CHAPTER 3

• PART A: Drinking Water Supply And Health

• PART B: Raw Water Intake, Screening, Aeration and Grit Removal
• PART C: Water Treatment, Coagulation and Flocculation
• PART D: Sedimentation
• PART E: Filtration, Disinfection and Distribution
• PART F: Treated Water Distribution

1
 CHAPTER 3A
Drinking Water Supply
and Health
ENGINEERED WATER SYSTEMS

4
 WATER AND HEALTH

• 80% of sickness in the world is caused by

inadequate water supply or sanitation.
• 40% of the world population does not have
access to safe drinking water.
• It is estimated that water-borne diseases
kill 25,000 people per day.
• In many populated areas of the world, water-
borne diseases represent the leading cause
5 of death.
 MALAYSIAN INTERIM WATER
QUALITY STANDARDS (INWQS)
Table 1: Water Use Classes in the National Water Quality Standards (Updated 2008)

Class Uses
CLASS I Conservation of natural environment water supply I -
practically no treatment necessary.
Fishery I - very sensitive aquatic species
CLASS IIA Water Supply II - conventional treatment required
Fishery ll - sensitive aquatic species
CLASS IIB Recreational use with body contact
CLASS III Water Supply lll - extensive treatment required
Fishery lll - common, of economic value, and tolerant
species livestock drinking
CLASS IV Irrigation
CLASS V
6
None of the above
 MALAYSIA : NATIONAL GUIDELINES FOR RAW
DRINKING WATER QUALITY
Table 2 : National Guidelines for Raw Drinking Water Quality (Revised December 2000)
Parameter Symbol Benchmark (Limit)
Sulphate SO4 250 mg/l
Hardness CaCO3SO 500 mg/l
Nitrate NO3SO 10 mg/l
Coliform - Must not be detected in any 100 ml sample
Manganese Mn 0.1 mg/l
Chromium Cr 0.05 mg/l
Zinc Zn 3 mg/l
Arsenic As 0.01 mg/l
Selenium Se 0.01 mg/l
Chloride Cl 250 mg/l
Phenolics - 0.002 mg/l
TDS - 1000 mg/l
Iron Fe 0.3 mg/l
Copper Cu 1.0 mg/l
Lead Pb 0.01 mg/l
7
Cadmium Cd 0.003 mg/l
Mercury Hg 0.001 mg
 PALATABLE VS. POTABLE
Palatable Potable
• Safe to drink.
• Aesthetically pleasing • Not necessarily
• Considers the presence aesthetically pleasing.
of chemicals that do not • However, potability
pose a threat to human affected by:
 Microbials (e.g. Giardia,
health cryptosporidium)
• Palatability affected by  Organic chemicals (e.g.,
alachor, chlordane, cis-1,2-
chloride, color, dichloroethylene,
corrosivity, iron, disinfection by-products)
manganese, taste and  Inorganic chemicals (e.g.,
odor, total dissolved cadmium, copper, lead,
mercury)
solids, turbidity  Radionuclides
8
 PALATABLE AND POTABLE
• The goal of municipal water treatment is to
provide water that is both palatable and
potable.

• Palatability and Potability regulated under

Safe Drinking Water Act.
 Palatability: Secondary Maximum Contaminant
Levels (SMCLs)
 Potability: Primary Maximum Contaminant Levels
(MCLs)

(for systems serving more than 25 persons per day for

9 greater than 60 days per year)
 SOURCES OF
DRINKING WATER
Groundwater
• Shallow wells
• Deep wells

Surface water
• Rivers
• Lakes
• Reservoirs

10
GROUNDWATER VS SURFACE
WATER
Groundwater Surface water
• Constant composition • Variable composition
• High mineral content • Low mineral content
• Low turbidity • High turbidity
• Low color • Colored
• Low or no D.O. • D.O. Present
• High hardness • Low hardness
• High Fe, Mn • Taste and odor

11
 SURFACE WATER TREATMENT

Primary objectives are:

1. To remove suspended material
(turbidity) and color.
2. To eliminate pathogenic organisms.

Treatment technologies largely based on

coagulation and flocculation.
12
 SURFACE WATER TREATMENT

Main treatments:
1. Adding Polyaluminum chloride
(PAC) and other coagulants to
the raw water to promote
coagulation and flocculation.
2. Sedimentation
3. Filtration
4. Disinfection using chlorine gas
or UV light.
5. pH adjustment using sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) to hinder
corrosion in pipes.
13
14
 TREATMENT PROCESSES
1. Rapid Mix (Aeration)
– Water is aerated to increase the DO content of the
water.
– From the aerators, the water flows into the rapid
mix tank where it is combined with the lime.
– The purpose of the rapid mix tank is to provide a
complete mix, allowing the lime to come in contact
with the dissolved minerals.
– Detention time in this tank is just a few seconds.

2. First-Stage Mixing (Coagulation)

Coagulant is mixed with the water for 20 to 30
minutes in mix tank. Motor-driven paddles keep the
15

mixture moving and prevent settling in the mix tanks.

 TREATMENT PROCESSES

3. Second-Stage Mixing (Flocculation)

During flocculation, the particles attach to one another
to form larger solids that will be settled by gravity and
removed during another stage of treatment. The force
and speed of the mixing is gradually reduced, allowing
the particles to grow as large and heavy as possible.

4. Coagulation aid (Polymer)

An anionic polymer is added to aid in coagulation and
enhance settling. The polymer acts like a "glue”
holding together the particles and allowing them to grow
even larger.
16
 TREATMENT PROCESSES
5. Settling
Next, the water flows to settling tanks (clarifies), where previously
formed particles settle to the bottom as sludge. Flow-through time
here is 2-3 hours. Part of this sludge is returned to the mixing tank to
assist in coagulation; the remainder is drawn off continuously to
holding ponds or lagoons.

6. Filtration
After settling, the water passed through a set of filter to filter off the
unsettled solid during settling in sedimentation tank.

7. Chlorination
To ensure bacteriological safety of the water supply a calculated dose
of chlorine was added. The chlorine disinfects the water and protects
against microbial contamination after the water leaves the treatment
plant. Chlorine will also protect treated water from growth of algae if
17
exposed to direct sun.
 END OF CHAPTER 3A

18
 CHAPTER 3B
Raw Water Intake,
Screening, Aeration
and Grit Removal
 RAW WATER INTAKE
 Raw water intakes: Withdraw water from
a river, lake, or reservoir over a
predetermined range of pool levels.
 Screens: Remove large floating objects
from the water – to protect pumping
equipment.
 Aeration: Removes gases and volatile
compounds and also to oxidize certain
dissolved metals.
20
RAW WATER INTAKE STRUCTURES
• The structures used to control the
withdrawal of raw water from a surface
water source.
• Selectively withdraw the best quality water
while excluding fish, floating debris, coarse
sediment, and other objectionable
suspended matter.
• Intake structures contain gates, screens,
control valves, pumps, chemical feeders,
21
flow meters, offices and machine shop.
 TYPES OF INTAKE
STRUCTURES
1. Floating intakes 2. Submerged intakes

22
 INTAKE SITE SELECTION
1. Water quality
2. Water depth
3. Stream or current velocities
4. Foundation stability
5. Access
6. Power availability
7. Proximity to water treatment plant
8. Environmental impact
23
9. Hazard to navigate
 INTAKE DESIGN CONSIDERATION
Intake velocities Intake-port location
• High velocity – cause • Depends on the location
head loss, entrain (Water quality in each stratum
suspended matter, trap may vary).
fish, and other aquatic
• To achieve that, multiple
animals.
intake ports set at various
• Low velocity - below 8 levels are generally provided.
cm/s - allows aquatic
• Top intake – Less than 2 m
animals to escape, and
below normal level.
minimize the suspended
matter. • Bottom intake – At least 1 m
above the bottom
24
 SCREENING
• It is a unit operation that removes
suspended matter from water.
• Screens may be classified as (1) coarse,
(2) fine, or (3) micro strainer, depending on
the size of material removed.
• Located at intake structure, raw water
pump station, or water treatment plant.

25
 SCREENING
1. Coarse screen or
trash rack
 To prevent large object from
entering the conveyance
system.
 Consists of vertical flat bars, Fixed coarse screen
or, in some cases, round
pipes spaced with 5 to 8 cm
of clear opening.
 Installed outside of any sluice
gate.
 The velocity through the
coarse screen is generally
less than 8 cm/s.
Rotary coarse screen
26
 SCREENING
2. Fine screen
• To remove smaller objects
that may damage pumps or
other equipment.
• Screens consists of heavy
wire mesh with 0.5 cm
square opening.
• The typical design velocity
through the effective area is in
the range of 0.4 to 0.8 m/s.
• There are two types:
(1) Traveling screens
(2) Passive screen

27
 AERATION
Aeration involves bringing air or other gases in contact with
water.

The purpose of aeration are:

1. To reduce the concentrations of taste and odor
causing substance by volatilization
2. To oxidize iron and manganese - make them
insoluble.
3. To dissolve oxygen in water to make it taste better
4. To remove compounds for better water treatment
(H2S removal before chlorination and CO2 removal before
28 softening)
 TYPES OF AERATORS
1. Cascade aerator

Water is sent down by gravity and oxygenated as it come into contact

with the air bubbles caused by turbulent flow.
29
 TYPES OF AERATORS
2. Diffused air aerators

30
Water is enriched with oxygen as it
come into contact with the air bubbles.
 GRIT REMOVAL SYSTEM
• Grit chambers (just like sedimentation
tanks) are designed to remove grit,
consisting of sand, gravel, sanders, or
other heavy solid materials that have
greater specific gravities.
• Grit chambers are most commonly
located after the bar screens and before
the primary sedimentation.
• There are two main types of grit
chambers like (1) rectangular horizontal
flow types and (2) aerated grit chambers.
Grit chambers:
• In the aerated grit chamber the organic velocity controlled
solids are kept in suspension by rising
aerated system provided at the bottom of
the tank.
31
 GRIT REMOVAL SYSTEM
Grit chambers are provided to:
 Protect moving mechanical equipment from
abrasion (damage) and accompanying
abnormal wear.
 Reduce formation of heavy deposits in
pipelines, channels and conduits.

32
TYPE I SETTLING - STOKES’ LAW
g (  s   )d 2
vs 
18
where
νs = settling velocity
ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
d = particle diameter (m)
μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)
33
 EXAMPLE 1:
GRIT CHAMBER DESIGN

Design a grit chamber to remove sand particles

(s = 2650 kg/m3) with a mean diameter of 0.21
mm. Assume the sand is spherical and the
temperature of the water is 20oC. The water flow
is 10,000 m3/d. A velocity of 0.3 m/s will be
automatically maintained, and the depth must be
1.5 times the width at maximum flow. s = 2650 kg/m3
W = 998 kg/m3
d = 0.21 mm
Q = 10,000 m3/d
34 vs = 0.3 m/s
D = 1.5 W
μ = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s
 s = 2650 kg/m3
W = 998 kg/m3

SOLUTION d = 0.21 mm
Q = 10,000 m3/d
vs = 0.3 m/s
D = 1.5 W
μ = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s
1 Calculate settling velocity
2 Calculate the cross-sectional area
g (  s   )d 2
vs  Q
18 Ax 
v
9 .8
m

s2 
2650
kg
m3
 998
kg 
m3 
 2. 1  10 -4
m2

Ax  10,000
m 3  s  d 
  
vs   d  0.3 m  86400 s 
 kg 
181.00 10 3 
m  m  s  Ax  0.39 m2
vs  0.039
s

3 Calculate the width and depth

Ax  W  D  W 1.5W  1.5W 2
0.5 0.5
A   0.39 
W  x     0.51 m
 
1 .5  1 .5 
D  1.5  W  1.5  0.51  0.76 m
35
 s = 2650 kg/m3
W = 998 kg/m3
SOLUTION d = 0.21 mm

(CON’T)
Q = 10,000 m3/d
vs = 0.3 m/s
D = 1.5 W
μ = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s

4 Determine the detention time required for a particle to fall the

entire tank depth
D 0.76 m
td    19.4 s
vs 0.039 m/s

5 Determine the length to achieve this detention time

L  t d  vs  19.4 s  0.3 m/s  5.8 m

6 Thus, the tank must have dimensions

 W = 0.51 m, D = 0.76 m, L = 5.8 m
36
END OF CHAPTER 3B
 CHAPTER 3C
Water Treatment:
Coagulation and
Flocculation
 SURFACE WATER
TREATMENT
• The fundamental process in water treatment is the
removal of turbidity caused by the presence of fine
suspended solids and colloids in water.

• Addition of chemical to promote coagulation and

flocculation in done in rapid mix tanks.

• The larger and heavier flocs of solids formed is

settled in settling (sedimentation) tanks.

39
 RAPID MIXING
• Used to blend
chemicals and water
being treated
• Retention time from
10 – 30 seconds
• Mechanical mixing
using vertical-shaft
impeller in tank with
baffles

(Source: Water Supply and Pollution

40 Control, 5th ed. W. Viessman, Jr. and M.J.
Hammer, Harper Collins College Publ. 1993)
 RAPID MIXING

41
 COLLOIDS AND OTHER FINE
PARTICLES IN WATER

• Colloids are small particles (size range 0.001 to 1 m)

• Usually colloids are negatively charged.
• Particles repel so suspension is considered stable.
• Other fine particles are also cause turbidity in water
which exist as suspended solids.

42
 COAGULATION AND
FLOCCULATION
Goal:
To alter the surface charge of the particles that
contribute to color and turbidity so that the particles
adhere to one another and are capable of settling
by gravity.

43
 COAGULATION AND
FLOCCULATION

1. Why colloids are suspended in solution

and can’t be removed by sedimentation and
filtration?
Answer: The particles in colloid range are too
small to settle in a reasonable time period and
too small to be trapped in the pores of the
filter.

2. How to remove colloids?

Answer: Coagulation and Flocculation.
44
 COAGULATION AND
FLOCCULATION
+
Coagulation (process) + +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
++ + + ++
+ +
+ ++
+ + ++ + +
+ + ++ +
++
+
Colloidal particles + +
+
(0.001 - 1 m)
Floc
45
(1 - 100 m)
 COAGULANT
• Non-toxic and relatively inexpensive
• Insoluble in neutral pH range - do not want high
concentrations of metals left in treated water
• Typical coagulants:
1. Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
2. Ferric chloride: FeCl3
3. Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
4. Polyelectrolytes such as PAC (polyaluminium chloride)

46
 HOW DOES ALUM WORK?
1. Reaction of alum with water:
Al2(SO4)314H2O  2Al3++ 3SO42-+ 14H2O
[2Al3+ + colloids  neutralize surface charge]
2. If sufficient bicarbonate (alkalinity) is available:
2Al3+ + 6HCO3-  2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2
3. If insufficient bicarbonate (alkalinity) is available:
Al2(SO4)314H2O 2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4-+ 14H2O
4. Optimum pH: 5.5 to 6.5
5. Operating pH: 5 to 8
47
 FLOCCULATION
• Paddle units rotate
slowly, usually < 1 rpm
• Velocity of water:
0.2 - 0.5 m/s
• Detention time of at
least 20 minutes

48 (Source: Water Supply and Pollution Control, 5th ed. W. Viessman, Jr. and
M.J. Hammer, Harper Collins College Publ. 1993)
 FLOCCULATION

49
 COAGULATION AND
FLOCCULATION
1. Surface water contains organic and inorganic particles.

2. Particle such as clay, and colloids remain in suspension

without aggregating for long periods of time. Consequently
the particle cannot be removed by sedimentation in a
reasonable amount of time.

3. Majority of ions in surface water consist of negatively

charged particle/colloids which are stable in nature (stable =
existing in ionized form).

4. They repel other colloidal particles before they collide with

one another. The colloids are continually involved in
Brownian movement.
50
 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
How to destabilize the particles???
Neutralize the charge by addition of an ion opposite to it (Destabilization)

Particles Destabilization Flocculation

(-ve charge) (Coagulation)

flocs flocs
-ve Al 3+ /
flocs
-ve Fe3+ flocs

flocs flocs
-ve Al 3+ /
Fe3+ -ve
Al(OH)3 (s) @ Fe(OH)3 (s)
-ve
51

Settle down at the bottom of

the flocculation tank
 COAGULATION AND
FLOCCULATION
1. Coagulation – process utilizes what is known as a chemical
coagulant is mixed thoroughly with the water and various species of
the positively charged particles adsorb to the negatively charged
colloids such as color, clay, turbidity and other particles through the
processes of charge neutralization to produce micro floc.

2. Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are

capable of sticking together. The slightly larger particles, formed
through this process and called micro flocs, are not visible to the
naked eye.

3. The water surrounding the newly formed micro flocs should be clear.
If not, all the particles' charges have not been neutralized, and
coagulation has not been carried to completion. More coagulant may
need to be added.

4. Micro floc itself is not yet settleable , then flocculation process takes
52
place.
 COAGULATION AND
FLOCCULATION
1. Flocculation – is the process in which the destabilised
particles are bound together by hydrogen bonding of Van der
Waal’s forces to form larger particle flocs.
2. High molecular weight polymers,
called coagulant aids, may be
added during this step to help
bridge, bind, and strengthen the
floc, add weight, and increase
settling rate.
3. Once the floc has reached it
optimum size and strength, the
water is ready for the
sedimentation process.

53
 FLOCCULATION TANK

54
COAGULANT AND ITS PROPERTIES
Coagulant:
Coagulant is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water to
destabilize particles and accomplish coagulation.

Properties of coagulant:
1. Trivalent cations

2. Nontoxic:
• Insoluble in the neutral pH.
55 • The coagulant that is added must be precipitated out of the
solution so that high concentration of the ion are not left in the
water.
COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
Table 1 : Types of coagulant commonly used

Coagulant type Examples

Inorganic metallic Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3•14H2O, sodium

coagulant aluminate, aluminium chloride, ferric sulfate and
ferric chloride
Prehydrolyzed Made from alum and iron salts and hydroxide
metal salts under controlled condition; polyaluminium
chloride (PAC)
Organic polymers Cationic polymers, anionic polymers, and
nonionic polymers

Natural plant- Opuntia spp. And Moringa Oleifera (used in

based materials many parts of the world esp. developing
56 country.
 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
How does alum works? Alum sludge = Alum floc = Dry
sludge (Without water, settle in
Case: In sufficient alkalinity in the water. the flocculation tank.

1Al2(SO4)3•14H2O + 6HCO3- ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 +14H2O + 3SO42-

1 mole of alum added uses 6 moles of alkalinity and produces 6 moles of CO2

The above reaction shifts the carbonate equilibrium and decreases the pH

However, as long as sufficient alkalinity is present and CO2 (g) is allowed to

evolve, the pH is not drastically reduced and is generally not an operational
problem.

57
 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
Example
Calculate the amount of alum sludge produced and alkalinity (HCO3- )
consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used.

Solution
Chemical reaction:
Al2(SO4)314H2O + 6HCO3-  2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 3SO42- + 14H2O

Molecular weight( MW):

MWalum = 594 g/mole (Al2(SO4)314H2O)
MWalkalinity = 61 g/mole (HCO3- )
MWalum sludge = 78 g/mole (Al(OH)3)

Solid removed when 1 mg/L alum was used,

Unit conversion
To convert amount of alum used in mg/L to moles/L; mg/L mole/L

1 mg/L = 1.684 x 10-6 moles/L

( 594 g/mole)(1000 mg/g)

Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 2 mole/L of alum sludge, therefore

Solid
58 removed = 2 (1.684 x 10-6 moles/L) ( 78 g/mole)
= 2.6262 x 10-4 g/L
= 0.263 mg/L
COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

(Cont…….)
Alkalinity consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used,
Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 6 mole/L of alkalinity, therefore
Alkalinity removed = 6 (1.684 x 10-6 moles/L)(61 g/mole)
= 0.616 mg/L HCO3-
Expressed in CaCO3 Unit conversion
= 0.616 mg/L HCO3- x EW CaCO3 mole/L mg/L

EW HCO3-
= 0.616 mg/L HCO3- x 50 g/eq
61 g/eq
= 0.505 mg/L HCO3- as CaCO3
59
Why trivalent cations
considered as good
coagulant?

Answer:
i) Cations such as Fe3+
and Al3+ has a higher
molecular weight, easy
to settle .

i) It removes turbidity
effectively even a small
dose was used.

60
 JAR TEST
Jar Test is a laboratory works to illustrate the coagulation and
flocculation concepts associated to nature water. From this experiment
the optimal pH, coagulant dose ,and coagulant aid could be
determined.

Coagulation and flocculation designed to remove:

1) Microorganisms and colloids that caused turbidity
61
2) Toxic compounds that are sorbed to particles
3) Inorganic materials
 JAR TEST
Example

A typical test is conducted by first dosing each jar with the same alum dose and
varying the pH in each jar. The results are shown in below. Find the optimal
pH, coagulant dose, and the theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be
consumed at the optimal dose.

62

Conduct Jar Test 2

at pH 6
 JAR TEST
Solution

1) Conduct the second jar test with pH 6.0 for six beakers (Why
6? Refer to the jar which has the lower turbidity in jar test 1). The
results are shown below:

63
 JAR TEST
2) Construct the graph turbidity remaining VS alum dose
3) From the graph, the optimal alum dosage was estimated to be 12.5 mg/L

12.5 mg/L

64
 END OF CHAPTER 3C

65
CHAPTER 3D
Sedimentation
 SEDIMENTATION
(SETTLING)

• Following flocculation, the water then flows into the

settling basins.
• Water is nearly quiescent – low flow with little
turbulence
• Water resides for at least 3 hours and the flocs
settle out and collect at the bottom.

67
 SEDIMENTATION
 Sedimentation basin = clarifier = settling tank.

 Water flows into the settling basins, where the flow is

almost devoid of turbulence.

 Water resides for time periods ranging from 2 to 8

hours and the flocs settle out as sludge and collect
at the bottom.

 The sludge is mechanically removed periodically.

 Sedimentation basin are usually rectangular or

circular with either a circular or upward water flow
pattern.
68
 SETTLING IN TREATMENT
TRAIN

69
 TYPES OF PARTICLE
SETTLING
• Type I settling  Applies to
BASIN MODEL particles that settle with constant
velocity where particles will be
removed if vs > v0

• Type II settling  If particles

flocculate during settling, velocity
generally

• Zone settling  As particle

concentration increases with
depth

• Compression settling  Occurs

at the bottom of tank.
70
 TYPE I SETTLING - STOKES’ LAW
g (  s   )d 2
vs 
18
where
νs = settling velocity
ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
d = particle diameter (m)
Stoke’s equation above is valid only for
laminar flow conditions, that is when the μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)
Re < 1. Dynamic viscosity (also called
absolute
71 viscosity) is the function of
water temperature
 SEDIMENTATION (SETTLING ZONE)
Ideal sedimentation basins (Type I) - Rectangular basin
Particle removal is dependent
on the overflow rate, vo

In order for particle to be removed

settling velocity , vs must be
sufficient so that it reaches the
bottom during the time the water
resides in the tank (td).

If Vs = Vo , then
vs = v0 , 100 % particles removed
vs > v0 , 100 % particles should be easily removed
vs < v0 , some fraction of the particles will be removed, P = 100 vs
72
V0
 SEDIMENTATION
𝑄
Overflow rates are used for design: Vo =
𝐴𝑠

Flow Rate (m3 / s)

Overflow Rate 
settling surface area (m 2 )

length

width
settling surface area = length x width
flow flow

73
 EXAMPLE 1
If a settling velocity of a particle is 0.7 cm/s and the
overflow rate of a horizontal flow clarifier is 0.8 cm/s, what
percent of particles are retained in clarifier?

vs < v0 ,
some fraction
of the particles
will be
Vs removed,
% P = 100 vs
V0

74
 EXAMPLE 2
A water treatment plant has a horizontal-flow sedimentation tank with an
overflow rate of 17 m3/d.m2 and wishes to remove particles that have
settling velocities of 0.1 mm/s. What percentage of removal should be
expected for each particle in an ideal sedimentation tank?

Solution Conversion, Vo = 17x103 mm = 0.196 mm

vs = 0.1 mm/s 1d x 24hrs x 3600s s

vo = 17 m3/d.m2 = 17 m/d = ? mm/s,

(do the conversion, so, Vo= 0.196  0.2 mm/s)

Note that v s < v o,

Therefore removal %, P = 100(vs/vo) = 100(0.1/0.2) = 50%

75
 EXAMPLE 3
Determine the surface area of a sedimentation tank . The design flow is 0.044
m3 /s. Use a design overflow rate of 20 m/day. Find the length and width of
the sedimentation for the given overflow rate.

Solution:
1) Find the surface area, A.
First change the flow rate to compatible units.
 (0.044 m3/s)(86,400 s/day) = 3801.6 m3 /day
The surface area, A = 3801.6 m3 /day = 190 m2
20 m/day

2) Find the length, L to width, W dimension.

Design criteria:
Typical L: W ratios ( 2:1 < L:W < 5:1).
A minimum of two tanks is always provided.

Use two tanks, assumed that each with W = 5 m

Total surface area, A = 190 m2

Length, L = 190 m2 /(2 tanks)(5 m wide) = 19 m

76
Meet our L:W ratio of 3.8:1 ( OK! Within 2:1 < L:W < 5:1)
 Flocculation tank

Q = 3801.6 m3 /day

Sedimentation tank

Sedimentation tank
Tank 1 Tank 2
L= 19m, L= 19m,
W=5m W=5m

77
 SEDIMENTATION
The key parameters and typical values in the design of
settling tank are:
• Surface over flow rate = 20 - 35 m3/day/m2
• Detention times = 2 - 8 h
• Weir overflow rate = 150 - 300 m3 /day/m

Either rectangular or
circular , normally 1 unit
sedimentation system
comprises of 2 tanks

78
 CIRCULAR CLARIFIERS

79
 CIRCULAR CLARIFIERS

80
 OVERFLOW RATE
Q
Overflow rate, vo 
As
where
vo = overflow rate (m/s)
Q = water flow (m3/s)
As = surface area (m2)

81
 SEDIMENTATION
Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 2)
UPFLOW CLARIFIER

• Velocity of water decreases as the

water flows upward (overflow rate =
vo, hydraulic surface loading).

• Velocity of the particle remains

unchanged.

• If vs  vo, then 100% of particles

remain in tank.

• If vs < vo, then 0% of particles remain

in tank.
82
SEDIMENTATION
The sedimentation tank be *
divided into 4 zones:

(1) Inlet zone - To evenly

distribute the flow and suspended
particles across the section of the
(2) settling zone

(3) Sludge storage zone -

Depends upon the method of
cleaning, the frequency of
cleaning and the quantity of
sludge estimated to be produced. *

(4) Outlet zone - To remove the

settled water from the basin with
out carrying away any of the floc
particles
83
Zones of sedimentation: (a) horizontal flow clarifier ,
(b) upflow clarifier
OVERFLOW – SETTLED WATER OUTLET
*

84
 Q = 3800 m3/d
v = 0.00024 m/s
EXAMPLE 4 t=3h
Lweir = 20 m
Calculate the diameter and depth of a circular clarifier for a design
flow of 3800 m3/d and an overflow rate of 0.00024 m/s and a detention
time of 3 h. Calculate the weir loading rate by assuming the total
effluent weir length is 20 m.
Solution
Volume, V = Area x Depth
Volume , V = Q x t
Depth = Volume/Area
= (3800 m3/d) x ( 3/24)d
= 475 m3/183.3 m2
= 475 m3
= 2.59 m
Convert, Q = 3800 m3/d = 0.044 m3/s
Weir loading rate = Q/Lweir
Surface overflow rate, v = Q/A = 3800 m3/day
20 m
Area, A = 0.044 m3/s = 190 m3/day.m
0.00024 m/s ( OK!)
= 183.3 m2 (Typical weir overflow rate = 150 - 300 m3 /day/m)
For85circular clarifier, A = d2/4
Therefore, diameter = 15.3 m
END OF CHAPTER 3D
CHAPTER 3E
Filtration and
Disinfection
 FILTRATION
• The final step in removing particles is filtration.
• Removal of those particles that are too small to be
effectively removed during sedimentation
• Multiple removal mechanisms depending on design
• Sedimentation effluent turbidity: 1 - 10 NTU
• Desired effluent turbidity: <0.3 NTU

88
 FILTRATION

89
 FILTRATION
• The water leaving the sedimentation tank (settled
water) still contains floc particles, remaining the
turbidity in the range from 1 to 10 NTU
• These levels of turbidity interfere with the
subsequent disinfection processes, so the turbidity
must be reduced.

90
 FILTRATION
• EPA (environmental Protection Agency) requires the
turbidity of treated water at least at 0.3 NTU
• In order to reduce turbidity to less than 0.3 NTU, the
filtration process is normally used.
• The most common filtration used is granular
filtration.

91
 FILTRATION

Granular filtration
Process for separating suspended or colloidal impurities
from water by passage through a porous medium.

Porous medium
Sand, coal, garnet, granular activated carbon (GAC),
Ilmenite.

92
 FILTRATION

93
94
FILTRATION

How does it work?

Water fills the pores between the sand particles

Impurities are left behind (either clogged in the

open spaces or attached to the sand itself)
94
 FILTRATION
FUNDAMENTAL

95
 FILTRATION
Several methods of classifying filter accordingly to:

(A) The type of medium used

i) Sand
ii) Coal (anthracite)
iii) Dual media (coal + sand)
iv) Mixed media (coal, sand + garnet)

(B) Allowable loading rate, v a

i) Slow sand filters (SSF)
ii) Rapid sand filters (RSF)
96 iii) High-rate sand filters
 FILTER DESIGN
Q Slow sand filters
va 
As va = 2.9 – 7.6 m3/day·m2

where Rapid sand filters :

va = face velocity (m/day) or va = ≥ 120 m3/day·m2
loading rate (m3/day·m2)
Q = flow rate (m3/day)
As = filter surface area (m2)
• Removal mechanisms are different
• Rapid sand filter - widely used in US,
• Slow sand filter - more common in
other countries
97
98
FILTRATION
Comparison between SSF and RSF

Process Slow Sand Rapid Filtration

Characteristics Filtration
Filtration rate 0.05-0.20 m/h 5-15 m/h
Media diameter 0.30-0.45 mm 0.5-1.2 mm
Bed depth 0.9-1.5 m 0.6-1.8m
Required head 0.9-1.5 m 1.8-3.0 m
Run length 1- 6 months 1- 4 days
Regeneration method Scraping Backwashing
Maximum raw-water 10-50 NTU Unlimited with
turbidity proper pretreatment
98
 RAPID SAND FILTER
• Single media: Sand
• Dual media: Anthracite coal and sand
• Multimedia: Anthracite coal, sand and gravel

99

Source: Back to Basics Guide to Surface Water Treatment, American Water Works Association, 1P-2.5M-73026-11/92-MG
 RAPID SAND FILTER

100
 RAPID SAND FILTER
 The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water
moves vertically through sand.

 The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to

taste and odour. The space between sand particles is larger than
the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough.

 Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in

pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective filtration
extends into the depth of the filter.

 This property of the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer
of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would quickly
clogged.
101
RAPID SAND FILTRATION
• As particles are removed - filter becomes clogged –
head loss increases, turbidity increases
• Must backwash (takes about 10-15 min) done about
once per day
Agitating the bed either mechanically or with
compressed air and washing water upwards
through the bed to the surface .
The ‘backwash’ water is then wasted or return
to the beginning of the plant to treatment.
• Must be designed to handle flow with one filter out of
service
102
 RAPID SAND FILTRATION
• Backwashing is
accomplished by forcing
water (and sometimes air)
up from the clearwell
back through the filter.
• The particles in the filter
become suspended,
releasing the trapped
particles.
• Backwash water retreated
or disposed of.
103
 EXAMPLE
For a flow of 0.8 m3/s, how many rapid sand filter of
dimensions 10 m x 20 m are needed for a loading rate of
300 m3/d.m2?

104
 SOLUTION

As = Q/v
2

105
 SLOW SAND FILTER

Schmutzdecke

106
107
SLOW SAND FILTRATION
 The water is applied to the sand at a loading rate of 2.9 to 7.6
m3/d.m2 by gravity feed.

 The Schmutzdecke is formed in the first 10–20 days of

operation[and consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera and
range of aquatic organisms.

 The Schmutzdecke is the layer that provides the effective

purification in potable water treatment, the underlying sand
providing the support medium for this biological treatment
layer.

 Slow sand filter required large areas of land and are operator
107
intensive.
 SLOW SAND FILTRATION
 As water passes through the Schmutzdecke, particles of foreign
matter are trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and dissolved organic
material is adsorbed and metabolized by the bacteria, fungi and
protozoa.

 The water produced from can be of exceptionally good quality with

90-99% bacterial reduction.

 Slow sand filters slowly lose their performance as

the Schmutzdecke grows and thereby reduces the rate of flow
through the filter.

 The top few millimeters of fine sand is scraped off to expose a

new layer of clean sand. Water is then decanted back into the filter
and re-circulated for a few hours to allow a new Schmutzdecke to
develop.
108
The filter is then filled to full depth and brought back into
service.
 SLOW SAND FILTRATION
109

• Normally a minimum of two filters are constructed

to ensure redundancy.
• For a larger plant (Q > 0.5 m3/s), a minimum of
four filters is suggested.
• The surface area of the filter tank is generally
restricted in size to about 100 m2, except for very
large plants.

109
 DISINFECTION
 Following filtration, water is disinfected.
 Chlorine gas is most commonly used.
 2 design goals:
 Kill 99.99% of organisms in water
 Provide residual disinfection capability to
prevent growth of organisms in distribution
system

110
111
DISINFECTION
Typical mixers for the addition of chlorine
In-line turbine mixture Injector pump type

111
112
DISINFECTION
 Disinfection is used in water treatment to reduce
pathogens (disease –producing microorganism) to
an acceptable level.

 Disinfection  sterilization

 Sterilization implies the destruction of all living

organisms.

 Drinking water need not be sterile.

112
 DISINFECTION
113

Human enteric pathogens must

be destroyed by disinfection:
• Bacteria
• E. coli Vibrio cholera

• Vibrio cholera
• Viruses
• Protozoa
• Cryptosporidium spp.
• Giardia
• Amebic cysts Cryptosporidium Oocyst

113

Giardia
114
DISINFECTANTS
To be of practical service, such water disinfectants
must possess the following properties:

1. They must destroy the kinds and numbers of

pathogens that may be introduced into water
within a practicable period of time over an
expected range in water temperature.

2. They must meet possible fluctuations in

composition, concentration and condition of
the waters to be treated
114
 DISINFECTANTS
115

3. It must be neither toxic to human and domestic animals nor

unpalatable or otherwise objectionable in required concentrations.

4. It must be dispensable at reasonable cost and safe and easy to

store, transport, handle and apply.

5. Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be

determined easily, quickly and (preferable) automatically.

6. Residual chlorine must persist within disinfected water in a

sufficient concentration to provide reasonable residual protection
against its possible recontamination before use.

115
 RESIDUAL CHLORINE
The presence of residual chlorine in
drinking water indicates that:
1. A sufficient amount of chlorine
was added initially to the water to
inactivate the bacteria and some
viruses that cause diarrheal
disease.
2. The water is protected from
recontamination during storage.
3. Is correlated with the absence of
most disease-causing
organisms, and thus is a measure
of116the potability of water.
117
DISINFECTION

 Chlorine is the most common disinfecting chemical

used.

 3 different methods of application;

1. Cl2 (gas)
2. NaOCl (liquid) – sodium hypochlorite (bleach)
3. Ca(OCl)2 (solid) – calcium hypochlorite

Note:
NaOCl and Ca(OCl)2 are also known as hypochlorite salts
117
118
DISINFECTION
Chlorine Gas:
 Cheaper,
 Tends to decrease pH,
 Each mg/L of chlorine added reduces the
alkalinity by up to 1.4 mg/L as CaCO3

Hypochlorite Salts:
 Always contain alkali to enhance stability
 More expensive,
 Tend to raise pH,
118  Safer
 CHLORINE REACTIONS IN WATER

• Cl2 (g) + H2O = HOCl + H+ + Cl-

 pH dependent
 Essentially complete within a few milliseconds

• HOCl = H+ + OCl-
 HOCl is about 80 - 100 times more effective than is OCl- for E. Coli
 [HOCl] + [OCl-] = free available chlorine

• HOCl + NH3 = NH2Cl + H2O

 NH2Cl (monochloramine) is less effective but longer lasting
119

 Combined chlorine
 DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

• Trihalomethanes (THMs): CHCl3, CHCl2Br,

CHClBr2 and CHBr3
 Sound epidemiological evidence linking THMs to
gastrointestinal tract cancers
 Current regulations require water supplies to limit total
THM levels
• Haloacetic acids
• Bromate and Chlorite

120
 OTHER DISINFECTANTS
1. Hypochlorite salts: NaOCl and Ca(OCl)2
 More expensive to purchase
 Easier to handle
 More common for small supplies
2. Chloramines (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3)
 Longer contact time if primary disinfectant
 Used in combination with other disinfectants
3. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)
 Very effective
 Must be produced on site
121
 OTHER DISINFECTANTS
4. Ozone (O3)
 Very powerful oxidant – kills cysts
 No taste and odor problems
 Widely used in Europe
 No residual
 More expensive than chlorine (produced on-site)
5. Ultraviolet radiation
 Effective bactericide and viricide (agent that destroy
viruses)
 Water must be free of turbidity and lamps free of
slime and precipitates
 No residual protection
122
123
DISINFECTION

123
END OF CHAPTER 3E
 CHAPTER 3F
Treated Water Distribution
 WATER DISTRIBUTION
126
SYSTEM

 Typically, distribution systems are designed to

satisfy domestic, commercial and industrial
water needs and fire fighting purposes.

 The water distribution system is the essential link

between the water supply source and the
consumer.

126
127
128
 WATER DISTRIBUTION

129
 METHODS OF WATER
DISTRIBUTION
• Pumping with Storage:
– Most common
– Water supplied at approximately uniform rate
– Flow in excess of consumption stored in elevated tanks
– Tank water provides flow and pressure when use is high
• Fire-fighting
• High-use hours
• Flow during power failure:
– Storage volume throughout system and for individual
– Service areas should be approximately 15 – 30% of
maximum daily rate.
130
 WATER DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Water Distribution System

Components:
• Pumping Stations
• Distribution Storage
• Distribution System Piping

Other water system components:

• Water source
131
• Water treatment
DISTRIBUTION STORAGE

132
Elevated Water Tanks
 Various
designs of
elevated
storage and
distribution
tanks

133
Kuwait Elevated
Water Tanks

134
 Kuwait Elevated
Water Tanks as
Landmarks

135
 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• In large town or cities, the
distribution system is usually
arranged into pressure zone
controlled from specific
service reservoir.

• This allow for better leakage

control and metering of water
usage in each district.

• Such zones are often

interconnected by zone
boundary valves to allow for
the transfer of water between
zones
136
if the need arises.
 THE PIPE SYSTEM
Primary Mains Secondary Lines
(Arterial  Form smaller loops within the primary
main system
Mains)  Provide large amounts of water for fire
fighting with out excessive pressure loss
Form the basic structure of the
system and carry flow from the
pumping station to elevated
storage tanks and from
elevated storage tanks to the Small distribution
various districts.
 Form a grid over the entire service area
 Supply water to every user and fire hydrants
 Connected to primary, secondary, or other
small mains at both ends
 Valves are installed so at various locations
137
so that the system can be shut down for
repairs
 WATER DISTRIBUTION METHODS
138

1) Gravity distribution
Possible only when the source of supply is located substantially
above the level of the city.

2 ) P u m p i n g Wi t h o u t S t o r a g e
The least desirable method of distribution, since it provides no
reserve flow in the event of power failure and pressure will
fluctuate substantially with variations in flow.

3 ) P u m p i n g Wi t h S t o r a g e
Water is pumped at a more or less uniform rate, with flow in
excess of consumption being stored in elevated storage tank
distributed throughout the system.
138
 WATER DISTRIBUTION
139
NETWORK SYSTEM
The water main network was classified as (a) grid, (b) branching
systems, and (c) a combination of the two.

1 Grid
Generally, engineers prefer a
grid system compared to a
branching system because:
• It can supply water to any
point from at least two
directions.
• It also permits any broken
pipe sections to be
isolated for repair without
139
disrupting service to large
areas of the community.
 WATER DISTRIBUTION
140 NETWORK SYSTEM
2 Branching
A branching system has numerous
terminals or “dead ends” that:
 Prevent water from being circulated
throughout the system.
 Water tends to stagnate in dead-end
patterns, making them more
susceptible to taste and odor
problems.
 Requires frequent flushing, so
hydrants should be placed at the
extreme end of these lines.
140
 WATER DISTRIBUTION
141
NETWORK SYSTEM

3 Combination (Grid & Branching)

 A combination system is the
type most commonly used.

 It can incorporate loop

feeders, which distribute
the flow to an area from
several directions.

141
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

142
 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Nodes  Points of
water withdrawal (demand
nodes), locations where water
is introduce to the network
(source nodes), or locations
of tanks or reservoirs
(storage nodes).

Va l v e s are links in pipelines that are used to regulate flow or

pressure

Pumps are used to increase the hydraulic head (pressure) of water.

143
ADDITIONAL PROCESSES IN
DRINKING WATER
TREATMENT
 pH ADJUSTMENT
• Recarbonation for softened
water
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
 Purpose is to reduce pH
following softening (pH > 11
required for Mg removal)
• Sodium hydroxide addition
for surface water:
 Coagulant chemicals
reduce pH
 To increase the pH to hinder
corrosivity in pipes
145
 pH ADJUSTMENT
• The treated water often acidic and thus need to be
neutralized and as to protect downstream pipelines
and storage tanks,
• Lime or caustic soda are dosed to prevent corrosion
of concrete or cement lined surfaces.
• Liming material is used in order to adjust pH at 6.8 to
8.1 to meet the potable water specifications, primarily
for effective disinfection and for corrosion control.

146
 POLYPHOSPHATE ADDITION

• Added for corrosion control as it forms a

protective film on pipes.
147
• Also helps to control lead levels in tap water as
it complexes with lead.
 FLUORIDE ADDITION

• Added either as NaF,

Na2SiF6, H2SiF6
• React in water to yield
fluoride ion (F-)
• Well documented that fluoride
levels of ~ 1 mg/L reduce
incidence of dental caries
(cavities)

148
 ADVANCED TREATMENT
PROCESSES
• Advanced Oxidation Processes
 Improved disinfection
 Oxidize synthetic organic chemicals
 Taste and odor control

• Activated Carbon Adsorption

 Remove recalcitrant synthetic organic chemicals, THMs, taste and
odor compounds
 Concern with bacterial growth problems

• Membrane Process
 Discriminate on both size and chemistry
149
 Selective removal including desalination
RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT
Sludge from
clarifiers

Finished
water
150
 RESIDUALS (SLUDGE)
MANAGEMENT
Dewatering
• Lagoons
• Sand-dying beds
• Freeze treatment
• Centrifugation
• Vacuum filtration
• Continuous belt filter press
• Plate Pressure filters
151
 SLUDGE MANAGEMENT
Ultimate Disposal
• On-site storage
• Landfilling
• Land application – soil amendment
• Reclamation/recycling – new products
• Ocean dumping – banned in US

152
END OF CHAPTER 3F