CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles

Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

Air Conditioner Sizing Exercise

On an uncomfortable summer day, the air is at 87oF and 80% relative humidity. A laboratory air
conditioner is to deliver 1000 ft3/min of air at 55oF in order to maintain the laboratory at an
average temperature of 75oF and a relative humidity of 40%. A stream of outside air is combined
with a recirculated laboratory air stream. The combined stream passes through a refrigeration
unit which cools it to a low enough temperature to condense the required amount of moisture,
and then reheats the dried air to 55oF and delivers it into the lab. The cooling duty, Q (Btu/min) ,
is the rate at which the refrigeration unit transfers energy from the air to accomplish the required
cooling and condensation. Your task is to calculate Q . (The answer determines how large an air
conditioner to order.)

 Skim the air conditioner problem statement individually, and then in your group respond to the
following questions:
(a) What quantities needed for this calculation are given in the process specifications? (Two
quantities on the list would be the temperature and relative humidity of the outside air; what are
the others?)

(b) What else would you need to determine to be able to calculate Q ?

(c) Outline how you would solve the problem.

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

UNITS, CONVERSION FACTORS, AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS (2.1–2.5)

What we’re going to do now you should have learned in high school or last year. Some of you know it,
most don’t. Learn it and save hours of calculation time and avoid costly (in grades here, in dollars later)
and easily avoidable mistakes. (The Mars probe was lost because of a unit conversion error.)

 Measured and counted quantities have dimensions (length, time, mass, length/time,…) and
units (s, ft, kg, miles/h, ft/s2, kg/m3, artichokes, moose/mile2,…)
 In arithmetic operations, treat units like algebraic variables:

12 ft  7 ft  5 ft (12 x  7 x  5 x)
12 ft  7 cm  ??? (12 x  7 y  ???)
5 ft  3 lb m = 15 ft  lb m (5 x  3y = 15xy )
(3 sec) 2  9 sec 2 (3x)2  9 x 2
9.0 kg
 3 (dimensionless quantity )
3.0 kg
miles  x
55  3 h  165 miles  55   3 y  165 x
h  y

 Conversion factor: Ratio of a quantity to its equivalent in different units (= 1). Find ones
you don’t know in the conversion factor table on the inside front cover of the text.

Convert (150.0 ft) to cm:

150.0 ft ________ cm (150.0)(________)
 cm  4572 cm
________ ft (________)

 Dimensional equations. To convert a quantity from one set of units to another, use a
dimensional equation. Start with the quantity you’re given & multiply by conversion factors
to replace old units with new ones.
Convert 0.02562 g  in/min 2 to ton  miles/wk 2

0.02562 g  in _________ ton ____ ft _____ mile ______ min 2 ___________ _________
2 2
min _________ g ____ in _______ ft ______ h __________ _____ wk 2

ton  miles ton  miles

 4.5288176  105 2
 4.529  105
wk wk 2

Why four significant figures? In multiplication & division, sig. figs. in result = lowest number of sig.
figs. in any of the terms being multiplied & divided. Read Sect. 2.5a, & obey the rules—lose points if
you don’t.

 Mass and weight. Go through Sect. 2.4 carefully. Make sure you can do the Test Yourself on p. 13
without looking up the answers.

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

o Note the difference between lbm (a mass unit) and lbf (a force unit). When you use the
word “pounds” be sure to know which you are talking about.

o gc is a conversion factor between natural and derived force units. Don’t confuse it with
the gravitational constant, g. If you are having trouble getting your units to come out
right, you may have forgotten to use gc.

PROCESS DATA REPRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS – Sect. 2.7

 The operation of a chemical plant is based on the measurement of process variables – temperatures,
pressures, flowrates, concentrations, etc. To a process engineer, a process is defined as the set of all
those variables.
 Sometimes possible to measure directly, but more often we must relate one variable to another that is
easier to measure. We might do some kind of calibration experiment from which we can develop an
equation relating one variable to another.

Example: Set values of CA (say, a concentration of a salt A in an aqueous solution), measure

corresponding values of something that’s easy to measure [say,  (μS/cm) the electrical conductivity of
the solution).

 (μS/cm)
CA κ
4.62 10.0
12.4 28.5
Conductivity ... …
meter
Solution: Known ... ...
amounts of A and H2O ... ...
 CA (mg A/L)

Plot CA vs. κ (calibration plot). Then, measure κ for solutions with unknown salt concentration, use
calibration plot to determine CA.

Possibilities:

(a) (b) (c)

CA CA CA

κ κ κ

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

If (a) or (b), our life is easy and we have a straightforward linear relationship.

CA = aκ + b

(Equation is much more convenient than curve for converting κ to CA—calculator, spreadsheet, computer
program,....)

If it’s (c) but we straight-line it anyway, when do we run into trouble? When we get outside the range of
our data. Interpolation versus extrapolation. Better—find a nonlinear function that fits the curvature of
the data. (Extrapolation still risky.)

Example: A conductivity meter is used to measure the concentration of a solute, A, in an aqueous

solution. Set values of CA (mg/L) in a solution, measure corresponding values of electrical conductivity
 (μS/cm) . (S = Siemen, ratio of current density to electric field strength.) Plot CA vs. κ.

 (μS/cm)
CA κ
4.62 10.0
17.4 28.5
Conductivity 63.8 92
meter
Solution: Known 95.1 147
amounts of A and H2O 213 316
 CA (mg A/L)

Plot CA vs. κ, draw line through data.

Two points on line are (κ = 10.0, CA = 5.00) & (κ = 310.0, CA = 205)

(κ2 = 310.0, CA2 = 205.00)

200
CA
100
(κ1 = 10.0, CA1 = 5.00)

100 200 300

κ
 Derive an expression for CA(κ). (See Eqs. 2.7-2, 2.7-3, and 2.7-4 on p. 24 of EPCP)

 Aqueous solutions are drawn from two process vessels and analyzed. Their electrical conductivities
are found to be κa = 200 μS/cm and κb = 550 μS/cm. Estimate the salt concentrations in both vessels.

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

 Which of your two estimates would you have least confidence in, and why? Speculate on whether
your value is an underestimate or an overestimate, and explain your reasoning.

 Suppose the salt concentration of the first solution is determined by chemical analysis, and it is found
to be significantly different from the value you determined. Think of at least five possible
explanations for the discrepancy.

FITTING NONLINEAR DATA (2.7c,d)

Suppose we have data for y (dependent variable) vs. x (independent variable) & wish to derive an
expression for y(x). First step is to plot y vs. x.

If y then y = ax + b but what if ???

y

x x
Strategy: Guess a function for y(x), figure out what would yield a straight-line plot if the guess is correct,
plot it, and see if it works.

Example (TAPPS):

x y
0 1
1 2 y
 What kinds of functions might you try?
2 9
3 28
x

Let’s try y = ax3 + b (in this class you would be given a potential function to evaluate – you would not
have come up with the function). If this is a good fit, then a plot of y vs. x3 should be a straight line with
slope ___ & intercept _____.

x y x3 Slope =
0 1 0
1 2 1
2 9 8  y  Intercept =
3 28 27
x3
Equation:

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

General procedure: Given (x,y) data & a curved plot of y vs. x, try to find f(x,y) and g(x,y) such that a plot
of f (y in the example) vs. g (x3 in the example) is a straight line. If it is, then f = ag + b.

Example:

x y y
... ...
... ... 
... ...
... ...
x
Suppose there is reason to expect that y = a x + b so that [f (x,y) = y, g(x,y) = x]

Then

x y x
... ... ...  y  Function is correct, slope = a, intercept = b
... ... ...
... ... ...
... ... ...
x
Question: What if the plot were distinctly curved? ___________________________________________

Example
Sometimes we have to rearrange an equation to get it in a linear form. Suppose we have nonlinear (x,y)
data, and we have reason to believe that they are related through the equation
sin y  nx  my
where n and m are constants (adjustable parameters). Questions: (1) Does that relationship fit our data?
(2) If it does, what are the best values of n and m?
Task: Rearrange the equation into a form f(x,y) = ag(x,y) + b, plot f vs. g. If linear, original equation is
valid. Determine a and b from plot, use to calculate m and n.
 How about (sin y – my) = nx, plot (sin y – my) vs. x, if linear then slope = n?
Won’t work, because _____________________________________________
Solution:
sin y x
sin y x x y sin y
sin y  nx  my   n   m  y y 
y  y ... ... ... ... y
... ... ... ...
f(x,y) g(x,y) ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... x/ y

Conclusion: Function is correct, n = slope of line, m = intercept

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

 Work through Test Yourself on p. 27. For additional practice, work through Problem 2.31 in the
Student Workbook and check your solutions in the back.

EXPONENTIAL AND POWER LAW FUNCTIONS (Section 2.7d)

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

1. Hypothetical data: 6.0

X-Y on Rectangular Coordinates
x y
5.0
0.5 0.2
4.0
1 0.5

Y
3.0
2 1.4 2.0 Non-linear!
3 2.6 1.0
0.0
4 4.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
5 5.6 X

2. You believe the data has a power law relationship y  a xb ln  y   ln a   b ln  x 

3. If true, two approaches will produce linear fits:
ln  y   ln( y )
In both b  2 1
(i) Change both axis
cases: ln x2  ln x1 
   (i) Change the data

Y vs. X on Log Plot ln Y vs. ln X on Rectangular Plot

10.0 2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
ln Y

1.0 0.00
-1.00 -0.50 -0.500.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Y

-1.00
-1.50
0.1 -2.00
0.1 1 10 ln X
X

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

Example. A toxic waste product from a chemical process, A, is treated in a holding tank with a bacterial
agent that causes it to decompose.

Effluent from plant

High CA Discharge to sewer
Tank
Low CA
Bacteria

The initial concentration of A in the tank is CA0 = 10.0 mol A/liter. Samples are frequently drawn from
the reactor and analyzed for A, leading to the following data:

t(min)  mol A 
CA  
 L  10
0 10.0
CA(mol/L)
8
1 6.1
6
2 3.7
3 2.2 4
4 1.3 2
5 0.8
6 0.5 0 2 4 6 8
t (min)

We want to determine an expression for CA(t) so we can determine the holding time required for the A to
fall below its safe value of 0.001 mol/L.
Curve looks like an exponential decay, so let’s try C A  aebt (expect b to be negative).

C A  aebt  ln(C A )  ln a  bt
Plot ln C A vs. t. If plot is linear, assumption is correct, slope = b, intercept = ln a
Rectangular plot Semilog plot

[(t1=0, ln(CA1)=2.303)] (t1=0, CA1=10.0)

t(min)  mol A 
CA   ln C A 10
 L  2.0
ln(CA)

0 10.0 2.303
CA

1 6.1 1.808
2 3.7 1.308
 1.0
or
3
2
3 2.2 0.788
4 1.3 0.262 0 1
5 0.80 –0.223 2 4 6 2 4 6
t 0.5 t
6 0.50 –0.693 –1.0

[(t2=5, ln(CA2)=–0.223)] (t2=5, CA2=0.80)

logarithmic axis

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

Rectangular:
What would you plot versus what?
How do you calculate the slope and intercept?

What is the final equation for CA?

Semilog:
What would you plot versus what?
How do you calculate the slope and intercept?

What is the final equation for CA?

Q: How long will it take for CA to drop to 0.001 mol A/L?

Q: What could go wrong with this waste treatment process?

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

Exercise: A photometric detector sensitive to the concentration of A gives a reading R. In a calibration

experiment, values of R for known values of CA are measured. A log plot of the calibration data appears
linear. A line drawn through the data passes through the two points labeled below.

10
CA(mol/L)

(R1=2.7, CA1=0.75)
(R2=38, CA2=4.7)

1 10 R 100

Derive an expression for CA(R).

Solution:
 The plot shown is equivalent to a rectangular plot of ______________ vs. ________________
 The form of the equation of the rectangular plot is _____________ = ____________ + ln a
 The form of the desired expression is therefore CA = aRb

 The exponent b is calculated as ___________________________________________________

 The intercept ln a is _____________________________________________

o  a = _____________________

 The final expression is CA = _____________________________________________________

 Work through Test Yourself on p. 29. For additional practice, work through Problems 2.32 and 2.38
in the Student Workbook.
 Read Section 2.7e and Appendix A.1 on the Method of Least Squares.

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

PROCESSES AND PROCESS VARIABLES (EPCP, Ch. 3)

Process Unit Process Unit

Inputs
Outputs

Here we have feed (input) and product (output) from the “big box (process)”. Inside the box (process)
you have individual boxes (processes) with their own inputs and outputs.

What do we want to know about these streams? Temperature, pressure, volumetric flow, mass flow,
chemical composition. Some will be given, others we will measure, but many we will calculate.

 Mass flows – we get from mass balance (CHE 205)

 Heating, cooling requirements – we get from energy balance (CHE 205)
 What happens in the boxes (modeling, designing, sizing, and costing unit operations) – the rest of
the curriculum.
Melting point at 1 atm Boiling point at 1 atm
The following entries come from Table B.1 of EPCP.

Compound Formula Mol. Wt. SG(20o/4o) Tm(oC) Tb(oC)

Methyl alcohol
(Methanol) CH3OH 32.04 0.792 –97.9 64.7
4o
Water H2O 18.016 1.00 0.00 100.00

Molecular weight: Sum of atomic weights of the atoms of a molecule (12C has A.W. = 12.0000....)
Values in table reflect mixture of isotopes found in nature.

Mole: Amount of a species whose mass is numerically equal to its molecular weight.
1 g-mole CH3OH (or 1 mol CH3OH) = 32.04 g CH3OH (= 6.02x1023 molecules of CH3OH)
1 lb-mole CH3OH = 32.04 lbm CH3OH
1 kg-mol CH3OH (or 1 kmol CH3OH) = 32.04 kg CH3OH = 1000 mol CH3OH

 Molecular weight is a conversion factor between mass and moles.

32.04 g CH 3OH 32.04 kg CH 3OH 32.04 lb m CH 3OH
etc.
1 mol CH 3OH 1 kmol CH 3OH 1 lb-mole CH3OH

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

Density: Ratio of mass to volume. Density is a conversion factor between mass and volume (or between
mass flow rate & volumetric flow rate of a process stream)
 M (l ) = 0.792 kg/L (= 0.792 g/cm3 = 49.44 lbm/ft3) [Note: M is methanol, and l in M(l) means liquid]

 Liquid and solid densities vary slightly with temperature, almost not at all with pressure. Gas
densities depend heavily on both T and P. Look up a liquid or solid density at one T & P, use at
another set of conditions without introducing much error.

Specific gravity (SG): Ratio of density of a species to the density of a reference species, usually liquid
water at 4oC and 1 atm. (What about gases? Use Equation of State, covered in Ch. 5)

SG  where  ref =1.000 g/cm3 = 1000. kg/m3 = 62.43 lbm/ft3 (3.1-2)
 ref

 Look up SG for liquids and solids at 20oC & 1 atm in Table B.1, use values to estimate density at any
T and P.
Q: What is the mass of 395 gallons of acetone at 40oC?
A: First, acetone must be a liquid at 40oC because ________________________________________.
395 gal _________ ft 3 __________________ lb m
Then mA   2607 lb m  2610 lb m
_________ gal _________ ft 3

Q: That value is probably an overestimate of mA. Why?

A: ______________________________________________________________________________
(Hint: What probably happens to acetone as T rises, and what did we assume in the calculation?)
Q: What is VA (ft3/s) of a stream of liquid acetone whose molar flow rate is 2.17x103 kmol/h?

2.17  103 kmol ft 3

VA   1.56
h s

 Non-additivity of liquid volumes. Suppose we mix two miscible liquids.

mA(kg)
mT(kg)
nA(mol)
nT(mol)
VA (L) mB(kg)
VT (L)
nB(mol)
VB (L)

For the mixture, mT = mA + mB (law of conservation of mass)

nT = nA + nB (provided only that A and B don’t react and neglecting evaporation)
but VT  VA + VB (volumes of liquids are not additive, although it’s usually close)
Compound m(kg) Mol. Wt. n(kmol)  (kg/L) V(L)
Methyl alcohol
500 32.04 15.61 0.792 631
(Methanol)
o
Water 500 18.016 27.75 1.004 500
 1131
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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

Mixture 1000 MW 43.36 1092

If you don’t have density data for a liquid mixture, assume volume additivity of the components.

Composition variables (mass fraction, mole fraction, concentration)

For the liquid mixture in the table above.

500 kg CH 3 OH kg CH 3 OH  lb m CH 3 OH g CH 3 OH 
Mass fraction: xM   0.500  =0.500  0.500 
1000 kg mixture kg  lb m g 
15.61 kmol CH 3 OH kmol CH 3 OH  lb-mole CH 3 OH 
Mole fraction: yM   0.360  =0.360 
43.36 kmol mixture kmol  lb-mole

15.61 kmol CH 3 OH kmol CH 3OH

Concentration: CM   0.014 (= 14 mol/L)
1092 L mixture L
 The denominator units of the mass and mole fractions (kg, kmol) always refer to the total mixture
 The mixture contains 50.0 wt% CH3OH (50% w/w, 50% by mass) and 36.0 mole% CH3OH. The
molarity of methanol in the mixture is 14
 The mass fractions of all components of a mixture must add up to 1.000. So must the mole fractions.
If you know all but one, you can calculate the last one by difference (yW = 1–yM = 0.640)
 Before leaving Chapter 3, be sure you know how to calculate mole fractions from known mass
fractions & vice versa; the definition of average molecular weight of a mixture, and how to calculate
it. (See Examples 3.3-3 and 3.3-4.)

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

Fluid Pressure (3.4)

A container of a fluid of density  (kg/m3) has height h(m) and cross-sectional area A(m2). A
uniform pressure Po(N/m2) is exerted on the upper surface of the fluid.

Po(N/m2) A(m2)

(kg/m3) h(m)
2
P(N/m )

Q: How much does the fluid weigh? (Let g denote the acceleration of gravity.)

A: Wf = ______________________________________________________

Q: What is the pressure exerted by the fluid on the bottom surface of the container?

A: Let Fo and F be the forces exerted on the top and bottom surfaces. Then

F 1 1
P  2
[ Fo (N)  W f (N)]  [__________________]
A A (m ) A
 P  Po   gh (3.4-1)

 Pressure expressed as a head of fluid. Using Eq. 3.4-1, you can express any pressure as a head of a
particular fluid with known density ()—that is, the height (h) of a column of that fluid with a surface
pressure of zero (Po = 0). So, for example, a pressure of 14.7 lbf/in2 can also be expressed as a head of
mercury (specific gravity = 13.6).

P
h(mm) =
g
14.7 lb f ______ in 2 ft 3 _______ lb m  ft / s 2 ________ mm

in 2 1 ft 2 13.6  _______ lb m _______ ft/s 2 1 lb f ______ ft
= 760 mm Hg (= 760 torr )  g

 Conversion factors for pressure (including the one just calculated) are given in the inside front cover
of the book.

 Atmospheric pressure (or barometric pressure): The earth’s atmosphere can be considered a very tall
column of fluid (air). The pressure at the bottom of that column is atmospheric pressure. At sea level,
Patm is typically on the order of 760 mm Hg (or 760 torr). By definition, 760 torr = 1 atm.

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

Questions:

 Would atmospheric pressure at a ski resort be greater or less than atmospheric pressure at sea
level? Explain your answer.
 Is the average density of the atmosphere on a stormy day greater or less than the atmospheric
pressure on a fair day? Explain.
 Suppose you are given the height of the atmosphere. Why can’t you use P = Po + gh to calculate
atmospheric pressure?

 Absolute pressure and gauge pressure. The absolute pressure of a fluid is its pressure relative to a
perfect vacuum (P = 0). The gauge pressure is its pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. (It is
called that because many pressure gauges, such as the Bourdon gauge shown on p. 57 of the text, are
calibrated to read 0 when P = Patm.) Thus

Pgauge = Pabsolute – Patm

Unless you are told otherwise, assume that given pressures are absolute.
Q: The absolute pressure of a gas on a sunny day is 3.67 atm. A storm comes up. If the conditions in
the gas cylinder remain unchanged, does the absolute pressure of the gas increase, decrease, or
remain the same? What about the gauge pressure?
 Work through the Test Yourself on p. 56.
 Pressure measurement. You can find descriptions of the most common pressure measurement devices
in the Visual Encyclopedia of Chemical Engineering Equipment. (In the main menu, click on
“Process Parameters”  “Pressure Measurement.”)

Sketch and label a general manometer (see Fig. 3.4-5)

What is the pressure at point (a)?

What is the pressure at point (b)?

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

If you equate the pressures at (a) and (b), you get the general manometer equation:

What happens is fluid 1 and 2 are the same?

What happens if one of the ends of manometer is sealed?

What happens if fluid 1 or 2 is a gas at moderate pressure?

What happens if both fluids are gases?

What if P1 and P2 are expressed in units of heads of manometer fluid (i.e. mm Hg or m H2O)?

Archimedes Principle: The mass of a floating object equals the mass of the fluid displaced by that
object.

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)
 CHE 205 – Chemical Process Principles
Section 1: EPCP, Chapters 2–3

Temperature (3.5)
To convert a temperature in one unit to an equivalent unit:
T(oK) = T(oC) + 273.15
T(oR) = T(oF) + 459.67
T(oR) = 1.8 T(oK)
T(oF) = 1.8 T(oC) + 32
To convert one temperature interval to another temperature interval, use the following conversion factors:
1.8o F 1.8o R 1o F 1o C
, o , o , o
1o C 1K 1R 1K

 Before leaving Chapter 3, be sure you know

 how a manometer works, and how to derive and use Eqs. (3.4-5) – (3.4-7). Review the Test
Yourself on pp. 59-60.
 the difference between a temperature of 20oC and a temperature interval of 20oC; how to convert
both temperatures and temperature intervals among the four most common temperature scales.
 For an excellent practice problem and a good head start on Chapter 4, see Problem 3.29 in the
Student Workbook.
 To make sure you have the essential ideas in Chapters 2 and 3, work through Instructional Tutorial
#1 on the CD accompanying the text.

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Copyright Richard M. Felder, Lisa G. Bullard, and Michael D. Dickey (2009)