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In a solid, the forces of attraction are strongest, holding the particles tightly in
Compound: A substance A solid compound A gaseous compound: position. As the solid is heated, and the particles vibrate faster, these forces are
made from two or more partially overcome allowing the particles to move freely as a liquid – this is called
different elements bonded melting. As the liquid is heated more, the particles gain so much energy that the
together forces of attraction break completely allowing particles to ‘fly around’ as a gas –
this is called boiling. The reverse of the these processes are condensing and
freezing. Under specific conditions, some solids can turn straight to gases – a
process called subliming (the reverse is called desubliming).
PROPERTIES
Mixture: A substance A mixture of compounds and elements:
Solids Liquids Gases
made from two or more
•Have a fixed shape •Take the shape of their •Take the shape of their
elements or compounds
•Can’t be compressed container container
mixed but not joined
•Particles close together •Can’t be compressed •Can be compressed
in a regular pattern •Particles close together •Particles widely spaced
•Particles vibrate around but disordered in random order
a fixed point •Particles move freely •Particles moving very
fast.
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY best possible separation of spots.
C2: EXPERIMENTAL Paper chromatography is a technique that can be
used to separate mixtures of dyes or pigments and
TECHNIQUES is used to test the purity of a mixture or to see
what it contains. Firstly a very strong solution of
the mixture is prepared which is used to build up a
FILTRATION
small intense spot on a piece of absorbent paper.
Used to separate solids
This is then placed in a jar of solvent (with a lid). As
from liquids. The mixture
the solvent soaks up the paper, it dissolves the
is poured through a filter
mixture-spot, causing it to move up the paper with
paper in a funnel. The
the solvent. However since compounds have
liquid can pass through
different levels of solubility, they move up the
the small holes in the
paper at different speeds causing the individual
filter paper (to become
components to separate out. The solvent or
the filtrate) and the solid
combination of solvents can be changed to get the
gets left behind
(called the residue).
PURITY FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
It is important for chemists to be able to purify the When the liquids being distilled have similar
CRYSTALLISATION compounds they make, this is because the boiling points, normal distillation can’t separate
Crystallisation is used to separate mixtures of solid dissolved in impurities could be dangerous or just un-useful. them completely but simply gives a purer
liquid and relies on the fact that solids are more soluble at This is especially true for chemists making mixture. In this case a fractionating column is
higher temperatures. A solution containing a solid is cooled compounds that are consumed by people such as used. This provides a large surface area for
down until crystals form in the solution, these can then be drugs or food additives since the impurities may be condensation meaning much purer ‘fractions’ are
collected by filtration. toxic which would be very bad news! produced. The most important use of this is
separating crude oil into it’s useful components.
The related technique of recrystallisation can be used to WHICH TECHNIQUE?
DISTILLING AIR
separate a mixture of two soluble solids by taking advantage of You need to be able to select appropriate methods
Fractional distillation can be
the difference in their solubility. The mixture is dissolved in the to separate a given mixture. The key to this is look
conducted on very cold liquid
smallest possible amount of hot solvent. As the solution cools, for differences in the properties of the
air to separate it into
the less soluble compound forms crystals that can be collected components of the mixture such as their state,
nitrogen, oxygen and so on.
by filtration whilst the more soluble compound stays dissolved. solubility, melting/boiling point and so on. Then
The idea is the same but the
pick the method that best takes advantage of this
equipment is a little different.
DISTILLATION difference.
In distillation a mixture of
liquids is separated using the MELTING/BOILING POINTS
differences in their boiling No two substances have the exact same melting
points. The mixture is heated and boiling points. We can take advantage of this
until the liquid with the lowest to test the purity of a compound we have made. If
boiling point boils, the vapours we know what the melting or boiling point of the
then condense on the cold pure compound should be, we can then measure
surface of the condenser and the melting or boiling point of a sample we have
the pure(er) liquid is collected. produced and the closer it is to the pure value, the
more pure it is likely to be.
C3: ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND A NOBLE MATTER H
ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
ENERGY CHANGES
In exothermic reactions, chemical energy stored in the
reactants gets converted to heat energy. The products have
less chemical energy than the reactants and the difference is
the amount of heat released.
RATES OF REACTION
The ‘speed’ of a reaction is called its rate and is simply the
amount of new product formed every second.
REACTIVITY
Reaction with dilute acids (see Unit C9 for details) (Carbon, C)
sulphides of the metal. For example lead can be extracted from The reaction of metals with acids shows a similar patter with the most Zinc, Zn
an ore called galena (PbS, lead sulphide). reactive metals (K-Ca) reacting violently, the fairly reactive metals (Mg-Pb) Iron, Fe
Metals that are less reactive than carbon can be extracted by reacting gradually more slowly and the least reactive metals (Cu-Pt) not Tin, Sn
using carbon as a reducing agent (to steal the oxygen/ reacting at all. Lead, Pb
sulphur). More reactive metals are extracted by electrolysis. (Hydrogen, H)
Displacement Reactions
Copper, Cu
Iron is less reactive than carbon so can be reduced by it. This is The reactivity of metals relates to how easily they form ions, more
Silver, Ag
done in a blast furnace. Study the diagram then read the reactive metals like K form K+ ions much more easily than less reactive
Gold, Au
following: metals like Cu can form Cu+ ions. A more reactive metal will reduce a less
Platinum, Pt
•Step 1: Carbon (coke) reacts with oxygen (from the hot air reactive metal:
blast) Eg 1. Reaction with aqueous ions LEAST REACTIVE
C (s)+ O2(g) CO2(g) Zinc + Copper sulphate Zinc sulphate + copper
•Step 2: Carbon dioxide reacts with more carbon to make Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Zn2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + Cu2+(aq) USES OF METALS
carbon monoxide This happens because Zn is more reactive than Cu so is able to reduce it. Metals have many uses
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g) The Cu2+ gains electrons to become Cu so is reduced by the Zn. including:
•Step 3: Carbon monoxide reduces the iron oxide (iron ore) to Eg 2. Reaction with metal oxides •Aluminium – and its
make molten liquid iron. Iron oxide + aluminium aluminium oxide + iron alloys used for aircraft
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) Fe(l) + CO2(g) This happens since Al is more reactive than Fe so is able to reduce it. as they have low density
The limestone (CaCO3) reacts with impurities such as silicon to and great strength
These are called displacement reactions because the more reactive metal
form an easy-to-collect waste called slag (calcium silicate, •Aluminium – used for
takes the place of the less reactive metal.
CaSiO3): CaCO3 +SiO2 CaSiO 3+ CO2 food containers as the
ALLOYS Alloys are often harder than the waterproof oxide layer
Alloys are ‘mixtures of metals’ metals they are made from. In pure on its surface prevents
(although sometimes they can metals atoms are neatly lined up corrosion which could
contain a non-metal) that are made meaning they can slip past each taint the food.
by mixing molten metals. easily when hit. In alloys there are •Zinc - used to protect
Step 3 happens here atoms of different sizes which don’t steel either by coating it
Alloys often have very different (galvanising) or as
line up neatly so can’t slip past each
properties to the metals they are sacrificial protection –
Step 2 happens here other so easily making them harder.
made from and by varying their i.e. on a ship’s hull – a
Element Alloy
Step 1 happens here metals can be tailored to have lump of zinc prevents
specific desirable properties – this is rust as it is more
called metallurgy. reactive so corrodes
instead of the steel hull.
CARBON DIOXIDE, CO2 Thermal decomposition of carbonates e.g.:
There are many ways to produce CO2 including: CaCO3 CaO + CO2
C11: AIR AND WATER
Burning carbon-containing fuels: As a by product of respiration in living cells:
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O
Sulphuric acid is a strong acid which when diluted in water Finally, the sulphur trioxide is produced by first dissolving it in sulphuric acid to make oleum (H2S2O7)
produces two protons and a sulphate ion: which then makes more sulphuric acid on the addition of water:
It exhibits all the reactions typical of an acid as seen by its H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (l)
reactions with metals, alkalis, metal oxides and carbonates.
(see Unit C8 for details). Note: trying to dissolve SO3 directly in water produces a very fine mist of sulphuric with limited uses.
kerosene,
11-18 carbons
diesel, 15-21 carbons