Design and Testing of Ejectors

for High Temperature Fuel Cell

Mario L. Ferrari
e-mail: mario.ferrari@unige.it
Davide Bernardi
e-mail: davide.bernardi@unige.it
Aristide F. Massardo
e-mail: massardo@unige.it
Thermochemical Power Group (TPG),
Dipartimento di Macchine, Sistemi Energetici e
Trasporti,
Università di Genova, Italy
Hybrid Systems
Our goal in this work is the improvement of the ejector performance inside hybrid
systems supporting the theoretical activity with experimental tests. In fact, after a pre-
liminary ejector design, an experimental rig has been developed to test single stage
ejectors for hybrid systems at different operative conditions of mass flow rates, pressures,
and temperatures. At first, an open circuit has been built to perform tests at atmospheric
conditions in the secondary duct. Then, to emulate a SOFC anodic recirculation device,
the circuit has been closed, introducing a fuel cell volume in a reduced scale. This
configuration is important to test ejectors at pressurized conditions, both in primary and
secondary ducts. Finally, the volume has been equipped with an electrical heater and the
rig has been thermally insulated to test ejectors with secondary flows at high tempera-
ture, necessary to obtain values in similitude conditions with the real ones. This test rig
has been used to validate simplified and CFD models necessary to design the ejectors
and investigate the internal fluid dynamic phenomena. In fact, the application of CFD
validated models has allowed us to improve the performance of ejectors for hybrid
systems optimizing the geometry in terms of primary and secondary ducts, mixing cham-
ber length, and diffuser. However, the simplified approach is essential to start the analysis
with an effective preliminary geometry. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.2211631兴

Introduction extensive development work to understand and optimize ejector

Ejector technology has been investigated for many years, espe-
cially for applications in alimentary industry, chemical industry,
oil plants, and aircraft jet propulsion 关1–4兴. Even if, in power
systems ejectors are currently used in steam plants condensers 关5兴,
the recent developments of high temperature hybrid systems have
shown an interesting innovative application. In fact, because of
ejectors do not have moving parts, they can perform flow recircu-
lations in hybrid systems joining low costs with high reliability.
So, they are extremely useful in Solid Oxide Fuel Cell plants
where the high temperatures make it difficult and expensive to
utilize blowers 关6兴, reducing the reliability too.
Ejector technology is applied in the recirculations of the 1 MW
fuel cell hybrid system 共Fig. 1兲, currently under development at
Rolls-Royce Fuel Cell Systems 共RRFCS兲 关7兴. On the anodic side,
the ejector recirculates part of the exhausted gases to ensure the
right amount of steam and heat necessary to the reforming reac-
tions. So, this technology allows to avoid the more complex and
expensive anodic systems previously presented in 关6兴 for the
steam generation and the reformer heat recovering. On the ca-
thodic side, the introduction of a recirculation has already been
considered in previous works 关8,9兴 to recover part of the ex-
hausted cathodic gases without a high temperature recuperator.
Nevertheless, the solution presented in 关8,9兴 is affected by tech-
nological problems because the cathodic recirculation is carried
out by a very high temperature blower 共⬃1000° C兲. Also in this
case, the ejector technology has been chosen to perform a low cost
cathodic recirculation. In fact, even if the solution presented in
Fig. 1 affects the system efficiency, because part of the compres-
sor outlet pressure is used in the ejector to obtain the required
recirculation ratio, the improvements in costs and mainly in reli-
ability justify the ejector application.
Such innovative applications in fuel cell systems require an
Manuscript received November 29, 2005; final manuscript received February 10,
2006. Review conducted by Roberto Bove. Paper presented at the 1st European Fuel
Cell Technology and Applications Conference 共EFC2005兲, December 14–16, 2005,
Rome, Italy.
performance. In fact, there are many differences between the ap-
plications in SOFC closed circuits and the traditional ones, spe-
cifically due to the chemical composition, temperature of the
gases, flow rates, and the constraints to be considered 关10兴. For
instance, an anodic ejector has to ensure very high values of re-
circulation ratio 共F兲 to avoid, also at off-design and transient con-
ditions 关11兴, carbon deposition in the anodic circuit, and a ca-
thodic ejector has to perform the required recirculation without an
excessive pressure difference between the compressor outlet and
the turbine inlet. Since the traditional “know how” is not enough
to design ejectors for fuel cell applications, in this work a new
design procedure is adopted to reach the high performance re-
quested. In fact, starting from an anodic ejector prototype devel-
oped using a preliminary simplified model 关10兴, an experimental
activity has been carried out to better investigate the fluid dynamic
phenomena and validate the theoretical models. Then, the appli-
cation of CFD validated models 关12兴 has allowed the ejector ge-
ometry to be optimized.
Preliminary Design
In this paper, the attention is mainly focused on the anodic
ejector because it is the most critical from the recirculation per-
formance point of view 关10兴. At the anodic side, the primary duct
共Fig. 2兲 is connected with the high pressure line of the fuel 共meth-
ane兲 and the secondary duct with the anodic outlet of the stack.
The recirculated flow, coming from the cell, mixes with the driv-
ing fluid 共the fuel兲 in the mixing chamber, where uniformity is
reached from the point of view of velocity, temperature, and
chemical composition profiles. At this point the high velocity flow
enters the diffuser to convert kinetic energy into pressure to over-
come the viscous pressure losses inside the stack.
To determine the ejector geometry, the design point operative
conditions of the fuel cell must be known 共cell operative pressure,
pressure losses, exhaust chemical composition, and temperature兲.
In the preliminary design step, the typical values reported in pre-
vious works 关10,13兴 for a SOFC hybrid system have been consid-
ered. It is important to underline that in this preliminary calcula-

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 Fig. 3 The ejector test rig: open loop configuration

Fig. 1 RRFCS 250 kW generator module †7‡

tion the fuel inlet temperature has been assumed to be equal to
400° C and a stack pressure loss equal to 1.5% of the operative
pressure has been considered.
The simplified design model, developed for the preliminary ge-
ometry generation, is based on the continuity, momentum, and
energy equations 关1–3兴:
continuity: ṁ1 + ṁ2 = ␳3 · c3 · ⍀3 ,
divergent and convergent兲 and two mixing chambers with differ-
ent length values. In fact, the most significant aim of this first
prototype was the experimental comparison of various configura-
tions.
The Test Rig and Experimental Results
At the Thermochemichal Power Group 共TPG兲—University of
Genoa laboratory, a test rig, partially supported by the PIP-SOFC
共1兲 European contract 关14兴, has been developed to investigate the per-
formance of ejectors for SOFC applications, with the objective of

冕
3 validating the theoretical models and improve the ejector design.
momentum: p3 · ⍀3 − p1 · ⍀1 − p2 · ⍀2 − p · d⍀ At first, the prototype, presented in the previous paragraph, has
1−2 been tested in classical open loop configuration 共Fig. 3兲 with the
secondary nozzle at atmospheric conditions, feeding the primary
= ṁ1 · c1 + ṁ2 · c2 − ṁ3 · c3 , 共2兲 duct with compressed air and using a valve to generate different

冉 冊 冉 冊 冉 冊
values of differential pressure on the ejector. The plant has been
c1 c2 c3 equipped with transducers to measure the mass flow rate, the pres-
energy: ṁ1 · h1 + + ṁ2 · h2 + = ṁ3 · h3 + .
2 2 2 sure and the temperature upstream of the primary nozzle, the mass
flow rate at the diffuser outlet 共using a venturimeter兲, and the
共3兲
differential pressure between the secondary duct inlet and the dif-
In this phase, the fluid dynamic phenomena are considered adia- fuser outlet. The transducers signals have been connected with a
batic, taking into account the primary momentum loss and the PC, through a PCI device, and acquired using the LabVIEW™
mixing chamber pressure loss with apt coefficients 关10兴. The dif- software 关14兴.
fuser irreversibility is calculated through the following empirical Then, the circuit has been closed, introducing a vessel to emu-
equation: late, in a reduced scale, the anodic volume of the SOFC and an

冢 冉 冊冣 冢 冣
another valve to vary the circuit pressure loss with the requested
Cf 1 1 2
ca2␯
⌬p f = · 1− +␣· 1− · ␳ a␯ · . 共4兲 accuracy level. In this way, through a manual outlet valve, it has
4·␣ ⍀4 2
⍀4 2 been possible to study ejectors at secondary flow pressurized con-
⍀3 ⍀3
The solution is based on an iterative method: the outlet static
pressure 共p4兲 is evaluated for an initial geometry and compared
with the required value. The difference between these two values
is used to adjust primary flow pressure and ejector geometry until
convergence is reached.
This model has been used to design the first ejector prototype
equipped with two different primary nozzles 共convergent-

Fig. 4 The ejector test rig: closed loop configuration with the
Fig. 2 Ejector scheme thermal insulation

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 Fig. 5 Plant scheme in LabVIEW™

ditions, acquiring also the vessel pressure with another apt trans-
ducer. Finally, the plant has been equipped with an electrical
heater inside the vessel and thermally insulated to test ejectors
with a secondary flow up to 300° C. Even if this temperature is
lower in comparison with its operative real value 共⬃900° C兲, it is
enough to reach the similitude conditions that have been consid-
ered.
Figure 4 shows the rig in its final configuration equipped with
thermocouples in the most significant points. The plant scheme,
developed using the DSC LabVIEW™ module, is reported in Fig.
5 with all the transducers used to perform the tests. The technical
data of the rig in terms of geometries and dimensions are reported
in 关14兴.
The rig has been used to perform several tests at different op-
erative conditions, using air in both primary and secondary ducts.
At first, some preliminary results have been carried out with the
open loop configuration; then the effects coming from pressuriza-
tion and high temperature secondary flow have been investigated.
To investigate the ejector performance in the SOFC plants, si-
militude conditions have been generated in the experimental rig.
So, at first the ejector boundary conditions 共pressures and second-
ary duct temperatures兲 have been chosen to obtain, in the experi-
mental rig, the same ratios between secondary and primary pres-
sures and temperatures of the real plant considered in the
European project PIP-SOFC 关14兴. The characteristic curves mea-
sured in this similitude conditions 共with a convergent primary duct
at ambient temperature兲 have been compared 共Fig. 6兲 with the

Fig. 6 Pressure and temperature similitude results Fig. 7 Reynolds similitude results

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 Fig. 10 Validation of the 2-D model with experimental and 0-D
results
Fig. 8 Simplified model validation: different pressure levels

results 共the dotted line兲 obtained using the same pressure values and convergent兲. In fact, the empirical loss coefficients, previously
with both primary and secondary ducts at the ambient tempera- presented, have been set with great accuracy only after the experi-
mental analysis. Furthermore, it is important to highlight that the
ture. Figure 6 shows, in the ⌬p / p graph, normalized with the
model has been improved, introducing the heat transfer between
design values, the performance decay at high temperature coming
secondary and primary ducts upstream the mixing chamber, be-
from the secondary duct mass flow rate decrease at high tempera-
cause the experiments have shown that the adiabatic hypothesis
ture 关15兴. It is also important to underline that the curves, mea-
generates non-negligible errors 关12,16兴.
sured at the same temperature values, but at different secondary
The results obtained with the improved model, using the up-
pressure, practically collapse on the same curve in the ⌬p / p
dated loss coefficients, have been successfully compared with the
graph, as is well known in the literature 关1兴.
experimental data. Figure 8 shows, for a simply convergent pri-
Then, some tests have been carried out considering the Rey-
mary nozzle, the simplified model validation at different second-
nolds similitude conditions inside the ejector. The results are re-
ary pressure levels, at ambient temperature and at 150° C at the
ported in Fig. 7 for different secondary temperature values have
ejector secondary inlet. The calculations match the experimental
been obtained with the boundary conditions, in terms of pressures,
data with enough accuracy in the significant zones from the ejec-
necessary to have in both ducts the values of Reynolds number
tor operative condition point of view. It is important to underline,
equal to their values in the real plant 关14兴. Figure 7 shows that,
in both experimental and calculated data, that the higher is the
because of the increase of dynamic viscosity with temperature, the
secondary pressure the higher is the recirculation ratio decay at a
higher is the secondary inlet temperature the higher is the value of
high temperature. Another important validation, carried out with a
the recirculation ratio which allows the Reynolds similitude be-
convergent primary nozzle, is reported in Fig. 9, where the theo-
tween design point and testing conditions to be obtained. So, at
retical results are successfully compared with the experiments at
high temperatures, the Reynolds similitude conditions are ob-
different levels of secondary flow temperature, maintaining the
tained at low values of the ejector differential pressure to have a
secondary pressure equal to the atmospheric one 关16兴.
high secondary mass flow rate and, as a consequence, a high re-
circulation ratio value.
Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) Analysis
Simplified Model Validation against Experimental Mea- Since the simplified model is not able to capture any flow dis-
surements tribution or local pressure losses inside the ejector, it has been
The simplified model, used for the ejector preliminary design, necessary to develop a more accurate model such as a 3-D CFD
has been improved and validated against the rig experimental re- model. At the first step, a two-dimensional 共2-D兲 axial-symmetric
sults, using different primary nozzles 关14兴 共convergent-divergent model has been generated and validated against experimental
measurements according to the following steps:

Fig. 9 Simplified model validation: different temperature Fig. 11 3-D ejector model

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 Fig. 12 Validation of 3-D model with experimental data and 2-D
results
共i兲 the optimization of the design validated by experimental
measurements
共ii兲 the evaluation of the temperature influence on the ejector
performance
共iii兲 the evaluation of the manufacturing tolerances influence
on the ejector performance
The 2-D axial-symmetric model has been built to simulate the
ejector installed in the TPG-University of Genoa test rig. A struc-
tured mesh has been used to avoid any numerical diffusion effects
and to avoid any distortion of the primary jet. The k-␧ model has
been employed for turbulence modeling and also in the 3-D cal-
culations it has been preferred to the LES 共Large Eddy Simula-
tion兲 because it is an acceptable compromise between the accu-
racy of the solution and the computing time 关17兴. The
independence of the solution from the grid was checked by means
of several calculations with different mesh sizes 关12,14兴.
In all the CFD simulations the boundary conditions come from
experimental measurements. So, inlet and outlet pressures and in-
let temperatures were measured in the rig with the ejector running
and then set into FLUENT 共the CFD code used to run the simula-
tions兲. The inlet turbulence intensities have been set as described
in 关18兴. The results obtained with the 2-D CDF model have been
successfully compared with the experimental data 共Fig. 10兲.
After the validation of the 2-D model with experimental data, a
3-D 共Fig. 11兲 model has been generated to simulate any 3-D ef-
fects in the ejector flow field. The boundary conditions were kept
as for the 2-D model, and the results have been compared with the
experimental and 2-D ones 共Fig. 12兲.
A further study has been conducted to prove that the k-␧ model
is able to calculate the recirculation ratio 共F兲 properly 共Fig. 13兲.
This has been done because the two equation turbulence model
does not solve the N-S equations but discretizes them in time and
Fig. 13 Comparison of LES with k-␧ and experimental results
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Fig. 14 Pressure profiles along the mixing duct axis
space without solving any partial differential equation. Instead the
LES 共Large Eddy Simulation兲 solves the big scales and models
only the small ones that dissipate energy. It is clear that for com-
plex flows such as a nozzle jet, this model is more suitable than
any RANS models, but it requires a longer computing time. Nev-
ertheless, Fig. 13 shows that the mass flow rates are properly
calculated and consistent with 2-D axial-symmetric ones.
Ejector Design Optimization
After the validation of the 2-D and the 3-D models, it has been
possible to improve the design of the ejector optimizing the fol-
lowing components:
• the mixing duct
• the primary nozzle
• the diffuser
CFD simulations have been run to calculate the pressure and
velocity fields inside the mixing duct. It has been possible to
observe that when the primary and secondary flows are fully
mixed, after reaching a maximum, the pressure starts to decrease
共Fig. 14兲 and the flow velocity profile does not change 共Fig. 15兲. A
few cases have been investigated to check if an optimum exists. In
fact, if the mixing duct is too short, the flow velocity at the dif-
fuser inlet is too high and then the losses are high as well. If it is
Fig. 15 Half velocity profiles along the mixing duct axis
Transactions of the ASME
 Fig. 16 The short mixing duct „back… and the long one „front… Fig. 18 Recirculated mass flows for different nozzle diameters

too long, the friction losses lower the static pressure. The opti- build a staged diffuser. CFD calculations proved that a graded
mum has been calculated to be 7.5 Lm / Dm according to the litera- angle avoids any flow detachment from the walls, and it can in-
ture 关18–20兴. After this analysis, a new mixing duct has been built crease the recirculation ratio 共Table 1兲.
共Fig. 16兲 and tested 共Fig. 17兲, confirming what has been found in
the CFD results. Effect of Heat Exchange
The geometry of the primary nozzle has been analyzed because, According to 关11,22兴, the temperature affects the performance
as pointed out by Ferro 关21兴 and Marini et al. 关4兴, the shape of it of the ejectors because it has a direct influence on the specific
influences heavily the performance of the ejector. Two configura- volumes and then on the mass flow rates. Then, calculations have
tions have been investigated: convergent-divergent and conver- been conducted with T2 / T1 = 1 or T2 / T1 ⬎ 1. They showed that
gent nozzle. Simplified calculations showed that as the ratio be- with a temperature ratio of 1.85, chosen to operate in similitude
tween D2 / D1 was increasing, the recirculated mass flow rate was conditions, the recirculation ratio decreased of 5%–10% against
growing up as well 共Fig. 18兲. It means that keeping the optimized the case T2 / T1 = 1.
mixing duct fixed, the convergent nozzle 共with a smaller outlet
diameter兲 was more suitable for the current application. Moreover,
another study has been conducted with the CFD models showing
that the thinner is the outer wall the better is the performance of
the ejector. In fact, the cavity zone created by the nozzle was
moving downstream the beginning of the mixing, causing losses.
Then the thicker is the wall, the bigger is the cavity zone. From
these two analyses a new nozzle was built 共Fig. 19兲 and tested
showing, as supposed from theoretical investigation, that the con-
vergent thin nozzle was performing better than the convergent-
divergent one.
The third component that has been optimized is the diffuser. As
already well known in literature, if the spread angle is too wide, a
flow asymmetry can be detected, as shown in Fig. 20, and the
performance drops down. To avoid this effect, a solution can be to

Fig. 19 Convergent-divergent nozzle on the left and conver-

gent nozzle on the right

Fig. 17 Comparison of ejector performance with different mix-

ing ducts Fig. 20 Distortion of the flow

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 Table 1 Recirculation ratio divided by the design value „F / F0…
for different diffuser spread angles.
Test case Diffuser angles F / F0
1 1°–3°–4° 0.797
2 3° 0.896
3 3°–4° 0.996
4 3°–5° 1.000
Furthermore raising the pressure, the effect of the temperature
becomes stronger. It has been calculated that at ambient pressure
with T2 / T1 = 1.85, the drop of recirculated mass was 6.5% while at
2.5 bar it grows up to 9.7%. Then in Fluent the simulations have
been conducted with adiabatic walls and the recirculated mass
increased of 5%. This was confirmed by comparing the simplified
results with the experimental data 共Fig. 21兲.
Influence of Manufacturing Tolerances on the Perfor-
mance
A further study has been conducted on the effect of manufac-
turing tolerances on the ejector performance. The following cases
have been investigated.
• Nozzle position: if the nozzle is shifted horizontally up to
±5% its diameter, the drop in performance is negligible,
while if it is higher the effect becomes stronger. If the nozzle
is mounted with an offset distance to the axis of ±1 % – 3%
of its diameter, no influence has been detected, but only
distortion of the flow 共Fig. 20兲. When the nozzle is angled
with respect to the ejector axis, the recirculation ratio is
affected only if the nozzle axis is directed toward the mixing
duct walls 共impinging them兲. If it is directed in the diffuser,
no change in performance has been observed.
• Nozzle diameter: if the diameter is slightly different to the
nominal one the recirculation can change 共Fig. 22兲. When it
is smaller, then the ratio D2 / D1 increases and then F grows
up.
• Mixing duct length: the length of the mixing duct, as previ-
ously mentioned, is very important. Changes in length act
on F already when the tolerance falls in the range of ±3%.
• Spread angle: a change of 4% of the spread angle causes
strong variations in performance. A suggested tolerance is
±1 % – 2%.
Conclusions
This work has been carried out at the TPG-University of Genoa,
in order to improve the ejector performance design when these
components are applied inside high temperature fuel cell hybrid
systems, validating the theoretical design activity 关10–12兴 with
Fig. 22 The effect of the nozzle diameter tolerance
290 / Vol. 3, AUGUST 2006
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Fig. 21 Recirculation ratio decrease with heat transfer be-
tween flows
experimental tests. The main steps, presented here, to design and
analyze high performance ejectors are as follows:
• A theoretical activity, carried out with a simplified model, to
define a preliminary ejector geometry.
• The experimental tests with an original test rig, developed at
TPG, to investigate the main phenomena of the component
and to validate the theoretical models. In this way a prelimi-
nary ejector has been tested at both atmospheric and pres-
surized conditions and at both ambient and high temperature
secondary flow.
• The geometry improvement, in terms of primary nozzle,
mixing chamber, and diffuser, carried out with CFD multi-
dimensional models, previously validated with the experi-
mental rig data. These models have also been used to better
investigate the effects in ejector performance due to heat
exchange and manufacturing tolerances.
It is important to underline that the ejectors developed with this
experimental and theoretical support are currently running in the
experimental plant called “Tier rig” at Rolls-Royce Fuel Cell Sys-
tems Ltd 关7兴.
Acknowledgment
This work has been partially funded by the PIP-SOFC Euro-
pean contract 共NNE5-2001-00791兲 coordinated by Rolls-Royce
Fuel Cell Systems Ltd and by the MIUR-PRIN-2003 contract,
coordinated by A. Bosio. Furthermore, the authors would like to
thank P. Butler and M. Bozzolo from Rolls-Royce Fuel Cell Sys-
tems Ltd, for their scientific and personal support, and Dr. Gerry
Agnew VP Engineering at RRFCS for continuous support to TPG
at Genoa University.
Transactions of the ASME
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0 ⫽ on design Load Performance of a Hybrid System Based on a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
1 ⫽ primary duct outlet Reactor and a Micro Gas Turbine,” J. Power Sources 96, pp. 352–368.
2 ⫽ secondary duct outlet 关14兴 PIP-SOFC European Project NNE5-2001-00791, Technical Meeting, Genoa,
May 2004.
3 ⫽ diffuser inlet 关15兴 Ferrari, M. L., 2003, “Dynamic Model of the Anodic Side Recirculation of
4 ⫽ diffuser outlet Solid Oxide Fuel Cells in Hybrid Systems,” Master thesis degree, University
av ⫽ average of Genoa 共in Italian兲.
f ⫽ friction 关16兴 PIP-SOFC European Project NNE5-2001-00791, Technical Meeting Report,
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