UNIT 5 COMPLEX INTEGRATION

Structure
5.1 Introduction
0bjectives

5.2 Curves in a Complex Plane

5.2.1 Orientation of a Cuwe
5.2.2 Continuous Curves and a Jordan Curve
5.23 Closed Curves
5.2.4 Smooth Curves and Piece-\vise Smooth Cuwes
5.2.5 Rectitiable Curves
5.2.6 Contours
5.2.7 Connectivity of a Domain
5.3 Line Integrals
5.4 Cauchy's Theorem
5.4.1 Cauchy's IntegralFormula
5.4.2 Poisson's Integral Formula
5.4.3 Derivatives of an Analytic Function
5.4.4 Morera's Theorem
5.4.5 Cauchy 's Inequality
5.4.6 LiogdB's Theorem
5.5 Taylor's Smb
5.6 Laurent's Series
5.7 Summary
5.8 Answers/Solutions/Hints to Exercises

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 4, we introduced the functions of a complex variable, studied the properties of
analytic functions and considered certain elementary functions of a complex variable.
The theory of functions of a complex variable develops in two directions - one is
theory of integration due to Cauchy and the other is conformal mapping developed by
Riemann. In this unit, we shall study Cauchy's theory of integration.
Many important properties of analytic functions are very difficult to prove without the
use of complex integration. To develop Cauchy's theory of integration, we first define
a Jordan arc, orientation of a curve and rectifiable curves. w e next take up definition of
line integrals in complex plane. Since Cauchy's theory of integration is applicable to
simply connected and multiply-connected regions, we try to distinguish between such
regions. We then take the w o r t a n t Cauchy's theorem, Cauchy's integral fonnula and
Poisson's Integral formula. We next connect higher derivatives of functions with
complex integrals. This leads up to study of Msrera's theorem, Cauchy's inequality,
Liouvillc's theorem, Maximum Modulus theorem. The study of complex integration
will be incomplete without the study of Taylor's series and Laurent's series, which we
also take up in this unit.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
understand the meaning of a Jordan arc, rectifiable curves and define line
integral in complex plane,

Complex Variables
- -
learn Cauchy's integral theorem and Cauchy's integral formula and Poisson'e
integral formula,
study relationship between higher derivatives of a function of complex
variable and complex integration,
learn the results of Morera's theorem, Cauchy's inequality, Maximum as well
as Minimum Modulus Theorem and Lioville's theorem, and
study the use of Taylor's series and Laurent's series for development of series
of complex functions.

5.2 CURVES IN A COMPLEX PLANE -

'r

We shall here discuss certain concepts related to curves in complex plane C.

5.2.1 Orientation of a Curve

Let z = z(t) be any given curve, the real parameter t taking up any value between two
given real numbers a and b. We can regard t as varying from a to b or from b to a. This
gives rise to the concept of an Oriented Curve; the orientation depending upon the
manner of description of the curve corresponding to t varying from a to b or from b to
a. If the curve, while t varies from a to byis denoted by C, then we denote the curve
correspondingto t varying from b to a by - C.
Thus an oriented curve is an ordered aggregate ofpoints, the order being induced by
the manner in which t varies.

5.2.2 Continuous Curves and a Jordan Curve

A continuous curve, or simply a curve, or path in complex plane C is a contihuous
mapping Z from a closed interval (a,b), a < b, a, b E R into C. Here Z (a) and Z (b) are
called initial and terminal points respectively.

If Z (t) = x (t) + i y (t) ; t E (a, b) ;x (t), y(t) : mil,then x(t) and y(t) are continuous real
valued functions on (a,b).

Further, if Z(t) is one-to-one, that is, for t,, t, in (a,b), with t, < t,, we have z (t,) ;t z (t,) ,
then the path is called a Jordan Arc.

For Example, Z(t) = e'"' , t E (0,1), is a Jordan arc.

If z is a Jordan arc such that z(a) = z(b), then the path is called a J o r h Curve.

A prominent result used in the theory of complex variables is the Jordan Curve
Theorem which says that every Jordan curve Z divides the complex plane into two
parts: the interior and exterior of Z.
A domain D bounded by a Jordan curve is called a Jordan Domain. With this notation,
we refer the point Z(t) as "a point on the path Z".

Further, if Z{(a,b)) = {Z(t) :t E (a,b)), then (a,b) is called the parametric interval of z. ,

5.2.3 Closed Curves

If two end points of a curve meet but it does not intersect at any other point, then the
curve is called a ClosedJordan Curve or simply, a Closed Curve. This happens when
Z(a) = Z(b) and Z (t,) ;t Z (t,) for any t, and t, other than a and b.

For example, the circle is a closed Jordan Curve.

5.2.4 Smooth Cuwes and Piece-wise Smooth Cuwes
A curve C represented by Z (t) = x (t) + i y (t) is called a Smooth Curve if x (t) and y (t)
have continuous derivatives x'(t) and y' (The) at all points of a 5 t < b and ifxf(t)and
y'(f) do not vanish simultaneously.

If x(t) and At) have continuous derivatives at all points except at finite ;umber of
points, then the curve C is called Sectionally or Piece-wise smooth.

5.2.5 Rectifiable Curves

Consider the curve given by

Z(t)=x(t) + i y ( t ) , where a l t -<P

Let Z,, Z,, ...., 2, be the points of this arc which correspond to the values to, tl,..., t,, of
the parameter t and

The polygonal arc, which is obtained by drawing straight lines from Zo to Zi, Zi to 2 2 ,
and so on, is of length

If x tends to a unique limit I as n -+ - and the greatest of numbers (t, - t, - ,) tends to

zero, we say that the arc is rectifiable and its length is I.

It may be noted that x in (5.2) depends on the particular mode (5.1) of subdivision of
interval ( a,p ). It can be shown that the necessary and sufficient condition for a Jordan
arc to be redable is that the sum x should be bounded for all possible modes of
subdivision of the range of values of the parameter t. In other words, the arc is
rectifable if x (t) and y(t) arc of bounded variation in ( a,P ).
We shall, in general, be concerned only with rectifiable arcs of a more special type,
namely, Jordan arcs with continuously tuming tangent - such curves are called regular
arcs. A regular arc is characterized by the fact that the derivatives x' (t) and y' (t) exist
and are continuous over the whole range of values oft. We shall now prove the
following result.

Property 1 : "A regular arc defmed by Z (t) = x (t) + i y (t),a I t -<j,

is rectifiable and
that its length s is given by

Proof :Let the closed interval ( a, p ) be divided into sub-interval, by points

Z, Z , ..., Z,, which correspond to the values
Complex Variables The polygonal arc obtained by drawing straight lines from Z, to Z,, Z, to Z, and soon,
is of length

First of al1,we shall show that C can be made to differ by as little as we please from
the sum

by making the greatest of the numbers (t, - tr- ,) sufficiently small.

Consider the inequality

i { ~ ~ ~ - ~ z ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ z - z ' ~
=I Re (z-z')+iIm(z-2') I ... (5.5)
Hence, we have

where x, = x (t,) , y, =y (t,) ,etc.

Now, by mean value theorem of the differential calculus,

and Yr-Yr-i = Y'(Tr) (4-tr-1) 7

where Tr and T, lie between t, and t, - ,.

But by hypothesis (of a regular arc), x' (t) and y' (t) are continuous and hence also
uniformly continuous. We can, therefore, assign arbitrarily a positive number e, as
small as we please, and then choose another positive number 6, depending only on e,
such that

( t - ( j , ]y'(t)-y'(fjI<e

whenever i t - t' i c 6.If the greatest of the numbers (t, - t,- is less than 6 ,we fmd
that

and hence
 Finally, by the definition of tlie integral of a continuous function, the sum C tends to Con~plexIntegration
the limit I

as n tends to infImily and the greatest of the numbers (t, - t,- ,) tends to zero. Since,
however, I C- I can be made as small as we please by making 6 sufficiently small,
1

, thus C must also tend to the same limit as C .Thus a regular arc is rectifiable and
1

that its length is

5.2.6 Contours
Let there be two arcs, AB and BC, having B as their
/
only coinmon point and let s and s' be their lengths , A
respectively. The complete arc AC is also rectifiable
II whose length is s + s' . Ngure 5.1

I
Hence, we conclude from it that a Jordan arc consisting of finite number of regular arcs
1 is also rectaable. Such an arc is called a contour.
By a contour we mean a continuous curve consisting of finite number of regular
arcs
A circle, an ellipse, a triangle, a rectangle are examples of closed contours. Clearly a
contour is rectifiable.

5.2.7 Connectivity of a Domain

A region in which every closed curve can be contracted to a point without passing out
of the region is called a Simply - ConnectedRegion; otherwise the space is Multiply -
Connected.

Flgure 5.2 (a) : Simply Connected Region Figure 5 2 @) :Multiply Connected Region

Before we take up the concept of line integral, we give a few examples to ilhstra?
some of the concepts taken so far.
It may be noted that it is possible for two different paths to have the same image curve.
For example (Figure 5.3), Z, and Z, defined by
 Figure 5.3: The Line Segment (0, l + i ) in C

both represent the straight line segment (0, 1 + i ) in C.

If we let Figure 5.4

Z, (t) = e" , t E (0,2n)

and Figure 5.5

I
Z2 (t) = e2", t E (0,2n) ,
Figure 5.4: Image of ( 0,2 n ) under zl(t) = eIt
then we see that images 2, { (0,2n) ) and I

Z2( (0,2n) } are same for each case, though they

represent different curves.

Let Z (t) = e f t , 0 I t I n. be c w e C. 0
z2(t1
- -. -.
211
'-c /
C I

Figure 55: bnage of ( 0,2 x )under Zz(t) = eZn

If t varies from 0 to n ,Z(t) describes the upper

half of the unit circle ( Z ( = 1 with initial point
Z(0) = 1 and terminal point z (n)= - 1 (refer
5.6(a)). Therefore 'the reversed c w e ' - C of C
0 is defmed by
Figure 5 6 (a)
(-z) (t)=z ( n - t ) , 0 < t < n
with starting point (- z) (0) = - 1 and terminal
point (- z) (- n) = 1 , (refer 5.6@)).

Figure 5 q b )

Next consider z : (1, - i) + C defrmed by

z (t) = t + i ( t ( ,then (refer Figure 5.7)

t - it if t E (- 1, 0) Z(-1
z (t) =
t + it if t E (0,l)
It is easy to see that z is a smooth curve
for ( - I , O ) and ( 0, I ), even thc~ughfor
complete interval (1, - 1 ) z is nod smooth
-- Lx 0
because z' (t) fails to exist at t = 0. It is Figure 5.7: Cuwe z(t)= t + i I t 1, t E (- 1 , l )
 because z' ( t )is discontinuous at t = 0, but z is piece wise continuously differentiable Complex Integration

since z' (t) = 1 - i on (- 1, 0) and z' (t)= 1 + i on (0,1)

Many important properties of analyhc functions are very ddficult to prove without the
use of complex mtegration. For instance, it is only quite recently that it became
possible to prove, without resorting to complex integrals or equivalent tools, that the
derivative of an analytic function is continuous, or that the higher derivatives exists.

The fundamental operation of calculus known as integration arises in two distinct ways.
The determination of the indefinite integral may be regarded as the operation inverse to
that of dserentiation. But in the applications of the calculus to geometdy or physics or
1 engineering, it is the definite integral, defined as the limit of a sum, which is of
importance. In the theory of functions of a complex variable we start with the
definition of an integral as the limit of a sum.
Although the definition of the definite integral had its origin in the work of the Greek
mathematicians, it only attained a precise mathematical form, satisfying modem
standards of the rigour, in the nineteenth century at the hands of Riemann. We shall
now explain Riemann7sdefinition of an integral, not indeed in its original form, but in
I
one more suited for our present purposes.
I
The complex function f(z) is a function of two independent variables. Hence its
, integration can be defined only along a curve, called a line integral, which we shall take
up in the next section.

5.3 LINE INTEGRALS

Line integrals in the complex plane are defied ay follows
Let f(z) be any continuous function of the complex variable z, which is not necessarily
analytic but which has a definte finite value at each point of a sectionally smooth arc
C,joining the points A and B. Divide C into n smaller arcs As, by the points
,
z, (k = 1,2,. ..,n - 1) and let A z, = zk- zk- be the infiitesimal chord determined by
As,. Finally, in each segment Ask on C, choose an arbitrary point 5, = a,+ i P, (refer
Figure 5.8). Then, if it exists, the limit of the sum

II Figure 5.8

as n tends to infi'ity in such a way that the length of each chord Azk approaches zero, is
I
b called the line integral of f(z) along C,i.e.,
I Conlplex Variables In the special case, in which A and B coincide and the path of integration forms a
closed curve, the integral in (5.7) is often called a ContourIntegral and is sometimes
denoted by the symbol

Complex line integrals can readily be expressed in terms of real line integrals. Writing
z = x + iy , f (2)= u(x,y)+ i v (x,y),we can write integral in (5.7) as

Furthermore, if the parametric equation of C be

then [u(x,y) + i v (x, y)] and x + iy can both be expressed in terms oft. Then
relation (5.9) gives

where t = a and t =b are the extremities of C.

In working with complex line integrals, it is frequently n e c e s s q to establish bounds
on their absolute values. Towards this end, we take up the following property :
Property 2 :"If f(z) is continuous on a contour C of length 1, where it satisfies the
inequality 1 f (2) I I M, then

Proof: If the contour C is divided into smaller arcs As, by the points
z, (k= 1,2, ... ,n - 1) and let A zk= zk - zk- be the infinitesimal chord determined by
As, . Further, In each segment As, on C, choose an arbitrary point 5, = ak+ i fl,.

Then line integral off(z) along C is defined as,

C
jf (z)dz =
n+
Lt
m
n
C f Cb)
k= I
each A zp + 0

To the definitive sum on the tight above, we apply the fundamental fact that the
absolute value of a sum of complex numbers is less than or equal to the sum of their
absolute values. Then

= 1f (5,) I . I A zk I ,since the absolute value of a

k=l product is equal to the product
of the absolute values.
Now as n + m, the above inequality yields a corresponding inequality for the integrals, Canplex Integration
i.e.,

Now iff(z) = uu(x,yyl + i v(x, yyl and z =x + iy, then

Ilfti)~lhl=jW
d(dx)'+(@)'= ds,
C C C

where ds is the differential of arc length on C (since Cis assumed to be sectionally

smooth, hence it exists).
In particular if f(z, = 1:

I I dz I = I ds = 1, where 1is the length of path of integration. ... (5.12)

Since I f (z) 1 I M ,hence fiom relatives (5.11) and (5.12), we get

This proves Property 2.

From (5.9), (5.10) and the known properties~freal integ@s, it is easy to see that when
the same path of integration is used in each integral, we kgve

and if'Dis a third point on arc AB, then

We illustrate the evaluation of line integrals with the help of the following examples.

Example 5.1

Integratef (z) = xZ+ i xy from A(l, I ) to B(2,4) along

i) the straight line AB joining the two points; and

Solution
i) The equation of the line AB is

y - 1 = 3 (x- 1)

Thus for a point z on AB,

Hence
x=2

/(z) dz = j (x2+ i ~ y d(x

) + iy)
AT x= 1

Example 5.2

Integrate&) = z2from A(1,l) to B(2,4) along

i) line segment AD parallel to x- axis and DB parallel to y-axis

ii) the straight line AB joining the two points

iii) t h e ~ u r v e C : x = t , ~ = t
 Solution Complex Integration

i) For a point on AD, y = 1 andIz = x +iandforapointonDB, x = 2 and

,7

then
I f (2) '27 =-ja5f c.1
ADB
a + J f c.1
EL7
dz

=jz2a+J Pm
w m
2 4

=J(r+i)2a+J(2+iyy+ x

ii) The eqn. of AB is

.: For apointonAB, z = x + iy = x + i(3x- 2)

Hence

It may be noted that in Example 5.2, all the three integrals are equal. In fact each
1
integral is equal to the difference of - (x + iy13 evaluated at two end points and does not
3
depend on the path. Such a result will always hold Vf(z) is analytic. In such cases, the
integral can be evaluated by the formulae for integration of functions of single variable.
In Example 5.1, the integral depenh on the contour, because f(z) is not analytic in this
case.
Complex Variables You may now attempt the following exercises to test y o u knowledge.
Exercise I

Exercise 2

dong

1) the ..-
r + I . i,-;:?;I - - - I

11) 5.;)~ sl[ai!:b,l I:II? ls>i~~ii>:!. , u i d ,' ~.

Perhaps the most fundamental and far reaching result in the theory of analytic hnctions
is Cauchy's Theorem, which we take up in the next section.

5.4 CAUCEY'S THEOREM

Statement : "If R is a region, either simply or multiply connected, whose boundary C
is sectionally smooth, and itf(z;) is analytic and f (z) is continuous within and on the
boundary ofR, then i/lz) a5 = 0."
C

Proof: Let.@) = u (x, y) + i v (x, y ) and z = x + iy

= I(u&-v13.)+il(v&+u&) ... (5.14)

C C

By the hypothesis that f (z) is continuous, we get that the partial derivatives
-
au - au av
- av
and - exist and are contiquous throughout the region R. Hence
ax ' at, ' ax ay
Green's Theorem (refer, Maths 11) can be applied to each of the line integrals on the
right in the Eqn. (5,14), giving

Since by hypothesis,f(z) is analytic, hence u and v satisfy the Cauchy - Riemann

equations (refer sec. 4.3.5, Maths 111 ) and therefore, the integral of each of the double
integrals in (5.15) vanishes identically in R,yielding
 Cmplex Integration

This proves Cauchy's theorem.

It may be mentioned that the result of Cauchy's theorem can be proved without making
use of the hypothesis that f '(2) is continuous. For detals, see for example F 6.Philips,
"Functions of a complex variable" pp. 89-92, Interscience, New York, 1945. The
French Mathematician Edouxd Goursat was first to do this and in his honoa~r,the more
general form of the result is usually referred as the Cauchy-Goursat Theorem.

In particular, ifnz) is analytic in and on the boundary of the region R between two
simple closed curves, then from Cauchy-Gaursat Theorem, we have

provided that each cunreis transversed in the positive d h t i o n (see Figure 5.1 l(a]).
On the other hand, if we reverse the direction of integration around thc h e r curve C,
(see Figure 5.11(b)), then we obtain,

each integration now being performed in the counter-clockwise sense.

Since there may be points in the interior of C, (which, of course, is not a part of R)
wherefi) is not analytic, we cannot assert that either of the integrals in (5.16) is zero,
However, we have shown that they both have the same value This result can be
summariled as Principle of the Deformation of Contours and which states that "The
line integral of an analytic furlction around any simple closed curve is equal to the line
integral of the same function around any other simple closed cwve into which the f i t
can be continuously deformed without passing through a point whereplz) is
non-analytic "
h o t h e r important corollary of Cauchy Theorem is the following result:
Statement: "The integral of an analytic functionf[z) from A to B does not depend
upon the contour."
Proof: Hereflz) is analytic in a region R and let two point A and B in R be joined by
two different curves C, (ADB) and C, (AEB) lying wholly in R.

Applying Cauchy7sTheorem to the curve ADBM, we have

J Az) dz = 0
A DBEA
Con~plexVariables
=> h z ) m + J f i z ) m = o
ADB BE4

ADB AEB

which proves the result.

One of the most important consequences of Cauchy's -

Theorem is Cauchy's Integral Fonuula, which we take
up next.

5.4.1 Cauchy's Integral Formula

Statement : "IfAz) is analytic within and on the boundary C of a simply connected
region R, whose boundary C is sectionally smooth, and ifz, is any point in the interior
of R, then

theintegr ationaroundcbeing taken in the positive

sense."

Proof :Sincef(z) is analyticeverywherewithinR,

hencethe functio~f~) /(z - zo)is analytic
everywhere withia R except at the one point z = zo.

Let Co be a circle of arbitmy small radius r, small

enough so that Co is entirely in R, when its centre is ' b

Then the functionfk) /(z - z,) is analytic everywhere in the region between C and Co.
Hence, by Principle of Deformation of Contours, the integral of this fimction
Az)/(z- zo) around C is equal to its integral around Co,i.e.,

On puttingz=zo+rea in the first integral on right of (5.17)'

We obscure that
 On Co, I z - zo ( = r. Moreover, sinceJ(z) is analytic and hencecontinuous,it follows Complex Integration
that for any E 20, there exists a 6 such that

ll(z) -l(zo) I < E wherever I z -z, 1 = r < 6

Choosing the radius r to be less than 6 and inserting that in the right hand side of
relation (5.19), we have

Since the integral on the left is independent of E,yet cannot exceed 2 n E,which can be
made arbitrarily small; hence it follows that the absolute value of the integral, and
hence the integral itself is zero. Thus relation (5.17) reduces to

This proves Cauchy7sIntegral Formula.

We now take up a few examples to show how Cauchy7sIntegral Formula is helpful in
problems.

Example 5.3

"Evaluate 5
-z
& ,where C is the circle I z 1 = 2 ."
C

Solution

Since e-' is an analytic function and z = - 1 is inside C, we have by Cauchy's

Integral Formula

I 'zdz=J+ l
-z -z
e
& = 2ni [e-'I = h i e . Ans
z-(- 1) z=- 1
C C

Example 5.4
ez
"Find the values of a5, if C is a unit circle withcentre at
C
a) z = i , b) z = - i . "

Solution

"I - b) We write the given integral as

-I Here exz + i) is analytic everywhere within and on the boundary of given circle C.
Thus applying Cauchy's integral formula, we get
Complex Variables b) In this case the given integral can be written as

z
e
If we identify z, as - i and takef (z)= -,then Cauchy's integral formula gives
z-i

You may now attempt the following exercises.

Exercise 3

= (3z7+ z)
E\lilbiltc I L'
-7-
z -1
clz where (,'is the cjrclc i z 1 = 2
-lz.

('

Exercise 4

Evaluate tllc integral I (z- 1)

COS (It z2)

(2 - 2)
dz ,where C: is the circle 1 z I L= 3
C

(Hint : Break the integral into partial fractions.)

There is another result similar to Cauchy's Integral Formula, which we discuss next.

5.4.2 Poisson's Integral Formula

Statement : "If f(z) be analytic in the region I z I I p ,then

where r ele is point of the domain I z I I p and R is any number such that r < R < p."

Proof: Suppose z,= r ei is the point within I z I < p, where I z I = R is any circle C
within a domain D such that r <R < p .

Hence, by Cauchy's Integral Formula, we get

1
f(~0)=-2 t c i J Xz-z,
z),
C

R~
Clearly -- is the inverse point of the point z, with respect to the circle ( z I = H and
zo
hence lies outside the circle I z I = R and so A is regular within C.
z -(R~/?~)
 C'o~riplexIntegration

Figure 5.14

Thus, by Cauchy's Theorem, we get

Subtractiilg (5.21) from (5.20), we get

2n
1 R ei" ( R -~ 2) . R e i @ i
f ( r e") = -
2 ni
m=o
(R;" - r ele) (R' - R e", re-') 4

2n
--
- 1 Re")(R2-r2) .d$ ,which proves the results
2 n O = O R2+/2-2Rrcos(€l-$)

Putting f (r ev') =u (r, 0) + iv (r, 0)

f (I?e") = u (R, 4) + iv (R, $)

and equating real and i t n a g i n ~
parts, we get

u (r, 0) = -
2n
1
I
'2 n

R-r r2)
K 2 - ~n2 f 3 cp)
c a su ((R, - $ ) + zr d4

and
2n
1 R' - r2)v (R,
v (r, 0) = -
Z n R ' - : R r ~ o s ( 0 - ~ + 2~d$

From Cauchy's Integral Formula, we can readily obtain an expression for the
derivatives of a function at an interior point of R in terms of boundary values of the
function. This we take up next,
Co~rplexVariables
5.4.3 Derivatives of an Analytic Function
From the definition of a derivative and Cauchy's integral formula, we have,

Assuming that the limit of the integral is equal to the integral of the limit in the lost
expression and letting A zo + Ointheintegrand,weobtain

Continuing in the same manner, we obtain the additional formulae

These results could also have been obtained formerly by repeated differentiation of
Cauchy7sintegral formula with respect to the parameter z, .

This result can be stated as

Property 111 : " Iff(4 is analytic throughout a closed simply connected region R then
at any interior point z, ofR the derivutives of f(4 of ull orders exist and are analytic
and are given by

where C is the bounduly of R. "

It is interesting to note that functions of a real variable do not, in general, possess the
derivative properties described by property I11 above; because at particular points a
function may possess one or more derivatives without the derivatives of all orders
existing. For example, at the origin the hnction x% possesses a fmt and a second
derivatives but no derivatives of higher order.

We illustrate the use of above results with the help of some examples :
Example 5.5 Complex Integration

"Evaluate I-
-
e'
dz ,where n >
(z l)n
0 is an integer and C is the circle I z I = 2 ."
C

Solution

Let us takef(z) = e' and zo = 1 . Hencef(z) is analytic within and on C and zo is

inside C.

Using the result,

and taking rn = n - 1, we get

e"
2 &=-
--2 n i e . Am
c:lzl=2

Example 5.6

"Evaluate 1 sin z
--ak7
(z + n13
c:(z l=4

Solution

Let f (z) = sin z and zo = - n. Clearlyf (z) is analytic and on ( z I = 4 and - n lies
inside ( z ( = 4.

Using derivatives of an analytic function, namely,

we get

I - (*)13
(z
2ni
dz = -f "(z,), where A z ) = sin z and z, = -n
2!

= ni 1- sin(- n)J=.ni x 0 = 0. AIIS

Now try the following exercises.

Exercise 5

Find the values of

Exercise 6
Evaluate

where C is the circle 1 z ( = 3.

Exercise 7
If D be rectangular region

{ ( x , ~ ) : 1x1r a, kl Ib , a > b 1
and Nz)V < M on boundary of D, then slow that

The result of derivatives of analytic function are very important and useful in proving
the converse of Cauchy 's Theorem, which is known as Morera S Theorem, which we
lake up next.

5.4.4 Morera's Theorem

I
Statement: "Iff@) is continuous in a region R, and if f(r)a!z = 0 for every simple
C
closed curve which can be drawn in R, then f(z) is analytic in R."
Proof: Let z, be any fixed point and z any variable point of R and let C,, C, be any two
continuous rectifiable cu&s in R joining z, to z. Then the curve C, consisting of C,
I
and -C,, is a closed rectifiiblable curve in R so that, from one hypothesis j(z) dz = 0.
C
We get

* I
=>Iflz) d.z = Az) dz. ...(5.23)
i', C2

Hence, the integral along every curve in R, joining tota z, is the same,
 Complex Integration

Figure 5.15

Thus we may write

I
wh,ere 5 is the variable of integration.
I Then

L J

when the path of integration is taken to be the straight line from z to z+h. We next
prove that the integral on the R.H.S. of (5.24) tends to zero as h+O asflt) is
continuous.

For an arbitrary real E > 0, we choose a number 6 such that K5) -Az)l< E wherever
15 - ZI < 6. This is due to continuity offit)
+
Hence
I F(z - F(z)

1
I - .E. I h I = E, provided I h I < 6
lh I
F(z + h) - F(z)
Thus Lt =Az)
h-0 h
Now F(z), being differential, is regular and has the derivative f(z). But the derivative of
a regular function is regular. Hence f(z) is regular, or analytic, in R.
 -
Complex variables We have incidentally proved here that f(z) is analytic within a closed domain R, the
I

integral f Az) &, taken along any contour within R, is analytic within and on C and
'0

has a derivative f(z). This is the fundamental theorem of the integral calculus of
analytic functions and asserts that the integration and differentiation are inverse
operations.
Remark :Consider

If R is a region enclosed by a circle C of redius r and centre z = 1, thenf is not

continuous at z = 1. Since continuity requirement is not satisfied, therefore Morera7s
theorem is not applicable here.
,
Similarly, for

we know that f g(z) d z = 0

I&,*
c : ( zI = 1 1(
Again g is not analytic in region enclosed by lzl = 1, since g is not continuous at 0.
Consider the following example
Example 5.7

Evaluate I = I z2 dz ,where C is the curve given by

C

Solution
The curve

z(t) = 1-t-sinn:t+i(t+cosn:t), 0 I t s 1
is shown in Figure 5.16.

Figure 5.16

The function 2 is analyhc in the complex plane C and curve C lies in the domain
of z2 . Hence the value of the integral is independent of the choice of curve
connecting 1 + i to 0 and we have
 1 Complex Integration
i= 1 z ) z (t) dt , where z,(t) may be taken as line segment given by
t=o zl(t) = (1-t) ( l + i ) + t O , t~ ( 0 , l )

Observe that when integral is independent of path, then we directly have

1
Note :If we havefiz) = 5,which is nowhere analytic, then f (z) dz will not be
independent of path of integral. c
Another result based on the derivatives of an analytic b c t i o n is Cauchy's Inequality,
which we take up next.

5.4.5 Cauchy's Inequality

Statement :If f(z) is analytic within and on a circle C : lz - z,l = R < p and if
If(z)J-< M on C, then

Proof : From the nth derivative of an analytic function, we have

-- n! M
- .- "! . ,which proves Couchy's Inequality
. . I .271.R = -
271. R R"

. For the special case, n = 0, Cauchy's inequality becomes

which shows that on every circle around z,, no matter how small, (f(z)l has a maximum
value M which is at least as great asf(z,). This result is usually referred to as the
Maximum Modulus Theorem, which may be stated as
"The absolute value ofa non constantfinction f (2) cannot have a maximum at any
point where the function is analytic.''
Iff (z) is analytic at all points of a closed region R, bounded by a simple closed curve
C, then the real function If (z)(must have a maximum at some point of R. By the
Maximum Modulus Theorem, the maximum cannot occur in the interior of R, hence it
must occur on the boundary C. This gives the following result:
Corollary of the Maximum Modulus Theorem:
"lf f(z) is a nonconstant function which is analytic over a closed region R bounded by
a simple closed occur C, then the maximum value of ( f(z) ( over R occurs on the
boundary C."

A similar result is true for the minimum value of r(z)l over R, providedf(z) # 0 in R.
This result is known as Minimum Modulus Theorem, which states

"lff(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed cuwe C, andflz) # 0 inside C, then
I f(z) I must assume its minimum value on C. "
This result can be proved by applying the maximum modulus theorem to M z ) .

Example 5.8
If f(z) be analytic within and on the boundary of a bounded domain D, show that
Re f(z) and Im f(z) attain maximum values on the boundary of D.

Solution

Let f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) be an analytic function within and on the boundary
of D. Then g(z) = exp If(z)] is analytic in D.

Hence, by maximum modulus theorem,

I I IeU+ I
I g(z) I = e"' = 'V = eUis attained on the boundary of D.

Since real exponential function is an increasing function, therefore

Reflz) = u = u (x, y) also attains its maximum exactly at the same points at eu,i.e.,
on the boundary of D.

Similarly, by considering g(z) = - if(z), we can show that Im f(z) = v(x, y) also
attains its maximum on the boundary of D.

Another theorem, which can be readily deduced from Cauchy's Inequality is called
Lioville's Theorem, which we take up next.

5.4.6 Lioville's Theorem

Statement : 'Tff(z) is an integralfunction which satisfies the inequality I f(z) I l M for
all values of z, M being a constant, then f(z) is a constant. "

Proof :By definition, the function which is analybc in eveIy finite region of the
z-plane is called an integralfunction.

Let zo be any point of the z-plane. If n > 0, then from Cauchy's inequality, it follows
that a

(4 "!
If (~0115 ,whatever be the value of R.

Suppose n = 1, then from above,

Making R+ w , we find that f '(2,) tends to zero. However, z0 is any arbitrary point of
z-plane. Hence, we deduce that/'(zo) is zero everywhere in z-$ane, i.e., the differential
coefficient off(z) vanishes everywhere. Thus f(z) is constant.
 You ma>-use the above theorem in the following exercise. Complex Integration

Exercise 8

( < / z 1" for some n and sufficiently

"If fizl IS cnttrc arid satisfies an mequality (fi)
large 12 . then protc that.,(z) must be a polynomial.'^

We have already proved that an analytic function has derivatives of all orders. Further
derivatives of analytic function were connected with integral of functions over a
bounded region which may be valid in the presence of a finite number of exception
points (refer Cauchy's Integral Formula).,Further,you are already familiar with Taylor
series expansion of a function of real variables. In the next section we shall take up
expansion of analytic functions of a complex variable, whose terms may be connected
with line integrals of complex variables.

5.5 TAYLOR'S SERIES

You have already studied that the sum of a power series with non-zero radius of
convergence is an analytic function, regular within the circle of convergence. We now
prove the converse theorem, known as Taylor's theorem concerning analytic function
of a complex variable.

5.5.1 Taylor's Theorem

Statement : "If f(z) is an analytic function, regular in the neighbourhood / z- a1 c R of
the point z = a ,it can be expressed in that neighbourhood as a convergent power series
of the form

Proof :Let R, be any positive number less than R and let

1
R - - (R + R,) so that 0 c R, c R, c R . Then by the given hypothesis, f(z) is certainly
=-2
regular within and on the circle C whose equation is ( z - a I =R,.

Let (a + h) be any point of the region I z - a ( I R,. Then, as (a + h) is within C, we find

by using Cauchy's Integral Formula that,

Now
1
z-a-h
=-[I.-1
z-a
A] -1

h
Clearly -c 1 . Hence by Binomial expansion,
z-a

I
1
z-a-A
- ' -

A[ I+-+- h
z-a
h2
(z-a)
,+ ... + ( z -hn-'
a)"-1 +-(z
hn
- a)" +
 .- --
Co~rplexVariables
- --
-+ 1, + h h2
+ ... +- hn-' h" hn+l
( ~ - a ) ~ + ' ( z - a - h ) ...(5.26)
3 I +
z-a (z-a) (z-a) ( z - a ) " + ( z - a )n t

From (5.25) and (5.26), we get

A ~ + ~ ) 2ni
1 h hZ
= ~ J A ~ z) -[a- + (~z -+a -) - - (- z - a ) 3
C
+ ... + ( z - hnu ) ~ " + ( z - a ) " +h'n( tzl- a - h )

If we now use Cauchy's formula for derivatives of an analytic function, we obtain

I
A. + h) =A.) + C f"' ( a ) h' + An,
hn +1 flz) *? ,
where A n = - n+ 1
dz' .
2x1. (Z -a) (z - a - h)

ButAz) is continuous on the circle C and so is bounded there. Hence there exists a
positive number M such that ( Az) I 5 M on C.

Moreover, when I z - a I = R, ,

Since, I h 1 5 R, c R,, it follows from the above inequality that A, tends to zero as n
tends to infmity, and, therefore, we get

Replacing a + h byz, so that h = z - a, we get

This proves Taylor's Theorem.

We can go one step further

It is, however, possible to prove rather more than mere convergence of power series in
(5.27). Since I h ( l R,, we have

the expression on the right-hand side of the above inequality being independent of h.
 - A

Hence, given any positive number E , we can choose an integer M, depending on E, but Conmplex Integration
quite independent of h, such that w,
1 c E when n > N. We express this property by
I saying that the power series converges uniformly with respect to h, when 1 h I r R,,
I
I Thus the expression offiz), as given by equation (5.27), is wziformly convergent when
1 z - a 1 IR, provided that R, c R..
Note 1 :When zy a andf (z)are reds, the expansion off (z)by relation (5.22)reduces
to Taylor series expression of a function of a real variable.

Note 2 :when a = 0, the series on the right-hand side of (5.27) becomes

1
This is called Maclaurin 's Seriesforflz),
I
! Let us consider the following examples.
I

Example 5.9
1
"Find Taylor Series ofJ(z) = - about z = - 1 , z = 1 and z = 2. Determine the circle
z
of convergence in each case."
Solution
1
Here f(z) = -
z

p ( z >= (- l y . n!/zn+ ' & so on.

:. f ( l ) = l , f l ( l ) = - 1 , f U ( l ) = 2 ,...,
! f (n)
( I ) = ( - I ) ~ ~ ,...
!

f(- I)=-1, It(- I ) = - 1 , fl#(- I ) = - 2 ! >...,PI(-I)=-,?! ,...

1 1 (n) n!
2 2 , 2 23 = f ( 2 ) = ( - 1 ) ",...
~

1
Since z = 0 is singularity off (z)= - ,it is close that the regions of convergence
Z
about z = - 1 , z = 1 and z = 2 are respectively

C , : l z + 1 ( < 1 ,C , : l z - l ( < l a n d c 3 : l z - 2 1 < 2 .

Thus
 -1_-- _1- 1 21
(2-2)+-(z-2)'- ... +(- n1
1)"-(~-2)"+ ... forallzinlz-2(<2
z 2 22 2' 2"+l

Example 5.10
"Develop the function
1
A4 = 1 - 2 - 2

into Taylor series about 0."

Solution
By partial fractions,
1 1

where a=
6-1 p=-- G+1
-2 ' 2

Let g(z) =
1 1
then g'(z) = --7g"(z) =
2
-
' gll'(Z) = 7 3! r .-
(1 - 2)
-7 9
1-2 (1 - 2 ) (1 -2)

Hence

g(z) = -= 1 +
1-2
x"I n!
(z - 0)" = Z zn and this series converges for

Using expansion of g(z), the Taylor series off about 0 is

because first series converges for k(< (PI while the second series converges for
I z ( < a. Therefore the combined series converges for I z I c rnin (a, I P I) = a.
Also, since a P = - 1, we write the above expansion as
[
I
You may try some exercises now.
Exercise 9
I Expand , about 0 by Taylor's series
1-z+z-
I

Exercise 10

Expand sin z in a Taylor Series about the point z = V' .

Exercise 11

Find Taylor series of eZ about z = I

Inmany applications,it isnecessarytoexpand functionsaroundpointsat which or in

theneighbourhoodofwhichthefunctionsarenot analytic or notdefmed.Thernethod
of Taylor's series is obviously inapplicablein such cases.

fiz) = sin (lh)

The series representation fof f(z) is obtained by considering the series for sin z and
replacing z by llz, which-gives a series involving negative powers of z, viz,

i~hicllconverges for all z with z f 0

This gives rise to a new type of series, known as Laurent's expansion, named for the
F~cnchmathematician, Hermann Laurent (1841 - 1908). This furnishes us with a
representation which is valid in the annular ring bounded by two concentric circles.
provided that the function being expanded is analytic everywhere on and between the
two circles. As with Taylor's series, in this case also the function may have singular
' points and as the essentially new feature, it may also have singular points within the
inner circle. For such ns expansion, the price we pay is that negative as well as positive
powers of (z - a) now appear in the expansion and that the coefficients, even of
positive powers of (z - a), cannot be expressed in terms of the evaluated derivatives of
the f~mctions.Thq precise result is taken up next.
-
5.6 LAUBENT9S SERIES
We take up the following theorem. which gives us Laurcnt Series :

5.6.1 Laurent9sTheorem
Statentent :"If f(z) is analytic throughout the closed region R, bounded by two
concentric circles, then at any point of the annular region bounded by the circles, f(z)
can be represented by tho series
I
i'
Complex Variables

where a is the centre of concentric circles and

each integral being taken in the counterclockwise sense around any curve C lying in the
annulus and encircling the inner boundary."
Proof :Let z be an arbitrary point of the given annulus. Then, according to Cauchy's
Integral Formula, we can write t

where C2is transversed in the counterclockwise

direction and C, is transversed in clockwise
direction, so that the entire integration is in the Figure 517: The Circles Cl& Cz used in the
positive direction (see Figure 5.17) Direction of Laurent's Expansion

Reversing the sign of the integral around C, and also changing the direction of
integration from clockwise to counterclockwise, we can write

Now, in each of these modified integrals, let us apply the identity

to the last factor. Then

+ (
z - aln/(t- a)*
1 - (z - a),'(t - a ) ]
dt 1

I
(t - a n- a n
I dt
a z-a I - ( t - a ) / ( z- a ) 1
c1
 &

Complex Integration

where Rn, =
- a)"
7 (Z
I (t - a)"At)(t - z ) dt
c2

and Rni = 2ni (z - a)" dt

z-t
c1
The truth of the theorem will be established if we can show that

n+ -
Lt R,, =0 and Lt Rn, = 0
n t m

Since t lies on C, and Z is within the annulus, we have

1 1 =k, where kisaconstant < I.

and i t - z ~ =I ( t - a ) - ( z - a ) ( > I t - a ( - ( z - a 1

2 R2-k-4

Also IAt) I IM, from every t on C,, where M2 is any finite number.:

1 ' k".M,
Hence / Rn2I < - . Idtl
2n R,-lz-a1
c,

I -.
2nR2 kn M2 = K kn ,where K is a finite constant.
R'.

2n R 2 - l z - a 1

Thus R,, tends to zero as n + m, since k < 1.

Next 1 R ~1 ,= , &
CI
[=I z - t dt

t-a
2n

In this case t lies on C , and z lies in the annulus; we have

1
5
1 = 1 < 1 ,where I is a constant.
Co~nplexVariables Again

and [ A t )I 5 M, for every t in the circle C ,.,

1 M I .2 d , . I"
Hence 1 R,, ( < - . = S . ln, where S is some finite constant.
2n 12-aI-R,

Thus we have

Sinceflz) is analytic throughout the region C , and C2 ,thus the paths of integration
C , and C , can be replaced by any other curve C within this region and encircling C.
The resulting integrals are precisely the coefficients an described by the theorem.
This completes the proof of Laurent's Theorem.
Remark 1 : It should be noted that the coefficients of the positive powers of (2 - a) in
Laurent's expression, although identical in form with the integrals of Taylor's
Theorem, cannot be replaced by the derivative expressions
S"' (0) , since f(z) is not
n!
analytic throughout the entire enterior of C , (or C) and hence Cauchy's generalized
integral formula cannot be applied. Specifically, f(z) may have many points of
nonanalybcity within C , and therefore within C2 (or C).

Remark 2 : The Laurent expansion ofafunction over a given annulus, ifit exists, is
unique.
Remark 3 :As in the case of Taylor's series, the Laurent expansion of a given function
in a given annulus is usually not found through the use of Laurent's Theorem but rather
by algebraic manipulations suggested by the nature of the function. Such procedures
are correct because Laurent expression, if exist, is unique. Thus v a n expansion of the
Laurent form isfound by anyprocess, it must be the Laurent expansion.
Remark 4 : The real importance of Laurent's theorem rests in the fact that it is an
existence theorem. It shows that an analytic function can be expanded, under certain
circumstances, as a series of a given type, but it doesn't necessarily provide the
simplest method of calculating the coefficients.
Remark 5 :It should be observed that Laurent's theorem will not provide an
expansion of the logarithm of z as a series of positive and negative powers of a -for
Log z is a many-valued function, whose principal value, log z, is discontinuous along
the negative half of the real axis and so is not regular in any annulus with centre at the
origin.
Let us study the following example
Example 5.11
"Find the Launnt's expansion of d1e fuilction
 Cun~plexIntegration

inthe annulus 1 c ( z +1 I c 3."

Solution
As a preliminqy step, it is convenient ts apply the method of partial fractions to
f(z) and we get

s
After suitable arrangement of terms, these fiactions can be expanded into infinite
series by means of the Binomial Theorem and added to give the required
expansion of f(z). Towards this end, we observe that, since z = - 1 is the centre of
the given annulus, therefore the series we are seeking must be one involving
powers of (z+ 1). Hence we must mod* 2nd& 3d terms in the partial fraction
representation of f(z) so that z appears in the combination (z+ 1). Thus, we may
write

Example 5.12
Find two Laurent's series expansions, in powers of z, of the function f(z) given by
1
f(z) = -
z(l + z2)'

Solution
+
The function ceases to be regular at z = i and z = 0.

i) We take the region 0 c I z I < 1, then

Cmpler Variables

which is the Laurent's expension of the functionf(z) in proves of z in the

regionO<IzI< 1.

ii) Next consider the region ( z I > 1.

We can write

which is Laurents expansion in the region defined.

You may now try the following exercises.

5md thc Lwrent's cspmsiou ofthe function

bro7;e that when 0 < 1 z i < 4 ,

..
:::;~s.cise14

hrcl.;c that
 Coirplex Integration
Exercise 15

2z3+1
For the fwictionflz) = 7- ,find
Z +Z

a) Taylor's series expansion valid in ihe neigl1bo~rh~3d

of tbce p ?irt2 = I

b) Laurent's series expansion within the annulus whcn r:elt!; e 1s :hc c::ik71r1

(Hint :For (bj?consider tile amull~ls0 < I z 1 *- 1).

5.7 SUMMARY
The results of this unit may be summarised as follows:

An oriented curve is an ordered aggregate of points, the order being induced

by the manner in which the parameter of the curve varies.
A Continuous Curve in the complex plane C is a continuous mapping from a
closed interval iito C.
If a continuous mapping is one-to-one, it is called a Jordan arc
A Jordan curve is a Jordan arc z(t) such that
z(a) = z(b) , when t E (a, b).
Jordan curve z divides the complex plane into two parts: the interior and
exterior of z.
A domain bounded by a Jordan curve is called a Jordan Domain.
Iftwo end points of a curve meet but it doesn't intersect at any other point,
the curve is called a Closed Curve.
A curve z(t) = x(t) + i y(t) is called a Smooth Curve if x(t) and y(t) have
continuous derivatives at all points of its interval and the derivatives do not
vanish simultaneously in the interval.
For a curve z(t) = x(t) + i fit), if x(t) and y(t) have continuous derivatives at all
points except at finite number of points, then the curve is called Sectionally or
Piece-wise Smooth Curve.
The arc z(t) = x(t) + i y(t) is rectifiable if x(t) and fit) are of bounded
variations in the interval (a,b) of their definition and its length is given by

Jordan arcs with continuously turning tangent are called Kegtilor arcs.
A contour is a continuous curve consisting of finite number of regular arcs.
A region in which every closed curve can be contracted to a point without
passing out of the region is called a Simply- ConnectedRegion, otherwise the
space is hfz~ltiply- Connected.
IfAz) is any continuous function, not iiecessarily analflc but having a
definite finite value at each point of a sectionally smooth curve C and if C is
divlded into smaller arcs A s,, then line integral off(z) along C is given by
Cm~plexVariables

Iff(@ is continuous on a contour C of length I, where

I,<z)ISM. then
I
j ~ z ) d z 5M.l.
I C

Iff(z) is analytic, the line integral is independent of the path, but depends only
on value of function at end points.
If f(z) is not analytic, the line integral depends upon the contour.
Cauchy's Integral Theorem : "If R is a region, either simply or multiply
connected, whose boundary C is sectionally smooth, and iff(z) is analytic and
/(z) is continuous within and on the boundary of R, then

The results for Cauchy's Theorem can be proved even ifff(z) is not
continuous.
Principle of Deformation of Contours : "The line integral of an analytic
function around any simple closed curve is equal to the line integral of the
same function around any other simple closed curve into which the first curve
can be continuously deformed without passing through a point wheref(z) is
nm-analytx.
Cauchy's Integral Formula : "LfXz) is analytic within and on the boundary
C of a simply connected region R, whose boundary C is sectionally smooth
and if zo is any point in the interior of R, then dz = 2rrif(z&.
z-Zo
In general, "if the derivatives of f(z) of all orders exist and are analytic, then

Poisson's Integral Formula : "If f(z) be analytic in the region I z ( Ip ,

then

where r emis any point if the domain 1 z 1 S p and R is any number such that
rcRcp.

Morera's Theorem : "Iffi) is continuous in a region R,and if fi)dz = 0

C
for evely simple closed curve which can be drawn in R, then f(z) is analytic in
R. "
It b converse of Cauchy's Integral Theorem.
Maximum Modulus Theorem :" The absolute value of a non-constant
function f(z) cannot have a maximum at any point where the function is
analytic." Further, ifflz) z 0 inside C, then (j(z) 1 must assume its minimum
value on C.
 Lioville's Theorem : "IfAz) is an integral function which satisfies inequality Conrplex Integration
IAz) I for all z, M being a constant, thenAz) is a constant."
o Taylor's Theorem : "If f(z) is an analytic function, regular in the
neighbourhood I z - a I < R of the point z = a, it can be expressed in that
neighbourhood as a convergent power series of the form

The above expansion is unifomally convergent when I z - a I IR, ,

provided Rl < R .
When a = 0, in the above expansion, it becomes

which is called Maclaurin's Series for f(z)

Laurent's Theorem : "Iff(z) is analpc throughout the closed region
bounded by two concentric circles, then at any point of the annulus region
bounded by the circles, f(z) can be represented as

where a is the centre of concentric circles and an =

2ni
IA
(t - a)" '+
dt,

each integral being taken in the counterclockwise direction around any curve
C lying in the annulus and encircling the inner boundary."
The Laurent's expansion of a function over a given annulus, if it exists, is
unique.

5.8 ANSWERSISOLUTIONSI HINTS TO EXERCISES

Exercise 1
As z varies around the circle in counterclockwise direction, let 8 vary from 0 to
275, then any point on circle C can be written as

2n 2r
Ifn+0,1='
r"
I (cosne-isinn0)&=; r
i sin ne
-n
+i-I
cos ne
n
=O.
0 0
 plcx \'nriat~les
C~;oi Exercise 2

i)Forthepathx=r+l, y = 2 t - 1 variationofzfrom1-ito2+igivesf=l
Also z = (r + 1) + i ( 2 t - 1)

2+r
:. I (2x + 2iy + 3) dz along the path x =r + 1 . y = 2? - 1
1-1

= I 1 2 ( t + l ) + 2 i ( 2 t - l ) + 3 1 (1+i4t)dl
r=o

= ( 6 - 2 ; ) + ( 5 + 4 1 ) + 4 1 - 4 = 1 1 -61 Ans.

ii) Equation if the line joining A ( l - i) and B(2 + i) is

= (1 + 2;) [6] = 6 + 12i Ans.

Exercise 3

3z2 + Z 2-3 2 1
--
Now = 3 +,=3+-
z -1 z -1 z+l 2-1
 x 2ai Canplex Integration
=O(byCauchyIntegralThe0rem)+2./e-~I z = - 1 - 2 a i x 1 e - ~ ~ _ ~

( by Cauchy Integral Formula)

2ai 1
=O+4aie--=2ai(2e--)
e e
Ans.

Exercise 4
Break the integrand into partial fraction, and get the value of integral as 41ci.

* Exercise 5

:a z = 0 is in the circle C, :. by the derivational analytic function, we get

uk cosh z is analytic of z = 0 is inside ( z I = 1

Jz(= 1

e22 22
dze isanalyticof z = - l i s o n ( z l = l
(z/=l

. I=
2ai
1 )I.
d 2~

z=- 1
=2ni. 1s1 z=- 1
= a ie- ' Ans.
Exercise 6
zZ+2 - zZ+ 2
Here
(zZ+ 2 +I) (2- 1)2 - 1-i6 1+i6
(z - 1)' (z + -2 )(z+- 2 1

Exercise 7
From derivatives of analytic functions, we known that
 -
.. -
Variables
Cor~~plex Here n = 1 , z, = 0 ,an interior pt of D, whose boundary is C.

Exercise 8

l+iG 1-iG
where a = - p=-
2 ' 2

Now Taylor series of f(z) about z = 0 is

 Complex Integration

Exercise 10
Let Az) = sin z .'. AY2) = sin Y2 = 1

.: f '(2) = cos r = sin (Y2 + z) f '(Y2) = sin(Y2 + Y2) = 0

f '(2) = - sin z = sin (n - z) f "(Y2) = sin (n+ Y2) = - I
f "'(z) = - cosz = sin (3Y2 - z) f "'(Y2) = sin ( 2 ~=) 0

f'"'(z) = sin (n% - z) f '"'(Y2) = sin ((n + 1)Y2) = o if n is odd

=(- 1)' i f n = 2 p , p~ 0,1,2 ,...

New Taylor Series for sin z about Y2 is given by

-
sin z = Cos (z - ~ 2 ) ," where an=f-
(Y2)
n!
n=O

Exercise 11

Taylor Series for eZ about z = 1 is

ez =
00

a. (z - l)n , where a, =
f-'"'
(1)
,Az) = eZ
n!

Exercise 12
72- 2 --- - 3 1 2,
Here +-+-
(z+l)z(z-2) z + l 2 2-2

72- 2
a) NOW -- - = - ( z + l ) - l + [ - l + ( z + I)]-' + 2 [-3+(z+ I)]-'
(z + 1) z(z - 2)

for 0 < ( z + 1 1 < 1

Con~plcxVariables b) NOW

= - 3 (z+I)-'+
[ ( Z + I ) - ' + ( Z +I ) - ~ + ( Z +I)-'+ ...
I
+ 2 ( z + 1 ) - ' + 3 ( ~ + 1 ) - ~ + 9I()~- +~ +...
[ I
z 1 ) - ' 5 5 ( ~ + 1 ) - ~ + . . .for I z + l I > 3 A n s
= 7 ( ~ + 1 ) - 2 + 1 9 (+
Exercise 13

1 1 1 1
= ; [ z I + - I4~ - z I = x [ z l l + ~ [ ~ - i ] 3tor o < z < n

Exercise 14
1+2z 1 + 2 z --
- 1 +-5--
1 1
Now --
zz+z3-z2(1+z) z Z 1 + z

-- 1 + L -(I - z + z 2 - z 3 + ...) for o c l z j < I

z2 2

I 1
=-+--l+z-z
2 z
2 3
+z ... when O < l ~ l < l * ~

Exercise 15
2 ~ ~+ 1 2z3+ 1
Here AZ)= 7 =- -- 2 z + - - - ,by partial fractions.
z + z z(z+ 1) z z+l

- 1
a)f(z)=2+--3-
(-1)
f"(z)=
(-1)?- 3 (- 2!
and so on.
z2 (2 + 112' 23 (z+ 1) 3

:. Taylor Series expense of&) about z = 1 is ,

 Con~plexIntegration

1
(1 +i)"+' I (z - iln + ' Ans.
b) For Laurent series, consider the annulus 0 < I z I < 1, we have

1
=&+--3 ( 1 - z + z 2 - z 3 + z 4 - z 5 + ...) for O < J z I < 1
z