UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN

CENTRE FOR FOUNDATION STUDIES

FHSC1024
THERMODYNAMICS AND
ELECTROMAGNETISM

LABORATORY MANUAL

FOUNDATION IN SCIENCE (P)

TRIMESTER 2 & 3
 UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN
CENTRE FOR FOUNDATION STUDIES
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES

The following rules must be obeyed by all students in the science laboratory of the faculty. Willful or
repeated inadvertent noncompliance may result in dismissal or suspension from the laboratories.

I. No entry without permission:

i) Outsiders are not allowed to enter the laboratory without permission.
ii) Visitor must request for a lab coat from the laboratory officer before enter to the laboratory.
iii) No student is allowed to enter the laboratory unless permission has been given by
laboratory officer or lecturer.
II. At work in the laboratory:
i) No experiment may be attempted without the knowledge and permission of lecturer or lab
officer.
ii) Laboratory coat must be worn at all times in the laboratory.
iii) Students must wear covered shoes in the laboratory. Students wearing open toes shoes such
as slippers or sandals are not allowed to work in the laboratory.
iv) Safety glasses must be worn when necessary.
v) Mobile phones are to be switched off at all times in the laboratory.
vi) Do not smoke, drink, eat, bite nails or pencils, or apply cosmetics in the laboratory.
vii) Do not pipette chemicals with mouth.
viii) Do not taste any chemicals, including diluted solutions. If any acid or alkali accidentally
enters your eyes or mouth, wash immediately with plenty of water. Inform your lecturer or
laboratory staff, and seek medical attention if necessary.
ix) Any accident must report to the lecturer or lab officer immediately.
x) Paper should never be used to light up the Bunsen burners.
xi) Used match sticks, filter papers, and other solid waste must never be thrown into the sinks.
They must be thrown into the dustbins provided. Lighted match sticks and smoldering
materials must be extinguished with tap water before thrown into the dustbins.
xii) Students must take responsibility for apparatus and equipment under their charge in the
laboratory.

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 xiii) Any glassware breakages, apparatus lost and equipment damages or malfunctioning must
be reported to the laboratory officer.
III. Before leaving the laboratory:
i) Ensure all the equipments and working benches used are thoroughly cleaned and dried.
ii) Wash hands and arms with soap and water before leaving the laboratory.
iii) All stools must be kept under the benches.
iv) No student is allowed to take away any chemicals, equipment or other property of the
laboratory without permission.

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Introduction
1. Making measurements

Physics is a field of science, which is quantitative in nature. In any quantitative study,

measurements are made and these measurements should always be regarded as estimations.
The precision of the final result of an experiment cannot be better than the precision of the
measurement made during the experiment, so the aim of the experiment is to make estimations
as good as possible. Therefore, measurement should be repeated at least once to increase its
precision and accuracy.

There are many factors that contribute to the accuracy of a measurement. The accuracy
in a particular experiment may be due to the observer, or to the instrument used, or to a
combination of both.

Errors have a special meaning in science. Errors have a different meaning from
mistakes where errors cannot be avoided in measurements. Students doing experiments MUST
record the uncertainties and errors in their measurement. Students MUST take errors and
uncertainties into account when calculating and presenting their results in laboratory reports.

2. Scrutinize and inscribe the readings

(i) Vernier caliper

Parts of a vernier caliper:

1. Outside jaws: used to measure external lengths

2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal lengths
3. Depth probe: used to measure depths
4. Main scale (cm)
5. Main scale (inch)
6. Vernier (cm)
7. Vernier (inch)
8. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring a
measurement

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 Both the main scale and the vernier scale readings are taken into account while making
measurement. The main scale is the first reading on the main scale immediately to the left of
the zero of the vernier scale while the vernier scale reading is mark on the vernier scale which
exactly coincides or aligns with a mark on the main scale.

Example:

2.4 cm + 0.07 cm =
2.47 cm

(ii) Micrometer screw gauge

In order to measure an object, the object is placed between the anvil and spindle (jaws).
The thimble is rotated using the ratchet until the object is lightly gripped. DO NOT
OVER TIGHTEN! Note that the ratchet (NOT THE THIMBLE) should be used to
secure the object firmly between the jaws, otherwise the instrument could be damaged or
give an inconsistent reading. It is recommended 3 ‘click’s of the ratchet are obtained before
taking the reading.

Procedure on how to read the scale on micrometer screw gauge is shown in the figure below.

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3. Data and error analysis

Performing the experiment and collecting data is only the beginning of the process of
completing an experiment in science. Understanding the results of any given experiment is
always the central goal of the experiment. Presenting those results in a clear concise manner
completes the experiment. This overview of the complete process is as valid in an instructional
laboratory course as in a research environment. You will not have learned any physics if you
did not understand the experiment.

Data analysis should not be delayed until all of the data is recorded. Try to do a quick
analysis and plot as the data is being collected. This will help to avoid the problem of spending
a long time collecting bad data because of a mistake in experimental procedure or an
equipment failure.

Data analysis means understanding what your results mean. When you analyze the data,
try to think through the physical processes which have occurred. Write your train of thought
down. Ultimately, the goal is for you to understand physics and the world a bit better. Your
understanding of your results probably occurs in stages, with each stage being a refinement.

Sometimes your results will not support and may even contradict the physical
explanations suggested. Accept the results but with a few suggestions to the reasons for this
apparent failure of the physical laws. Do NOT simply blame the equipments. Try to explain
what went wrong or what competing effects have come into play.

The quality of the data, determines to a great extent, what conclusions can be reached
from them. If you are looking for a small effect, say a total change of 1 mm, and the
uncertainties in your data is 2 mm then you really cannot make any solid conclusion. A
measurement of experimental results is of little value if nothing is known about the probable
size of its error.

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 The quality of a measurement depends on the precision and accuracy of the
measurement. A good measurement must be close to the “true value” and be reproducible.

(i) Quantifying the uncertainty

All measurements have uncertainties or errors. The uncertainty given in any

measurement indicates the type of instrument used for the measurement as well as the possible
range of value measured. Basically, for analogue measuring instruments, except for vernier
caliper and micrometer screw gauge, the uncertainty is half of the smallest division of the scale.
For digital instruments, the uncertainty is given by the smallest different in the reading.

(ii) Error propagation rules

 The Absolute Error of a quantity Z is given by σ(Z), always  0.

 Z 
 The Relative Error of a quantity Z is given by , always  0.
Z

 To determine the error in a quantity Z that is the sum of other quantities, add the
absolute errors of those quantities (Rules 2 below). To determine the error in a quantity
Z that is the product of other quantities, add the relative errors of those quantities
(Rules 3, 4, 5 below).

Relation Error
1. Z = cA  Z   c   A (Use only is A is a single term, i.e. Z = 3x)
2. Z=ABC Z    A  B  C   ...
 ······
3. Z=ABC   A B  C  
Z       ... Z
 ······  A B C 
4. AB   A B  C  
Z Z       ... Z
C  A B C 
5. Z  Ax B yC z   A B  C  
Z    x  y z  ... Z
 A B C 

 a, b, c, ..., z represent constants.

 A, B, C, ..., Z represent measured or calculated quantities
 σ(A), σ(B), σ(C), …, σ(Z) represent the errors in A, B, C, ..., Z respectively.

(iii) Percentage error and percentage difference

In several of the laboratory exercises, the true value of the quantity being measured will
be considered to be known. In those cases, the accuracy of the experiment will be determined
by comparing the experimental result with the known value. Normally this will be done by
calculating the percentage error of your measurement compared to the given known value. If

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E stands for the experimental value, and K stands for the known value, then the percentage
error is given by

EK
Percentage error  100 %
K

In other cases we will measure a given quantity by two different methods. There will
then be two different experimental values, E1 and E2, but the true value may not be known. For
this case, we will calculate the percentage difference between the two experimental values.
Note that this tells nothing about the accuracy of the experiment, but will be a measure of the
precision. The percentage difference between the two measurements is defined as

E2  E1
Percentage difference  100 %
E1  E2 2

4. Graphical representation and analysis of uncertainties in slopes and intercepts

In the physical sciences, it is helpful to represent data in the form of a graph when
interpreting the overall trend of the data. Data analysis graphs are useful to determine the
relationships exist between various quantities, how the data is distributed, and so forth, which
may be hard to figure out merely by speculating the tabulated values only.

There are a few essential aspects when plotting a graph:

 Choice of scale
Choose a scale for each of the axes with the main divisions on the graph paper that are
easily subdivided and such that the entire range of values may be in included. If the values to
be plotted are exceptionally large or small, use some multiplying factor that permits using a
maximum of two or three digits to indicate the value of the main division.

 Label the title, and naming the abscissa scale (X-axis) and the ordinate scale (Y-
axis)
After you have decided which variable is to be plotted on which axis, neatly letter the
name of the quantity being plotted together with the proper unit. Abbreviate units in standard
form, e.g. meters (m). Students should always ensure that the correct units are used in the
experimental work.

(i) Plotting and drawing the graph the “best-fit” line

In drawing the graph, it is not always possible to make all the points lie on a smooth
curve. In such cases, a smooth curve should be drawn through the series of points to follow the
general trend and thus represent an average.

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 Before plotting a linear graph, it’s important to determine the centroid point of the
data set. Centroid is the point, which shows the mean of X-values and Y-values. The function
of centroid is to reduce the effect of data scattering.

   X  X 2  ...  X N Y1  Y2  ...  YN 
Centroid, x , y   1 , 
 N N 
Add centroid point to linear graph and circle the centroid so as to differentiate it from
other points. Then, draw the best straight line which must pass through the centroid.

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Table of Content:

Practical Topic

1 Heat Transfer

2 Temperature and Heat

3 Gas Laws

4 Electric Circuit 1

5 Resistance

6 Electric Circuit 2

7 Electric Circuit 3

8 Capacitance

9 Magnetism 1

10 Magnetism 2

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Practical 1: Heat Transfer
________________________________________________________________________

Objective:
To determine the thermal conductivity of glass

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Boiling tube/ test tube
2. Ice bath
3. Thermometer
4. Beaker
5. Stop watch
6. Vernier caliper
7. Glass rod
8. Boling tube holder

Setup:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1-1.
2. The test tube contains warm water.
3. The ice bath contains ice and water.
4. The level of warm water should be about 1cm below the ice water.
5. Heat energy will transfer from warm water to the ice water through the glass wall of the
test tube.

Figure 1-1

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Procedures:
1. Pour warm water, about 70 0 C, into the test tube.
2. Place the test tube into the ice bath.
3. The temperature of the warm water will fall.
4. When the temperature of the water reaches 50 ºC, start the stop watch.
5. Record the temperature T and time t of the warm water as it is cooling down. Take the
readings until the temperature reaches 10 ºC.
6. Measure the internal diameter p and external diameter q of the test tube.
7. Tabulate: T, t, ln T.

Theory:
Theory suggests that:

T  kt
ln  o  
 T  pq  p 
Where:

To = the temperature of water in test tube at time t = 0

 = constant = 5.04 x10 5 Jm 3 ºC 1
p = internal diameter of test tube
q = external diameter of test tube
k = thermal conductivity of glass

Therefore:
kt
ln To  ln T 
pq  p 

kt
ln T  ln To 
pq  p 

Data analysis:
1. Plot a graph of ln T against t.
2. Determine the gradient of the graph.
3. Calculate the thermal conductivity of glass, k.

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Practical 2: Temperature and Heat
________________________________________________________________________

Objective:
To determine the specific heat capacity of water by electrical method

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Joule calorimeter
2. Thermometer
3. Multimeter
4. Switch
5. Power supply
6. Connecting wires
7. Stopwatch
8. Water

Setup:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 2-1.
2. The heating coil is to put in the water.
3. When the heater is on, the electrical energy will convert to heat energy, the heat energy
will be absorbed by the water.
4. If we assume no heat loss to elsewhere, the electrical energy produced will be equal to
the heat energy absorbed by the water.

6V

Joule
Calorimeter

Figure 2-1

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Theory:
Let:
m = mass of the water in the container
T = the rise in temperature of the water
c = the specific heat capacity of the water
V = voltage across the coil
I = current through the coil
t = time interval for current flow
T1 = initial temperature of the water
T2 = final maximum temperature of the water
∆T = T2 - T1

Electrical energy produced by the coil = V I t

Heat energy absorbed by the water = m c ∆T

m c ∆T = V I t

Procedures:
1. Measure the mass of the empty container.
2. Fill the container half full of water.
3. Measure the mass of the container with water.
4. Calculate the mass of water, m, in the container.
5. Place the container into the insulating unit.
6. Measure the initial temperature, T1 of the water in the container.
7. Immerse the heating coil into the water.
8. Switch on the power supply and the stop watch at the same time.
9. Record the temperature every 30 seconds.
10. Switch off the power supply after 6 minutes.
11. Record the final maximum temperature, T2.
12. Using the readings obtained, calculate the specific heat capacity of water.

Further questions:
1. What is the standard value for the specific heat capacity of water?
2. Do you think that your calculated value should be higher or lower than the standard
value? Why?
3. Propose a method to account for heat lost in the experiment.

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Practical 3: Gas Laws
________________________________________________________________________

Objective:
 To determine the coefficient of volume expansion of air in a capillary tube

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Beaker
2. Thermometer
3. Stirrer
4. 30 cm ruler
5. Rubber bands
6. Capillary tube with air trapped by a column of indicator
7. Ice cubes
8. Hot plate

Setup:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below:

thermometer

Figure 3-1

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Theory:
According to Charles’s law:
1
For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, it expands by of its original volume at 0 ºC
273
for every increase of temperature by 1 ºC.

If,
Vo = volume of a given gas at 0 ºC
V = volume of the gas at θ °C
∆T = temperature in ºC
β = constant = 3.66 x 10-3 ºC -1

Then:
V = Vo (1+β∆T)
Al = Alo (1+β∆T)
l = lo + lo β∆T

Procedures:
1. Record the length, l of the air column at different temperature, θ in the range of 0ºC < θ
< 100ºC. You can increase the temperature of the water in the big beaker by heating up
the water.

Data analysis:
1. Tabulate ∆T and l .
2. Plot a graph of l against ∆T.
3. Determine the gradient, s, of the graph.
4. Determine the y-intercept, lo.
5. Calculate the value of  .
6. Calculate the percentage errors of lo and .

Further questions:
1. What is β in this experiment?
2. β value is determined during the experiment, which material is it?

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Practical 4: Electric Circuit 1
________________________________________________________________________

Objective:
To determine the total resistance of resistors in series and parallel

Part 1:

Apparatus and Materials:

1. DC power supply
2. Resistors (1/4W): 1.0 kΩ (× 2), 3.0 kΩ
3. Multimeter
4. Rheostat (0-50  )
5. Switch
6. Connecting wires
7. Breadboard

Theory:
Ohm’s law: V= IR

Setup:
1. Refer to the Appendix for the resistor colour code chart and the internal configuration
of a breadboard.
2. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 4-1.
3. Connect the three resistors in series.
4. Use the circuit to study the variation of V and I.
5. V is the reading of the voltmeter, I is the reading of ammeter.

1.0 kΩ 3.0 kΩ 1.0 kΩ

Figure 4-1

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Procedures:
1. Set up the circuit as in Figure 4-1.
2. Connect three (3) resistors in series.
3. Measure and record the readings V and I.
4. Vary the resistance of the rheostat, repeat step [3], to obtain six (6) sets of readings of V
and I.
5. Tabulate: V and I.
6. Plot a graph of V against I.
7. Determine the gradient of the graph.
8. Deduce the total resistance and percentage error of the resistors in the circuit.

Part 2:

Setup:
1. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 4-2.

3.0 kΩ

1.0 kΩ 1.0 kΩ

Figure 4-2

Procedures:
1. Connect three (3) resistors as shown in the circuit.
2. Measure and record the readings V and I.
3. Vary the resistance of the rheostat, repeat step [3], to obtain six (6) sets of readings of V
and I.
4. Tabulate: V and I.
5. Plot a graph of V against I.
6. Determine the gradient of the graph.
7. Deduce the total resistance and percentage error of the resistors in the circuit.

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Appendix:

Resistor Colour Code Chart

Breadboard

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Practical 5: Resistance
________________________________________________________________________

Part 1:

Objective:
 To determine the electrical resistivity of constantan

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Constantan wire - equal length different diameter labeled U, V, W, X, and Y
2. Micrometer screw gauge
3. Power supply
4. Multimeter
5. Connecting wires
6. Switch
7. Meter rule

Setup:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 5-1.

6V

Wire U

Figure 5-1

Theory:
If
d = diameter of the wire
 = resistivity of constantan
l = length of wire
R = resistance of the wire

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The formula which relates R and d is
4l
R
 d²

Procedures:
1. Record the wire U, V, W, X, and Y used in the circuit.
2. Measure the length l and diameter d of each wire.
3. Set up the circuit as in Figure 5-1 using wire U.
4. Close the switch S.
5. Measure and record the current I and the potential difference V.
6. Open the switch.
7. Change for a different wire and repeat steps [2] to [4], until you have six (6) sets of
values of I, V, d, and R (where R = V/I).
1
8. Tabulate: wire label, d, V, I, R, d² and .
d²
1
9. Plot a graph of R against .
d²
10. Determine the gradient of the graph.
11. Determine the value for  from the gradient; include an appropriate unit for your value.

Further questions:
1. Explain the electrical resistance and electrical resistivity of a metal wire in a circuit.
2. Does the electrical resistivity  of a wire depend on its length or diameter?

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Part 2:

Objective:
 To determine the diameter of constantan wire in Meter Bridge.

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Meter bridge
2. Power supply
3. Ammeter
4. Voltmeter
5. Connecting wires
6. Switch

Setup:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 5-2.

6V

Wire U’

Figure 5-2

Theory:
If
d = diameter of the wire
 = resistivity of constantan
l = length of wire
R = resistance of the wire

The formula which relates R and d is

4l
R
 d²

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Procedures:
1. Set up the circuit as in Figure 5-2 using a single wire.
2. Close the switch S.
3. Record the arbitrary length l used by positioning the jockey on the wire.
(*do not contact for long period of time)
4. Record the current I and the potential difference V as reflected on ammeter and
voltmeter.
5. Repeat steps [2] to [4], until six (6) sets of values of l, I, V, and R are obtained.
(R is calculated by Ohm’s law, R = V/I)
6. Tabulate: l, V, I, R.
7. Plot a graph of R against l.
8. Determine the gradient of the graph.
9. Without using a micrometer screw gauge, determine the diameter of constantan wires
used in the above experiment. The electrical resistivity of constantan at room
temperature is 4.9 x 10-7 Ωm.

Further questions:
1. Explain why the jockey must not contact the wire for a long period of time.
2. Therefore, state and explain the varying factors of the electrical resistance of a material.

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Practical 6: Electric Circuits 2

Objective:
To verify the current and voltage in series and parallel circuits

Apparatus and Materials:

DC power supply
Multimeter
Resistors (1/4W): 1.0 kΩ, 3.3 kΩ, 4.7 kΩ, 5.6 kΩ
Breadboard

Setup:

A B C

1.0 k 5.6 k
V = 5.0 V
3.3 k 4.7 k

F E D

Figure 6-1

Theory:

Ohm’s Law: Voltage = Current × Resistance or V = I × R

Series resistance: RTotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + …..

1 1 1 1
Parallel resistance:     ........
RTotal R1 R 2 R 3

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Procedures:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 6-1.

2. Remove the power supply, use an ohmmeter, measure the resistance across points AF.
Record the reading in Table 1.

3. Connect a 5 V supply across points AF. Connect the voltmeter across points AB, BE,
BC and CD to measure the voltage across these points. Record these readings in Table
2. By using Voltage Divider Rule or other appropriate method, complete Table 2.

4. Connect an ammeter to measure the currents. Record the reading of Itotal, IBC, ICD and
IBE in Table 1 and Table 3. Also, calculate Itotal, IBC, ICD and IBE by using Current
Divider Rule or other appropriate method, complete Table 1 and Table 3.

Results:

Measurement Calculation
VAF (V) 5V
I total (mA)
Rtotal (Ω)

Table 1

Measurement Calculation
VAB (V)
VBE (V)
VBC (V)
VCD (V)
Table 2

Measurement Calculation
I total (mA)
IBE (mA)
IBC (mA)
ICD (mA)
Table 3

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Practical 7: Electric Circuits 3

Objective:
To verify Kirchhoff’s Laws

Apparatus and Materials:

DC power supply
Multimeter
Resistors (1/4W): 1.0 kΩ, 1.2 kΩ, 3.0 kΩ
Breadboard

Setup:

A B C
3.0 k 1.0 k

V1 = 8.0 V V2 = 4.0 V
1.2 k

F E D

Figure 7-1

Theory:

Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction is zero.
I=0
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
The algebraic sum of the potential difference in any closed circuit is equal zero.
V=0

Procedure:
1. Measure the e.m.f. of V1 and V2 before connecting the circuit and record the values.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 7-1.
3. With a d.c. ammeter, measure IAB, ICB and IBE. Note the direction of the current and
record the readings in Table 7-1.
4. With a d.c. voltmeter, measure the potential difference (p.d.) across all resistors in the
circuit. Note the polarity or direction of each potential difference values, record the
readings in Table 7-2, Table 7-3 and Table 7-4.

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Results:
Current at junction B:

Current Measured Values (mA)

IAB

ICB

IBE
 I

Table 7-1

e.m.f. and potential difference in loop ABEF:

e.m.f. Value (V) p.d. Value (V)

V1 VAB

VBE
 e.m.f  IR

Table 7-2

e.m.f. and potential difference in loop BCDE:

e.m.f. Value (V) p.d. Value (V)

V2 VBC

VBE
 e.m.f  IR

Table 7-3

e.m.f. and potential difference in loop ABCDEF:

e.m.f. Value (V) p.d. Value (V)

V1 VAB

V2 VBC
 e.m.f  IR

Table 7-4

Further question:
1. By using Kirchhoff’s Laws, calculate current IAB, ICB and IBE.

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Practical 8: Capacitance
________________________________________________________________________

Objective:
 To determine the resistance of a voltmeter through discharging of a capacitor

Apparatus:
1. Capacitor
2. Voltmeter
3. Power supply
4. Switch
5. Stop watch
6. Connecting wires

Setup:
1. Construct the circuit in Figure 8-1.
2. Ensure that the positive terminal of the power supply is joined to the positive terminal
of the capacitor.
3. Initially, switch S should be closed.

Figure 8-1

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Theory:
When the switch is opened, the capacitor will be charged through the resistor RV of the
voltmeter.
The potential difference V across resistor Rv will decrease exponentially with time t.
The formula which relates V and t is
t

CRV
V Vo ℮

Therefore:

t
ln V  ln Vo 
CRV

Procedure:
1. Initially the switch is closed.
2. Record the initial reading Vo of the voltmeter.
3. Open the switch S, and simultaneously start a stop watch.
4. Measure and record values of potential difference V and time t for every 10 seconds
V
until the reading on the voltmeter becomes less than o .
10
5. Tabulate: V, t and ln V.
6. Plot a graph of ln V against t.
7. Determine the gradient of the graph.
8. Use your answer from [7], and the value of capacitance C to determine a value for RV .

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Practical 9: Magnetism 1

Objective:
 To demonstrate the magnetic field lines from various configuration of magnets

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Various bar, horseshoe and ring magnets.
2. Iron filings.
3. Compass.
4. 120 turns and 2400 turns transformer.
5. Power Supply

Theory:

Figure 9-1: Iron filing map of the field lines

of a bar magnet, with two small compasses showing
the direction of the field at two points.

Procedure:

Part 1:
Field maps
1. Shake until iron filings reach an equilibrium distributed.
2. Put a magnet type on top of iron filling.
3. Use a small compass to indicate the field direction at points near a configuration of
magnets.
4. Sketch the pattern of the iron filling and indicate the magnetic field direction.
5. Repeat 1-4 with different shapes of magnet.

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Part 2:
Magnetization by induction
1. Remove the 130 turns and 2400 turns coils from the transformer.
2. Connect Power Supply (max voltage and max current) to the 130 turns copper coil.
Switch on the power supply.
Caution: do not leave the power supply on for too long
3. Use a compass to determine the magnetic field direction produced within the coil.
Observe the directions. Switch off the power supply.
4. Take the metal bar from the transformer, check to make sure it is not magnetic.
5. Place the metal bar inside the hollow centre of the copper coil.
6. Switch on the power supply and observe the magnetic field strength by putting any iron
object near to the metal bar. Switch off the power supply.
7. Repeat 2-6 by using the 2400 turns copper coil.

Analysis:
1. Why are some magnets’ magnetic field lines are easier to observe compare to others?
2. Which of the inductions has the strongest magnetic field? Use the appropriate equation
to explain.
3. Explain why the magnetic strength is stronger when metal bar is placed inside.

Further questions:
1. Is it possible to have a magnet with no poles or odd number of poles? Explain. If
someone handed you a magnet claimed to have no poles, how could you test that it
really is a magnet?

2. What happens to the magnet bar if you separate/cut it into 2 bar pieces?

3. What do electric and magnetic fields have in common? What is different about them?

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Practical 10: Magnetism 2
________________________________________________________________________

Objective:
To demonstrate the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Power supply
2. 2 set of copper primary and secondary coils
3. galvanometer

Setup:

Figure 10-1

Theory:
In 1819, during a lecture demonstration, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted noticed
that the needle of a compass was deflected when placed near a current-carrying wire showing
that electric current created a magnetic field. This led investigators to wonder if a magnetic
field could be used to create electricity. That this is indeed possible was first demonstrated in
1831 by both Joseph Henry in America and Michael Faraday in England. The phenomenon is
known as electromagnetic induction and its mathematical statement is commonly referred to as
Faraday’s law.

In this lab you will investigate how magnetic fields can be used to induce electrical currents in
a solenoid (cylindrical coil of wire). You will make qualitative measurements and then
determine the extent to which your observations confirm Faraday’s law and Lenz' law which
are described in the theory section at the end of the lab.

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Procedures:

Part 1:
Changing current in one solenoid to induce current in a second solenoid.
1. Open the switch to stop the current in the small coil.
2. Place the small copper coil inside the larger copper solenoid.
3. Connect the galvanometer to the larger solenoid. You will be changing the current in
the smaller (“Primary”) coil and observing the effect on the current in the larger
(“Secondary”) coil.
4. Close the switch, sending current through the primary coil, and observe the effect on
the current in the secondary coil by watching the galvanometer. Note the direction of
deflection and estimate the magnitude of largest deflection. (Close and open the switch
several times to make a better estimate.)
5. Leave the switch closed for a moment. What is the deflection of the galvanometer?
6. Open the switch again, noting the effect on the current in the secondary coil.
7. Repeat as needed to verify your observations and to allow all lab partners to observe
and record the results.
8. With the switch open (no current), change the direction of the current in the primary
coil by reversing the leads.
9. Again close and open the switch to start and stop the current, noting the effect on the
current in the secondary coil.
10. Summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your observations

Changing current in one solenoid to induce current in a second solenoid.

Primary (small number of turns coil):____________
Secondary (large number of turns coil):__________
Voltage, V = ________
Current, I = ________

Initial Current Directions Opposite Current Directions

Max Deflection Min Deflection Max Deflection Min Deflection
While Closing
the switch
Current constant

While opening
switch
Table 10.1

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Part 2:
Effect of number of turns of wire in the primary and secondary
1. Continue to use the smaller copper coil as the primary.
2. With the switch open, replace the secondary (larger copper) coil by the red coil with 65
or 130 turns. Close and open the switch and note the effects.
3. With the switch open, change the connections so that the 2400 turn coil is used as the
secondary. Close and open the switch and note the effects.
4. With the switch open (no current), change the direction of the current in the primary
coil by reversing the leads.
5. Again close and open the switch to start and stop the current, noting the effect on the
current in the secondary coil.
6. Summarize your results and draw conclusions about the effect of the number of turns in
the primary or secondary coils.

Effect of numbers of turns in Primary and secondary.

Primary(small number of turns coil):____________
Secondary (large number of turns coil):__________
Voltage, V = ________
Current, I = ________

Initial Current Directions Opposite Current Directions

Max Deflection Min Deflection Max Deflection Min Deflection
While Closing
the switch
Current constant

While opening
switch
Table 10.2

Primary(large number of turns coil):____________

Secondary (small number of turns coil):__________
Voltage, V = ________
Current, I = ________

Initial Current Directions Opposite Current Directions

Max Deflection Min Deflection Max Deflection Min Deflection
While Closing
the switch
Current constant

While opening
switch
Table 10.3

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