Professional Documents
Culture Documents
E.G. Giakoumis
Lion Hellas SA, Peugeot Automobiles Distr., Athens
where p is the mean pressure drop across the injection for the loaded bearings.
nozzle in MPa (derived by the fuel pump submodel), g is
3
the density of air in kg/m at the time the injection starts, In the above relations, the quantity
3
and Vtot is the amount of fuel delivered per cycle in mm
per pump stroke. R1 cp / r sin sin cos / 1 2
sin 2 (6)
Heat loss to the cylinder walls - The model of Annand is
used to simulate the heat loss to the cylinder walls for is the instantaneous reduced piston speed [17]. Also, nc
both the main chamber and the prechamber [26,19,20]. and no are the number of compression and oil rings,
A simple model has also been used to update the wall respectively, w the ring width (wc for the compression
temperature at each consecutive cycle as a result of the rings and wo for the oil rings), pr the elastic pressure of
increase in load (and thus fuelling). For this purpose an the rings, pg the instantaneous main chamber gas
equation with an “hysterysis” (time lag due to inertia) pressure found from the energy analysis, M the length of
factor is developed: the piston skirt, nv the number of valves, Ns the valve
spring force, rjb the radius of the journal bearing, h the
thickness of the lubricating-oil film between piston skirt
Tw = Two + Tw 1 e -dt t (4) and cylinder liner, and finally the oil dynamic viscosity.
where dt is a coefficient deciding how fast the wall Total friction toque at each degree crank angle is the
temperature responds to the changes in fuelling, Two is sum of the above six terms, i.e.
the initial wall temperature, and Tw=(Twst-Two) with Twst
the instantaneous steady-state wall temperature 6
according to the current fuelling. Tfr ( ) Tfr i ( ) (7)
i=1
Friction modelling - For the calculation of friction inside
the cylinder the method proposed by Rezeka and Henein The coefficients c1 to c6 in Equations (5) are derived
[27,18,28] is adopted, which describes the non-steady through calibration with experimental data at steady-state
profile of friction torque during each cycle. In this method conditions.
the total amount of friction is divided into six parts; three
of these parts are concerned with the cylinder According to Winterbone and Tennant [10], rapid
movement, as follows: changes in loading lead to instantaneous, though
considerable, deflections of the crankshaft due to great
0.5 accelerations, resulting in an increase of transient
Tfr1 c1 (r R 1 ) (p r + p g )w D (n o + 0.4n c ) r R 1 (5a)
mechanical friction. The following correlation is thus
developed [16-18] for the transient case:
for the ring viscous lubrication,
( )
Tfr2 c2 D n c w (p r + p g )(1 - sin ) r R 1 (5b) Tfr ( ) trans Tfr ( ) 1+c fr (8)
max
77.5
67.5
- ci (i=1-6) : 25 / 0.197 / 0.03 / 1.768 / 2.149 / 0.08
65.0
57.5
Last Cylinder in firing order
- Length of piston skirt, M : 152.1 mm,
55.0
- Journal bearing radius, rjb : 57.5 mm, 52.5
Initial Speed 1180rpm, Load-change 10->75%
- Thickness of oil film, h : 0.0018 mm, 50.0
170.0
- Valve spring force, Ns : 300 N, 160.0
2
- Ring elastic pressure, pr : 20,000 N/m , 150.0
100.0
- Increase during transient operation (Eq. (8)) cfr : 0.5
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
Multi-cylinder model - For the proper simulation of the 50.0
transient engine performance, a multi-cylinder engine 40.0
model is developed, i.e. one in which all the governing 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
differential and algebraic equations are solved Number of Cycles
individually for every one cylinder of the 6-cylinder engine
under study. At steady-state operation the performance Figure 1. Comparison in the performance between first and last in
of each cylinder is essentially the same, due to the firing order cylinders after an increase in load.
steady-state operation of the governor clutch resulting in
the same amount of fuel being injected per cycle.
st d2 z dz 2 2
Tac (1 ac )T2 ac Tcw (9b) 2
a1 a2z a3z a4 a5 (13)
d d
with T2 the charge air temperature at the compressor
outlet, Tcw the cooling water temperature, and cac a with constants ai (i=1-5) derived after calibration against
constant incorporating the aftercooler thermal inertia. experimental data under transient conditions.
The ac for the present engine was found to be best
correlated with the brake mean effective pressure COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE - All the equations of
o
(bmep), due to the fact of increasing cooling water flow the above analyzed simulation are solved for every ¼ CA
o
rates with increasing engine load; a second order for the closed part of each cycle, or every ½ CA for the
correlation was adopted, i.e. open part, separately for each cylinder. The dynamic
ones are solved once every degree crank angle for the
diesel engine cylinders to find the instantaneous values
ac b1 b 2 (bmep) b 3 (bmep ) 2 (9c)
for engine speed N and crankshaft acceleration , and
o
every 120 CA for the turbocharger.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES AND
Engine dynamics - If Gtot represents the total system
MEASUREMENTS
moment of inertia (engine, flywheel and load), then the
conservation of energy principle applied to the total
system (engine plus load) yields [20,3,16-18]: The objective of the experimental test bed developed
was to validate the transient performance of the engine
simulation. To accomplish this task the engine was
d coupled to a hydraulic brake (dynamometer). Strategic
Te ( , ) - TL ( ) - fr ( , ) trans G tot (10)
dt measuring points were connected to a computer data
logging system for recording and processing engine and
where Te( , ) stands for the instantaneous value of the turbocharger variables. The basic data for the engine,
engine torque, consisting of the gas and the inertia turbocharger, brake and data processing system are
forces torque. In the analysis, the complex (reciprocating shown in Table 2.
and rotating at the same time) movement of the
connecting rod has been taken into consideration [17]. The experimental investigation was conducted on an
Also, MWM TbRHS 518S, 6-cylinder, turbocharged and
aftercooled, indirect injection (IDI), medium-high speed
TL ( ) k s
(11) diesel engine of marine duty. The engine is fitted with a
Kuehnle, Kopp & Kausch (KKK) turbocharger and a
water aftercooler after the turbocharger compressor. It is
is the load torque, where, for the hydraulic brake coupled fitted with a variable-speed mechanical governor. The
to the engine examined, s=2. Lastly, Tfr( , )trans stands engine is permanently coupled to a Schenck hydraulic
for the friction torque during transient operation given by dynamometer. This is a variable fill brake, with the
Equation (8). loading accomplished via the brake lever which controls
the amount of water swirling inside the machine. Details
Turbocharger dynamics - Accordingly, the dynamic about the experimental setup can be found in Ref. [18].
equation for the turbocharger is [30,3,18]:
The first requirement from the engine test bed
d TC instrumentation was to investigate the steady-state
mTC W T WC = G TC (12)
dt performance of the examined engine. For this purpose,
an extended series of steady-state trials was conducted
where WC and W T are the instantaneous values for the in order on the one hand to examine the model’s
predictive capabilities and on the other to calibrate
compressor and turbine power, respectively, while the successfully the individual submodels. By so doing, the
turbocharger mechanical efficiency mTC is mainly a constants for the combustion, heat transfer, friction,
aftercooler and turbocharger simulation was made RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
possible to be estimated. The indirect injection type of
the engine was of particular challenge for the simulation Two typical examples of conducted transient
but the model achieved very good matching to the experiments are given in Figures 2 and 3. Here, the initial
experimental steady-state results proving the reliability of load was 10% of the full engine load at 1180 rpm. The
the single-zone modelling [18]. final load applied was almost 50% of the full engine load
(Figure 2), which corresponds to a brake load increase of
400%, and 75% of the full engine load (Figure 3), which
corresponds to a brake load increase of 650%; in both
Table 2. Basic data for engine, turbocharger, cases the load change was applied in 0.2 seconds.
dynamometer and data logging system.
The application of the final load was effected by the
Engine Model MWM TbRHS 518S, In-line, 6-cylinder movement of the brake control lever (this task lasted
and Type 4-stroke, compression ignition, IDI, 0.2 seconds), which in turn increased the amount of
turbocharged, a/cooled, marine duty water inside the brake by appropriately increasing the
Speed Range 1000-1500 rpm active surface of the inlet tube. However, this hydraulic
brake is characterized by a high mass moment of inertia,
Bore/Stroke 140 mm/180 mm 2
in the order of 5.375 kg m , resulting in long, abrupt and
Compr. Ratio 17.7 non-linear actual load-change profile. The increased
Max. Power 320 HP (236 kW) @ 1500 rpm duration of the load application was accounted for in the
Max.Torque 1520 Nm @ 1250 rpm simulation model by increasing the “real” load application
time to 1.3 sec. The non-linear character of the load
Intake Valve o o
51 CA before TDC/60 CA after BDC application, which could not be accounted for in the
Open./Closure simulation, is responsible for the difference observed
Exh. Valve o o between experimental and simulated results during the
64 CA before BDC/47 CA after TDC
Open./Closure early cycles of Figures 2 and 3 and is more obvious in
Figure 3 where the load increase is greater. On the other
Bosch PE-P series, in-line, 6-cylinder
hand, the matching between experimental and predicted
Fuel Pump with mechanical governor Bosch
transient responses is satisfactory for both engine and
RSUV 300/900
turbocharger variables (engine speed, maximum
Brake Schenck U1-40, hydraulic brake pressure for main chamber, fuel pump rack position and
Total Moment 15.60 kg m
2 boost pressure) as regards the final conditions. More
of Inertia experimental-simulated results are given in Ref. [18]
KKK M4B 754/345, Single-stage, covering the whole speed and load range of the engine in
Turbocharger hand as regards both steady-state and transient
Model & Type centrifugal compressor, Single-stage,
twin entry, axial turbine operation.
-4 2
T/C Moment 7.5x10 kg m In the following diagrams the effect of various dynamic,
of Inertia thermodynamic and design parameters on the engine
Data Logging Two 12-bit, 8-channel ADCs, 100kHz and turbocharger transient response will be investigated.
System max. sampling rate, installed on IBM For all cases analysed below, unless otherwise stated,
PCs the following assumptions are valid:
1.09
75.0
60.0 1.05
1.04
55.0
1.03
50.0
1.02
45.0
1.01
40.0 1.00
1200 50.0
1180
35.0
30.0
1170
25.0
Simulation
1160
Experiment 20.0
1150 15.0
10.0
1140
5.0
1130
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Number of Cycles Number of Cycles
Figure 2. Experimental and predicted transient response for a 10-50% increase in load.
80.0 1.40
75.0 1.35
M ax. Pressure (bar) - Cyl. No1
65.0 1.25
60.0 1.20
55.0 1.15
50.0 1.10
45.0 1.05
40.0 1.00
1200 80.0
1180 70.0
1170
Engine Speed (rpm )
60.0
1160
1150
50.0
1140
1130 40.0
1120
Simulation
1100
20.0
1090
1080
10.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1000 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Number of Cycles Number of Cycles
Figure 3. Experimental and predicted transient response for a 10-75% increase in load.
Quadruple diagrams will be used to highlight each fourth interesting property. The greater the turbocharger
parameter’s effect. In all diagrams the engine speed, the mass moment of inertia, the slower the response of the
fuel pump rack position and the boost pressure turbocharger as it is clearly depicted in the boost
responses will be given. The fourth sub-diagram will pressure and the turbocharger speed sub-diagrams.
depict a different property each time; one closely related Thus, the response of the engine through the engine’s
to the examined parameter (for example turbocharger own great mass moment of inertia does not allow
speed response when the effect of turbocharger mass significant differences between the three examined
moment of inertia is examined). cases to be revealed. It should be noted also that the
case with the very small turbocharger inertia leads to a
Figure 4 presents the effect of the type of the loading pulsating engine response with decreasing magnitude
connected to the engine. Here, apart from the nominal which is unacceptable.
case of the quadratic loading (water brake), the rigid
loading (s=0 in Equation (11)) and linear loading (s=1) Figure 7 focuses on the interesting case where the static
are also examined. The load torque was chosen as the injection timing is delayed for cylinder No 3 of the engine
interesting property for depiction in Figure 4 together with due to some malfunctioning of the fuel pump. The brake
the engine speed, fuel pump rack position and boost specific fuel consumption (bsfc) was chosen here as the
pressure. For those types of loading which are affected characteristic property. Two cases are examined: In the
o
by the engine speed, the final equilibrium is reached first one the static injection timing is 180 CA after BDC
o
faster and with lower speed droop (difference between (bottom dead center) and in the second 200 CA after
initial and final engine speed). The rigid loading, on the BDC for the third cylinder of the engine in hand (in the
o
other hand, is a more difficult case, since the response of nominal case the static injection timing is 154 CA after
the system depends on the engine alone. Nonetheless, BDC). The delayed injection reduces considerably the
since the engine in hand possesses a large moment of efficiency of the third cylinder where, as revealed from
o
inertia and the applied load-change of 650% is definitely the bsfc sub-diagram, in the early cycles of the 200 CA
within the engine’s “capability”, the differences observed case the third cylinder is motored by the other 5
between the three examined resistance types is not great cylinders, thus retarding the whole speed response of the
as regards all the depicted properties. For this reason a engine. Consequently, the fuel pump rack is forced to
fourth case is also investigated in Figure 4. Here, a 900% reach more extreme positions drifting the boost pressure
load-change is applied for the rigid loading case. The fuel too. It is important to note that even though only one of
pump rack reaches its 100% position after almost 17 the six cylinders suffers a delayed injection, this was
cycles (roughly 1.7 seconds) and remains there enough for a notable increase in the engine speed droop
unchanged, but it cannot prevent the engine from stalling compared to the nominal case.
since the load torque is bigger than the maximum torque
the engine can produce at these speeds. Figure 8 investigates the effect of the cylinder wall
temperature in the speed response of the engine. In the
Figure 5 is focused on the effect of the duration of the first case the cylinder wall temperature is 400 K assumed
applied load-change, i.e. 0, 1.3 (nominal) and 3 sec. The to remain steady throughout the transient event. In the
interesting property chosen here for depiction is the second case (nominal) the wall temperature varies from
reduced angular acceleration of the engine crankshaft 400 to 500 K according to the engine (steady-state)
(see also Equation (8)). It is obvious that the fast fuelling, as described by Equation (4) with the value of
application of load increases the initial crankshaft angular dt=0.46, and in the third case the cylinder wall is
deceleration considerably, thus affecting the whole speed assumed to remain steady but now at 600 K; the latter
profile and the cycle at which the minimum speed is resembles the “adiabatic” or low heat rejection case. It is
th
observed (10 cycle for the instantaneous load made obvious from the speed responses given in Figure
th
application compared to the 35 cycle for the “3 sec” 8 that the cylinder wall temperature profile does not
case). Although the examined load-time schedules cover influence the speed response of the engine, although it
a large spectrum, the final engine speed droop remains would be very interesting to investigate its
only slightly affected by the particular dynamic parameter thermodynamic side-effects (mainly from the second-law
whereas the maximum speed droop is greatly influenced. perspective). Since there is not enough time available
The 0 sec load application case leads also to a pulsating during the small duration of the transient event for the
recovery (with decreasing magnitude) which is in general wall temperature to reach its new steady-state
not acceptable. equilibrium dictated by Equation (4), we observe that the
speed responses of cases 1 (Tw assumed steady at
Figure 6 investigates the effect of the turbocharger mass 400K) and 2 (Tw ranging from 400 to 500 K according to
moment of inertia on the response of the engine. Two steady-state fuelling) almost coincide; a fact which is
cases are examined apart from the nominal one. In the more obvious until cycle 15 (approximately 1.5 sec after
first case the T/C inertia is one fifth of the nominal inertia the commencement of the transient event).
and in the second one its value is 10 times the nominal
one. The turbocharger speed was chosen here as the
100.0 1.60
1.55
90.0
1.50
1.35
60.0
1.30
50.0
1.25
40.0 1.20
1.15
30.0
1.10
20.0
1.05
10.0
Initial load 10%, 650% load-change 1.00
1200 280.0
VARIOUS LOAD-TYPES EXAMINED
260.0
1180
240.0
1160
220.0
Engine Speed (rpm )
1140
Load Torque (N m )
200.0
1120 180.0
160.0
1100
140.0
1080 Nominal case, quadratic load
120.0
Rigid load, s=0
1060 100.0
Linear load, s=1
80.0
1040 Rigid load and 900% load-change
60.0
1020
40.0
1000 20.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Number of Cycles Number of Cycles
100.0 1.60
1.55
90.0
1.50
Fuel pum p rack position (% )
80.0
1.45
1.35
60.0
1.30
50.0
1.25
40.0 1.20
1.15
30.0
1.10
20.0
1.05
0.40
1160
0.20
1150
0.00
1140
-0.20
1130
-0.40
1120
-0.60
1110 -0.80
1100 -1.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Number of Cycles Number of Cycles
1.55
80.0
1.50
50.0 1.30
1.25
40.0
1.20
30.0 1.15
1.10
20.0
1.05
Initial load 10%, 650% load-change
10.0 1.00
1190 VARIOUS T/C MASS MOMENTS OF INERTIA EXAMINED 50000
45000
1180
40000
35000
1160
30000
1150 25000
20000
1140
15000
1130
10000
1120
5000
1110 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Number of Cycles Number of Cycles
Figure 6. The effect of turbocharger mass moment of inertia on the transient response.
100.0 1.60
1.55
90.0
1.50
Fuel pum p rack position (% )
80.0
1.45
1.35
60.0
1.30
50.0
1.25
40.0 1.20
1.15
30.0
1.10
20.0
Initial load 10%, 650% load-change 1.05
10.0 1.00
1190 VARIOUS STATIC INJECTION TIMINGS EXAMINED Nominal case (154deg CA) 2000
1170 1250
Engine Speed (rpm )
1000
1160
750
1150 500
250
1140
0
1130 -250
-500
1120
-750
1110 -1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Number of Cycles Number of Cycles
1170 Tw=400 K
Nominal case
Tw=400->500 K (nominal) 1170
1150
1140
1130 1140
1120
1130
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Number of Cycles
1120
80.0 1.35
50.0 1.20
40.0 1.15
30.0 1.10
20.0 1.05
1.35
1160
1.30
1150 1.25
1.20
1140
1.15
1130
1.10
1120
1.05
1110 1.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Number of Cycles Number of Cycles
90.0 1.40
80.0 1.35
Fuel pum p rack position (% )
70.0 1.30
50.0 1.20
40.0 1.15
30.0 1.10
20.0 1.05
1.45
1180
Exhaust M anifold Pressure (bar)
1.35
1160
1.30
1150 1.25
1.20
1140
1.15
1130
1.10
1120
1.05
1110 1.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Number of Cycles Number of Cycles
Figure 10. The effect of exhaust manifold configuration (single and twin-entry turbine) on the transient response.
The type of loading applied to the engine has a using a transputer based concurrent computer”, SAE
rather straightforward effect on the engine paper No 922226, 1992.
response. Under particular circumstances, e.g. 8. Bazari, Z., “Diesel exhaust emissions prediction
100% application of rigid loading, extreme under transient operating conditions”, SAE paper No
situations, such as engine stall, may be 940666, 1994.
experienced. 9. Murayama, T., Miyamoto, N., Tsuda, T., Suzuki, M.
The load-time schedule affects significantly the and Hasegawa, S., “Combustion behaviors under
profile of the response but the final equilibrium accelerating operation of an IDI diesel engine”, SAE
conditions are more or less unaffected, while an paper No 800966, 1980.
instant load application can lead to pulsating 10. Winterbone, D.E. and Tennant, D.W.H., “The
recovery. variation of friction and combustion rates during
A smaller turbocharger mass moment of inertia diesel engine transients”, SAE paper No 810339,
causes faster response but can lead to pulsating
1981.
engine recovery.
11. Jiang, Q. and van Gerpen, J.H., “Prediction of diesel
A delayed injection in even one of the six
engine particulate emission during transient cycles”,
cylinders can cause significant increase in the
speed droop. SAE paper No 920466, 1992.
12. Filipi, Z., Wang, Y. and Assanis, D., “Effect of
The effect of the cylinder wall temperature
(profile) is shown to be minimal as regards variable geometry turbine (vgt) on diesel engine and
engine equilibrium profile and final conditions. vehicle system transient response”, SAE paper No
The effect of the aftercooler effectiveness in the 2001-01-1247.
engine transient response is similarly minimal. 13. Arcoumanis, C., Megaritis, A. and Bazari, Z.,
The exhaust manifold configuration can “Analysis of transient exhaust emissions in a
markedly affect the engine and turbocharger turbocharged vehicle diesel engine”, Institution of
response after a ramp increase in load, leading Mechanical Engineers, Conference on
even to unsteady and pulsating operation if a Turbocharging and Turbochargers, London, U.K.,
very small manifold volume is chosen. Paper C484/038, pp. 71-81, 1994.
It is strongly suspected that greater differences between 14. Assanis, D.N., Filipi, Z., Fiveland, S. and Syrimis, M.,
the examined parameters exist, which could not be “A methodology for cycle-by-cycle transient heat
revealed due to the significantly high mass moment of release analysis in a turbocharged direct-injection
inertia of the engine under study and its narrow speed diesel engine”, SAE paper No 2000-01-1185.
range. 15. Ciesla, C., Keribar, R. and Morel, T., “Engine/
powertrain/vehicle modeling tool applicable to all
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o: initial conditions
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o
28. Rakopoulos, C.D., Hountalas, D.T., Koutroubousis, CA: degrees crank angle
A.P. and Zannis, T.C., “Application and evaluation of BDC: bottom dead centre
a detailed friction model on a DI diesel engine with bmep: brake mean effective pressure, bar
extremely high peak combustion pressures”, SAE IDI: indirect injection
paper No 2002-01-0068, SAE Transactions, Journal rpm: revolutions per minute
of Engines, Vol. 111, pp. 308-321, 2002. SMD : Sauter mean diameter, m
TDC: top dead centre
29. Kouremenos, D.A., Rakopoulos, C.D., Hountalas,
D.T. and Kotsiopoulos, P.N., “A simulation technique
for the fuel injection system of diesel engines”,
ASME-Winter Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia,
Proc. Advanced Energy Systems, Vol. 24, pp. 91-
102, 1991.
30. Watson, N. and Janota, M.S., “Turbocharging the
Internal Combustion Engine”, MacMillan, London,
1982.
NOMENCLATURE
a,b,c: constants
c p: piston speed, m/s
2
G: mass moment of inertia, kg m
k: load torque constant
N: engine speed, rpm
p: pressure, bar
r: crank radius, m
T: temperature, K, or torque, N m
t: time, s
3
V: volume, m
z: fuel pump rack position, m