90 Days Answer Writing Anthropology - Paper 2

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90 Days UPSC Mains Optional Answer Writing

Initiative
Anthropology – Paper 2
Question and Model Answers from Subject Experts
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11-Dec-2017 – Question 1
Critically examine the contributions of tribal cultures to the development of
Indian Culture.
Model Answer
 A study of various stages of prehistory reveals that the Indian tribal
population has been participating in the dynamics of mainstream social and
cultural evolution from the very beginning.
 It is clear from archeological records that the aboriginal Indian population
was predominantly Tribal and they constituted the basic social matrix of
India
 Later, migration of foreign tribes into mainland India. Migration can alone
account for the complex and diverse racial types within India as there is no
paleontological evidence of substantiating their evolution.
 The IVC is the ingenious work of the Indian tribes.
 Later invasion of Aryan tribes and their amalgamation into Indian society
and establishment of Vedic civilization.
 Later Vedic period and interaction between Aboriginal and Aryan tribes i.e.
Aryanisation of Indian Tribes and Tribalisation of Aryan people.
 Mention of Indian tribes in ancient Indian texts (Panchatantra,
Kathasaritsagara, Vishnu Purana, Harsha Charitra) and epics (Ramayana and
Mahabharata) is a testimony of the fact of their proactive role in the
gradual evolution of Indian society and culture.
 Examples
o Mention of Sabaras or Saoras in Aitreya Brahmana
o Kinnaras and Kiratas in ancient texts
o Ekalavya (Mahabharata) – Bhil tribe
o Mundas and Nagar tribes are said to have fought alongside the
Kauravas at Kurukshetra war.
 Tribal folklore contain anecdotes and legends from Hindu epics like
Ramayana and Mahabharata
 Example: the Gonds consider themselves descendants of Ravana and
Mundas consider themselves descendants of Manu.

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 Thus, tribal people have contributed enormously to the nation’s prehistoric

and historic development and Indian civilization has been enriched with the
dynamic participation of these ancient inhabitants of the sub-continent.

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Discuss the significance of Sohan/Soan culture in Indian Prehistory?
1. Chopper, chopping tools, hand axes, and flake tools were found in this
valley.
2. First existence of this was recognized in 1939 by H. de Terra of Yale
University and T.T. Paterson of Cambridge University
3. They identified series of five terraces on the river Soan.
4. Soan culture is classified into pre-Soan, Early Soan, Late Soan and Evolved
Soan.
5. Pre soan is characterized by the use of big flakes. There were heavily rolled
and blunted pebbles of quartzite. they may have been naturally created as
human workmanship is doubtful.
6. Early soan comprised mostly chopper and chopping tools. They were crude
and unsophisticated. There was the coexistence of people with different
tool technologies.
7. Late soan comprised of levellosian tools. They were lighter and neater but
similar to pre and early soan . There were more flakes, few blades.
8. Evolved soan comprised of Clactonian flakes and some blades. It resembled
Acheulian tradition.
9. Some important places in soan region are Potwar plateau, plateaus, slopes,
rivers, Rajasthan , Gujarat
10. It had glacial climate

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Critically examine Paleoanthroplogical significance of Narmada Man.
Model Answer
1. The first broken skull of homo erectus of its kind in India was discovered by
Dr.Arun sonakia on 5th December 1982 in middle of Narmada valley in
hathnora Madhya Pradesh, and the study revealed that Narmada man was
a homo erectus i.e.archaic man.
2. It is most ancient human remnant so far discovered in India subcontinent.
3. It was discovered in-situ which allow a precise determination of
stratigraphic, palaeontological and cultural context. All attribute to middle
Pleistocene(around 5,00,000 years ago).
4. Narmada man represented the earliest form of homo sapiens.
According to Dr.Anek Ram Sankyan
1. Narmada valley could have been the centre of human evolution and
Narmada man discovery points towards the possibility that the origin of
African and European stone age culture was the Narmada man.
2. Narmada man was different from extinct african homo erectus as well as
from the European Neanderthals and western archaic homo sapiens.
3. Narmada valley with its central location between Asia, Africa and european
land masses could have quite a suitable place for the human origin and
thereafter for easy dispersal across the continents of the old world.
4. Modern man had closest resembling ancestor with Narmada man and there
is a likelihood that modern man had its origin here and migrated elsewhere
from here.
5. Narmada man could not have come from Africa as he was distinct in
features from him.African man had a small head and was nearer to ape
than modern man, Narmada man was pigmy-sized with a large head and
was a much closer version of the modern man.
6. There is no hominid fossil clavicle has so far been reported from Asia except
the one in Narmada valley.
Antiquity of fossils has always been controversial. Some think the Narmada
fossil may belong to the late Homo erectus category. Many believe the
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fossil could be a female. Homo erectus had successfully adapted to

savannah grasslands. They had domesticated fire, did group hunting and
used stone tools.

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“Ethnoarchaeology is the strategic gathering and studying of ethnographic data
on human behavior and its ramifications by archaeologists” Critically Examine.
Model Answer
Archaeologists study past societies primarly through their material remains like
buildings, tools, artefacts and constitute a material culture from former societies.
But, the problem is how to interpret the material culture in human terms. At this
juncture, Archaeology works overlap with ethnography. So, Archaeologists to deal
with this problem have developed new concept Ethno- Archaeology. Ethno
Archaeology, similar to Ethnography but with the specific purpose of
understanding how such societies use material culture.
Ethno-Archaeology can be defined as “the study of contemporary cultures with a
view to understanding the behavioural relationships which underline the
production of material culture.” Ethno-Archaeology was one of the most
significant recent developments in the Anthropological discipline.
The significance of Ethno-Archaeology-:
 Archaeology record can only be understood, if we know how it came &
how it formed. Formation process is now a major focus of study. Ethno-
Archaeology, improve in understanding the Archaeological record.
 Eg: Study of Butchery practices among the Eskimo of Alaska undertaken by
Lewis Binford, provided him new ideas of how Archaeology have been
formed.
 Ethno-Archaeology emphasises more on explanation. Explaining how the
Archaeological record was formed & what excavated structure & artefacts
might mean in terms of human behaviour. Ethno-Archaeology was nothing
new, as Anthropologists had already studied the American Indians &
Australian Aborigines since the 19th century. But, the Archaelogical focus
was the new one.
 Ethno-Archaeology is an indirect approach to understanding any past
society.
 Ethno-Archaeology evidence focuses on both general & specific questions.

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Critically examine the factors responsible for the high population growth in
India and suggest suitable measures for Population Control.
Model Answer
Excess of Birth rate over death rate – Death rate has been declining in India at a
greater rate as compared to the reduction in Birth rate resulting in a net addition
of population. The decrease in death rate can be attributed to :
 Advancement in medical science thereby reducing deaths due to diseases
like malaria, dengue, TB, Cholera, plague, smallpox, etc
 Improved communication network resulting in greater access to
populations to medical facilities,
 Reduction/elimination of famines due to better management of food
supplies eg: buffer stocks, advancements in agriculture, green revolution,
etc,
 Child marriage and Early marriage especially of females.
 Lack of conscious family planning.
 Low literacy rate especially among females. (Female 64.6% ; Male 80.9% ;
overall 73% as per Census 2011).
 Prevalence of largely peaceful conditions with no major events such as war,
conflicts and disasters claiming a large number of lives.
Some measures that can be taken are:
 Literacy of Women and make them an important decision maker in family
planning.
 Awareness about birth control techniques.
 Incentivising small families by local government.
 Improving MMR and CMR.

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Describe Ethnic elements in the Indian Population focusing either on Risley’s or
Guha’s classification.
Herbert Hope Risley was a British ethnographer. In 1890, he attempted the racial
classification of India and conducted the study on the basis of Anthropomorphic
Technique. The published report in 1915 in ‘The Peoples of India‘. Risley classified
Indian population into seven racial types.
 Turko – Iranian Type
 broadhead, medium nose
 fairly tall
 Plentiful hair on the face
 eyes are generally dark
 fair complexion
 Baluchistan Province.
 represented by Baluchis and Afghans.
 Indo – Aryan Type:
 long head
 long nose,
 Fair complexion and have dark coloured eyes
 live in the regions of Rajasthan, Patna, Punjab and the valley of Kashmir
 Scythia – Dravidian Type
 medium to broadhead
 nose is medium
 Fair complexion.
 Scanty hair on the face and body.
 Stature is medium.
 larger heads, flatter faces, higher noses and shorter stature.
 Gujarat and Coorg regions.
 Aryo – Dravidian Type
 long heads with the tendency towards medium
 Skin colour varies from light brown to dark
 Nose is medium but broad

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 shorter and dark nose.

 Uttar-Pradesh, Rajputana, Bihar.
 inter-mixture of male Aryans and female Dravidians.
 broadhead with the tendency towards medium
 Mongolo – Dravidian or Bengali Type
 nose is medium.
 skin colour is dark.
 plentiful facial hair.
 Stature is medium and short sometimes.
 broadheads.
 Mongolian Type:
 broadhead and nose varies from fine to broad
 Stature is short or below medium
 Oblique eyes showing epicanthic fold
 skin colour is dark
 Scanty body with hair on the face
 in and around Assam Nepal and Burma.
 Dravidian Type
 short statured people.
 Long head and Nose is broad
 depression seen at the root of nose
 Skin colour is very dark and dark coloured eyes
 true aborigines of India
 Hair is dark in colour and tends to curl.
 from Ceylon to the Ganges covering whole south-eastern India
Guha presented his classification based on scientific criteria.His classification is

based on the anthropometric survey conducted as part of 1931 census. Because
of his scientific approach, it is most accepted classification.
1. Negrito – kadars, nagas. Contemporary of negroid stock.
2. Proto-Australoid-Munda, ho. Posses features of aboriginal tribes of Australia.
3. Mongoloid .
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He subdivided it into
A. Palaeo-long and broad headed.
1. Tibeto mongoloid – long and flat face.
4.Mediterranean-divided into three-
B. Palaeo- Nayars of Kerala.
1. Mediterranean-Nambhudri Brahmi of cochin.
C. C.Oriental-Baniyas of Rajputana.
5.Western brachycephals-subdivided into three.
A. Alpinoid-kayasta of Bengal.
B. Dinaric -Coorgs.
C. Armenoid-Bengali vaidyas.
6.Nordic-patans across central india.

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Write a note on Purusharthas (2007)(10marks 150 words)
Model Answer
“The theory of Purusharthas concern themselves with the understanding,
justification, management and conduct of affairs of the individual’s life in relation
to the group in and through the Ashramas”. We speak of those Purusharthas as
the psychomoral bases of the Ashrama theory.
Because on the one hand, the individual receives a psychological training through
the Ashramas in terms of lessons in the use and management of the
Purusharthas, while on the other hand, in actual practice, he has to deal with
society in accordance with these lessons.”
There are four Purusharthas or aims of life namely Dharma., Artha, Kama and
Moksha.
1. Dharma is so called because it protects all. Dharma preserves all that is
created. Dharma, then, is surely that principle which is capable of
preserving the universe. Dharma is for the welfare of mankind. It protects
and preserves all human beings.
2. Artha means the economic and the material aspects of life. According to
Zimmer, “it includes the whole range of tangible objects that can be
possessed, enjoyed and lost and which are required in daily life for the
upkeep of a household, raising of a family income and discharge of religious
duties.”
3. The Kama refers to the basic impulses and desires of man and it may also
be used in a broader sense to include the motivation of man which is
socially acquired. Hence, due importance is also given on Artha and Kama.
These, when pursued in accordance with Dharma are the right functions of
a man.
4. “Moksha represents the end of life, the realization of an inner spirituality in
man. Some thinkers believe that Moksha is the most important Purusartha
and remaining three are only means while Moksha is ending in itself.”

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Discuss the relevance of the concept of Dominant Caste in the context of
Contemporary Indian Society. (15Marks – 2011)(250 Words)
Model Answer
Write few lines in the introduction to Dominant Caste and its features.
1. In Social Field:
The old members of the dominant caste of a particular locality worked as
‘watchdogs of pluralistic culture and value system. They always exercise control
over the different castes not to overtake the traditional occupation of each other.
Anyone who violated the norms of hereditary occupation was severely punished
by them in form of infliction of physical pain, out casting etc.The dominant castes
of a locality ‘set models’ for the majority of the people inhabiting that area.
The people at the lower strata always try to imitate the cultural standards,
ideological viewpoints and behavioural pattern of the dominant castes with a
view to climbing up in the social ladder. This process has been termed as
Sanskritisation by Srinivas.
2. In Economic Filed:
Generally, the member of dominant caste is comparatively more educated and is
engaged in the profitable occupation. Due to their dominant position in Rural
Society, they exploit all the developmental sources in their favour. The real
benefits of developmental sources in their favour. The real benefits of
developmental plans and programmes go to them directly or indirectly. They have
got more opportunities after independence. Srinivas writes, they have started the
bus, lines, rice and flour mills and cloth and other shops, taken up contract work
for the government. In this way, the dominant castes control the rural economy in
various ways and means.
3. In Political Field:
The members of a dominant caste, due to their hereditary role of controlling and
directing the social affairs, are generally more shrewd and intelligent. After the
political independence or our country, many of them have entered into the direct
politics and have made it them profession. Their dominance is felt more in the

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affairs of Village Panchayat. In these bodies, generally, the members of the

dominant caste are elected to different positions and control all the functions of
Village Panchayat.
However, a great deal of change has already been taken place in the formation
and role of dominant castes. Their traditional authority due to ritual purity is
gradually fading away. The fundamental rights of Indian Constitution have
prevented them from exercising any direct control over the members of
lower castes by prohibiting him to take up any job he likes according to his choice.
But nowadays their role is more visible in the field of politics. With the coming of
adult suffrage, the numerical strength has become a significant factor in making a
caste politically important. The growth of materialism also has highlighted the
role of economic factors in determining the dominance of a caste.

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Assess the contribution of Varrier Elwin to Indian anthropology. (15Marks –
2011)(250 Words)
Model Answer
Verrier Elwin was an English self-trained anthropologist, ethnologist and tribal
activist, who began his career in India as a Christian missionary. He was a
controversial figure who first abandoned the clergy, to work with Mahatma
Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, then converted to Hinduism in 1935
after staying a Gandhian ashram, split with the nationalists over what he felt was
an overhasty process of transformation and assimilation for the tribals.
Elwin is best known for his early work with the Baigas and Gonds of central India,
and he married a member of one of the communities he studied there, though he
also worked on the tribals of several North East Indian states especially North-
East Frontier Agency (NEFA) and settled in Shillong later in life, apart from Orissa
and Madhya Pradesh
In time he became an authority on Indian tribal lifestyle and culture, particularly
on the Gondi people. He also served as the Deputy Director of the
Anthropological Survey of India upon its formation in 1945. Post-independence he
took up Indian citizenship. Nehru appointed him as an adviser on tribal affairs for
north-eastern India, and later he was Anthropological Adviser to the Government
of NEFA (now Arunachal Pradesh).
His autobiography, The Tribal World of Verrier Elwin won him the 1965 Sahitya
Akademi Award in English Language, given by the Sahitya Akademi, India’s
National Academy of Letters. Elwin’s ideas and research had an overwhelming
influence on Nehru’s vision and policies on India’s tribes. Elwin gave up his
commitment to proselytize and dedicated his life to research and to help preserve
tribal life and culture. In his later writings, Elwin took care to stress that he was
not against assimilating tribals into the mainstream. He only wanted such
assimilation to occur at a pace, and on terms, that suited the tribals. Elwin’s critics
say he was an anti-modern romantic whose influence on policy further
marginalized tribals. Elwin’s admirers argue that without him, tribals would have
suffered an even worse fate. While his legacy is contentious, the ideas Elwin

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engaged with continue to be relevant. In 2014, the first train service to Arunachal
Pradesh was suspended after protests by locals, who fear that the unchecked
entry of “outsiders” could destroy the delicate social and ecological balance of
their state. Elwin echoed these fears more than half a century ago.

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Discuss the concept of Tribe-Caste Continuum (15 marks-250words) (2008)
Model Answer
Anthropologists have differed on the question relating to tribe and caste.
According to Ghurye tribal people are backward Hindus differing only in degrees
from the other segments of Hindu society.Elwin argued for the recognition of
separate social and cultural identity of tribal people. The government of
India gives tacit recognition to this identity of keeping alive under constitution
sanction their lists of Scheduled Tribe.
According to Andre Beteille, there are certain commonly observed differences
between tribes and castes. The tribes are relatively isolated as to the castes.They
are a world within itself having few externalities. Tribes speak a variety of dialects
which separates them from non-tribes. They follow their own religion and
practices which are not common in Hinduism. Language is a criterion of difference
as tribes speak their local dialect, for example, Mundas and Oraons of Chota
Nagpur speak different dialects but Bhumij has lost their tribal dialect and speak
the dominant language of the area.
According to N.K Bose, there are many similarities in customs between tribes and
castes and they are interdependent. Marriage within the clan is forbidden both in
the tribe as well as in the caste. Both generally don’t encourage marriage outside
the group.
According to Herbert Risley, the convention of endogamy is not rigidly enforced in
the tribe whereas such is the case in a tribe. But this view is not acceptable since
the law of endogamy is enforced with extreme rigidity in some tribes.
Max Weber writes in Social Structure that when an Indian tribe loses its territorial
significance it assumes the form of an Indian caste. In this way, a tribe is a local
group whereas caste is a social group.
According to D.N Majumdar, the tribe looks upon Hindu ritualism as foreign and
extra-religious even though indulging in it and the in the worship of God and
Goddess whereas in the caste these are the necessary part of the religion. In caste
individuals generally, pursue their own definite occupations because functions are

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divided under the caste system. In the tribe, individuals can indulge in whatever
profession they prefer as there is no fixed relation between them and occupation.
According to Bailey tribe and caste should be viewed as the continuum. He seeks
to make the distinction not in terms of the totality of behaviour but in more
limited way in relation to the political-economic system. Briefly, Bailey’s argument
is that a caste society is hierarchical while a tribal society is segmentary
and egalitarian. But in contemporary India both caste and tribe are being merged
into a different system which is neither one nor the other.

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Examine Nature-man-spirit complex as an ecological concept.(15Marks –
2013)(250Words)
Model Answer
The concept of Nature-Man-Spirit complex was put forth by L.P Vidyarthi in his
book The Maler: A Study in Nature-Man-Spirit Complex in which he describes the
culture of a hill tribe the Maler in terms of this complex where the three
ingredients of the complex are interdependent and mutually complementary. It is
based on the fact that arising out of man’s close interaction with and dependence
on nature is his belief in the supernatural and the spirit world.
It has been found that in tribal India there is an intimate relationship and
interaction between social organizations on the one hand and religious complex
and ecological conditions on the other hand. In certain circumstances, it appears
that nature and spirit condition some of the social ways and practices while in
others it sounds as a case of adjustment for the smooth living. At times the
relationship appears unavoidable; its avoidance would cause hardship to the
people. But at other places, the shift in some of the lifestyles has been reported
leading thereby to the easing of severity traditionally defined in nature-man-spirit
complex.
The book was divided into three parts with Nature, Man and Spirit respectively. In
the first part he demonstrates the ecological basis of Maler culture showing the
importance of hills and forests as well as the cultivation around which the entire
Maler life revolved. In the second part dealing with Man he examines the network
of relationships in all its aspects including the structure and organization of the
family, different social institutions and lifecycle of a typical Maler.In the third part
of Spirit, he describes the religious beliefs in supernatural beings, sacred centres,
sacred performances and sacred specialists.
Vidyarthi asserted that Maler culture originated, developed and flourished in the
lap of nature. Forests surround the Malers and mainly exiling it in the context of
its forests can have a comprehensive understanding of this culture. In addition to
providing land for slash-and-burn- cultivation the main source of Maler economy
the forests provide them with food, drink, shelter, medicine etc. He discovered

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that every moment of the Maler life was profoundly influenced by nature on the
one hand and spirit on the other. These two ingredients of the complex play a
paramount role in the life cycle of the Maler people.

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Write a note on Jajmani System (10 marks,150 words, 2007)
Model Answer
The Jajmani system is a peculiarity of Indian villages.The jajmani system is
considered as the backbone of the rural economy and social order.
“The service relations which are governed by a hereditary tenure are called
Jajman-Praja relations”. — N.S. Reddy
“Under this system, each caste group within a village is expected to give certain
standardised services to the families of other castes. Each one works for certain
family or group of families with whom he is hereditary linked.” —Oscar Lewis
Advantages
1. Security of Occupation: Security of occupation is guaranteed in case of
jajmani system. Since this system is hereditary, the Kamin is assured of his
occupation. He knows that if he breaks his family occupation he shall not be
able to earn his livelihood.
2. Economic Security: It provides economic security to Kamins as the jajman
looks after all of their needs. The kamins are assured of their economic
security. In every monetary crisis the jajman helps the Kamins. They extend
all possible help to the Kamins. So there is economic security in the jajmani
system.
3. Close and Intimate Relationship: There is a close and intimate relationship
between the jajman and Kamin. This relationship is not purely economical
but it is sentimental and internal. A spirit of fellow feeling and brotherhood
develops under this system. Both jajman and Kamin know full well each
other’s limitations as well as plus points. So, they try to adjust each other.
Jajmani system is hereditary and permanent, that is why both jajman and
Kamin sympathies for each other. This system creates an atmosphere
conducive to peaceful living and co-operation.
4. Peaceful Living: The cut-throat-competition for work or employment is
almost absent in jajmani system. No jajman goes without service nor any
Kamin goes without food. So this system creates an atmosphere of peaceful
living by creating the spirit of fellow-feeling and co-operation.

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Disadvantages
1. Source of Exploitation: Jajmani system is exploitative. The agricultural
castes, which are invariably upper castes, seek the services of the
occupational castes, which Eire generally lower castes. The exploitation of
lower castes continues under the garb of paternal ties. Like the caste
system, this system has become a source of suppression, exploitation and
discrimination. Oscar Lewis has pointed out in his study of Jajmani system
in Rampur village, whereas in the past it was based on personal
relationship, it has now become an instrument of exploitation of Kamins by
jajmans.
2. Feeling of Superiority and Inferiority: In this system, the Kamins are
considered low whereas the jajmems are placed high. This has resulted in
social inequality and feeling of superiority and inferiority in the minds of
both Jajman and Kamin. Because this system is based on heredity, the
Kamin cannot take other Job or occupation and the advantage of latest
scientific developments to improve his economic condition. This system has
resulted in lowering the economic standard of the Kamins. They are treated
as inferior. They are sometimes exploited and abused by the JaJmans. They
become helpless before the money power of their Jajmans. This is a system
which is based on the sense of high and low.
3. An impediment to Occupational and Social Mobility: Jajmani system has
stood on the way of occupational mobility and resulted in lowering
economic standard of the Kamins. This system is hereditary, so there is no
possibility of changing the occupation. In this way, the system has checked
social mobility. The conditions of the Kamins remain miserable because of
their economic weaknesses.
4. Supported by Caste System: Caste system is the basis of jajmani system. So
this system suffers from all the evils of the caste system. Dr Majumdar
found in his study that the conditions of Kamins are miserable and the
upper castes subject them to great harassment and trouble.
They are ill-treated by the Jajmani. This system leads to widespread
discrimination. There is exploitation and coercion. Dumont has pointed out that
this system has to satisfy all those who enter into jajmani relationships.

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08-Jan-2018 – Question 1
Analyze how the village Studies contributed in understanding the Indian social
system. (2004)(250 words)
Model Answer
Village studies have its own importance. These have enriched the knowledge of
the Indian Society in general and rural India in particular. These have given great
encouragement to the growth of rural society.
After independence, planners in India realised that unless Indian villages were
properly studied, no real progress could be made.
Scholars now began to pay more and more attention to village studies.
(i) Village studies help in planning rural reconstruction.
(ii) Village studies provide useful information to other disciplines.
(iii) Village studies provide useful knowledge about Indian social reality.
1 Village studies help in planning rural reconstruction:
According to M.N. Srinivas, village studies provide detailed information regarding
various aspects of rural life. In these studies, either the holistic nature of the
village communities is discussed or certain specific aspects of rural life are
focused.
The planning commission gave maximum attention to solve the social problems of
rural India by the help of village studies also. From village studies, various aspects
of rural life, for example, the extent of sub-division and fragmentation of
holdings, the nature of rural credit, the conditions of landless labourers etc. are
derived. It helps in planning rural reconstruction.
2 Village studies provide useful information to other disciplines:
The sociologists and social anthropologists collect data Lo study different villages
– its several aspects, its problems etc. The collected data are more accurate,
reliable and unbiased. Hence these are highly useful for other social scientists.
These are raised by economists, political scientists and others. Village studies also
provide the historians with a lot of information about rural social life.

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3 Village studies provide useful knowledge about Indian social reality:

The significance of the village studies is such that sometimes their value may
extend beyond national boundaries. But it is true that an understanding of
different aspects of social reality is highly influenced by the indo-logical literature.
Village studies have assumed sociological and socio-anthropological Importance.
Main Drawbacks of Village Studies in India:
According to S.C. Dube, one should be very critical about their validity and be
aware of their limitations.
He speaks of a few limitations of such studies.
(a) Village studies are not often represented in nature.
(b) Village studies exaggerate the unity and self-sufficiency of the village. Here
unity and solidarity of the village is over-emphasised. It ignores the connecting
links with other units of society,
(c) Village studies are influenced by the alien concepts. Those who undertake
village studies, blindly Imitate western methods, western styles and western
models.
There are also some problems related to village studies in India:
There is a lot of duplication in data collection.
There is no real comprehension about village studies. There is lack of coordination
among the scholars of village studies.
The scholars have tried to study village community in abiotic frame of reference.
They practically ignore a basic reality that Indian village is a synthesized
community.
Most of the village studies are of mechanical nature. These do not add much to
the existing knowledge about villages.
The significance of Village Studies:
Srinivas made the following observations through his field experiences:

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1. Sociologists and anthropologists basically depend on other social scientists

because they rely on first-hand Information with emphasis on micro-detailed in-
depth studies.
2. He distinguished between anthropologists as a field and social worker and the
government officials. Government officials are biased, not very minute in their
observation. They go through erroneous superficial Government Records.
M.N. Srinivas (1955) edited work “India’s villages” contains 17 village studies
conducted by Indian, British and US anthropologists. Among the Contributors are
included M.N. Srinivas, David Mandelbaum, Eric J. Miller, Kathleen Gough,
Mackim Marriott, S.C. Dube and others.
These studies have taken into consideration the totality of the village life.
However, same issues are raised in some of the studies. Some of the contributors
have come out with certain conceptual constructs. The concept of “Dominant
caste” has for the first time appeared in this edited book.

26
Write a note on Sanskritisation (2009)(150Words)
Model Answer
Prof M.N Srinivas introduced the term Sanskritization to Indian Sociology.
The term refers to a process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to
adopt upper caste practices and beliefs to acquire higher status. It indicates a
process of cultural mobility that is taking place in the traditional social system of
India.M.N Srinivas in his study of the Coorg in Karnataka found that lower castes
in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy adopted some customs and
practices of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own which were considered
to be impure by the higher castes.
For example, they gave up meat eating, drinking liquor and animal sacrifice to
their deities. They imitated Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. By this,
they could claim higher positions in the hierarchy of castes within a generation.
The reference group in this process is not always Brahmins but may be the
dominant caste of the locality.
Sanskritization has occurred usually in groups who have enjoyed political and
economic power but were not ranked high in ritual ranking.
According to Yogendra Singh, the process of Sanskritization is an endogenous
source of social change.
Mackim Marriot observes that Sanskritic rites are often added on to non-
Sanskritic rites without replacing them.
Harold Gould writes, often the motive force behind Sanskritisation is not of
cultural imitation per se but an expression of challenge and revolt against the
socio-economic deprivations.

27
Critically examine the concepts of little and Great Traditions for understanding
the Indian Villages. (2008) (250 Words)
Model Answer
The origin of little and great traditions is from Robert Redfield, who conducted his
studies in Mexican communities. It was Redfield who talked about little
community. For him, little community was a village that had smaller size, self-
sufficient and relatively isolated.
Red- field did not mention anything about traditions or great traditions. Singer
and Marriott who were influenced by studies made by Redfield conducted their
intensive study in Indian villages. They elaborated the original model of Redfield
in the light of data generated from India villages. Yogendra Singh has commented
upon the construction of little and great traditions in Indian villages by these two
anthropologists.
The Indian social structure, in a broader way, is stratified into two divisions:
(1) the folks or the unlettered peasantry, and
(2) the elites.
The folks and peasantry follow the little tradition, i.e., the village tradition. The
second division of elites follows the great tradition. The great tradition consists of
the traditions contained in epics, Puranas, Brahmanas and other classical
sanskritic works. The roles and statuses of Sita and Draupadi constitute the parts
of the great tradition. The little tradition, on the other hand, is the local tradition
of great tradition tailored according to the regional and village conditions.
The great tradition is found clearly in twice-born castes, especially, priests, and
ritual leaders of one kind or other. Some of these corporate groups follow the
traits of civilisation and the great tradition. The carriers of little tradition include
folk artists, medicine men, tellers of riddles, proverbs and stories, poets and
dancers, etc.
Little and great traditions help to analyse social change in rural India. The nature
of this change is basically cultural. There is a constant interaction between great

28
tradition and little tradition. The interaction between the two traditions brings
about change in rural society.
Yogendra Singh explains this interaction as below:
Changes in the cultural system follow through the interaction be tween the two
traditions in the orthogenetic or heterogenetic process of individual growth. The
pattern of change, however, is generally from orthogenetic to heterogenetic
forms of differentiation or change in the cultural structure of traditions.
Both Singer and Marriott argue on the strength of data generated from the
villages of their study that the cultural context of social structure at the level of
little tradition in a village witnesses changes. First, there is a change in village
culture due to the internal growth of the village.
In other words, the little tradition witnesses changes due to its own internal
growth. Second, the little tradition also undergoes change due to its contact with
great tradition and other parts of the wider civilisation. “The direction of this
change presumably is from folk or peasant to urban cultural structure and social
organisation.” The great tradition, i.e., the epic tradition also witnesses
universalised pattern of culture resulting from its interaction with the village or
little tradition.

29
Write a note on PESA Act (150 words)
Model Answer
salient Provisions of PESA Act
1. In the Schedule areas, every village will have a Gram Sabha consisting of
persons whose names are included in the electoral rolls for the Panchayats at the
village level.
2. In the schedule areas, there will be a minimum of 50% seat reservation for
Scheduled Tribes (STs) at all the tiers of Panchayats.
3. If the area has different tribal communities, the reservation of different tribal
communities shall be on the basis of proportion to their population.
4. The chairpersons at all levels of the Panchayats in Schedule areas shall be
reserved for STs.
5. If there are no ST members at intermediate or district level Panchayats, the
state government shall nominate such underrepresented STs by a maximum of
one-tenth of the total elected members of the Panchayats.
6. Every legislation on the Panchayats in scheduled area shall be in conformity
with the customary law, social and religious practices and traditional
management practice of the community resources.
Powers and authority of the Gram Sabha and Panchayats in Scheduled areas
Gram Sabha has the power to safeguard and preserve the traditions and customs
of people, their cultural identity, community resources and customary mode of
dispute resolution. It also has the power to approve plans, programmes and
projects for social and economic development, to identify persons as beneficiaries
under the poverty alleviation and other programmes, to give the certificate of
utilisation of funds for various plans and programmes.
If there is an acquisition of land in these areas, Gram Sabha must be consulted.
However, actual planning and implementation of the projects shall be
coordinated at the state level. So, in land acquisition, the role of Panchayats in
these areas is advisory only.
30
The recommendation of the Gram Sabha or the Gram Panchayats is mandatory

for grant of prospecting licence or mining lease for minor minerals in that area.
Gram Sabha has the right to enforce prohibition or to regulate or restrict the sale
and consumption of any intoxicant.
Gram Sabha and Panchayat have right to regulate the :
ownership of minor forest produce;
to prevent alienation of land;
to manage village markets;
to exercise control over money lending;
to exercise control over institutions and functionaries in all social sectors;
to control over local plans and resources for such plans including tribal sub-plans.
Planning and management of minor water bodies shall be entrusted to
panchayats at the appropriate level.

31
Examine the impact of Media on Indian Society with suitable examples (250
words)
Model Answer
Ans :
The impact of mass media in India is very significant and this is clearly apparent
through the rising number of advertisers who are capitalizing on these media
channels to spread their messages. Rural or urban, regardless of caste and
religious boundaries, Indians are glued to television and radio serials.
In Kirk Johnson’s study of a small town two hours away from Mumbai city where
television had just reached, he noted how television upset existing social
structures and created new ones. This essay aims to answer the question it has
put forth above through the examination of the differences in social structures in
India from the past to the present; as well as the differences in forms of
communication and entertainment.
Folk Music, television and cinema will be examined under the category of
communication and entertainment. Communication in India often took on a
musical tone, especially in the communication of religious works or literature.
Poetry and religious texts were often sung. The advent of television, however, has
made this rather obsolete. Similarly, village theatre and dance (nautanki) have
been replaced by cinema and television serials.
Social structures in India have also changed with respect to the caste system as
Johnson’s work shall demonstrate. Owning forms of media and communication
(televisions) has become more a more important symbol of class than caste.
Similarly; village story-telling and word-of-mouth has lost its following and has
thus changed the social structure of things as well.
Caste lines have been blurred in the quest to gain access to information; which in
itself is not a bad thing. Television watching, especially in the rural areas has
become a communal event and it is not uncommon for TV owners to position
their television sets such that they are facing the open door; allowing members of
other caste groups to sit outside the home and enjoy the shows. Similarly, in

32
villages where there is one common, government-provided television set,

members of the village gather around to watch communally. This is especially the
case for religious programs as well as those related to agriculture.
However, such interaction means that traditional social structures have been
destroyed and more people are flocking to the cities that they see on television in
the hopes of achieving the material goods that are telecast. This has resulted
indirectly in an increasing number of unemployed in the cities as well as a growing
number of slums, as these internal migrants are often lowly skilled and unable to
find suitable jobs in the city.
Societies like India’s are being affected by globalization and the western
influences that are a large part of it, but their interest also plays an active role in
fostering it.

33
List Constitiutional Safeguards realted to religious and linguistic minorities
(150words)(10 marks)
Model Answer
The Constitution of India does not define the word ‘Minority’ and only refers to
‘Minorities’ which are ‘based on religion or language’
‘Common Domain’ and ‘Separate Domain’ of rights of minorities provided in the
Constitution
 ‘Common domain’ rights are those which are applicable to all the citizens of
our country.
 ‘Separate domain’ rights are those which are applicable to the minorities
only and these are reserved to protect their identity.
 The Preamble to the Constitution declares the State to be ‘Secular’ and this
is a special relevance for the Religious Minorities.
 Equally relevant for them, especially, is the declaration of the Constitution
in its Preamble that all citizens of India are to be secured ‘liberty of
thought, expression, belief, faith and worship and ‘equality of status and of
opportunity’.
‘Common Domain’ of Minority Rights
1. The Directive Principles of State Policy – Part IV of the Constitution:
 Obligation of the State ‘to endeavour to eliminate inequalities in status,
facilities and opportunities’ amongst individuals and groups of people
residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations. Article 38
(2).
 Obligation of State ‘to promote with special care’ the educational and
economic interests of ‘the weaker sections of the people’ (besides
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes). Article 46.
2. Fundamental Duties – Part IVA of the Constitution:
 Citizens’ duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common
brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious,
linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; and

34
 Citizens’ duty to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite
culture.
3. Fundamental Rights – Part III of the Constitution
 Both the rights common domain and separate domain are being
provided to minorities under Fundamental Rights.
In the ‘common domain’, the following fundamental rights and freedoms are
covered:
 Article 14 – People’s right to ‘equality before the law’ and ‘equal
protection of the laws’
 Article 15 (1) & (2) – Prohibition of discrimination against citizens on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
 Article 15 (4) – Authority of State to make ‘any special provision for the
advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of
citizens’ (besides the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes).
 Article 16(1)&(2) – Citizens’ right to ‘equality of opportunity’ in matters
relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State –
and prohibition in this regard of discrimination on grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex or place of birth
 Article 16(4) – Authority of State to make ‘any provision for the
reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of
citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented
in the services under the State
 Article 25(1) – People’s freedom of conscience and right to freely
profess, practice and propagate religion – subject to public order,
morality and other Fundamental Rights.
 Article 26 – Right of ‘every religious denomination or any section thereof
– subject to public order, morality and health – to establish and
maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes, ‘manage its
own affairs in matters of religion’, and own and acquire movable
immovable property and administer it ‘in accordance with law’.
 Article 27 – Prohibition against compelling any person to pay taxes for
promotion of any particular religion’.

35
 Article 28 – People’s ‘freedom as to attendance at religious instruction

or religious worship in educational institutions’ wholly maintained,
recognized, or aided by the State.
‘Separate Domain’ of Minority Rights:
 Article 25 – Sikh community’s right of ‘wearing and carrying of Kirpans.
 Article 29(1) – Right of ‘any section of the citizens’ to ‘conserve’ its ‘distinct
language, script or culture’.
 Article 29(2) – Restriction on denial of admission to any citizen, to any
educational institution maintained or aided by the State, ‘on grounds only
of religion, race, caste, language or any of them’.
 Article 30(1) – Right of all Religious and Linguistic Minorities to establish
and administer educational institutions of their choice.
 Article 30(2) – Freedom of Minority-managed educational institutions from
discrimination in the matter of receiving aid from the State.
 Article 347 – Special provision relating to the language spoken by a section
of the population of any State.
 Article 350 A – Provision for facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at
primary stage.
 Article 350 B – Provision for a Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities and
his duties

36
Discuss the distinctive features of tribes in North east India. (2011)(250 words)
Model Answer
North-East tribes constitute a major part of Indian tribal community. They are all
scattered over all the states of North East. Arunachal Pradesh consists of around
25 types of tribes. Nagaland has around more than 16 major tribes. Some
examples of prominent tribes are Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Adi, Nyishi, Angami, Bhutia,
Kuki, Rengma, Bodo andDeori. They are scattered throughout the region.
Christian-ism is followed by many of the tribes and some also follow Hinduism
and Buddhism. The rest still have their indigenous beliefs and practise animism.
The Bodo Tribe is a vast tribe and shares a good number of populations in Assam.
The tribal people have also migrated to other parts of India as well as to
neighbouring countries. It’s said that Bodo tribes have introduced rice cultivation,
tea plantation, poultry farming, and silkworm rearing in the North Eastern parts of
India.
Kuki Tribe or the migrant ones can be found all over the northeastern states. The
language of the tribe varies but are all similar in a way, and can broadly be termed
as the Kuki Language. They prefer to live on hilltops. The villages of Kuki tribes are
a cluster of closely constructed houses. The tribe cultivates dwarf cotton and spun
yarns.
Nyishi or Nishi Tribe has originated from the Indo-Mongoloid stock. They are
mainly inhabited in the lower region of the Subansiri district in Arunachal
Pradesh. They are considered a large tribe according to the area and population in
Arunachal Pradesh. Their spoken language is different from the other tribes,
which is a part of the Tibeto-Burman language family.
One of the major tribal communities of Nagaland is the Angami Tribe. This
community is also found in Manipur and has a total population of 12 million. The
tribal community follows Christianity and speaks Tenyidie. They cultivate rice and
grains in the hilly areas.
Bhutia Tribe is the prominent tribal community of Sikkim and have migrated from
Tibet. The residing places for the tribes are the Lachen and Lachung areas of

37
North Sikkim. They speak Bhutia (a dialect of Tibetan language). They are counted
among the most developed tribes and earn their livelihood through agriculture,
government jobs and local business.
Garo Tribe is the second largest tribal community of Meghalaya. They constitute
1/3rd of the total state population and mainly reside in the Garo hills of
Meghalaya, some districts of Assam and West Bengal. Their traditional religion
was Songserak and later was changed to Christianity. These tribes speak the Garo
language. This language is further divided into different sub-languages.
Khasi Tribe is one of the major tribal communities and occupies almost half of the
total population of Meghalaya. They reside in the Khasi and Jaintia hills of
Meghalaya and follow the matriarchal society. Their language is known as Mon-
Khmer which belongs to the Austro-Asiatic Family.

38
Write a short note on Forest rights act of 2006 (2011)(150 words)
Model answer
The legislation was passed in December 2006
It concerns the rights of forest-dwelling communities to land and other resources,
denied to them over decades as a result of the continuance of colonial forest laws
in India.
The Act grants legal recognition to the rights of traditional forest dwelling
communities, partially correcting the injustice caused by the forest laws.
Rights under the Act:
Title rights – i.e. ownership to land that is being farmed by tribals or forest
dwellers subject to a maximum of 4 hectares; ownership is only for land that is
actually being cultivated by the concerned family, meaning that no new lands are
granted.
Use rights – to minor forest produce (also including ownership), to grazing areas,
to pastoralist routes, etc.
Relief and development rights – to rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or
forced displacement; and to basic amenities, subject to restrictions for forest
protection.
Forest management rights – to protect forests and wildlife.
Eligibility:
Eligibility to get rights under the Act is confined to those who “primarily reside in
forests” and who depend on forests and forest land for a livelihood. Further,
either the claimant must be a member of the Scheduled Tribes scheduled in that
area or must have been residing in the forest for 75 years.
The process of recognition of rights:
The Act provides that the gram sabha, or village assembly, will initially pass a
resolution recommending whose rights to which resources should be recognised.
This resolution is then screened and approved at the level of the sub-division (or
39
taluka) and subsequently at the district level. The screening committees consist of
three government officials (Forest, Revenue and Tribal Welfare departments) and
three elected members of the local body at that level. These committees also
hear appeals.

40
Discuss the problem of displaced tribal communities with the help of recent
examples. (2011)
Model Answer
India although having about 8.6 percent of Tribes, they are among the poorest
and most marginalised sections of Indian society and disproportionately represent
the people living below the poverty line, are illiterate and suffer from extremely
poor physical health.
Problems :
 Tribal communities face disregard for their values and culture, breach of
protective legislation, serious material and social deprivation, and
aggressive resource alienation.
 The tribal lands have been acquired by the government and subverted to
accommodate corporate interests which leads to tribals losing their homes.
 Laws and rules which protect them have rarely been followed which is
affecting them by every means.
 Involuntary migration, loss of livelihood is taking place because of illegal
mining and other infrastructure projects.
 Policies for protections and safeguards for their distinct identity has to be
set as enshrined in the constitution.
 Radical changes have to be done to the laws, regulations and rules to
protect tribal communities from land alienation and to ensure their rights
over resources are handed back and protected.
Way forward :
 Tribal land should be protected and also mining in their land should be
done by tribals itself.
 Consent of gram sabhas is required while acquiring forest lands.
 The rights of tribals over many of their common property resources outside
the forest areas has to be recognised.

41
 Strict implementation of the new land law, Forest Rights Act and the
strengthening of the Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act has to
be done.
 The government has to take all these actions and proper implementation of
them is required to make tribals “a part of the system” instead of making
them “apart from our system”.

42
Write a note on Left-wing extremism and tribals in India(150 words)
Model Answer
India attained her independence 65 years ago and despite all efforts has a sizable
portion of her rural population living in poverty. This is particularly predominant
in rural areas which house the major portion of our population. Left Wing politics
has been present in India prior to independence, but resort to violence
commenced with the Naxalbari movement in West Bengal on 24 May 1967. The
rebellion was started by a breakaway group of Communist Party of India (Marxist)
who formed a new party, Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist) under the
leadership of Kanu Sanyal and Charu Mazumdar. The movement was aimed at
redistribution of land to the peasants. The party used violence and this triggered
violent clashes in rural Bengal between the landlords and tillers of the soil. The
Naxalites adored the Chinese leader Mao Zedong and believed in his diktat,
“Power flows from the barrel of a Gun.”
There are primarily two causes for the Left-wing extremism in India. These are
lack of governance and socio-economic issues. In as much as governance is
concerned the most important issue is we lack a Long Term Strategic Perspective.
Development of these regions has been haphazard and does not lend to long-
term benefits. There is no plan of action ipso facto any accountability. Further,
the government has been mistaking industrialisation for development. The tribals
have been denied their constitutional rights and justice has been denied to
them. The Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) operating in these regions
have their own vested interests consequently providing the space for Maoists to
spread their agenda. The next issue is an equitable distribution of land. The
Maoists promise that they would equitably distribute land and this lures the
people to participate in their movement.
With regard to socio-economic issues, education must be the prime intervention
and this needs to be addressed with innovation. The Operation Sadbhavna model
could be innovatively replicated. Once education enters the bloodstream of the
people in this region, they would be discrete with their actions. Most of these
areas lack infrastructure. The Maoist leaders leave no stone unturned to prevent
the development of communications network in the region to ensure that their
43
propagation against the government is easily digested by the people. The next
aspect is demography. India is faced with a youth bulge as per which 70 percent
of our 1.2 billion population are below 35 years and need to be gainfully
employed. It is also pertinent to note that bulk of this population live in the rural
areas and often fall a prey to the call of Maoists in the absence of suitable
employment. It may be noted that being a diverse country there has to be a
separate plan for each region based on the peculiarities.

44
Critically examine Impacts of sanctuaries and national parks on tribal
populations(250 words)
Model answer
In recent years, India has captured international attention for both its high levels
of threatened biodiversity as well as the cultural diversity amongst its people. In
an attempt to preserve the nation’s forests and wildlife, the government has
adopted the international notion that for nature to be conserved, it must remain
pristine and uninhabited by humans.Unfortunately, this ideal has created an array
of difficulties for the indigenous hill tribe people of the country, especially in the
northeastern states.
The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is a strong regulatory statute which restricts
almost all activities inside Protected Areas. These include restrictions on entry to
sanctuary (Section 27), removal of forest products including NTFPs (except for
bonafide self consumption), regulation or prohibition of grazing or movement of
livestock etc. This effectively exiles people living inside the Protected area from
civilization, with restrictions on movement of goods and services. The Protected
areas under the act such as National parks and wildlife sanctuaries threaten local
villager’s traditional livelihoods by tearing them from their homes, denying them
access to previously used resources,and preventing them from acquiring land for
agriculture.
It is not uncommon for this to have even further negative impacts on the villagers’
food stability, health and economy. In addition,government policies based on the
assumption that people are incompatible with wilderness protection have created
a hostile environment in which hill tribes’ relations with park management turn
bitter and mutual cooperation for the environment’s sake is absent.
Other issues with the govt. Such as,
a) Non-recognition of rights over land in Survey and Settlement: This applies
mainly to the practice of shifting cultivation, traditionally practiced by
large number of tribal communities.

45
b) Non-recognition of customary use : Most of the customary uses of the local

inhabitants onforests (including other natural resources like water) have
not been codified or recorded in any record of rights.
c) Lack of up to date and proper settlements of land rights: Most of the
sanctuaries are in the remote tribal areas. In most of these areas, only one
round of Settlements have taken place. The current situation in terms of
land tenure in these areas is highly confused, with a major discrepancy
between formal tenure and informal land use.
For eg., Makdias and Khadias are the nomadic tribes who preferred to live inside
the forest. Following the declaration of Simlipal Tiger Reserve they were assured
of rehabilitation and resettlement, which is still under process even after years.
Current discourse thus emphasizes the need to integrate conservation with
community development by embracing
a) rights-based approaches
b) hill tribe participation
c) co-management of parks
d) economic incentives for the land’s protection.
Though it is undeniable that conservation policies are essential for the survival of
India’s precious biodiversity, protection strategies must incorporate indigenous
rights in order to be successful in the impleme.ntation of conservation of
biodiversity programmes.

46
Discuss Linguistic classification of Indian tribes.(150 words)
Model answer
The tribes of India speak different languages in different regions and groups, and
can broadly be classified into four main linguistic families. These are:
Austro-Asiatic Family:
 Mon-Khmer Branch : Khasi and Nicobari
 Munda Branch : Santhali, Kharwari, Ho, Mundari, Gondi, Kharia,
Savara,Khond, Gadaba, etc.
Tibeto-Chinese Family :
 Siamese-Chinese sub-family:
 Tai group—Khampti, Phakial, etc.
Tibeto-Burman sub-family :
 Tibeto-Himalayan Branch: Bhotias of Darjeeling
 Western sub-group of Pronominalized Himalayan group: Chamba, Lahauli,
Swangli, Kanauri,etc.
 Non-Prominalized Himalayan Group: Rong or Lepcha, Toto, etc.
 Arunachal Branch: Aka or Hrusso, Abot, Miri, Dafla, Mishmi, etc.
Assam-Burmese Branch:
 Bara or Bodo Group: Plains Kachari, Dimasa or (Hill) Kachari, Garo, Tripura,
etc.
Naga Group:
 Naga sub-group: Angami, Ao, Sema, Rengma, etc.
Naga-Bodo sub-group: Kachcha Naga, Kabui Naga, etc.

47
(a) Kachin Group: Singpho

(b) Kuki-Chin Group: Kuki, Paite, Mar, Thadou, Ralte, Lushai, etc
Dravidian Family:
 Dravidian group: Korawa, Yerukala, Yarava, Badaga, Toda, Kota, Kurukh or
Oraon, Malto or Maler, Kui Kandhi or Khond Gondi, etc.
Indo-European Family :
 Hajong, Bhili, etc.

48
05-Feb-2018 – Question 1
How have modern democratic institutions influenced the Indian tribal societies?
Assess. (2008)(250 words)
Model Answer
During the colonial period, the British had made efforts to penetrate into the
tribal areas through the policy of territorial conquest. To this, the tribes reacted
by resorting to armed revolts. This hence forced the British to declare them as
not- regulatory areas and recognized their traditional system of administration.
Later after independence, the founders of the Indian Constitution were deeply
conscious of the miserable conditions of the tribals who were segregated from
the national mainstream. While some believed that completely isolating them
from the rest of the country was required, another sect opted for their total
assimilation into the national mainstream. The third school believed that they
should be integrated into the society, which means that it aims to preserve their
identity.
Main suggestions of the PESA Act
Cognizance has to be taken of the indigenous institutions, leaders, and ethos
while considering democratic decentralization in tribal areas.
Time-honored customary laws; usages and arrangements in tribal areas should be
recognized and allowed to continue. Their harmonization with the modern system
should be attempted.
Panchayat Raj bodies in tribal areas should be made more effective and
participative in the context of foregoing. They have to work for socio-economic
goals for removal of illiteracy, ill health amongst people.
For the attainment of these goals, the flow of adequate funds has to be ensured.
Suitable financial mechanisms should be created for proper utilization of funds.[4]
Major Challenges faced by the Panchayati Raj in Tribal Areas
Poor implementation of the PESA Act: The State Governments have yet not
seriously implemented the Act. They still want to govern the PESA areas through
the central administration and legislations. Thereby actually weakening what the

49
PESA offers the tribal communities. Officials of various departments show no

willingness to relinquish their control of resources. NO respect is there among
them for the tribal lifestyle and culture.
The present system of governance is still largely colonial in nature and the
bureaucracy conditioned on centralized authority has been unable to accept the
radical change brought in by the PESA Act.
Conclusion
Beyond any doubt, Panchayats have been the backbone of the Indian villages
from its very inception. However, as we have seen, it is evident that there is a
poor implementation of the PESA Act, 1996 in the tribal areas. Hence the need of
the hour is the effective implementation of the same towards the development of
tribal areas. Required steps should be taken to ensure that no State Government
officer is given powers to over-rule any recommendation of a Gram Sabha (with
no exception to those in tribal areas).

50
List Constitutional safeguards for SCs(10 marks )(150 words)
Model Answer
Reservation of seats for SC/ST
The Constitution of India provides for reservation of seats for scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes (Dalits) in –
Lok Sabha (Article 330)
State Assemblies {except in autonomous districts of Assam where there is only ST
reservation} (Article 332)
Gram Sabha and Panchayat (Article 243 D)
Municipalities (Article 243T
Fundamental Rights
Art. 15(4) says that government can make special provisions for SC and ST’s in the
name of “positive discrimination”.
Art .17 Abolishes Untouchability
Art .23 Right against exploitation
DPSP
Art. 46 says that educational and economic interests of SCs and STs shall be
protected and promoted.
Article 338- National Commission for Scheduled Castes.

51
Identify the causes and consequences of major tribal movements in India.
(2003)(250 words)
Model Answer
Tribals’ community consciousness is strong. Tribal movements were not only
agrarian but also forest-based. Some revolts were ethnic in nature as these were
directed against zamindars, moneylenders and petty government officials who
were not only their exploiters but aliens too.
When tribals were unable to pay their loan or the interest thereon, money-
lenders and landlords usurped their lands. The tribals thus became tenants on
their own land and sometimes even bonded labourers. The police and the
revenue officers never helped them. On the contrary, they also used the tribals
for personal and government work without any payment.
The courts were not only ignorant of the tribal agrarian system and customs but
also were unaware of the plight of the tribals. All these factors of land alienation,
usurpation, forced labour, minimum wages, and land grabbing compelled many
tribes like Munda, Santhals, Kol, Bhils, Warli, etc., in many regions like Assam,
Orissa, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra to
revolt.
The management of forests also led some tribes to revolt, as forests in some
regions are the main sources of their livelihood. The British government had
introduced certain legislations permitting merchants and contractors to cut the
forests. These rules not only deprived the tribals of several forest products but
also made them victims of harassment by the forest officials. This led tribes in
Andhra Pradesh and some other areas to launch movements.
The important tribes involved in revolt in the nineteenth century were Mizos
(1810), Kols (1795 and 1831), Mundas (1889), Daflas (1875), Khasi and Garo
(1829), Kacharis (1839), Santhals (1853), Muria Gonds (1886), Nagas (1844 and
1879), Bhuiyas (1868) and Kondhas (1817).

52
Write a note on Tribal Sub Plan (150 words)
Model Answer
The TSP approach marked an important change of emphasis from ad hoc and
disjointed efforts to comprehensive, well-knit and integrated programmes for
special development of specific areas.
The TSP strategy involves a single programme of development the financial
aspects, physical planning and administrative considerations of the government,
semi-government and voluntary agencies.
Immediate Objectives of the TSP Strategy:
(i) Elimination of exploitation of tribals
(ii) Socio-economic development
(iii) Bridging the gap in development vis-a-vis other areas
(iv) Improvement of quality of life.
Contents of the TSP :
Identification and demarcation of areas of tribal concentration.
Identification of socio-cultural barriers and promoters of change and
development.
Assessment of potentialities, special problems and felt needs of the tribal areas.
Assessment of resources available for the Tribal Sub-Plan from the normal plan
funds, special central assistance and institutional sources.
Formulation of sectoral programmes.
Devising a suitable administrative set-up.
The TSP proceeded on the basis of the assertion that no development activity
could succeed without elimination of exploitation.
To prevent exploitation of tribals, the TSP sought to introduce the following
measures:

53
1. Integrated credit-cum-marketing.
2. Marketing for agricultural and minor forest produce
3. Supply of inputs and essential consumer commodities
4. Credit for production and for consumption of social needs
5. Redemption of past debts through legislative and executive measures.
The states were asked to prepare Tribal Sub- Plans for areas having more than 50
percent tribal population. Such sub-plans were prepared in respect of 16 states
and 2 union territories during the Fifth Plan period. Nearly, 65 percent of the
tribal population has been covered under the programme.

54
Mention various developmental programmes implemented for the socio
economic well being of STs? Do you think these programmes fulfill their
aspirations? Discuss.(250 words)
Model Answer
Van Bandhu Kalyan Yojana (VKY):
Introduced by the Central government in 2014 as a Central Sector Scheme with an
allocation of Rs. 100 crore.
The Central Government proposes to replicate the intervention with special focus
on
 the qualitative and sustainable employment for tribal families;
 bridging infrastructure gaps with a focus on quality;
 Improving the quality of education and health and improving the quality of
life in tribal areas.
The scheme has been launched on pilot basis in one block each of the (10
Schedule V) States of AP, MP, HP, Telangana, Orissa, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Under the scheme centre will provide Rs. 10 crores for each block (total Rs. 100
crores for 10 blocks) for the development of various facilities for the Tribals.
These blocks have been selected on the recommendations of the concerned
States and have very low literacy rate.
184 Eklavya Model Residential Schools:
To facilitate infrastructure and conducive environment for the provision of quality
education to the tribals, the Government has sanctioned 184 Eklavya Model
Residential Schools.
The holding of this consultation is part of the process of sensitizing the State
Government towards the bigger goal of tribal development at par with a
mainstream fellow population of the country.
MFPNET Portal of TRIFED:

55
The new MFPnet portal of Tribal Co-operative Marketing Development Federation

of India (TRIFED) is designed to act as an adjunct and a catalyst for implementing
the scheme of Minimum Support Price (MSP) for Minor Forest Produce (MFP).
It is a one stop destination for all information needs on MFPs and facilitates
stakeholders in MFP trade and users to take decisions backed by requisite
information. It is a platform to collect and disseminate MFP trade-related
information and latest developments in this field. The information shall be
available commodity wise and state wise for different markets.
The main objective is to ensure a fair price to MFP gatherers who are mainly
tribals, enhance their income level and ensure sustainable harvesting of MFPs.

56
Write a note on ethnicity and Regionalism (150 words)
Model Answer
Ethnicity involves a feeling of consciousness among the members of an ethnic
group of the existence of such shared characteristics. It also involves the process
of mobilization of people along some common point of reference for presenting a
united front to articulate their socio-economic or political interests. Ethnicity,
thus, involves the process of interaction between two or more groups.
Barthes says that the issue of the identification of social boundary is intrinsic to
the concept of ethnicity. Each ethnic group draws a boundary to identify its own
members and to distinguish the “we” group from other ethnic groups.
Geertz avers that ethnicity is based on the primordial ties of blood, race,
language, religion or tradition and such „attachments seem to flow from a sense
of natural affinity than from social interaction‟ .
Some of the critical factors responsible for inflamed ethno regionalism in India
are:
 India is a plural society. It is characterized by a large diversity in its
population with multitudes of castes and several religious, linguistic,
cultural and racial groups living here. Because of intense competition for
scarce economic resources and the heightened consciousness among
people of different groups to preserve their age-old cultures, India has
always been vulnerable to assertions of ethnic identities.
 Lopsided economic development of the country because of which some
groups feel that they have been marginalised and completely left behind in
the process of development. This makes them highly susceptible to the
politics of ethnicity.
 Representative parliamentary democracy in India where different ethnic
groups (castes, religious groups, linguistic groups etc.) compete for political
power by stressing on horizontal solidarity and consolidation of shared
interests.

57
 Increasing politicization of caste and religion. Caste and religious identities

are often whipped up by political leaders to mobilize people for their
vested interests and petty political mileages.
 Fear among minorities (both linguistic and religious) that they might get
assimilated into the dominant culture leading to the dilution of their
cultural heritage. Hence, there is an increasing stress on ethnic identity to
forge horizontal solidarity. Such feelings have also increased because of the
process of globalization and cultural homogenization occurring everywhere.
Cultural globalization is even causing the Intense feeling of alienation
among the tribes of India because of faulty development policies, leading to
forced displacement from their age-old inhabited land and forest, reducing
them to abject poverty and destitute.

58
Using ethnographic examples highlight the processes of religious conversions in
Tribal India. (20Marks – 2012)
Model Answer
About 104 million people in India are members of Scheduled Tribes, which
accounts for 8.6 % of India’s population. Many Indians belonging to these
populations adhere to traditional Indian tribal religions, often syncretised with
one or more of the major religious traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam
and/or Christianity and often under ongoing pressure of cultural assimilation. In
keeping with the nature of Indian religion generally, these particular religions
often involve traditions of ancestor worship or worship of spirits of natural
features. Tribal beliefs persist as folk religion even among those converted to a
major religion.
The impact of popular Hinduism and the process of Hinduization have been
so pervading over tribal India that the role of other religious ideologies and
religious systems seems to be marginal. However, as the impact of Buddhism,
Islam and Christianity are concerned the roles of Buddhism and Islam is seen as
marginal and not very significant as compared to Christianity. Otherwise, Islam
and Christianity may never be very popular among the tribes because adopting
either of these means severing one’s ties from the past. The tribal cultures in
India can be protected, preserved and find a special and unique place in the vast
sea of Indian culture only when acculturation is not imposed on them. When
foreign missionaries convert them into Christians they rob them of their
cultural autonomy. When Hindu organizations make them Hindus, they too, are
guilty of attacking their cultural autonomy. Under these circumstances, the
assimilation of the tribal people takes a political shape in the interest of national
unity.
A Large number of tribes have been taken into the fold of Hinduism such as Bhil,
Gond, Oraon, Santhal. Its maximum Penetration has been among the tribes of
central and Southern India. Whereas Islam has spread to tribes in islands such as
Lakshadweep where all seven tribes have converted to Islam.

59
During the twentieth century, the fastest growing Christian communities have
been located in the northeast, among the Khasis, Mizos, Nagas, and other hill
tribes. Christianity offers a non-Hindu mode of acculturation during a period
when the state and modern economy have been radically transforming the
lifestyles of the hill peoples. Missionaries have led the way in the development of
written languages and literature for many tribal groups. Christian churches have
provided a focus for unity among different ethnic groups and have brought with
them a variety of charitable services.
An important fact to be noted here is that perhaps no tribal community has
adopted a new faith in toto. In every such tribe, the converted and the
non converted members live together. If we take up the case of Arunachal
Pradesh we find that the tribal population can be divided into Buddhists and
those who continue to abide by their beliefs in spirits. The tribes of western
Arunachal Pradesh inhabiting the high hills of kamang and subansiri and siang
districts are the followers of Mahayana or Tibetan Buddhism.

60
Write a note on Impact of Christianity on tribal societies(150 words)
Model Answer
As Vidyarthi and Ray say, in different tribal areas in India, missionaries of different
sects of Christianity work with a view to converting them. In order to convert
them into Christianity, they provide social services like education and medical
aid. In majority areas of tribal population in India, activities of religious
conversion are taken up by Christian missionaries. Vidyarthi and Ray have noted
that the influence of Christianity on the tribals began in the Khasi of Meghalaya in
1813; in Urano of Chooa Nagpur in 1850 and in the Bhils of Madhya Pradesh in
1880. The tribals have been facing the problem of religious conversion for a long
time.
At the outset, religious conversion had begun at personal and family level and it
was difficult like climbing uphill. For converting four tribal persons it took as
many as five years for the German missionaries in 1850 A.D. Christina
missionaries laid emphasis on providing humanitarian services in selected tribal
areas in order to extend the activity of religious conversion. Such services
included health facilities, activities for improving the economic condition of the
tribals, eradicating poverty and running orphanages besides removing illiteracy
establishing and running education institutes for educational development. Such
efforts are still going on even today. As a result, the religious conversion became
simpler and easy and extensive as time passed.
Due to the efforts made by the missionaries, encouragement by the British
government, helpless condition of the tribals due to poverty, illiteracy, little
opposition to conversion, lack of control over conversion, enticing offers and
social status besides the tribal community’s desire to improve economic condition
are some of the factors responsible for the religious conversion of the tribals. The
main objective of the activities of the Christian missionaries has been the
spreading of Christianity among the tribals. Many tribals have embraced
Christianity under the impact of these different factors. As a result, in different
parts of India tribals of certain areas and several main tribal community groups
have become Christians in the last hundred and fifty years.

61
As Vidyarthi and Ray note, as per an estimate 1/6 of the total Christian population
in India is tribals. The main centralization of tribal Christians has been in the
North-East Himalayan area. The proportion of the Mizo, Garo and Naga tribals is
from 0% to the total population in some area. In the Madhya Pradesh and Bihar
1/10 of the total tribal population follow Christianity. The number of certain
tribals, who follow Christianity among Khariya, Munda, Urano, etc. is big. In
Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, there are small groups of tribals who follow
Christianity. The influence of Christianity through religious conversion on the
tribals in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra is less but it is more in south
India. 50% of the Toda tribals are converted Christians.

62
Discuss the divisive factors which disrupt national integration in India. What
would you Suggest to Counteract the divisive forces?(250 Words)
Model Answer
Divisive Factors :
1. Diversity of Constituents:
India is a heterogeneous society. It is made of a number of diverse groups. The
first potential threat to the Indian nation-state lies in this plurality. The Indian
society was and is divided in terms of religion, caste, language and ethnic origin.
2. Regionalism and Cultural Identities
Regionalism is also a threat to national integration. Some of the social elements
having their separate cultural identity want to preserve it even at a political level
and for this purpose, some of these segments want further reorganization of the
states.’
We find that national politics in our country is still marked by the emergence of
regional nationalities. This is quite evident in the formation of States on linguistic
basis. It is also evident in demands by some regional identities such as the Gorkha
for Gorkhaland.
3. Casteism
Casteism has always played a dirty role in matters of politics and reservation
policy and has created a wide gulf between different segments of society.
Unfortunately, the caste system has been recognized by the framers of the
Constitution by providing a protective discrimination to Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes. Though the reservation was made for a limited period, it is
being extended from time to time. The reservation of seats in the educational
institutions and jobs on the caste basis has strengthened the caste feeling and
resulted in the possibilities of new types of inequalities and caste conflict.
4. Linguism
Due to linguistic and regional loyalties, the national feeling gradually erodes.
Linguistic tensions are manifested in the borders which are bilingual. For example,
63
Goans are divided on the basis of Konkani and Marathi Languages. There is also
conflict between Marathi and Kannada-speaking people in Belgaum.
5. Communalism
Broadly defined, communalism refers to the tendency of any socio-religious group
to maximize its economic, political and social strength at the cost of other groups.
This tendency runs counter to the notion of the secular nation-state that India
purports to be. Secularism in the Indian context is defined as the peaceful co-
existence of all religions without State patronage to any of them. The State is to
treat all of them equally. Yet, in a secular State like India, we very often hear, see
and read about communal conflicts. While making conscious efforts towards the
goals of democracy and socialism, the India national State has not been free of
communal clashes.
6. Social Inequalities:
In every society, there is a system of social stratification. Social stratification
refers to inequality in a society based on unequal distribution of goods, services,
wealth, power, prestige, duties, rights, obligations and privileges. Take, for
example, the social inequalities created by the caste system.
7. Ethnonationality and Ethnic Conflicts:
Ethnonationalism and ethnic conflict have hindered national integration. Whereas
the modern concept of nationalism is closely linked with the concept of the
nation-state, scholars have described another prevailing notion of nationalism
such as religious nationalism, ethnonationalism etc. Although nationhood is
denied to the Nagas, the Nagas understand themselves as a nation in the sense of
ethnonationality. The concept of “ethnonationalism” best defines the self-
understanding of the ethnic groups in Northeast India in the various forms of their
struggle for identity.

64
List tenets of Tribal Panchsheel(150 words)
Model Answer
Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime Minister of India formulated the following five
principles for the policy to be pursued vis-a-vis the tribals:
(1) People should develop along the lines of their own genius, and the imposition
of alien values should be avoided.
(2) TribaI rights in land and forest should be respected.
(3) Teams of tribals should be trained in the work of administration and
development.
(4) TribaI areas should not be over-administered or overwhelmed with a
multiplicity of schemes.
(5) Results should be judged not by statistics or the amount of money spent, but
by the human character that is evolved.

65
Discuss the criticism leveled against anthropology in the context of ‘Isolation,
and assimilation debate’ on tribal populations.(250 words)
Model Answer
First, there was a school of thought which favoured isolation. Hutton, who was a
Commissioner for Census of 1931, gave a solution to the tribal problems of
uncontrolled acculturation. He suggested the creation of self-governing tribal
areas with free power of self-determination.
Earlier Verrier Elwin suggested the creation of’ National Parks” where the tribal
people could live safely without being victims of what Elwin calls an” “over-hasty
and unregulated process of belief and civilization”. But later on Elwin discarded
the idea of a national park. Both Hutton and Elwin were severely criticised for
recommending this policy of isolation which was looked upon as a proposal to
create a museum or zoo, instead of helping the tribal people to utilise the
resources of modern knowledge and improve their condition of life.
Second, there is another school which favoured assimilation. According to G.S.
Ghurye, the tribals are backward Hindus and they should be completely
assimilated into Hindu culture. D.N. Majumdar has put forward a philosophy and
programme of tribal welfare. He says that it is not possible to ignore the entire
tribal population and leave them to their own lot. It is not also possible to
completely assimilate them in the Hindu culture.The Christian missionaries and
some social reformers like Thakkar Bapa have recommended and have worked for
the assimilation of these tribal groups either into Christianity or into Hinduism.
They were criticised for not showing respect towards the culture , customs and
way of life of tribals.

66
Discuss the criticism leveled against anthropology in the context of ‘Isolation,
and assimilation debate’ on tribal populations.(250 words)
Model Answer
Provisions of the Sixth Schedule
As per the Sixth Schedule, the four states viz. Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and
Mizoram contain the Tribal Areas which are technically different from the
Scheduled Areas. Though these areas fall within the executive authority of the
state, provision has been made for the creation of the District Councils and
regional councils for the exercise of the certain legislative and judicial
powers. Each district is an autonomous district and Governor can modify/divide
the boundaries of the said Tribal areas by notification. Currently, there are ten
such Councils in the region.
Legislative Powers of the Sixth Schedule Councils
The district councils and regional councils have powers to make laws on certain
matters of local importance but all such laws require the assent of the governor.
The subjects on which these councils can make laws include:
 Roads, bridges, ferries etc. modes of transport
 Animal husbandry, veterinary training & practice
 Primary and Secondary Education
 Agriculture including farm research and education
 Fisheries
Judicial Powers of the Sixth Schedule Council
The laws made by the state legislature on any subject that comes within the
jurisdiction of the council, would not extend within the jurisdiction of the
autonomous council unless the council so directs by public notification. The
President in regard to a Central Act and the Governor in regard to a State Act may
direct that the Central Act or State Act shall not apply to an autonomous district
or shall apply with such modifications as may be specified. The Councils have also
been endowed with wide civil and criminal judicial powers, for example

67
establishing village courts etc. However, jurisdiction of these councils is subject to

jurisdiction of the concerned High Court.

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90 Days UPSC Mains Optional Answer Writing

Question and Model Answers from Subject Experts

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 Thus, tribal people have contributed enormously to the nation’s prehistoric

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fossil could be a female. Homo erectus had successfully adapted to

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 shorter and dark nose.

Guha presented his classification based on scientific criteria.His classification is

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affairs of Village Panchayat. In these bodies, generally, the members of the

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3 Village studies provide useful knowledge about Indian social reality:

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1. Sociologists and anthropologists basically depend on other social scientists

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The recommendation of the Gram Sabha or the Gram Panchayats is mandatory

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villages where there is one common, government-provided television set,

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 Article 28 – People’s ‘freedom as to attendance at religious instruction

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b) Non-recognition of customary use : Most of the customary uses of the local

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(a) Kachin Group: Singpho

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PESA offers the tribal communities. Officials of various departments show no

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