Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Structural setting of the Adriatic basin and the main related petroleum
exploration plays
P. Casero a, *, S. Bigi b
a
Via Enrico di San Martino Valperga 57, 00147 Rome, Italy
b
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università “La Sapienza”, P.le A. Moro 5, 00183 Roma, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Most of the oil and gas resources located within the Adriatic domain are genetically linked to the flexure
Received 29 February 2012 of the Adria continental margin and to the evolution of the Apennines fold and thrust belt. The source
Received in revised form rocks contained in the pre-flexure epi-continental successions reached the maturity window during the
23 July 2012
flexural subsidence or, alternatively, the flexural accommodating siliciclastic flysch themselves generated
Accepted 27 July 2012
Available online 29 August 2012
and stored hydrocarbons. The petroleum exploration plays of the Adriatic domain are tentatively
classified in this paper, according to their geological evolution with respect to the Apennines fold and
thrust belt.
Keywords:
Petroleum play
The description of the geological evolution of these structures and related petroleum plays are
Fold-and-thrust-belt described, including plays set in undeformed or poorly deformed foreland areas. A new isochrones map
Adriatic Sea showing the structural setting of the substratum at the level of the Fucoidi Fm. is presented. Several
Foredeep different groups of structures can be recognized in the Adriatic domain, that can be connected to the final
phases of deformation of the Apennines, or to the interaction with the Dinarides fold and thrust belt
front to the east.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
A good variety of structural and stratigraphic plays occur in the
Adriatic Sea, ranging from fault-related anticlines, developed in
Plio-Miocene times, connected to the main Apennine thrust chain,
and deeper carbonate structures developed in the south, to very
shallow structure in Late Pliocene to Quaternary times in the
central area.
Since the 1950’s and increasingly in the last fifteen years, many
papers concerning the geological evolution of the Adriatic Sea have
been published, although few of them concerned to the hydro-
carbon exploration (Pieri and Groppi, 1975; Royden et al., 1987;
Zappaterra, 1990; De Alteriis, 1995; Ori et al., 1991; Argnani et al.,
1997; Bertotti et al., 2001; Di Bucci and Mazzoli, 2002; Bigi et al.,
2003; Battaglia et al., 2004; Ford, 2004; Zoetemeijer et al., 1993
among many others).
Papers dealing with petroleum systems (i.e. Anelli et al., 1996;
Lindquist, 1999; Bertello et al., 2010), define mainly the conditions
(e.g., reservoir, source rock, maturity, seal, etc.) that must coexist to
generate a petroleum accumulation. Our approach is to illustrate
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 06 5504360.
E-mail address: caseropiero@libero.it (P. Casero).
the main petroleum plays in the central Adriatic domain, describing
several different groups of structures defined with respect to their
geological evolution within the Apennines fold and thrust belt,
considering that the definition of a petroleum play should include
both local field characters and the more general geological context.
In this way, it should be possible to define a petroleum play refer-
ring not only to the source rock (i.e. Burano Petroleum System), but
also to the different kind of hydrocarbon-bearing field structures
and to their different ages. This work has the aim to provide
a general picture of the geological setting of the most significant oil
and gas fields of Adriatic domain, based on the geological rela-
tionships of the source rocks vs. the reservoir/trap.
2. Regional geological setting of the Adriatic domain
The Adriatic petroleum province belongs to the North African
continental margin (Anderson, 1987; De Alteriis, 1995; Channel,
1996; Royden, 1988; Battaglia et al., 2004; Piccardi et al., 2011).
Throughout the Mesozoic and the Early Paleogene the epi-conti-
nental sedimentation was predominantly carbonatic resulting from
a complex paleogeographic configuration of indenting deep water
basins and open shallow platforms.
In general the sedimentation was more continuous, but with
low accretion rate, in the deep waters domains, and more

0264-8172/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.07.006
136 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147

discontinuous with long emersion/erosion periods (Albian, upper-
most Cretaceous, Paleogene) and much higher rates in the
carbonate shelf domains (Zappaterra, 1990; Casero and Roure,
1994). During Mesozoic times both extensional tectonic phases
(i.e. Middle Liassic) and compressional paleoinversions (i.e.
Lowermost Cretaceous) occurred (Ziegler, 1987; Ziegler et al., 1995).
Moreover, Cretaceous basin sedimentation records pulses of
accelerated subsidence (Marchegiani et al., 1999) that could be also
related with Late Cretaceous extensional tectonics involving the
carbonate platform domains (e.g. Shiner et al., 2004).
Starting from the Middle Eocene onwards the African conti-
nental margin was involved in the orogenic processes responsible
for the development of the Alps and the Apennines (Doglioni, 1991;
Bertotti et al., 2001; Faccenna et al., 2003; Doglioni et al., 2006;
Patacca et al., 2008).
The flexure of the lithosphere belonging to the Adria margin
started from the most internal areas and migrated eastward
through time, forming foredeep basins oriented sub-parallel to the
belts and filled by large quantities of terrigenous (siliciclastic)
sediments, derived from the erosion of the incipient inverted
margin (orogen and former foredeep). Each flexural phase was
accommodated either by the sedimentation of a flysch wedge, or by
the sub marine gravitational emplacement of large rock masses
detached from the inverted margin sequence. This development
has been extensively described by several authors, who highlighted
the peculiar characteristics of the Apennines within the framework
of the evolution of a foreland fold and thrust belt (Zoetemeijer et al.,
1993; Ori et al., 1991; Patacca and Scandone, 1989; Mazzoli et al.,
2001, 2005; Ford, 2004; Tozer et al., 2006; Patacca et al., 2008,
among many others) (Fig. 1).
The Adriatic domain corresponds to the youngest part of the
belt, strictly connected to the evolution of the Apennines fold and
thrust belt and to the interaction with the Dinarides, which are sub-
parallel orogenic belts with opposing vergences. Its development

Figure 1. Kinematic model of the Apennines (modified from Casero, 2004). In the map are indicated the main tectonic units and the ages of the main thrust fronts.
 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147 137

covers the Pliocene-Pleistocene time span and represents the result
of the Pliocene flexures (Ori et al., 1986; Patacca and Scandone,
1989; Ori et al., 1991; Casero, 2004) (Fig. 1).
Although some of the geodynamic evolution features are
beyond the aim of this paper, nevertheless some observations
relevant to the petroleum exploration can be made. For example,
the different structural style of the northern arc of the Apennines
with respect to the central and the southern sectors, seems to
suggest a different geodynamic evolution. In fact, in the central and
southern sectors of the Apennines, there are evidences of the
occurrence of an older PaleogeneeMiocene belt hidden by the
subsequent involvement in the Pliocene flexure and thrust propa-
gation (Casero and Roure, 1994).
The flexural history is of great importance with respect to the
hydrocarbon generation and accumulation, since: a) about three
quarters of the Italian biogenic gas is related to Pliocene foredeep
series, b) most of the thermogenic gas and condensate is probably
issued from Miocene flysch series, and c) in many oil accumulations
the source rock series entered the maturity window during the
flexural subsidence.
3. The petroleum exploration plays and the main structure of
the Adriatic Sea
Most of the production of gas in Italy (about 10 billion m3 per
year), comes from the Northern Adriatic Sea. These occurrences are
associated with two important source rocks deposited in the
foredeep terrigenous units of the foreland basins formed during the
Apennines orogenesis. The older source is thermogenic gas-prone
whereas the younger source is biogenic gas and is situated mostly
in the outer Plio-Pleistocene foredeep domain. The most important
gas fields of Italy, located in the eastern Po Plain and Northern
Adriatic Sea, have originated from this source (Bertello et al., 2010
and references therein).
The most significant structures and petroleum fields within the
Adriatic domain have been selected not only for their economic
importance, but rather for their geological interest and also on the
basis of the quality of the available information (mostly published in
the literature by AGIP geologists), which is very variable. A new
time-structure, showing the structural setting of the substratum of
the Adriatic Sea is here presented (Fig. 2). The reconstruction, based
on the public seismic dataset from Videpi (2009) and on the well logs
reaching the Fucoidi Formation (Aptian e Albian) highlights the
main positive structures in the area. There are several parameters
that characterize these different groups of structures, as the struc-
tural trend, the time of the main deformation and the detachment
level. The main structural trends recognizable in the Adriatic domain
are the Apennine trend, NWeSE, and the transversal one, SWeNE,
that characterize several structures in the southern sector of the
basin (Fig. 2 and supplementary material). The time of deformation
comprises different episodes, starting from: i) the Early Jurassic
extensional phase (Santantonio and Carminati, 2011 and references

Figure 2. Time-structure map of the central Adriatic Sea. The isochrones (every 100 ms TWT) are referred to the top of the Fucoidi Marls Formation (Aptian e Albian) and
equivalent stratigraphic units. List of the significant wells used for this reconstruction is also included (See also the supplementary material).
138 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147
therein; ii) the contractional (?)/transtensional phase during the
Late Cretaceous (Ziegler, 1987; Casero and Roure, 1994; Ziegler et al.,
1995; Winter and Tapponnier, 1991), iii) the contractional phases
consisting both of the thrust propagation during Middle and Late
Pliocene (Casero, 2004; Bigi et al., 1997; Patacca et al., 2008 and
references therein), and of the inversion and/or reactivation of the
more external preexistent structures (Argnani and Gamberi, 1995;
Gambini et al., 1997).
Different detachment levels characterize the structural building
of this area. The contractional structures related to the Middle and
Late Pliocene thrust belt show mainly two detachment level:
a deeper one, locate at the bottom of the Triassic-Miocene
carbonate succession, within the Triassic evaporites, and a shal-
lower one, located within or at the top of the Messinian evaporites
level. The two detachment levels are connected by steeper thrust
ramp cutting the carbonate succession. The upper ramps develop
anticlines involving the loweremiddle Pliocene siliciclastic
sequences.
The structures in the more external area, instead, which are
likely to be the results of inversion and/or reactivation related to
the same contractional phase, show generally a deep detachment
level, involving the Meso-Cenozoic carbonate successions and the
Triassic evaporites (Argnani and Gamberi, 1995; Gambini et al.,
1997; Casero, 2004).
The classification of structures proposed in this paper
comprises:
1) The middle Pliocene thrust folds (middle Pliocene thrust
activity, Apenninic trend, northern sector of the Italian side of
the Adriatic Sea, thrust flat within the Messinian evaporites)
(Figs. 2 and 3),
2) The upper Pliocene thrust folds (Late Pliocene thrust
activity, Apenninic trend, northern e central sector of the
Italian side of the Adriatic Sea, in the footwall of the
previous belt, thrust flat within the Messinian evaporites)
(Figs. 2, 4 and 5),
3) The Middle Adriatic Ridge and the Pliocene inversion struc-
tures (contractional positive anticlines, deformed likely during
the Tortonian, trending NNE-SSW, located along the central
sector of the Adriatic Sea) (e.g. Gargano Mare 1) (Figs. 2 and
6a,b and 7). In some cases salt domes occur, as in the case of the
Figure 3. Line drawing of a seismic line showing the Middle Pliocene thrust-related fold involving in deformation the flexural Lower Pliocene deposits and the syn-orogenic
sequence of Middle Pliocene. Upper Pliocene deposits passively cover the thrust front. To the East the coeval structures of Sarago and Mormora (see text for further explana-
tion). Note the different detachment level for the Costiera structure and the easternmost ones. Location in Figure 2.
Mizar structure, located along the central axis of the Adriatic
Sea, involving the whole stratigraphic succession up to the
quaternary deposits (Fig. 8);
4) The Cretaceous extensional structures and the Apulia Talus
(Cretaceous, mainly EeW, located in the southern sector of the
basin) (Figs. 1, 2 and 9),
5) The Quaternary basins (in between the positive structures
mentioned above, are present several stratigraphic trough,
trending NWeSE, parallel to the main structures and filled
by the younger portion of the stratigraphic succession).
3.1. The Middle Pliocene structures
During the latest Early PlioceneeMiddle Pliocene the internal
part of the Lower Pliocene foredeep was progressively thrusted and
folded (Figs. 2 and 3). This sector corresponds to the present day
northern and central Apennines foothills, and to the Costiera thrust
front, located partly onshore (to the south) and offshore (to the
north) (Fig. 1). The development of these thrusts completely reor-
ganized the physiography of the basin, generating coeval thrust top
basins and a new wide foredeep to the east (Patacca and Scandone,
1989, 2004; Bigi et al., 1997). In the thrust top basins some signif-
icant fields producing biogenic gas from shallow marine sands
were discovered. The most important ones, however, are by far the
accumulations of the foredeep basin, in the footwall of this main
trend, perhaps the most prolific gas basins in Italy (e.g. Squalo
Centrale, etc.) (Fig. 3). The biogenic gas is stored in multiple tur-
biditic sandy levels more or less gently folded according to their
setting. Both the source rock and the seal are provided by clays
alternating with sands.
In the central Adriatic offshore a number of commercial, middle-
sized fields (Sarago Mare 1, Mormora Mare 1, S. Giorgio Mare 1,
David 1, Emilio 1, Piropo 1 wells, etc.) (Fig. 2) produce oil and/or gas
from Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene resedimented, fractured bio-
clastic limestones intercalated in a dominant pelagic mudstone
series (Scaglia Formation). These beds are interpreted to come from
a nearby carbonatic shelf margin (talus sediments). However, as
they have proximal characters (even coarse breccia facies) and are
distributed along narrow, elongated trough with no evidence of
carbonatic shelf in the area, it seems most likely that these
 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147 139

Figure 4. Line drawing of a seismic line showing that the Costiera structure (crossed by the Atri and Savini 1 wells) is active until the late Pliocene time. The detachment level is
located in the messinian evaporites, whereas gas fields are located in the middle Pliocene foredeep deposits. The Emma wells penetrate a more external inversion structure coeval to
the Costiera one. Location in Figure 2.

resedimented beds come from unstable intra-pelagic ridges that
have reached, at times, the photic zone and have been subsequently
eroded (Colacicchi and Baldanza, 1986; Casero et al., 1990;
Casabianca et al., 2002). The traps (Figs. 2 and 3) are double ver-
gence, up thrust like, inversion folds, bounded by high angle faults;
being essentially of Middle Pliocene age they probably reactivate
old features. The producing structures lie clearly on a NWeSE
oriented trend. The seal to the producing levels is provided by
the overlying mudstones. The source rock is uncertain, possibly the
Upper Triassic Burano evaporitic formation or a kitchen deeply
seated to the SW.
3.2. The Upper Pliocene structures
A deformation of Late Pliocene age generated a regional uncon-
formity above the uppermost Middle Pliocene deposits, which is
evident on the flanks of the thrust top basins but very gentle in the
outer foredeep basins. In the northern and central Apennines

Figure 5. The Upper Pliocene belt comprises structures that grew up until the Late Pliocene deforming previous onlapping sequences. An example are the anticlines penetrated by
the Cornelia and Pesaro Mare wells, located offshore to the north of Ancona. Basal decollement in the Triassic evaporites. Location of the two geological cross sections in Figure 2.
Data gently provided by RSE (Research on Energy Systems e RSE Italy Spa).
140 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147

Figure 6. Line drawing of two seismic lines showing two different structural style of the Middle Adriatic Ridge. a) Symmetric, positive fold and related thrusts, detached in the
Triassic evaporites. b) salt diapir located along the core of the Middle Adriatic Ridge. To the east of both the sections, two unconformities evidence the Pyrenees (Eocene) and Sud
Alpine deformational phases related to the Dinarides evolution (Casero and Roure, 1994). Location in Figure 2.

foreland basin, the Upper Pliocene fine grained siliciclastic series are outer limbs of late Middle Pliocene thrust-related folds (e.g.
much less prolific than the Middle Pliocene ones. The biogenic gas Cornelia e Pesaro structure) (Fig. 5) or are either onlapping
pools are mostly found in the transgressive basal levels (Figs. 2 and sequences on the flanks of the thrust top basins, or, more frequently,
3). The traps are gently refolded onlap surfaces on both the inner and sequences draping on previous folds in the foreland basins.

Figure 7. Line drawing of a seismic line showing the Gargano Est Marine well crossing a deeply detached fold-related thrust. To the west, a number of normal faults evidencing the
extensional Cretaceous deformation. Location in Figure 2.
 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147 141

Figure 8. Line drawing of a seismic line showing the Mizar diapir occurrence. Location in Figure 2.

3.3. The Middle Adriatic Ridge
At the eastern border of the investigated area, corresponding
to the central axis of the Adriatic Sea, the occurrence of
positive structures involving the TriassiceMiocene succession,
and buried under the Quaternary deposits, is largely recognized
by many authors (Scrocca, 2006 and references therein). It was
called Mid-Adriatic Ridge by Finetti (1982) and Central Adriatic
Deformation Belt by Argnani and Gamberi (1995); it consists of
an array of structural highs along a main NWeSE trend (Figs. 2
and 6a).
Many authors interpreted these structural highs as east-verging
thrust-related folds (e.g., Bally et al., 1986; Ori et al., 1991; De
Alteriis, 1995; Coward et al., 1999; Calamita et al., 2003; Scrocca,
2006), related to the development of the Apennines, although
evidence of salt diapirism has been also recognized (Fig. 6b). In
some cases, the ridge is constituted by the diapir itself (e.g. the
Mizar structure) (Bally et al., 1986) (Fig. 8).
Other Adriatic ridges caused by folds show a symmetric geom-
etry, suggesting to be the result of tectonic inversion along pre-
existing extensional faults developed during the end of the Early
Cretaceous and the Tertiary. The origin of the extensional Creta-
ceous events has been related to the onset of the convergence
between Europe and Africa, and is evidenced by several structures
in the Adriatic Sea (Argnani et al., 1993; Scisciani and Calamita,
2009) (e.g. Gargano Mare 1 structure, Figs. 2 and 7). The super-
posed Pliocene tectonic inversion is due to the Apenninic
compression or to diapirism as evidenced by the occurrence of
Pliocene folded deposits and growth strata (Argnani et al., 1993; De
Alteriis, 1995; Gambini et al., 1997; Bertotti et al., 2001); some
authors suggest a thick-skinned tectonic inversion process for these
structures (e.g., Argnani and Frugoni, 1997; Bertotti et al., 2001;
Calamita et al., 2003; Bertello et al., 2010).
3.4. The Apulia carbonate platform
As in other sectors of Italy, some important petroleum systems
are fully contained in pre-flexural carbonatic series and do not
depend on flexural subsidence. One of them is the huge heavy oil
Rospo field, located in the northwestern sector of the Apulia
carbonate shelf (Figs. 2 and 9), discovered in the mid-seventies. The
stratigraphic section of this part of the Apulia shelf is made up of
Upper Triassic alternations of dolomites and anhydrites (Burano
Formation), thick Jurassic dolomitic series of inner shelf environ-
ment (Ugento Dolomites Formation) and Lower Cretaceous
mudstones and bioclastic packstones (Cupello Limestones Forma-
tion). Seismic and well data show that the massive shelf series
change laterally in facies towards the NE to well-bedded mudstone

Figure 9. Line drawing of a seismic line crosses the Apulia carbonate platform of Jurassic age, its slope-to-basin sequence and the pelagic deposits of the same age. See text for
explanation. Rospo field is the main oil field in the Adriatic domain. Location in Figures 2 and 10.
142 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147

series (Fig. 9) of deeper water platform and euxinic environment
(Emma Limestones). Probably during the early Late Cretaceous the
shelf area emerged, in the meantime, a gently tilting to the NE
occurred, and the shelf was deeply eroded, while the sedimentation
continued in the deeper platform area (Casero et al., 1990). A large
topographic high zone, strongly karstified, evidences the shelf
emersion. During the Early Miocene the high was progressively
transgressed by shallow marine, thin, glauconitic grainstones series
followed by Messinian evaporites and Lower Pliocene marls (Andrè
and Doulcet, 1991). Heavy immature oil (11 API), sulfur rich,
impregnates the karstified Lower Cretaceous and Lower Miocene
limestones on the large paleotopographic high. The oil extends to
the west up to the erosional limit of the karstified formation and
the oil/water surface sensibly rises in the same direction. A good
seal is provided by both the Messinian anhydrites and the Pliocene
marls. The source of this oil and the migration path have been
discussed for long time. It is in general assumed that the source is
the oil prone Upper Triassic Burano Formation (Andrè and Doulcet,
1991). The migration should be relatively recent and subvertical,
along faults. An alternative hypothesis would be that the source

Figure 10. Location of the main gas and oil field in the Adriatic Sea (data from Videpi, 2009).
 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147 143

rock was the Emma Limestones, the migration being lateral up dip
from the NE (Mattavelli et al., 1993; Casero, 2004).
3.5. Quaternary basins
During the Pleistocene an important regional relative sea level fall
occurred. A full set of regressive sandy/clay beds was deposited (Ori
et al., 1986; Bigi et al., 1997; Patacca and Scandone, 2004). In the
Northern Adriatic Sea, out of the area considered in this paper, in the
basal sandy levels of this cycle, several biogenic gas pools were found,
some of which (e.g. Barbara field, Iannello et al., 1992) of very large
size (Fig. 10). The traps are everywhere gentle anticlines, in most
cases draping previous features of various origins. The Quaternary
deposits in the central Adriatic Sea are mainly undeformed and
testify the regressive cycle that started during the Pleistocene (Figs. 9
and 10). These data suggest that thrusting activity ended in the early

Figure 11. Adriatic Sea petroleum systems (data from Videpi, 2009).
144 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147

Pleistocene time, whereas a generalized uplift has taken place (Di
Bucci and Mazzoli, 2002; Di Bucci et al., 2003).
4. The Adriatic Sea petroleum systems
Based on the public dataset related to the exploration activity in
this area during the last fifty years, three main petroleum systems
have been recognized and commercially exploited a) biogenic gas
system, b) mixed oil and gas system, and c) oil system (Figs. 10 and
11). A fourth, not exploited, system includes very heavy oil from
very exploration wells.
4.1. Biogenic gas system
This system is characterized by the occurrence of commercial
biogenic gas in: a) turbiditic sands of MiddleeUpper Pliocene,

Table 1
The main characters of the oil and gas fields in the Adriatic sea.

Field name Hydrocarbon type Reservoir Trap (age of Trap (type) edetachment level Generation, expulsion Source rock
deformation) (age) and migration
San Giorgio Gas and condensate Scaglia Fm. (turbiditic Pre-apenninic Double vergence, up thrust like Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma lmst
Mare (mixed) limestones) phase/upper inversion folds e Triassic lateral and vertical (Hettangian e Rethic)/
Pliocene migration (to NE) Burano Fm.
Piropo Gas and oil Scaglia Fm. (turbiditic Pre-apenninic Double vergence, up thrust like Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma lmst
(15 e22 API) limestones) phase/upper inversion folds e Triassic lateral migration (Hettangian e Rethic)/
Pliocene Burano Fm.
Mormora Gas and condensate Scaglia Fm. (turbiditic Pre-apenninic Anticline (outer most Ap. Trend) Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma lmst
(mixed) limestones) phase/middle lateral migration (Hettangian e Rethic)/
Pliocene Burano Fm.
Ombrina Gas and condensate Bolognano Fm. Pre-apenninic Stratigraphic Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma lmst
(mixed) (Miocene) phase lateral migration (Hettangian e Rethic)/
Burano Fm.
Emilio Gas and condensate Scaglia Fm. Pre-apenninic Double vergence, up thrust like Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma lmst
(mixed) phase/upper inversion folds e Triassic lateral migration (Hettangian e Rethic)/
Pliocene Burano Fm.
Sarago Gas and condensate Scaglia Fm. (turbiditic Pre-apenninic Double vergence, up thrust like Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma lmst
(mixed) limestones) phase/middle inversion folds e Triassic lateral migration (Hettangian e Rethic)/
Pliocene Burano Fm.
David Gas Scaglia Fm. Pre-apenninic Double vergence, up thrust like Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma lmst
phase/upper inversion folds e Triassic lateral migration (Hettangian e Rethic)/
Pliocene Burano Fm.
David Heavy oil Liassic limestone Stratigraphic Thermogenic/e/lateral
(4 e5 API) migration or generation
in situ
Emma 1 Oil_heavy sulfur oil Scaglia Fm. (turbiditic Pre-apenninic Double vergence, up thrust like Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma limestone?
limestones) phase/Pliocene inversion folds e Triassic lateral migration (Lower Lias e Rethic)
Gianna Oil_heavy sulfur oil Scaglia Fm. (turbiditic Pre-apenninic Double vergence, up thrust like Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma limestone
limestones) phase/Pliocene inversion folds e Triassic lateral migration (Lower Lias e Rethic)
Rospo Mare Oil (11 API) Bolognano Fm. Stratigraphic Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma limestone
(Miocene) lateral migration (Lower Lias e Rethic)
Santa Maria Oil Scaglia Fm. (turbiditic Pre-apenninic Thrust related fold e Messinian Thermogenic/Pliocene/ Emma limestone
limestones) phase/middle lateral migration (Lower Lias e Rethic)
Pliocene
Barbara Gas Sands Middleeupper Gentle fold/stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
Pliocene
Bonaccia Gas Sands Middleeupper Gentle fold/stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
Pliocene
Calpurnia Gas Sands Middleeupper Gentle fold/stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
Pliocene
Camilla Gas Sands Middleeupper Gentle fold/stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
Pliocene
Emma W Gas Sands Stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
Clara Est Gas Multilayer thin Middleeupper Anticline (outer most Ap. In situ Biogenic
sand beds Pliocene Trend) e Messinian
Flavia Gas Multilayer thin Middleeupper Anticline (outer most Ap. In situ Biogenic
sand beds Pliocene Trend) e Messinian
Giovanna Gas Multilayer thin Middleeupper Gentle fold/stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
sand beds Pliocene
Squalo Gas Pools in multilayer Stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
centrale thin sand
beds e Middle
Pliocene
S. Stefano Gas Sand beds Middle Pliocene Gentle fold/stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
Mare
Fratello Est Gas Multilayer thin Stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
sand beds
Fulvia Gas Multilayer thin Middle Pliocene Anticline (outer most Ap. In situ Biogenic
sand beds Trend) e Messinian
Pennina Gas Multilayer thin Middle Pliocene Gentle fold/stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
sand beds
Eleonora Gas Multilayer thin Middle Pliocene Gentle fold/stratigraphic In situ Biogenic
sand beds
 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147
involved in thrust-related folds belonging to the Apennines defor-
mation (Flavia and Fulvia fields, Struttura Costiera thrust related
fold, Figs. 3 and 10); b) in Lower Pleistocene sands involved in
gentle passive fold related to older positive structures (Emma W
field, Fig. 4). These latter are usually characterized by multiple pools
in multilayer thin sand beds (Squalo Centr. field, Figs. 4 and 10). On
seismic lines, the occurrence of these pools are highlighted by
seismic anomalies as bright spots and pull down.
The biogenic gas was generated in situ by bacterial action on
the immature organic-rich clays interbedded with the reservoir
sands.
The main gas fields belonging to this system are located in the
northern part of the central Adriatic Sea, where they have high
potential reserves values and, as a consequence, great economic
interest (for example Barbara, Bonaccia and Clara Est, Fig. 10 and
Table .1).
4.2. Mixed oil and gas system (far traveling system)
These system is characterized by volumes of light, low sulfur oil
and/or condensate, associated to thermogenic gas, located mainly
in the positive structures of the most external thrust front of the
buried Apennines or in the inversion structures located in its
footwall (Table 1 and Fig. 10).
The reservoir consists of resedimented calcareous bioclastic
breccias, interbedded in the Cretaceous/Paleocene portion of the
Scaglia Formation, involved in symmetric anticlines related to
thrust. The source rock is the Emma limestones, Lower Liassice
Upper Triassic, consisting of carbonate deposits belonging
to confined, exinic, pelagic intra-carbonate platform seaways
(Zappaterra, 1994). It entered the oil window during the Pliocene,
as a consequence of high subsidence due the flexure of the Adri-
atic plate. This generated thermogenic gas and oil that migrated
laterally and upward to the traps (toward Nord Est) consisting of
double vergence, up thrust like inversion folds, bounded by high
angle faults. The oil and gas fields of Emma W, Mormora, Piropo
and David belong to this system (Fig. 10 and Table 1).
4.3. Oil system (short traveling)
This system, which provides important resources in term of
reserves, comprises volumes of heavy, immature and sulfur rich
oil in Mesozoic and Cenozoic limestones, involved in poorly
deformed inversion structure of the foreland and/or in strati-
graphic traps. The primary porosity of these rocks is low and the
volumes are obtained by fractures. The source rock is still the
Emma limestones, that has here a lower maturity due to the fact
that it is still located in the foreland domain. Migration was
vertical or lateral, across the fracture systems in the limestones.
One of the most important field of this system is the Rospo Mare
field, in the south of the study zone (Figs. 8 and 10). In this case,
the southeastern border of the Emma limestone basin is located in
correspondence of the margin of Apula carbonate platform: from
the central part of the basin, oil should migrate laterally to south
west across the porous carbonate platform Mesozoic limestone
(Fig. 10).
4.4. Heavy oil
The heavy oil of this system, although is know, is not already
exploited. The hydrocarbons consist of 4e5 API bitumen, that was
discovered in very deep stratigraphic exploration wells, and is
located together of other petroleum systems as in the case of the
David gas field. The reservoir is made by the Lower Jurassic limestone
145
whereas the source rock is suspected to be the same Emma lime-
stones, with an “in situ” generation or short laterally migration.
5. Discussion
Most of the petroleum exploration plays of the Adriatic occur in
the foreland and foothills domains; as a general rule, the gas pools
are associated with flexural and post-flexural petroleum systems,
whereas liquid hydrocarbons are linked to pre-flexural substratum
sources (Table 1 and Fig. 11).
Biogenic gas pools were found in: i) thrust top, shallow marine
sands in mixed traps (Fig. 3); ii) foredeep turbiditic multi-layers
sands, involved in thrust-related folds, either four-way-dip closed
or erosionally truncated (Fig. 4); iii) foreland basin marine sands in
mixed traps (refolded onlaps) (Fig. 5), stratigraphic traps (onlaps/
shale outs) or in structural traps (reactivated thrust-related folds or
forced folds) (Figs. 3 and 4). The source is in the interbedded Plio-
cene clays. Thermogenic gas pools are in turbiditic sands involved
in thrust-related folds in foothills areas. The gas, generated at great
depth in the Pliocene siliciclastic deposits, migrated laterally-up dip
along the inner flank of the folds.
Liquid hydrocarbons, often associated with condensates and/or
thermal gas, are stored in pre-flexural carbonatic series either in
foothills or foreland domains (Figs. 3, 7 and 9). In the foothills belts,
as the periadriatic basin, the traps are thrust-related folds (Figs. 2 and
3). The hydrocarbons were generated by intra-shelf euxinic basin
series, pushed into the maturity window by the superposed flexural/
tectonic subsidence and migrated, as for thermal gas, laterally-up dip
along the inner limb of the folds. In the foreland, as the central part of
the Adriatic domain, the oils are stored in carbonates involved in
paleo-structures of different nature (Figs. 7 and 9). They were also
generated by intra-self euxinic series, that reached the maturity
thanks to the recent passive margin subsidence. The oils migrated
laterally-up dip, across the facies change screen.
6. Conclusions
The Apennine thrust/fold belts and, more in detail, the Adriatic
basin, are the results of a complex geological evolution due to the
superimposition of several tectonic phases. This remarkable vari-
ability, at regional and local scales, is the scenario for the devel-
opment of petroleum systems having a considerable economic
importance.
The potential petroleum exploration plays of the Adriatic
domain are tentatively classified in this paper, according to their
geological evolution with respect to the Apennines fold and thrust
belt (Fig. 2). The main parameters for classification are: age of the
main deformation, structural trend and decollement level. In this
way is possible to distinguish five main group of structures. Three
groups consist of contractional structure of different ages (Middle
and Upper Pliocene) developed from different detachment levels.
Thrust planes in some cases reactivate older structures, and
are associated to diapirisms (central axes of the Adriatic Sea)
(Figs. 3e7). Another group is characterized by Cretaceous normal
faults controlling the margins of the Apulia carbonate platform,
whereas the last group comprises small and isolated Quaternary
basins, elongated NWeSE (Figs. 7e9).
This classification highlights that the main petroleum plays of
the area are genetically linked to the flexure of the Adria conti-
nental margin and to the evolution of the Apennines fold and
thrust belt (Figs. 2 and 10). The source rocks contained in the pre-
flexure epi-continental successions reached the maturity window
during the flexural subsidence or, alternatively, the flexural
accommodating siliciclastic flysch themselves generated and
stored hydrocarbons. As in the other main province of the Italian
146 P. Casero, S. Bigi / Marine and Petroleum Geology 42 (2013) 135e147
peninsula, even in the Adriatic domain is possible to recognized
three main petroleum systems associated with the above
described structure: biogenic gas in terrigenous Plio-Pleistocene
deposits, mixed oil and gas systems in terrigenous deposits and
in Cretaceous slope-to-basin deposits, oil in meso-cenozoic
carbonate deposits (Fig. 11).
The central Adriatic Sea has been the target of the hydrocarbon
exploration since the 1970’s, and the exploration history indicates
for that period a main activity, when the main oil and gas fields in
the area were discovered. From the eighties to these days gas
exploration is mature in this area, and activities are mainly focused
close to the existing fields; nevertheless, an interesting upside
remains, mainly for the complex and deep seated plays which are
still poorly understood.
Appendix. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.
07.006.
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