds will depend upon the
melted metal film is squeezed out of the joint composition of base metals, the cooling rate,
during upset. These characteristics are advan- and the quality of the weld. When dissimilar
tageous for welding high carbon steels and some steels are joined, the properties of the welded
nonferrous alloys that are hot-short or affected joint will be more nearly those of the weaker
by overheating. member.
Another important factor is the absence of Metallurgical Structure. The location of
deposited metal. The entire weld zone is base the original interface in pressure gas welds in
metal, and, hence, it responds to heat treatment plain carbon steels and many alloy steels is
in the same manner. This, of course, includes very difficult to detect in a metallographic cross
the effect of the heat of welding on the corro- section using normal etchants. It is possible to
sion resistance of welded stainless steels. If locate the weld line with special polishing and
unimpaired corrosion resistance is desired, etching techniques. A typical photomicrograph
stabilized stainless steel must be used or the of a pressure gas weld in steel is shown in
welded assembly must be given a stabilization
heat treatment after welding.
Pressure gas welds in low carbon steels 5. Mechanical properties of typical pressure gas welds
seldom require heat treatment or stress relief are given inCh. 22, "Pressure Gas Welding," Section
since the heat-affected zone in such steels is 2, 4th ed., 1958.
setting should be completed with a variation in

welding time of not more than 10 percent. On
this basis , if a weld requires an unduly long or
short time, the conditions that prevailed during
welding should be evaluated. A large time vari-
ation from nominal would indicate that (I) some
factor other than time was controlled improperly,
and (2) the weld might be of questionable
quality. Malfunctioning of the pressure system
or the heating heads and slipping of the parts
in the clamps are examples of the conditions that
might cause poor quality welds.
Autographic or other records of the follow-
ing variables have proved of value in maintain-
ing good control:
(I) Pressure cycle
(2) Total time or times for certain stages
ofthe procedure
(3) Gas flow rates
(4) Total upset distance
Some conditions of importance in the
Fig. 13.34-Photomicrograph of • pressure closed joint method are not so important with
g•s weld in 1020 steel, •s-welded the open joint method. With the open joint
method, the cleanliness of the joint faces is not
critical except for excessive amounts of foreign
matter. Melting of the faces offsets a need for
Fig. 13.34. Although not apparent, the inter-
thorough surface preparation. The amount of
face extends vertically through the center of the
upset or shortening is not necessarily constant,
photomicrograph.
and, therefore, it is not an index of weld quality.
Quality Control However, due attention must be given to the
pressure cycle and the performance of the
Process Control. Successful pressure gas
heating torches.
welding by the closed joint method requires
positive and continuous control of the variables Inspection. The first inspection is usually
that influence the quality of a weld. These vari- a visual one to evaluate the following general
ables include the following: characteristics:
(I) Degree of roughness and cleanliness of (I) Presence or absence of excessive melting
end preparation (2) Contour and uniformity of upset
(2) Pressure cycle (3) Position of the weld line with respect
(3) Alignment of the parts to the midpoint of the upset zone
(4) Welding cycle time If there is no appreciable variation from an
(5) Performance of the heating torches accepted standard and the controls were ade-
(6) Desired upset or shortening quate, it may usually be concluded that the pres-
(7) Cooling time in the machine after upset sure weld is of normal quality.
Examination of the pressure-upsetting cycle In many highly stressed assemblies, added
can indicate if the welding conditions are assurance of weld consistency and quality may
conforming to the prescribed procedure . With be needed. Sample welds selected either at
constant heat input into the weld zone, constant random or at fixed intervals should be destruc-
width of heated zone, and uniform pressure tively tested. This procedure will serve as a
sequence, the entire cycle of heating and up- positive and continuous check on the welding
cycle and process controls as well as the proper- Principles of Operation

ties ofthe welded assemblies.
The sections to be joined by forge welding
Magnetic particle inspection can be used
for nondestructive inspection of pressure welded may be heated in a forge, furnace, or by other
appropriate means until they are very malleable.
rails. The nick-break test• can be used as a
convenient quality check for soundness. Frac- A weld is accomplished by removing the parts
ture of a sample weld along the weld line will from the heat source, superimposing them, and
then applying pressure or hammer blows to the
show the extent of metallic bonding, grain size,
joint.
and evidence of overheating of the faces.
Heating time is the major variable that
Changes in the welding cycle can be checked
affects joint quality. Insufficient heat will fail
quickly by this test. Experience has proved that
to bring the surfaces to the proper degree of
when the nick-break tests show satisfactory
plasticity, and welding will not take place. If
crystalline fracture throughout the weld cross
the metal is overheated, a brittle joint of very
section, all other tests will usually prove
low strength may result. The overheated joint is
satisfactory.
likely to have a rough, spongy appearance
Proof testing may be used as an alternative
where the metal is severely oxidized. The tem-
to destructive testing. The test is designed to
perature must be uniform throughout the joint
disclose defective welds and pass acceptable
interfaces to yield a satisfactory weld.
welds. A welded joint is subjected to either a
tensile or a bending load, or both, to produce
Process Modes
a maximum tensile stress just below the yield
strength of the metal. A poor quality weld will Hammer Welding. In hammer welding,
fail in this test. coalescence is produced by heating the parts to
be welded in a forge or other furnace and then
FORGE WELDING applying pressure by means of hammer blows.
Manual hammer welding is the oldest tech-
Fundamentals of the Process
nique. Pressure is applied to the heated mem-
Forge welding is a form of hot pressure bers by repeated high velocity blows with a
welding which produces coalescence of metals comparatively light sledge hammer. Modem
by heating them in air in a forge or other furnace automatic and semiautomatic hammer welding
and then applying sufficient pressure or hammer is accomplished by blows of a heavy power-
blows to cause permanent deformation at the driven hammer operating at low velocity. The
interface. Forge welding was the earliest weld- hammer may be powered by steam, hydraulic,
ing process and the only one in common use or pneumatic equipment.
until well into the nineteenth century. Black- The size and quantity of parts to be fab-
smiths used this process. l'ressure vessels and ricated will determine the choice of either
steel pipe were among the industrial items once manual or power-driven hammer welding. This
fabricated by forge welding. process may still be used in some maintenance
The process still finds some application shops, but it largely has been replaced by other
with modem methods of applying the heat and welding processes.
pressure necessary to achieve a weld. The chief
Die Welding. This is a forge welding proc-
present-day applications are in the production
ess where coalescence is produced by heating the
of tubing and clad metals.
parts in a furnace and then applying pressure by
means of dies. The dies also form the work to
shape while it is hot.
6. For a description of this test, refer to Welding Metals Welded

Inspection, Miami: American Welding Society, 1968:
113-114. Low carbon steels are the metals most
commonly joined by forge welding. Sheets,

bars, tubing, pipe, and plates of these materials
are readily available.
The major influences on the grain structure
of the weld and heat-affected zone are the
Lap Pin Butt
amount of forging required and the temperature
at which the forge welding takes place. A high Fig. 13.36-Typical joint designs used for
temperature is generally necessary for the pro- automatic forge welding
duction of a sound forge weld. Annealing can
refine the grain size in a forge welded steel
joint and improve joint ductility.
Thin extruded sections of aluminum alloy Scarfing is the term applied to the prepara-
are joined edge-to-edge by a forge welding tion of the workpieces of forge welding. Simi-
process with automatic equipment to form inte- larly, the prepared surface is referred to as a
grally stiffened panels. The panels are used for scarfed surface. Each workpiece to be welded
lightweight truck and trailer bodies. Success of must be upset sufficiently for an adequate dis-
the operation depends upon the use of coit-ect tance from the scarfed surface to provide metal
temperature and pressure, effective positioning for mechanical working during welding.
and clamping devices, edge preparation, and Fluxes
other factors. Although the welding of alumi-
num for this application is called forge welding, In the forge welding of certain metals, a
it could be classified as hot pressure welding flux must be used to prevent the formation of
because the edges to be joined are heated to oxide scale. The flux and the oxides present
welding temperature and then upset by the ap- combine to form a protective coating on the
plication of pressure. heated surfaces of the metal. This coating pre-
vents the formation of additional oxide and
Joint Design lowers the melting point of the existing oxide.
The five joint designs applicable to manual Two commonly used fluxes for steels are
forge welding are the lap, butt, cleft, jump, and silica sand and borax (sodium tetraborate). Flux
scarf types shown in Fig. 13.35. The joint sur- is not required for very low carbon steels (ingot
faces for these welds are slightly rounded or iron) and wrought iron because their oxides
crowned. This shape ensures that the center of · have low melting points. The flux most com-
the pieces will weld first so that any slag, dirt, monly used in the forge welding of high carbon
or oxide on the surfaces will be forced out of steels is borax. Because it has a relatively low
the joint as pressure is applied. Lap, pin, and fusion point, borax may be sprinkled on the
butt joints used for automatic forge welding metal while it is in the process of heating.
are shown in Fig. 13.36. Silica sand is suitable as a flux in the forge
welding of low carbon steel.
ROLL WELDING
Roll welding is a solid-state welding
Scarf
dl~ process where coalescence of metals is pro-
duced by heating them to a proper temperature
Q:::J
and then applying sufficient pressure with rolls
\ Jump to cause deformation at the faying surfaces. This
l process is used mostly for the manufacture of
Lap Cleft clad steel plates. In the fabrication of clad
Fig. 13.35-Typical joint designs employed plates, two sheets of steel are thoroughly
for manual forge welding cleaned and alternately sandwiched with two
Carbon Arc Welding /427
clean sheets of cladding metal. A nonfusing 2350° F in a soaking pit. The assembly is then
parting compound separates the two sets of rolled until the cladding and the base plate
metal sheets, each of which is welded around are welded together. Besides welding the clad-
the edges to exclude air and prevent slippage ding to the base plate, the rolling reduces the
during the roll welding operation. thickness of the composite. After rolling, the
The sandwiched material is heated uni- sandwiched assembly is separated into two
formly to a temperature between 2100 and clad sheets.
CARBON ARC WELDING
DEFINITION AND GENERAL In carbon arc welding, direct current elec-

DESCRIPTION trode negative (straight polarity) should be used.
The arc is formed between the tip of the carbon
Carbon arc welding is a process in which electrode and the base metal. Welding current is
an arc is established between a nonconsumable adjusted to provide sufficient heat to melt the
carbon (graphite) electrode and the work, or base metal and welding rod uniformly as weld-
between two carbon electrodes. The latter is a ing progresses. Recommended current ranges
variation known as twin carbon arc welding. for carbon and graphite electrodes are given
Two other variations known as shielded and gas in Table 13.5. Amperages are recommended on
carbon arc welding no longer have commercial the basis of maximum electrode life. Higher
significance. amperages can be used, but the electrode will
Although carbon arc welding has been be consumed faster.
superseded to a great extent by other welding The properties of welds made with the
processes, there are many applications for carbon arc in mild steel may be adequate for
which it can be used to good advantage. In noncritical applications. The process does not
operation, the carbon arc is used only as a provide as much shielding from the atmosphere
source of heat. In this respect, it resembles
the gas tungsten arc welding process.
Figure 13.37 shows the carbon arc weld- A · Base metal
ing process. The arc stream usually develops a B - Penetration
temperature of from 7000 to 9000° F, depend- C · Deposited metal
ing upon the amount of current used. Because 0 · Carbon electrode
the electrode burns off very slowly, it does not E · Arc flame
F · Arc stream
have an appreciable effect on the composition
G · Welding rod
of the deposited metal, provided filler metal
is added.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
The application of heat and the filler metal
feed are controlled separately in carbon arc
welding. With some welds, the carbon arc is
used to fuse the edges together without the
addition of flller metal. A carbon arc can pro-
duce the high heat needed· for welding metals
that have high heat conductivity, such as copper. Fig. 13.37-C•rbon •rc welding
Table 13.5
Recommended current ranges for carbon and graphite electrodes a
Electrode Current, Ab
diameter, Carbon Graphite
in. electrodes electrodes
1/8 15-30 15-35
3/16 25-55 25-60
1/4 50-85 50-90
5/16 75-115 80-125
3/8 100-150 I 10-165
7/16 125-185 140-210
1/2 150-225 170-260
5/8 200-310 230-370
3/4 250-400 290-490
7/8 300-500 400-750
a. Recommended with regard to maximum electrode life. Where electrode cost is not a factor, higher amperages may be used.
b. Direct current electrode negative (straight polarity)
as the shielded metal arc or gas metal arc protrude about 4 to 5 in. from the electrode
welding processes. holder.
A carbon arc may be struck by bringing the
EQUIPMENT tip of the electrode into contact with the work
and immediately withdrawing it to the correct
Carbon electrodes range in size from 1/8 length for welding. In general, an arc length
to 7/8-in. diameter. Baked carbon electrodes. between 1/4 and 3/8 in. will be best. If the arc
last longer than graphite electrodes. Figure length is too short, there is likely to be exces-
13.38 shows typical air-cooled carbon electrode sive carburization of the molten metal resulting
holders. Water-cooled holders are available for in a brittle weld.
use with the larger sizes of electrodes, or adapt- When the arc is broken for any reason, it
ers can be fitted to regular holders to permit should not be restarted directly upon the hot
accommodation of the larger electrodes. Direct weld metal as this is likely to cause a hard spot
current welding machines of either the rotating in the weld at the point of contact. The arc should
or rectifier type are excellent power sources for be started on cold metal to one side of the joint
the carbon arc welding process. and then quickly returned to the point where
welding is to be resumed.
WELDING TECHNIQUE When the joint requires filler metal, the
welding rod is fed into the molten weld pool
The workpieces must be free from grease, with one hand while the arc is manipulated with
oil, scale, paint, and other foreign matter. The the other. The arc is directed on the surface of
two pieces should be clamped tightly together the work and gradually moved along the joint,
with no root <;>pening. They may be tack welded constantly maintaining a molten pool into which
together. the welding rod is added in the same manner as
Carbon electrodes, 1/8 to 5/16-in. diameter, in gas tungsten arc welding. Progress along the
may be used depending upon the current required weld joint and the addition of welding rod must
for welding. The end of the electrode should be be timed to provide the size and shape of weld
prepared with a long taper to a point. The bead desired. Welding vertically or overhead
diameter of the point should be about half that with the carbon arc is difficult because carbon
of the electrode. For steel, the electrode should arc welding is essentially a puddling process.
Carbon Arc Welding /429
..
Fig. 13.38-Typical air-cooled carbon electrode holders
The weld joint should be backed up, especially starting block . Low current, a short arc length,
in the case of thin sheets, to support the molten and rapid travel speed should be used. The weld-
weld pool and prevent excessive melt-thru. ing rod should melt and wet the galvanized steel.
For outside corner welds in 14 to 18 gage
steel sheet, the carbon arc can be used to weld Cast Iron
the two sheets together without a filler metal. Iron castings may be welded with the car-
Such welds are usually smoother and more eco- bon arc and a cast iron welding rod. The casting
nomical to make than shielded metal arc welds should be preheated to about 1200° F and slowly
cooled if a machinable weld is desired .
made under similar conditions.
Copper
METALS WELDED
Straight polarity should always be used for
The carbon arc can be used for welding carbon arc welding of copper. Reverse polarity
steels and nonferrous metals. It can also be used will produce carbon deposits on the work that
for surfacing. inhibit fusion.
The work should be preheated in the range
Steels
of 300 to 1200" F d epending upon the thickness
The principal use of carbon arc welding of
of the parts. If this is impractical, the arc should
steel is making edge welds without the addition
be used to locally preheat the weld area. The
of filler metal. This is done chiefly in thin gage
high thermal conductivity of copper causes heat
sheet metal work, such as tanks , where the edges
to be conducted away from the point of welding
of the work are fitted closely and fused together
so rapidly that it is difficult to maintain welding
using _appropriate flux.
heat without preheating.
Galvanized sheet steel can be braze welded
A root opening of 1/8 in. is recommended.
with the carbon arc.' A bronze welding rod is
Best results are obtained at high travel speeds
used. The arc is directed on the rod so that the
with the arc directed on the welding rod. A long
galvanizing is not burned off the steel sheet. The
arc length should be used to permit carbon
arc should be started on the welding rod or a
from the electrode to combine with oxygen
7. Refer toOt . 11, Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, 7th ed., to form CO. This will provide some shielding
p. 434-7 for a discussion of braze welding. of the weld metal.
Fis. 13.39-A twin c•rbon •rc weldin& torch
TWIN CARBON ARC WELDING never be set so high that the copper coating is
burned away over 1/2 in . ahead of the arc. Only
With a twin carbon arc torch, the arc heat enough current should be used to cause thefiller
can be used for welding, brazing, surfacing, or material to flow freely on the work. This will
soldering operations as well as for preheating avoid consuming carbons too rapidly.
or postheating the work. The heat is produced
by an arc between two carbon electrodes. The
work is not part of the electrical circuit. Twin
carbon arc welding is used principally for
SAFETY
maintenance operations. A twin carbon arc
torch, shown in Fig. 13.39, has two adjustable Safety procedures and equipment normally
arms in which the carbon electrodes are clamped. used with other arc welding processes should
To maintain a constant distance between the also be used with this one. This includes weld-
electrodes (arc length) as they are consumed, ing helmets with appropriate filter lenses, pro-
adjustment of electrode position can usually be tective clothing, and gloves. Adequate ventila-
made while operating the torch. tion should be provided. The requirements of
Small ac arc welding machines are nor- ANSI Z49 .1, Safety in Welding and Cutting,
mally used with the twin carbon arc. Copper latest edition, and appropriate federal, state, and
coated carbon electrodes are generally used in local regulations should be followed when car-
1/4-in. to 3/8-in. diameter. The current should bon arc welding.
BARE METAL ARC WELDING
Bare metal arc welding is an arc welding Formation of porosity in the weld will have a
process that obtains coalescence by heating a detrimental effect upon the strength and ductility
joint with an electric arc between a bare or of the welded joint. Nitrogen in the form of
lightly coated metal electrode and the work. nitrides tends to cause high hardness and poor
Neither shielding nor pressure is used, and filler ductility. Water vapor dissociates in the arc to
metal is obtained from the electrode. produce hydrogen, which may cause hydrogen
The chief disadvantage of welding with a embrittlement of some metals and underbead
bare electrode is that the molten filler and weld cracking in some steels.
metal are exposed to the atmosphere. The molten Covered electrodes have largely replaced
metal transferring across the arc and the molten bare and lightly covered electrodes. Most of the
weld metal are both subjected to oxidation and bare wire electrodes are used with one of the
nitrification . As aresult, the molten metal gas shielded welding processes. They are not
oxidizes rapidly and the weld metal is likely to used without some form of shielding for the
have unsatisfactory fusion with the base metal. arc and molten weld pool.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding /431
ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING

Atomic hydrogen welding• is a process that Each molecule consists of two atoms. When an
produces coalescence of a joint by heating it arc is established in hydrogen between two
with an electric arc maintained between two electrodes, the temperature in the arc stream
tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of hydro- reaches approximately 11 000°F and the mol-
gen. Shielding is obtained from the hydrogen. ecular hydrogen dissociates into its atomic
Filler metal may or may not be added. form. In the process of dissociation, a large
In this process, the arc is maintained en- amount of heat is absorbed by the hydrogen
tirely independent of the work or parts being from the arc. The heat is subsequently liberated
welded. The work is a part of the electrical on recombination of the hydrogen atoms at the
circuit only to the extent that a portion of the surface of the work. A sudden decrease in the
arc comes in contact with the work, at which temperature of the hydrogen as it strikes a
time a voltage exists between the work and relatively cold surface (weld area) is accom-
each electrode. panied by a rapid release of heat as the hydro-
Historically, atomic hydrogen welding was gen atoms recombine to the molecular form.
the forerunner of the gas shielded arc welding By varying the distance between the arc stream
processes. At that time, it was the best process and the surface, the available energy can be
for welding of metals other than carbon and low varied over a wide range. The hydrogen also
alloy steels. With the advent of low-cost inert cools the electrodes and protects both the elec-
gases, the gas shielded arc welding processes trodes and the metal from oxidation.
have largely replaced atomic hydrogen welding. Atomic hydrogen welding had one unique
Hydrogen in its normal state is diatomic. advantage: the ability to control heat input over
a very wide range by manipulating the arc. It
was widely used for tool and die repair and sim-
8. More detailed information is presented inCh. 26, ilar operations where very precise metal buildup
Welding Handbook, Section 2, 5th ed., 1963. with accurate alloy control was necessary.

1Btu=1J
1 in= 25.4mm
1 ft/min = 5.08 mm/s
11bf = 4.45N
1 psi = 6.89 kPa
tc = 0.556 (tF -32)

Thermit Welding Milner, D. R. and Rowe, G. W, Fundamentals
Ailes, A. S., Modem applications of Thermit of solid phase welding. Metallurgical Re-
welding. Weld. Met. Fab. 32 (9): 335-43, view, 28 (7): 433-80; 1962
414-19; 1964.
Mohamed, H. A. and Washburn, J., Mechanism
Cikara, M., Repair of rails by Thermit welding of solid-state pressure welding. Welding
and some observations on the testing of Journal, 54(9): 302s-10s; 1975 Sept.
welded joints, Welding and Allied Proces-
ses in Maintenance and Repair Work, New Tylecote, R. F., The Solid-State Welding of
York: Elsevier Pub. Co., 1961: 318-34 Metals, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1968
Fricke, H. D., Guntermann, H., and Jacoby, N.,

Thermit welding process for rails of special Hot Pressure Welding
quality. ETR, 25(4); 1976 (in German)
Bryant, W A., A method for specifying hot
Guntermann, H., Thermit butt joints for con- isostatic pressure welding parameters. Weld-
crete-steel construction. Maschinernmarket ing Journal, 54(12): 433s-35s; 1975 Dec.
75, No. 75; 1969 (in German)
Guy, A. G. and Eiss, A. L., Diffusion phe-
Guntermann, H., The applications of the Thermit nomena in pressure welding. Welding Jour-
process in areas besides rail welding, ZEV- nal, 36 (II): 473s-80s; 1957 Nov.
Glaser Annalen; 1975 (in German)
Hastings, D. C., An application of pressure
Jacoby, N., Special processes of the Thermit welding to fabricate continuous welded
welding technique. Der Eisenbahningenieur rails. Welding Journal. 34 (II): 1065-69;
No.3: 1977 (in German) 1955 Nov.
Kubaschewski, E., Evans, L. L., and Alcock, Lage, A. P., Application of pressure welding
C. B., Metallurgical Thermochemistry, 4th to the aircraft industry. Welding Journal,
ed., London-New York: Pergamon Press, 35 (II): 1103-09; 1956 Nov.
1967
Lessmann, G. G. and Bryant, W A., Com-
Rossi, B., E., Welding Engineering, New York: plex rotor fabrication by hot isostatic pres-
McGraw-Hill, 1954 sure welding. Welding Journal, 51 (12):
606s-14s; 1972 Dec.
Cold Welding
McKittrick, E. S. and Donalds, W E., Oxy-
Houldcraft, P. T., Welding Process Technology, acetylene pressure welding of high-speed
London: Cambridge University Press, 1977, rocket test track. Welding Journal, 38 (5):
217-21 469-74; 1959 May
Welding Handbook
Index of Major Subjects
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Volume Section Chapter
A
Adhesive bonding of metals 3 11
Air carbon arc cutting 2 13
Aircraft 5 91
Alternating current power sources 2 1
Aluminum and aluminum alloys, 4 69
welding of
Applied liners 5 93
Arc characteristics I 2
Arc cutting 2 13
Arc stud welding 2 8
Arc welding power sources 2
Atmosphere, brazing 2 11
Atomic hydrogen welding 3 13
Austenitic manganese steel, 4 66
welding of
Austenitic (Cr-Ni) stainless steels, 4 65
welding of
Automotive products 5 90
Beryllium, welding of 4 74
Boilers 5 84
Bonding, adhesive 3 11
433
434/ MAJOR SUBJECT INDEX
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Braze welding 2 11
Brazing 2 11
Brazing, diffusion 3 10
Brazing metallurgy 4
Bridges 5 82
Buildings 5 81
c
Capacitor discharge stud welding 2 8
Carbon arc welding 3 13
Carbon steels, welding of 4 61
Cast iron, welding of 4 62
Cast steel, welding of 4 62
Chromium (4 to 10%)-molybdenum 4 64
stainless steels, welding of
Chromium stainless steels, 4 64
welding of
Clad steel liners 5 93
Codes for welding 11
Cold welding 3 13
Columbium, welding of 4 74
Cooling rates 3
Copper and copper alloys, 4 68
welding of
Corrosion of welded joints 5
Cost estimating 7
Cutting, air carbon arc 2 13
Cutting, arc 2 13
Cutting, laser beam 3 6
Cutting, metal powder 2 13
Cutting, oxyfuel gas 2 13
Cutting, oxygen 2 13
Cutting, plasma arc 2 13
Cutting, safe practices in 9
Cutting processes, survey of
Major Subject Index/ 435
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Definitions, terms and App. A

Design of welded joints 8
Diffusion brazing 3 10
Diffusion welding 3 10
Direct current power sources 2
Discontinuities, significance of 5
Distortion 6
Distortion, control of 6
Distortion, correction of 6
Distortion, types of 6
Electrogas welding 2 7
Electron beam welding 3 5
Electroslag welding 2 7
Elevated temperature behavior of 5
welded joints
Energy sources for welding 1 2
Equipment, resistance welding 3 3
Estimating costs 7
Explosion welding 3 8
Fatigue properties of welded joints 5

Filler metals 5 94
Filler metals, brazing 2 II
Filler metals, soldering 2 12
Filler metals, surfacing 2 14
Flash welding 3 2
Flux cored arc welding 2 5
Flux cutting, chemical 2 13
Fluxes, brazing 2 II
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Fluxes, soldering 2 12
Forge welding 3 13
Fracture toughness l 5
Friction welding 3 7
Fuel gases, characteristics of 2 10
Gases, physical properties 2

Gas metal arc spot welding 2 4
Gas metal arc welding 2 4
Gas tungsten arc welding 2 3
Gas welding, oxyfuel 2 lO
Gold, welding of 4 74
Hafnium, welding of 4 74
Hardfacing 2 14
Heat flow in welding l 3
High frequency welding 3 4
Hot pressure welding 3 13
Industrial piping 5 85
Inspection, brazing 2 ll
Inspection of welding 6
Iron, welding of 4 61
J
Jewelry, welding of 4 74
Joining processes, survey of
Major Subject Index /437
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
L
Laser beam cutting 3 6

Laser beam welding 3 6
Launch vehicles 5 92
Lead, welding of 4 71
Liners, applied 5 93
Liners, clad steel 5 93
Low alloy steels, welding of 4 63
Magnesium and magnesium alloys,

welding of 4 70
Magnetic fields, influence on arcs 2
Mechanical properties 5
Mechanical testing 5
Mechanical treatments of weldments 6
Melting rates (electrode) 1 2
Metal powder cutting 2 13
Metal transfer 2
Metallurgy, general I 4
Metallurgy of brazing and soldering 1 4
Metallurgy of surfacing alloys 2 14
Metallurgy of welding 4
Metals, physical properties 2
Metric practice guide App.B
Molybdenum, welding of 4 74
Narrow gap welding 2 4

NEMA power source requirements 2
Nickel and nickel alloys,
welding of 4 67
Nuclear power plants 5 87
438 I MAJOR SUBJECT INDEX
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Oxyfuel gas cutting 2 13

Oxyfuel gas welding 2 10
Oxygen cutting 2 13
Palladium, welding of 4 74
Percussion welding 3 2
Peformance of welded joints 8
Physical properties of metals and gases 2
Physics of welding 2
Pipelines, transmission 5 86
Piping, industrial 5 85
Plasma arc cutting 2 13
Plasma arc welding 2 9
Platinum, welding of 4 74
Power sources, arc welding 2 1
Power sources, special 2
Precious metals, welding of 4 74
Pressure gas welding 3 13
Pressure vessels 5 84
Processes, brazing 2 11
Projection welding 3 1
Properties, mechanical 4
Railroads 5 89
Reactive metals, welding of 4 74
Refractory metals, welding of 4 74
Residual stresses 6
Residual stresses, causes of 6
Residual stresses, effects of 6
Residual stresses, measurement of 6
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Residual stresses, reduction of 1 6

Resistance welding electrodes 3 3
Resistance welding equipment 3 3
Roll welding 3 13
s
Safe practices 9
Safe practices, brazing 2 11
Seam welding 3 1
Shielded metal arc welding 2 2
Ships 5 88
Silver, welding of 4 74
Soldering 2 12
Soldering metallurgy 1 4
Solders 2 12
Solid-state circuitry, power source 2 1
Solidification rates 3
Specifications for welding 11
Spot welding 3 1
Spot welding, gas metal arc 2 4
Spraying, thermal 3 12
Standards for welding 11
Statistical control of weld quality 1 10
Steel, welding of 4 61
Storage tanks, field-welded 5 83
Stresses, residual 6
Stud welding 2 8
Submerged arc welding 2 6
Surfacing 2 14
Surfacing methods 2 14
Survey of joining and cutting processes
T
Tantalum, welding of 4 74
440 I MAJOR SUBJECT INDEX
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Tensile properties of welded joints 5

Terms and definitions App.A
Testing, mechanical 5
Testing, weldability 4
Testing of welded joints I 5
Thermal spraying 3 12
Thermal treatments of weldments 1 6
Thermit welding 3 13
Titanium and titanium alloys, welding of 4 73
Toughness, fracture 5
Transmission pipelines 5 86
Tungsten, welding of 4 74
u
Ultrasonic welding 3 9
Upset welding 3 2
w
Weld discontinuities, significance of 5
Weld distortion 6
Weld quality, statistical control of 10
Weld thermal cycles (typical) 3
Weldability testing 4
Welded joints, corrosion testing 5
Welded joints, design of 8
Welded joints
elevated temperature behavior 5
Welded joints, fatigue properties 5
Welded joints, performance of 8
Welded joints, tensile properties 5
Welded joints, tersting of 5
Welding, filler metals for 5 94
Welding, inspection of 1 6
Welding, physics of 2
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Welding, safe practices in 9
Welding applications
Aircraft 5 91
Applied liners 5 93
Automotive products 5 90
Boilers 5 84
Bridges 5 82
Buildings 5 81
Clad steel liners 5 93
Industrial piping 5 85
Jewelry 4 74
Launch vehicles 5 92
Nuclear power plants 5 87
Pressure vessels 5 84
Railroads 5 89
Ships 5 88
Storage tanks 5 83
Transmission pipelines 5 86
Welding codes 1 11
Welding metallurgy 4
Welding of metals
Aluminum and aluminum alloys 4 69
Austenitic manganese steel 4 66
Austenitic (Cr-Ni) stainless steels 4 65
Beryllium 4 74
Carbon steels 4 61
Cast iron 4 62
Cast steel 4 62
Chromium (4 to 10% )-molybdenum steels 4 64
Chromium stainless steels 4 64
Columbium 4 74
Copper and copper alloys 4 68
Gold 4 74
Hafnium 4 74
Iron 4 61
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Lead 4 71
Low alloy steels 4 63
Magnesium and magnesium alloys 4 70
Molybdenum 4 74
Nickel and high nickel alloys 4 67
Palladium 4 74
Platinum 4 74
Precious metals 4 74
Reactive metals 4 74
Refractory metals 4 74
Silver 4 74
Steel 4 61
Tantalum 4 74
Titanium and titanium alloys 4 73
Thngsten 4 74
Wrought iron 4 61
Zinc 4 72
Zirconium 4 74
Welding processes
Atomic hydrogen welding 3 13
Bare metal arc welding 3 13
Carbon arc welding 3 13
Cold welding 3 13
Diffusion brazing 3 10
Diffusion welding 3 10
Electrogas welding 2 7
Electron beam welding 3 5
Electroslag welding 2 7
Explosion welding 3 8
Flash welding 3 2
Flash welding machines 3 3
Flux cored arc welding 2 5
Forge welding 3 13
Friction welding 3 7
Gas metal arc welding 2 4
Seventh Sixth
Edition Edition
Gas tungsten arc welding 2 3

Gas welding 2 10
High frequency welding 3 4
Hot pressure welding 3 13
Laser beam cutting 3 6
Laser beam welding 3 6
Oxyfuel gas welding 2 10
Percussion welding 3 2
Plasma arc welding 2 9
Projection welding 3 I
Projection welding machines 3 3
Seam welding, resistance 3
Seam welding machines 3 3
Shielded metal arc welding 2 2
Spot welding, resistance 3 I
Spot welding machines 3 3
Stud welding 2 8
Submerged arc welding 2 6
Thermit welding 3 13
Ultrasonic welding 3 9
Upset welding 3 2
Upset welding machines 3 3
Welding specifications 11
Welding standards 1 11
Wrought iron, weldability of 4 61
z
Zinc, weldability of 4 72
Zirconium, weldability of 4 74
INDEX
Acetyline, safe handling, 390 surface preparation, 356-58

Adhesive bonding of metals, 22, 338-65 surface preparation inspection, 358
adhesive system characteristics, 338-39 temperature limitations, 342
advantages, 339-41 toxic material handling, 363-64
assembly, 358 Adhesives
with autoclaves, 361 anaerobic, 345
bonding temperatures, 339 application methods, 347-48
crack extension (wedge) test, 362 chemically reactive, 345
curing ovens, 360 curing temperature, 360
definitions, 338 curing time, 360
dissimilar metals, 339 drying time, 358
fixturing, 358-59 electrically conductive, 340
flammable material handling, 363 epoxy, 345-46, 360
fundamentals, 338-43 film, 348
general description, 338-39 forms, 347
with heated presses, 361 general description, 344-49
honeycomb construction, 348 handling and use, 364
joint designs, 350-55 hot melt, 345
joint loading, 350-51 ingredients, 344
joint overlap, 350-51 liquid, 348
joint testing, 361 mastic, 348
limitations, 342-43 paste, 348
nondestructive inspection, 343, 363 phenolic,345,360
parts evaluation, 362 pressure sensitive, 345
peel loading, 342 property determination, ASTM Standards
pressure application, 359 for, 349
primers, 348-49 selection, 349
principles of operation, 339 solid, 348
process control, 361-62 solvent, 345
quality control, 361-63 structural, 345-47
safe practices, 363-64 thermoplastic, 344
sandwich construction, 355-56 thermosetting, 344
stress corrosion problems, 346-47 types, 345
supplementary reading list, 365 ANSI/NFPA No. 70, National Electric Code, 141
445
446/INDEX
ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting, dissimilar metals, 406-7, 414
54,89,142,213,390,391 draw welding, 410
ANSI Z87 .I, Occupational and Educational equipment, 409-10
Eye and Face Protection, 214, 391 fundamentals, 405-9
ANSI Z88.2, Practices for Respiratory Pro- general description, 405
tection, 391 joint types, 405-6
ANSI Z89.1, Safety Requirements for Industrial lap weld indentors, 409-10
Head Protection, 391 lap welding, 414-16
Arc spraying, 369, 375-76. See also Thermal metallurgical structure, 407-8
spraying. metals welded, 406-7
advantages, 376 multiple upset, 412
equipment, 376 pressure, 410
general description, 375-76 surface preparation, 408-9
limitations, 376 tube sealing, 415-16
power for, 375 Contactors, resistance welding, 13
systems operation, 376 control circuits, 112-13
Atomic hydrogen welding, 431 electronic,61, 106,112-14,122
Autoclave, 321-22 magnetic, 112
AWS CI.J, Recommended Practices for Resis- Continuous seam diffusion bonding, 320
tance Welding, 42, 53 Controls, resistance welding, 13, I 10-19
AWS C 1.2, Recommended Practices for Spot accessories, 48-50
Welding AluminumandAluminumA/loys, 42 auxiliary, 114-17
AWS C I. 3, Recommended Practices for Resis- combination, Ill, 112
tance Welding Coated Low Carbon current regulator, 48, 117
Steels, 42 forge delay, 117
AWS 08.5, Recommended Practices for Auto- functions of, 13, 110
motive Portable Gun Resistance Spot load distribution, 117
Welding, 42 NEMA standard types, I 17-18, I I 9
AWS 08.6, Standard for Automotive Resis- nonsynchronous, I II, 119
tance Spot Welding Electrodes, 133 portable gun, 98
AWS 08.7, Specification for Automotive Weld quench and temper, 116-17
Quality, Resistance Spot Welding, 42, 43 single-phase, Ill, 112, 117, 119
AWS F2.1, Recommended Safe Practices for synchronous precision, Ill, 119
Electron Beam Welding and Cutting, 213 three-phase, Ill, 117-18
three-phase, frequency converter, 112-13
Bare metal arc welding, 430
thyratron tubes, 113, 114
Carbon arc welding, 427-30 timer(s), absolute cycle, 111-12
definition, 427 timer(s), multiple impulse, 110-11
electrodes, 427-28 timer(s), weld sequence, 110-11
equipment, 428, 429 timer classifications, NEMA, 111-12
metals welded, 429 timer mechanisms, 112
principles of operation, 427-28 timing and sequence, 13, II 0-12
twin, 430 timing ranges, standard, 119
CGA P-1, Safe Handling of Compressed Gases, voltage regulator, 48, 117
390 Creep isostatic pressing (CRISP), 320
Cold welding, 405-16 Cross wire welding, 36-38. See also Pro-
applications, 414-16 jection welding.
butt joints, 410-14
definition, 405 Detonation flame spraying, 369, 377. See also
Index /447
Thermal spraying. protective atmospheres, 317

Die welding. See Cold welding; Forge with spot welding machines, 323
welding. stages in, 313-14
Diffusion bonding. See Diffusion welding. steels, 332
Diffusion brazing. See also Diffusion welding. supplementary reading list, 335
advantages, 3 I 5- I 6 surface preparation, 316-17
aluminum alloys, 332 temperature, 314,318-19
applications, 315, 325-34 time, 314,318
approaches,315 titanium, 326-28
definition, 312 Diffusion welding equipment, 320-23
equipment and tooling, 325 isostatic gas pressure, 321-22
fillermetal(s), 312-13,315,325 presses, 322
heating rate, 324 tooling, 323
limitations, 316 Diffusivity, 317
metallurgical factors, 324-25 Dissimilar metals
nickel alloys, 330-31 adhesive bonding, 339
pressure, 325 cold welding, 406-7
principles, 315 diffusion welding, 312, 333-34
protective atmospheres, 317 electron beam welding, 178, 179, 203-4
supplementary reading list, 335 explosion welding, 267ff
surface preparation, 316-17 flash welding, 60, 65
temperature, 324 friction welding, 243ff, 255
time, 324 high frequency welding, 155
titanium, 328-29 percussion welding, 83, 84
variables, 324-25 seam welding, 26
Diffusion reactions, 318 spot welding, 18
Diffusion welding. See also Diffusion brazing;
Hot pressure welding. Electric aro spraying. See Arc spraying;
advantages, 315-16 Thermal spraying.
aluminum alloys, 332 Electrode holders, spot welding, 133, 134-36
applications, 325-34 Electrodes, carbon arc, 427-28
atmospheres, 322 Electrodes, flash welding. See Electrodes,
conditions for, 313 resistance welding; Flash welding dies.
continuous seam, 320 Electrodes, projection welding, 33-35, 36,
definition, 312 133, 136. See also Electrodes, resis-
diffusion aids, 314-15, 319, 333 tance welding; Projection welding.
dissimilar metals, 333-34 Electrodes, resistance welding, 6, II, 12-13,
forming, combined with, 320 124-38. See also Electrodes, projection
hot isostatic pressing, 320 welding; Electrodes, seam welding; Elec-
inspection, 334 trodes, spot welding; Electrodes, upset
limitations, 316 welding; Flash welding dies.
metal combinations, 312 for aluminum, 13
metallurgical factors, 319 deformation of, 13
nickel alloys, 329-30 forms, 124
oxide film dispersion, 314 functions of, 12, 124
pressure, 314, 318 heat generation, effect on, 6
principles, 3 I3-15 materials, 124-29
process variables, 317-19 for stainless steel, 13
process variations, 3 I 9-20 for steel, 13
448/INDEX
Electrodes, seam welding, 23, 25, 27, 136-38. Pierce type, 181
See also Electrodes, resistance welding; Steigerwald type, 181
Seam welding. triode type, 170, 181
attachment, 136 Electron beam gun column, 180, 181, 194-96
cooling, 27, 136 Electron beam power supplies, 182-84
deformation of, 6 components, 182
diameters, 27, 28 main power source, 183
drive mechanisms, 27, 101, 103, 136-37 power ratings, 183
face contours, 26, 27, 136, 137 ripple voltage, 183
maintenance, 137-38 self-biasing system, 184
selection, 13 voltage control, output, 183
wear, 27 Electron beam weld discontinuities, 206,
Electrodes, spot welding, 6, 18, 128, 129-33. 207-212
See also Electrodes, resistance welding; cracking, 209
Spot welding. lack of fusion, 211-12
application, 132 lack of penetration, 210
attachment methods, 128, 130, 132 missed joint, 210-11
cooling, 130 porosity and spatter, 207-8
deformation of, 6 shrinkage voids, 208
designs, two piece, 130, 132 undercutting, 209-10
for dissimilar thicknesses, 20-21 underfill, 210
face area, effect of, 5 Electron beam welding, 170-215
face designs, 128, 129 accelerating voltage, 171, 181, 182
force, maximum, 130 advantages, 175-76
identification, 133 aluminum, 202-3
maintenance, 22, 131-32 application, 178-79, 204-6
manufacture, 131 beam current, 171,181,182
selection, 13 beam deflection, 210
shank designs, 128, 129-30, 131 beam diameter, 171, 200
specifications, 132-33 beam oscillation, 182
Electrodes, upset welding, 77, 78, 81-82, 138. beam power, 182
See also Electrodes, resistance welding; beam power density, 171
Upset welding. beam pulsing, 182
Electron beamdispersion, 172, 174 beam scattering, 192-93
Electron beam gun(s), 170, 172, 181-82 cleaning methods, 198
anode, 181 definition, 170
beam deflection coils, 182 depth-to-width ratio, 174, 177, 180
beam focusing, 182 dissimilar metals, 203-4
beam shaping electrode, 181 , 182 dissimilar thicknesses, 179
components, 170, 181 distortion, 178, 180
diode type, 170, 181 energy input, 180, 199-200
electromagnetic lens, 182 eye protection, 214
electron emission, 181 filler metal additions, 199, 210
emitter(s), 170, 181, 183 filler metal shims, 203
emitter(s), indirectly heated, 184 fixturing, 198-99
emitter power supply, 183-84 fundamentals, 170-77
high voltage, 181, 182 general description, 170-71
low voltage, 181, 182 geometric beam patterns, 184
mobility, 181, 182, 186 high vacuum, 171, 172-73
Index /449
joint designs, 196, 197 welding chambers, high voltage, 186-87

joint preparations and fit-up, 196-98 welding chambers, low voltage, 186
joint properties, control of, 207 welding chambers, radiation shielding of,
limitations, 174, 176-77 186, 187
medium vacuum, 171ff work handling equipment, 189-91
metals welded, 175, 201-4 x-radiation, 213
narrow welds, requirements for, 181 Eutectic bonding. See Diffusion brazing.
nonvacuum, 17Iff Explosion welding, 264-278
penetration, 177 angular arrangement, 264-65
penetration, partial, 211 applications, 268-72
powerdensity, 177 buffer, 265
procedures, 196-99 capabilities, 267
process control, 180 chisel test, 275-76
process variations, 171-75 cladding applications, 269
reactive metals, 172, 173, 179-80 collision angle, 265, 273-74
refractory metals, 173, 179-80, 203 collision velocity, 265, 266
safe practices, 213-14 component arrangement, 264
seam tracking methods, 187-89 definition, 264
stainless steels, 202 deformation, 264
steels, 201-2 destructive testing, 275-77
supplementary reading list, 215 detonation velocity, 265, 273, 274
tabs, starting and runoff, 199 discontinuities, 266
titanium, 203 dissimilar metals, 267ff
tooling and fixturing materials, 177 electrical applications, 270
variables, 170-71 explosive(s), 265, 273
variables, effects of, 200-1 explosive detonation, 265
variables, interpolation of, 200 fixturing and backup, 273
variables, selection of, 199-201 fundamentals, 264-67
weld characteristics, 177-80 general description, 264
weld metal geometry, 177, 180 heat exchanger applications, 272
weld quality, 206-12 interface geometry, 265-67
zirconium, 203 jet formation, 265
Electron beam welding equipment, 180-196 jet material, 266
bias voltage supply, 184 joint quality, 274-77
classification, 180 joint types, 267, 272-73
deflection coil power supply, 184 metal properties, effect on, 268, 269, 274
electromagnetic lens power supply, 184 metallographic examination, 277
filler wire feeder, 199 metals welded, 268
high voltage systems, 181, 186-87 nondestructive inspection, 274-75
low voltage systems, 181, 186 parallel arrangement, 264
medium vacuum, 191-92, 193, 194 prime component thickness, 267
nonvacuum, 192-96 prime conponent velocity, 265
nonvacuum radiation enclosure, 213 principles of operation, 264-65
radiation survey, 213 process variables, 265, 273-74
vacuum chamber. See welding chambers. radiographic inspection, 275
vacuum staging, 193-94 repair applications, 272
ventilation, 213-14 safety, 277
viewing systems, 186 standoff distance, 264, 273-74
welding chambers, 171, 172, 180 supplementary reading list, 278
450/ INDEX
surface preparation, 273 flashing, 58, 59, 60

tension-shear test, 276 flashing, parabolic, 59
tension test, 276-77 flashing distance, 59
transition joints, 269-71 flashing pattern, 59
tubular joints, 271 flashing time, 69
ultrasonic inspection, 274-75 flashing voltage, 58, 69, ?Iff
welding procedures, 272-73 flashing voltage cutoff, 69-70
flat spots, 71
Flame spraying, 368, 369-72. See also Thermal gas shielding, 68
spraying. general description, 58
ceramic deposit characteristics, 371-72 initial die opening, 67
ceramic rod, 371-72 inspection of welds, 72-73
ceramic rod equipment, 371 joint designs, 63, 65
compressed air supply, 370 joint length, maximum, 63
deposit thickness, 369 joint strength, 69
fuel gasses, 369 limitations, 60
gas controls, 369-70 metal loss, 63, 67-68
gun, wire, 370, 371 metals welded, 60
gun design, 369 miter joints, 60-61,63,65,67
powder feed, 372 oxides, entrapped, 71
powder materials·, 372 part alignment, 67, 68
powder spray equipment, 372 part design, 63
spray material forms, 368, 369 platen motion, 64
spray materials, ceramic, 371 postheat control, 61
wire, 370-71 postheating, 68-69
wire drive unit, 370 power line unbalance, 60
Flash welding, 58-76. See also Machines, flash preheat control, 61
welding; Resistance welding. preheating, 68
advantages, 60 principles of operation, 58-60
applications, 60-61 procedure qualification, 73
backups, 62-63 procedures, 63-69
base metal structure, effect of, 70-71 process control, 72-73
clamping pressure, 61 rings, 63
cracking, 68, 72 safety, 88-89
definition, 58 setup for, 62
die(s), 58, 61-62, 69, 106, 138. See also shapes welded, 60
Electrodes, resistance welding. steel, 73-76
die burns, 71 supplementary reading list, 90
die materials, 61 surface preparation, 60, 67
die opening, 72 temperature distribution, 59, 63
die(s) pinch-off, 69 testing of welds, 72-73
die wear, 61 tubing diameters, maximum, 63
dimensional variables, 62, 63, 64 types of welds, 63, 66
discontinuities, 70-72 upst:t distance, 70, 72
end preparation, 63, 65, 67 upsetting, 59, 69-70, 72
equipment, 61-63. See also Machines. flash upsetting current, 59-60, 70
welding. upsetting force, 58, 73
tixtures, 62 upsetting pressure, 70, 76
flash material, 58 upsetting rate, 70
flash removal, 60. 69 upsetting variables, 69
Index/ 451
variables, 63, 65, 69-70, 71 variables, 248-50

visual inspection, 72, 73 Friction welding, inertia, 242, 243, 250-53
weld quality, 70-72 characteristics, 243
welding sche~ule, 68 cycle stages, 243, 251
welding sequence, 58-59 flywheel configuration, 251-252
Forge welding, 425-26. See also Upset flywheel energy, 242, 250, 251
welding. flywheel speed, 242, 250
Friction welding, 60, 76, 240-61 flywheel velocity, 252, 53
advantages, 244 force application, 242
applications, 257ff forging pressure, 251
axial shortening, effect of, 256 general description, 250-51
basic steps, 240, 241 heating pressure, 253
bonding mechanism, 243 heating time, 250
cycle, 243 upsetting phase, 251
definition, 240 variables, 251-53
discontinuities, 255-56
dissimilar metals, 243ff, 255 Heat balance in
fundamentals, 240-46 flash welding, 65, 67
general description, 240 projection welding, 32
heat treatment, 255 seam welding, 7, 26
inspection and testing, 256 spot welding, 7, 18
joint design( s), 245-46, 24 7 upset welding, 77-78
joint design, conical, 246 Heat control, electronic, 60, 61, 69, 70, 106,
limitations, 244 114-16, 122
machines, 246-53 High frequency resistance welding, 146, 150ff.
metallurgical structures, 244 See also High frequency welding.
metals welded, 244-45 applications, 154-55
modes of operation, 240-41, 242 contacts, 159-60
monitoring equipment, 256-57 finite length welding, 147, 150, 151
orbital, 241,245 general description, 146
process control, 256 metals welded, 154-55
process variations, 241-42 melt welding, 151, 152
radial, 240-41 seam welding, 147, 150, 151
safety, 258 High frequency induction welding, 146, 15Iff.
supplementary reading list, 261 See also High frequency welding.
surface preparation, 245, 253 applications, 147, 155-56
tooling and fixtures, 253-55 definition, 146
weld quality, 253, 255-57 hollow pieces, 147, 152
welding procedures, 253-55 induction coils, 152, 160
Friction welding, continuous drive, 241-42, magnetic pulse forging, 152-53
243, 246-250 seam welding of tubing, 147, 151-52, 153
characteristics, 243 High frequency welding, 76, 145-66
force application, 242 advantages, 153-54
general description, 246-48 alignment, and fit-up, 162
heating phase, 248 application, 146-47, 154-58
heating time, 249 control devices, 160-61
preheating, 248 definition, 146
pressure, 249 discontinuities, 163ff
rotational speed, 249 equipment, 158-62
upsetting phase, 248 finite length welding, 147, 150, 151
452/INDEX
fixturing, 162-63 power densities, 223

flat spots, 163 principles of operation, 218-22
frequency effect on current pattern, 149-50 safety, 236-37
frequency effect on current penetration, Laser(s), gas, 218, 220-22
148,149 argon, 218
gas shielding, 146 carbon dioxide (C02 ), 221-22
general description, 146 cooling, 221-22
impeders, 160 efficiency, 222
inspection, 163-65 gas flow, 222
limitations, 154 helium-neon, 220
magnetic core, effect of, 149, 150 wavelength, C0 2 , 222
pipe and tubing, 147, 156, 157-58 Laser( s), gas dynamic, 221
power controls, 161 Laser(s), solid-state, 218-20, 222
power ripple, effect of, 161 cooling,220
power sources, 158-59 efficiency, 220
principles of operation, 146-50 flash lamps, 219
process variations, 150-53 laser action, 218, 219
proximity conductor, 149, 150 laser cavity, 219-20
proximity effect, 149, 162 neodynium- YAG, 222
safety, 165-66 pulsed ruby, 218
seam welding, 147, 162 system components, 219
skin effect, 146-49, 150 wavelength, 219
speed control, 161 Laser beam cutting, 232-34
structural beams, 156-57 Laser beam drilling, 232, 233-35
supplementary reading list, 167 Laser beam welding, 223-32
surface preparation, 162 applications, 226-32
timing controls, 161 beam size, 223
transformers, impedance matching, 159 capabilities, 227-28
upsetting, 150, 152, 163 conduction limited technique, 223
voltage regulators, 160-61 energy absorption, 224
weld quality, 163-65 inert gas shielding, 232
welding procedures, 162-63 keyhole technique, 223-24
Hot isostatic pressing, 320, 321-22 metals welded, 226
Hot pressure welding, 416-27. See also Dif- positions of welding, 232
fusion welding; Friction welding. seam welding, 228
supplementary reading list, 432 spot welding, 228
supplementary reading list, 238
Ignitron tubes, 12, 13, 112, 113, 114-15 tooling, 232
Induction resistance welding. See High fre- Laser beam welding, continuous power, 225-26
quency induction welding filler metal addition, 226
Induction welding. See High frequency induc- fit-up, 226
tion welding. joint designs, 226
penetration, 225, 226
Laser(s) plasma formation, 225-26
capabilities, 223 power requirements, 230
definition, 218 Laser beam welding, pulsed power, 224-25
general description, 218 beam power, 224
high power, 222-23 joint penetration, 224-25
limitation, 223 pulse duration, 224
low power, 222 seam welding, 224, 225,
Index I 453
spot diameter, 225 safety, 53, 54, 140-42

Laser output windows, 222 safety, electrical, 141
Load resistors, 106 safety, mechanical, 140-41
secondary circuit, ac, 120
Machines, flash welding, 61-63, 105-9. See secondary circuit, de, 121
also Flash welding; Machines, resistance secondary voltage adjustment, 13
welding. selection, 92
autotransformer, 106 single-phase, 92
clamping mechanisms, 107-9 single-phase, ac, 120-21
controls, 61, 106 single-phase, de, 121
design, general, 105-6 standards, 92
drive mechanisms, 106-7 stored energy, 10-11 , 12, 93
fixtures, 109 supplementary reading list, 143
hydraulic, 106-7 tap switches, 114, 120
major parts, 61 three-phase, 92-93
motor-operated, 106 three-phase de rectifiers, 122-23
platens, 106 three-phase frequency converter, 12, 121-22
postheat, 106 throat depth, press type, 95
preheat, 106 transformer rating, 120
upsetting force, 106 Machines, roll spot. See Machines, seam
upsetting mechanisms, 106 welding.
Machines, percussion welding, 85-86. See also Machines, seam welding. 11-14, 22, 100-5. See
Percussion welding. also Machines, resistance welding; Seam
Machines, projection welding, 11-14, welding.
33, 94-97. See also Machines, resistance circular, 101
welding; Projection welding. continuous drive, 101
Machines, resistance welding. See also Ma- cooling, 105
chines, flash welding; Machines, projec- electrode drive mechanisms, 101, 103
tion welding; Machines, seam welding; elements, 101
Machines, spot welding; Machines, upset intermittent drive, 101
welding. longitudinal, 101
air cylinders, 95-97 portable, 104
air-operated, 95-96 special purpose, 103-4
classification, 92 tandem wheel arrangement, 26
classification, press type, 95 traveling electrode, 103-4
design, 92 traveling fixture, 104
direct, energy, 9-10, 92 types, 101
duty cycle, 120 universal, 101
electrical characteristics, 120-24 Machines, spot welding, 11-14, 93-100. See
electrical circuit, ac, II also Machines, resistance welding; Spot
electrical circuit, de, 11-12 welding.
general construction, press type, 95 air cylinders, 93-94
hazards, 140 air-hydraulic booster, 98
hydraulic, 97 air operated, 93
installation, 139ff electrode skidding, 93
power factor correction, 121 foot operated, 93, 94
power input, maximum, 120 motor operated, 93, 94
press type, 36, 94-97 multiple spot, 98-100
principle elements, 92 multiple spot gun design, 98-99
rectifier type, 12 portable, 97-98
454/INDEX
rocker arm, 93-94 welding current, 83, 86

stored energy, 123-24 welding sequence, 82-83
welding guns, portable, 97-98 Plasma spraying, 368-69, 372-75. See also
welding transformers, portable gun, 98 Thermal spraying.
Machines, ultrasonic welding. 289-96. See also environmental control, 374
Ultrasonic welding. equipment, 372-74
Machines, upset welding, 77, 109-110. See also genera·) description, 372
Upset welding. plasma gas, 374
Metal surface characteristics, 313 powder carrying gas, 374
Metallizing. See Thermal spraying. powder feed devices, 374
Monitors, resistance welding, 48-50, 118-19 power supply, 373-74
acoustic emission, 50, 119 spray materials, 374-75
current regulator, 49 systems control, 374
resistance feedback, 49 torch designs, 372-73
tip voltage regulator, 49 Pressure gas welding, 416-25
weld energy, 48ff, 119 application, 422-23
closed joint method, 416-19
National Electrical Manufacturers Association definition, 416
(NEMA), 110 end preparation, 417, 420
NEMA Standard Publication No. ICS 5-1978, equipment, 417, 421-22
Resistance Welding Control, 110 n. general description, 416
heating torches, 416, 419-20
Peel test, 51-52, 308, 349, 362 joing properties, 423-24
Pillow test, 52 open joint method, 419-21
Percussion welding, 82-88 principles of operation, 416-21
advantages, 83 process variations, 418-19
application, 83-84 quality control, 424-25
arc initiation, 83 weld quality, 419,423-24
arc time, 87 · Projection welding, 28-38. See also Machines,
arc voltage, 86 projection welding; Percussion welding;
capacitor discharge, 82, 83, 84, 87-88 Resistance welding.
controls, 88 advantages,28-29
definition, 82 applications, 28
fundamentals, 82-83 definition, 2
general description, 82-83 dies. See Electrodes, projection welding.
gun,87 dissimilar metals, 32
joint design, magnetic force, 86 edge distance, 36
limitations, 83 electrode force, II, 23
machines, capacitor discharge, 87-88 electrode installation, 35
machines, magnetic force, 85-86 electrodes. See Electrodes, projection
magnetic force, 82ff welding.
metals welded, 83-84 fasteners, 33
power sources, 83 fit-up for, 36
principles of operation, 83 fundamentals, 2-11
projection design, 86 general description, 2
safety, 88-89 heat balance, 7, 32
supplementary reading list, 90 heat dissipations, 6-7
variations of, 82 joint design, 35-36
weld quality, 88 joint overlap, 36
Index /455
joint types, 30 heat time, 9, llO

limitations, 29-30 hold time, 8-9, llO
metals welded, 38-42 inspection of welds, 50-53
multiple impulse, 32-33 magnesium alloys, 41-42
penetration, depth of, 44 metal composition, effect of, 7
principles of operation, 2-8 metal expulsion, 5, 6
projection, purpose of, 30 multiple-impulse welding, 9, 10, II
projection designs, 30-32 nickel alloys, 40-41
projection punch and die designs, 30, 31 off time, 9, llO
projection size, effect of, 5 postheat, 9, 10
projection weld, formation of, 29-30 preheat, 9, 10
projections, annular, 30, 31-32 primed surfaces, 14
projections, elongated, 31 pulsation welding. See multiple-impulse
projections, number of, 30 welding.
projections, machined orforged, 31-32 quality control, 47-53
projections, sheet metal, 30-31 quench and temper, 9
quality control, 47-53 sheet separation, 47
safety, 53-54 single-impulse welding, 8, II
supplementary reading list, 55 spitting, 5, 6
surface marking, 36 squeeze time, 8, llO
weld quality, 43-47 steels, coated, 42
weld size, 43-44 steels, low carbon, 39-40
weld time, 10-ll, 32-33 steels, hardenable, 39, 40, 46
welding current, 9-10, 32 steels, stainless, 40
welding cycle, 8-9, 32-33 surface appearance, 43
welding schedules, 42 surface condition, 6
surface oxidation, effect of, 39
Resistance welding. See also Controls, resis- surface preparation, 14-16
tance welding; Flash welding; High fre- surface preparation control, 15-16
quency welding; Machines, resistance temperature distribution, 3, 4
welding; Projection welding; Seam weld- tension-to-shear ratio, 46
ing; Spot welding; Upset welding. testing of welds, 50-53
aluminum alloys, 41-42 upslope, 10, 13, ll6
copper alloys, 41 upslope time, 9
contact resistance, 3, 4, 6 weld ductility, 46
cool time, 9, Ill weld interval time, 9, lll
discontinuities, 46-47 weld quality factors, 43
downslope, 10, 13, ll6 weld strength, 44-46
downslope time, 9 weld time, 5-6, 8, 10-ll, llO
electrode follow-up, 95 weldability, properties influencing, 38-39
electrode force, 6, II. welding current programming, 9-10
electrode force, application of, 14 welding current types, 9
electrode force, determination of, 48 welding pressure, 6. See also electrode force.
electrode force, forging, 9, 11, 14 Resistance butt welding. See Flash weld-
electrode force, functions of, ll ing; Upset welding.
electrode force, precompression, 9, 11 Roll spot welding, 2, 22. See also Resistance
equipment, 92-143. See also Machines, welding; Seam welding; Spot welding.
resistance welding. Roll welding, 426-27
heat generation, 3-7 RWMA, 61n, 124
456/INDEX
RWMA Bulletin 16, Resistance Welding Equip- nugget size, 26

ment Standards, 92, 124n, 133 penetration, depth of, 44
principles of operation, 2-8
Safety process variations, 23-25
adhesive bonding, 363-64 quality control, 47-53
electron beam welding, 213-14 series welding, 25-26
equipment, personal, 53-54 steel, galvanized, 101
eye protection, 89 steels, low carbon, 26
explosion welding, 277 supplementary reading list, 55
flash welding, 88-89 surface appearance, 43
friction welding, 258 tandem electrodes, 26
high frequency welding, 165-66 weld quality, 43-47
laser beam, 236-37 weld size, 43-44
percussion welding, 88-89 weld time, 10-11
resistance welding equipment, 140-42 weld width, 27
seam welding, 53-54 welding current, 9-10
spot welding, 53-54 welding cycle, 8-9, 26-27
thermal spraying, 390-92 welding schedules, 42
Thermit welding, 405 welding speed, 27
ultrasonic welding, 309 Silicon controlled rectifier(s), 12, 13, 112ff,
upset welding, 88-89 160, 291
SCR(s). See silicon controlled rectifier(s). Spot welding, 16-23. See also Machines, re-
Seam welding, 23-28. See also Machines, resis- sistance welding; Machines, spot welding;
tance welding; Machines, seam welding; Resistance welding; Ultrasonic welding.
Resistance welding; Ultrasonic welding. advantages, 16
advantages, 23 applications, 16
application, 23 complex cycle, 118
continuous current, 26 definition, 2
continuous motion, 27 direct welding, 16-17
definition, 2 dissimilar metals, 18
electrode follow-up, 6 dissimilar thicknesses, 20-21
electrode force, II edge distance, 19
electrodes. See Electrodes, resistance weld- electrode alignment, 22
ing; Electrodes, seam welding. electrode follow-up, effect of, 6
equipment, 11-14. See also Machines, resis- electrode force, II, 94
tance welding; Machines, seam welding. electrode force, dual, 96-97, 117
foil butt, 25 electrode indentation, 20
fundamentals, 2-11 electrodes. See Electrodes, resistance weld-
general description, 2 ing; Electrodes, spot welding.
heat dissipation, 7-8 equipment, 11-14. See also Machines, re-
interrupted current, 26 sistance welding; Machines spot welding.
interrupted motion, 27 fit-up, 19
joint designs, 28, 29 fundamentals, 2-11
lap seam, 23, 24 general description, 2
limitations, 23 heat balance, 7, 18
mash seam, 23-25 heat dissipation, 7-8
metal finish, 24, 25 indirect welding, 16-17, 20
metals welded, 38-42 joint accessibility, 20
nugget overlap, 26 joint designs, 18-22
Index /457
joint overlap, 19 deposit structure, 384

limitations, 16-17 deposits, stresses in, 387-88
metals welded, 38-42 diffusing aluminum deposits, 381
monitoring devices, 118-19 equipment safety, 390
multiple impulse, 6, 18 fire prevention, 390-91
multiple spots; 17-18 fundamentals, 368-69
multiple welded joints, strength of, 13 fused deposit(s), 379-80
parallel welding, 17-18 fused deposit applications, 380
penetration, depth of, 44 fused deposit equipment, 379-80
principles of operation, 2-8 fusing of deposits, 380
process variations, 17-18 general description, 368
quality control, 4 7-53 grinding of deposited material, 382-83
roll spot, 2, 22 heating methods, 368
safety, 53-54 inspection of deposits, 384
series welding, 17-18 machining deposited material, 382
shear strength, 21 microstructure of metal deposits, 384-86
shear strength, effect of weld time on, 5 personnel protection, 391
spot spacing, 21 potential hazards, 390
steels, hardenable, 116-17 preheating for, 378-79
supplementary reading list, 55 preparation for, 378-79
surface appearance, 20, 43, 45 process variations, 368
tension strength, 21 properties of deposits, 384-88
weld quality, 43-47 quality control, 383-84
weld size, 43-44 quality factors, 384
weld spacing, 19-20, 21 safety, 390-92
weld time, 10-11 sealing sprayed deposits, 381
welding current, 9-10 self-fluxing alloys, 379
welding current, effect on shear strength, 4 spray materials, 368
welding cycle, 8-9 supplementary reading list, 393
welding schedules, 42 surface finishing of deposits, 382-83
Stud welding, 82, 83 surface roughening, 378
Superplastic forming diffusion bonding Thermit heat treatment, 404-5
(SPF/DB), 320 Thermit welding, 396-405
applications, 397-99
Tension-shear test, 52,276,305,308,361,362 crucible, 397, 401, 402
Thermal spraying, 368-93. See also Arc spray- definition, 396
ing; Detonation flame spraying; Flame electrical connections, 404
spraying; Plasma spraying. ferroalloy filler metal, 397
applications, 368, 388-89 fundamentals, 396-97
bond layer materials, 378 ignition, 397, 402
bond strength, 386-87, 388 joint preparation, 399
bonding, types of, 368, 378 mixtures, 397
cast iron pretreatment, 378 molds, 397ff
definition, 368 personnel protection, 405
deposit density, 368, 387, 389 preheating, 397-98,400
deposit hardness, 386 preparation for, 397
deposit porosity, 387 principles of operation, 396-97
deposit properties, 368 rails, 397-99
deposit shrinkage, 387 reaction temperature, 396-97
458/INDEX
reinforcing bars, 403-4 stress patte~s. 281-82

repair welding, 399-403 supplementary reading list, 310
repair welding applications, 402-3 surface appearance, 300
safety, 405 surface preparation, 297
supplementary reading list, 432 tensile strength, 308
Therrnit mixture quality, 401-2 thickness limitations, 284-85
Therrnit mixtures, 396 vibratory energy, 280, 282
thermochemical reactions, 396 weld quality, 300-8
Thbe mill, 78, 80 weld zone energy, 282-83
weld zone temperature, 281 , 282
Ultrasonic welding, 280-310 welding atmosphere, 297
advantages, 283 welding time, 298
applications, 280, 284-89 welding variable relationships, 298-99
bonding mechanism, 281-83 Ultrasonic welding machines, 289-96
cladding, 286 anvil,280,282,290
clamping force, 281, 298, 299 anvil geometry, 294-95
corrosion resistance, 308 automated, 296
definition, 280 clamping mechanism, 291
energy requirements, 282, 283 components, 280, 281
frequency adjustment, 298 controls, 295-296
fundamentals, 280-83 frequency converters, 291
general description, 280 general description, 289-91
interlayer foils; 285 lateral drive type, 292-93
joint design, 296 line welding, 293
limitations, 283 monitors, 296
line welding, 281, 288 ring welding, 293
line weld strength, 306 seam welding, 293-94
mechanical property tests, 305-8 sonotrode,280,282,290,292,293
metals welded, 284 sonotrode tip, 28off, 292ff
microstructures, 300-5 sonotrode tip maintenance, 295
multiple layers, 284 spot welding, 291-93
peel testing, 298, 308 transduce~s),280,282,289-90
power-force programming, 299 transducer-sonotrode systems, 289-90
power frequency, 282 vibratory frequency, 289
power losses, 282 wedge-reed type, 292
power requirements, 283, 298 Upset welding, 60, 76-82. See also Machine,
process variables, 298, 299 upset welding; Resistance welding.
process variations, 280-81 applications, 78, 110
quality control, 308 arrangement, general, 77
resonance of parts, 296-97 buttjoints, 76-78
ring welding, 281,286,289 contact resistance, 77, 81, 82
ring welds, 287, 296 continuous seam, 76, 78-82
safety, 309 definition, 76
seam weld strength, 306 dies, clamping. See Electrodes, resistance
seam welding, 281, 289. ~ee also Seam welding;. Electrodes, upset welding.
welding. equipment, 77, 78. See also Machine, resis-
seam welding.speed, 298 tance welding; Machines, upset welding.
shear strength, 305-7, 308 fundamentals, 76
spot welding, 280, 294, 298. See also Spot inspection, 82
welding. joint preparation, 77
Index /459
mechanical testing, 78 upsetting pressure, 81

metals welded, 76 weld quality, 78
operation sequence, 76-77 welding current cOntrol, 77
pipe and tubing, 78-82 welding force, 77
power, 78 ofwire, 77
power frequency, effect of, 81 Vacuum pump types, 184
principles of operation, 76 Vacuum pumping systems, 184-86
procedures for continuous seam, 78-81 for electron beam gun chamber, 184
process variations, 76 for electron beam welding chambers, 184-55
safety, 88-89 evacuation rate, 185-86
shapes welded, 76 leakage rate, 186
stitch effect, 81 Voltage drop, 139
supplementary reading list, 90
surface burns, 81-82 Weldbonding, 22-23, 359
upsetting force, 77 Welding wheel. See Electrodes, seam welding.

(W. H. Kearns (Eds.) ) Welding Handbook Volume 3 R (B-Ok - Xyz)

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(W. H. Kearns (Eds.) ) Welding Handbook Volume 3 R (B-Ok - Xyz)

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Welding Handbook

Seventh Edition, Volume 3

Resistance and Solid-State

Arc and Gas Welding and Cutting,

Resistance and Solid-State Welding

4 Metals and Their Weldabilitya

5 Engineering, Quality Assurance,

a. Scheduled to replace Sec. 4, 6th Ed., in 1982.

Resistance and Solid-State Welding

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY

European Edition Distributed by

ISBN 978-1-349-04963-9 ISBN 978-1-349-04961-5 (eBook)

American Welding Society, 2501 N. W. 7th Street, Miami, FL 33125

© 1980 by American Welding Society.

Welding Handbook Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Chapter 1, Spot, Seam, and Projection Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2, Flash, Upset, and Percussion Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Chapter 3, Resistance Welding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Chapter 4, High Frequency Welding ..................................... 145

Chapter 5, Electron Beam Welding ...................................... 169

Chapter 6, Laser Beam Welding and Cutting .............................. 217

Chapter 7, Friction Welding ............................................ 239

Chapter 8, Explosion Welding .......................................... 263

Safety .................................................... ....... 277

Chapter 9, Ultrasonic Welding .......................................... 279

Chapter 10, Diffusion Welding and Brazing ............................... 311

Chapter 11, Adhesive Bonding of Metals .................................. 337

Chapter 12, Thermal Spraying .......................................... 367

Applications .................................................... .. 388

Chapter 13, Other Welding Processes .................................... 395

Index of Major Subjects ................................................. 433

W. L. Wilcox, Chairman Scott Paper Company

*Term expired May 31, 1979

W L. Wilcox, Chairman W H. Keams, Editor

W. G. EMAUS, Chairman A. E. LOHRBER

Welding Handbook Committee Members

__;..~~~-~-..;;;-;...;-;.~_ -- - - - - _~,....: _.,._.!0'-o

Fig. 1.2-Temperature distribution at various locations during spot, seam,

highest resistance and, therefore, the point of

Effect of Welding Current. In the formula,

quently, the heat loss into the electrodes and

a. Machine operating time

Upslope time -1 Downslope_l+-----+1

1+----- Weld interval heat time------o..j.--

Fig. 1.7-Multiple-impulse welding with slope control and postheat

pulse of current ceases to flow. During this time, WELDING CURRENT

1---- Preweld----1+---- Weld------<~-----<~Postweld

Timer functions pression

Y - Machine operating time

Fig. 1.8-A complex weld cycle-multiple impulse

Fig. 1.9-Typical single-phase spot welding circuit

Frequency Converter Machines. This type of Electrodes

CONTROL EQUIPMENT MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

APPLICATIONS steel plates up to 1/4-in. thick. However, load-

Fig. 1.10-Typical arrangements for single spot welds

Parallel and Series Welding

may be low. Minimum edge distance ·will be

6. See Ch. 3 for information on electrodes and Fig. 1.14-Surface irregularity

Fig. 1.15-Application of indirect welding to minimize marking on one side

(A) Lap seam weld

Before welding After welding

Before welding After welding

(C) Metal finish seam weld