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TECHNICAL PAPER
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1 Page 2 of 12 Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. (2017)2:1
Handling both the bearing capacity and settlement ver- ratio (g) and the settlement reduction factor (b) defined,
ifications, an optimized area ratio can be determined. respectively, as follows:
Second, adopting the optimized area ratio, the study of g ¼ Ac =A ð1Þ
the behavior of foundation on reinforced soil can be tackled
by considering the acceleration of consolidation provided b ¼ Sunreinf ðpÞ=Sreinf ðpÞ: ð2Þ
by the stone columns, which play the role of vertical drains Here, Ac denotes the total cross section of stone columns all
[4]. located under the loaded foundation of area A.
Using numerical codes, the prediction of long-term Sunreinf and Sreinf denote the settlement of the foundation
settlement, especially when reinforcement by floating col- on unreinforced soil and reinforced soil, respectively,
umns is decided, of unreinforced compressible layers is subjected to the same allowable surcharge load p.
crucial [7]. Several methods for predicting the settlements of a
In this paper, the prediction of settlement of a founda- reinforced foundation by stone columns have been devel-
tion resting on a soil reinforced by a group of end-bearing oped [4].
stone columns in oedometer condition is investigated. The The study of behavior of stone columns, with focus on
oedometer condition fairly applies for foundations having settlement prediction, has been investigated by several
dimensions (width and length) quite greater than the researchers in the literature, Balaam and Booker [2].
thickness of compressible layer(s). Barksdale and Bachus [3] carried out a series of scaled
The statement of the problem is presented with focus on laboratory tests conducted on an isolated stone column in
numerical modeling, the design parameters of reinforced undrained conditions from which the load-settlement
soil by columns, and enriched literature review from recent response was analyzed. This experimental investigation
contributions. evidenced that the bearing capacity and the settlement
First, the numerical modeling using FLAC 3D code of behavior of a single stone column are significantly influ-
soil reinforced by end-bearing stone columns at constant enced by the type of applied load and the support provided
area ratio are presented: the unit cell model (UCM) as by the surrounding soil.
reference case, the group of stone columns (GSC), and the Wehr [21] performed a finite-element analysis in plane
equivalent concentric crowns (ECC) with boundary con- strain condition to simulate the observed behavior from
ditions. Obtained results are presented and compared. The laboratory tests of loaded footing on soil reinforced by a
predictions made by the FLAC 3D code of settlement of a group of columns. The author suggested that beyond a
large tank diameter in oedometer condition are compared depth equals 1.5 the diameter of the footing, the expansion
to results obtained by existing methods of design. Their behavior of columns is noticed. Beneath that critical depth,
interpretation and synthesis are addressed in details. In central columns behave in punching failure, whilst edge
particular, due to their simple numerical implementation, columns behave in buckling failure.
compared to actual group of stone columns, it is aimed to Serridge [20] conducted a series of field trial of partially
quantify the efficiency of annular concentric approach, in penetrating dry bottom-feed vibro stone columns support-
oedometer condition, for the prediction of settlement of ing shallow narrow footings. The author investigated the
reinforced soil. behavior and the settlement performance of vibro stone
Second, the Algiers harbor case history is presented, columns installed within a deep soft clay deposit. In this
from which the recorded data are used for the validation of study, focus was made on the response of sensitive soft
numerical predictions by FLAC 3D code. clay to the method of installation of stone columns.
The effectiveness of two 3D modeling of column-rein- Killeen and McCabe [17] conducted a finite-element
forced foundation (CRF) is discussed by comparing analysis on small groups of stone columns loaded by pad
numerical predictions with measurements recorded from a and strip footings. Authors have studied the influence of the
full-scale load test carried out in the framework of Algiers column stiffness and strength on the settlement behavior of
harbor case history. small loaded areas.
Castro [9] proposed an approximated solution to predict
the settlement of rigid footings resting on soft soil improved
Statement of the problem by a group of stone columns. The proposed analytical solu-
tion converts the group of stone columns to equivalent single
The settlement of a reinforced soil by stone columns occurs column with the same cross-sectional area. The author aims
when the foundation is subjected to its final loading. The to convert the problem to be axially symmetric.
study of the behavior of foundations on a soil reinforced by McCabe and Killeen [19] studied the behavior of small
columns is carried out using two parameters, i.e., the area groups of stone columns. Authors indicate that the mode of
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Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. (2017)2:1 Page 5 of 12 1
Triangular pattern z
Sp = 2,06 m y
Dc = 1,2 m x
η = 20 %
14 m
6m 10 m
6m 14 m
10 m
7m 7m
7m
Table 2 Characteristics of numerical modeling of group of stone using the reinforcement by a group of 37 columns. As
columns as implemented by the FLAC 3D code shown from the settlement predictions in Fig. 2, it is well
Modeling of group of stone FD Grid Cycle noted the significant overestimation of settlement reduction
columns zones points by the Chow’s method.
Therefore, in oedometer condition, it is concluded that
1a 1680 1575 2722
increasing the number of stone columns, as shown in
2a 4592 4215 3146
Fig. 3, for the generated 3D numerical modeling does not
3a 8960 7815 5926
significantly affect the settlement prediction of reinforced
soil up to surcharge loads of 120 kPa.
French method - CFMS (2011) The group of stone columns has been reduced to equivalent
8
Bouassida et al. (2003)
FLAC 3D - Group of 07 columns concentric crowns (ECC) using a full 3D finite-difference
FLAC 3D - Group of 19 columns
6 FLAC 3D - Group of 37 columns
FLAC3D modeling. The equivalent co-centric crowns
(ECC) modeling can be adopted, in case the reinforcing
columns are located in a regular pattern as investigated by
4
Ellouze and Bouassida (2009) and Ellouze et al. [12].
Major advantage of this geometrical transformation con-
2 sists in carrying numerical computations in axisymmetric
condition that is timeless consuming than 3D modeling.
0 Equaling between the area of columns, located at equal
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
distance from the axis of loaded foundation, and the area of
Applied load (kPa) ECC, then the equivalent thickness of ECC, eCr, is calcu-
Fig. 4 Estimation of settlement reduction factors lated from Eq (4):
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1 Page 6 of 12 Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. (2017)2:1
Fig. 5 Finite-difference
discretizations generated using
the FLAC 3D code-A zoomed
view: a group of stone columns;
b equivalent concentric stone
crowns
eCrðiÞ ¼ ðNðiÞ Ac Þ=ð2p Sp Þ: ð4Þ obtained by the three modeling 1a, 2a, and 3a of a
group of stone columns. From Fig. 6, when the
Sp spacing between columns. N(i) number of columns applied load is equal to or greater than 100 kPa,
located on the circumference of the crown i. Modeling 1a (7 stone columns) overestimates the
Figure 5 illustrates the finite-difference discretization of settlement of reinforced soil by 14.6–15% compared
group of stone columns and its equivalent concentric to predictions by Modeling 2a and 3a (19 and 37 stone
crowns as generated by the FLAC 3D code. columns). The difference in predictions by Modeling
Table 2 presents the characteristics of three numerical 2a and 3a remains insignificant (less than 5%).
modeling implemented by the FLAC 3D code when the
group of stone columns is adopted.
Table 3 Characteristics of numerical modeling of equivalent con-
Table 3 presents the characteristics of three numerical centric crowns as implemented by the FLAC 3D code
modeling implemented by the FLAC 3D code when
Modeling of equivalent concentric FD Grid Cycle
adopting the ECC. crowns zones points
The interpretation of numerical predictions by the FLAC
3D code is given below. 1b 3136 3375 5644
2b 4928 5295 6237
(a) Group of stone columns (GSC)
3b 8512 9135 8560
Figure 6 compares between the settlement predictions
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Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. (2017)2:1 Page 7 of 12 1
0 20 40
Load (kPa)
60 80 100 120 140
a Load (kPa)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
0
Unreinforced soil
group of 07 columns
2
2 1 concentric crown
Settlement (cm)
Settlement (cm)
4
6
6 8
group of 37 columns 10
8 group of 07 columns
group of 19 columns
12
2
6
4
Settlement (cm)
6
10
8
12
10 1 concenrtric crown
Fig. 8 a Variation of applied load versus settlement using a group of
2 concenrtric crown
3 concenrtric crown
07 stone columns and ECC. b Variation of applied load versus
12 settlement using a group of 19 stone columns and two ECC.
c Variation of applied load versus settlement using a group of 37
Fig. 7 Soil behavior of columns reinforced foundation with 1, 2, and stone columns and three ECC
3 equivalent concentric crowns (ECC)
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1 Page 8 of 12 Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. (2017)2:1
The predictions of settlement using the three ECC Algiers harbor case history—full-scale load tests
modeling and respective GSC modeling are com- on a column-reinforced foundation
pared from Fig. 8a–c.
Local ground conditions of Algiers Harbor area
Figure 8a shows that quasi-identical predictions of the
settlement of reinforced soil are obtained by adopting
In the framework of the Algiers Harbor extension project,
either the modeling using a group of seven columns or the
the consolidation of the quays and creation of new docks
respective one ECC modeling. The maximum difference of
were recently launched at the end of 2015. After the
settlement prediction between the two modeling equals
Algerian seismic standards RPA 2003, Algiers City
0.49 cm that is negligible for predicting the settlement
belongs to zone 1 that is classified with high potential
under surcharge load of 120 kPa.
seismic risk. Furthermore, the soil profile of Algiers Harbor
In turn, Fig. 8b, c clearly shows that when the number of
comprises an intermediate sand layer that might be sub-
stone columns increases, as well as for the number of
jected to the liquefaction phenomena. Hence, a ground
respective ECC, the difference between the settlement
improvement solution of existing soil layers was decided to
predictions also increases, especially when the surcharge
mitigate the liquefaction risk and to reduce settlements of
load exceeds 80 kPa. Furthermore, an opposite trend is
compressible soil layers.
marked for the difference between the two settlement
The investigation of underground conditions at the site
predictions, i.e., the two ECC modeling provides lower
of project showed the ability in using the improvement by
settlement than that obtained by a group of 19 columns.
the deep vibro-techniques. After Fig. 9, the grain size
Figure 8 shows that Modeling 3b (three ECC) predicts
distribution of the soil layers matches well with the known
less settlement than that obtained by Modeling 3a (37 stone
recommendations in regard to the limits of applications of
columns) especially when the applied load is beyond or equal
deep vibro-techniques.
to 100 kPa. Such prediction is explained by the fact that the
The soil profile illustrated in Fig. 10 shows a 1-m-thick
ECC, as continuous walls having much higher stiffness than
clay layer sandwiched between silt clayey sand and fine
that of soft soil, provides much better confining effect within
sand layers. Several undisturbed samples were extracted
the surrounding soil in particular in the central part of the
within the soil profile at various depths and then subjected
loaded foundation. Hence, the settlement prediction by the
to laboratory tests.
group of columns, which provides lesser confining effect, is
higher than that predicted by the 3 ECC modeling.
Fig. 9 Grain size distribution Clay Silt Fine Sand Coarse Sand Gravel Cobbles
curves of the different layers in 100 100
Algiers harbor region
90 90
Percentage passing [by weight] (%)
80 80
70 70
limits of application for stone columns technique
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 Depth 3,50m-3,95m
30
Depth 5,85m-6,30m
20 Depth 9,45m-9,90m 20
Depth 11,50m-12,10m
Depth 12,10m-12,55m
10 Depth 14,55m-15m 10
Depth 18,20m-18,65m
0 0
0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
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Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. (2017)2:1 Page 9 of 12 1
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1 Page 10 of 12 Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. (2017)2:1
Table 4 Geotechnical
Parameters Unit Soil 1 Soil 2 Soil 3 Soil 4 Stone columns
parameters of soil layers at
Algiers harbor region c kN/m2 16.68 16 17.66 15.20 21
u Degree 32 0 32 15.04 40
C kPa 0 4.325 0 298 0
Pressure meter modulus EM MPa 10.27 13.39 44.1 62.9 60
v – 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.30 0.33
Constitutive model – Mohr
Dc m – – – – 0.84
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 12 Load vs settlement of the full loaded stone column: a FDM—isolated SC; b FDM—group of SC; c predicted vs measured settlement of
the loaded stone column
The two FLAC 3D well illustrates the importance of the concentric crowns. As seen from this figure, the two gen-
group effect on the settlement reduction that results from erated FLAC 3D numerical modelings (GSC and ECC)
the installation of a group of stone columns. predict similar results up to uniform load of 120 kPa. In
Figure 13 shows the settlement predictions obtained this range of applied load, it is agreed that the ECC mod-
from the 3D group of stone columns and the equivalent eling is favored because of its simplest numerical handling
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Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. (2017)2:1 Page 11 of 12 1
-2 -2
equivalent concentric stone crowns and the group of
-3 -3 vibro-replacement end-bearing stone columns. Indeed,
the maximum relative error of 9, 27, and 20% has been
-4 -4
registered in the case of 7, 19, and 37 stone columns
-5 -5 equivalent to 1, 2, and 3 concentric stone crowns,
Group of stone columns
respectively.
-6 Equivalent Concentric crown -6 • From the Algiers harbor case history, the measurements
Full loading test
-7 -7
of settlement during the full-scale load test conducted
0 50 100 150 200 on soil reinforced by stone columns permitted the
validation of predicted settlement by the three equiv-
Fig. 13 Settlement predictions of the full loaded stone column—
GSC vs ECC alent concentric crown FLAC 3D modeling.
about that required by the GSC modeling. However, for all Acknowledgements The authors would like to appreciate Professor
applied loads, the predictions made by the GSC modeling Ali Bouafia (University of Blida, Algeria) for his kind support in
fit well with full-scale load test measurements from the providing the data of stone columns project at Algiers Harbor.
Algiers harbor case history.
References
Summary and conclusions
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