FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION AND INVESTIGATION
In 1707, CASSINI, an astronomer suggested measuring
INTRODUCTION
Ballistics (gr. ba'llein, "throw") is the science that deals with the
motion, behavior, and effects of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs,
rockets, or the like; the science or art of designing and hurling projectiles so as
to achieve a desired performance. A ballistic body is a body which is free to
move, behave, and be modified in appearance, contour, or texture by ambient
conditions, substances, or forces, as by the pressure of gases in a gun, by
rifling in a barrel, by gravity, by temperature, or by air particles.
Firearm ballistics information is used in forensic science.
Separately from ballistics information, firearm and tool mark examinations
involve analyzing firearm, ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order to
establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a
crime.
Ballistics is sometimes subdivided into:
1. Internal ballistics, the study of the processes originally
accelerating the projectile, for example the passage of a bullet
through the barrel of a rifle;
2. Transition ballistics, the study of the projectile's behavior when it
leaves the barrel and the pressure behind the projectile is
equalized.
3. External ballistics, the study of the passage of the projectile
through space or the air; and
4. Terminal ballistics, the study of the interaction of a projectile
with its target, whether that be flesh (for a hunting bullet), steel
(for an anti-tank round), or even furnace slag (for an industrial slag
disruptor).
“Ballista” is a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl
large objects such as stones at a particular distance to deter animals or enemy
forces.
Today, the word Ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the
press and in the Police Parlance to Firearms Identification.
BALLISTICS
It is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic
knowledge, research and development, training, experience and education
of those who pioneered in this field.
Technically speaking, it refers to the "science of firearms
identification which involves the scientific examination of ballistics exhibits
such as: fired bullets; fired shells; firearms; and allied matters, used in crime.
Legally speaking, ballistics is the microscopic examination of fired
cartridge cases and bullets together with the recording and presentation by
means of photography of what is revealed by the microscope.
BALLISTICS THEORY
Ballistics is the scientific study of the propulsion and motion of
projectiles such as bullets, artillery shells, rockets and guided missiles.
Also includes the study of the destructive action of such projectiles.
The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided
into three parts:
1. bow resistance - due to air pressure at the head of the projectile;
2. skin friction - caused by the friction of air moving along the
middle portion of the body; and
3. base drag - due to the under-pressure and disturbance of the air
behind the base.
The following are pioneers in the study of force and projectiles:
1. GALILEO, NEWTON, and LEIBNIZ established the principles
of dynamics and the methods of calculus, studies which helped
the rapid development of external ballistics.
2. GALILEO and NEWTON were both interested in the force
called air resistance, now usually called aerodynamic drag, which
reduces the speed of a projectile.
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3.
firearm’s muzzle velocity.
INTERIOR BALLISTICS
It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The
time during which the projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very
short. From the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot
can be heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a
modern rifle.
Interior ballistics involves:
1. Ignition of the primer.
2. Flames is produced
3. Combustion of the gunpowder
4. Energy that is generated
5. Force/Pressure developed
6. Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle)
7. Rotation of the bullet
8. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume, and
pressure of the gases resulting from combustion of the propellant charge in
the gun; it also deals with the work performed by the expansion of these gases
on the gun, its carriage, and the projectile. Some of the critical elements
involved in the study of interior ballistics are the relationship of the weight
of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of bore; the optimum size,
shape, and density of the propellant grains for different guns; and the
related problems of maximum and minimum muzzle pressures.
Note the following:
The British engineer Benjamin Robins conducted many
experiments in interior ballistics. His findings justly entitle him to be called
the father of modern gunnery.
Late in the 18th century the Anglo-American physicist Benjamin
Thompson made the first attempt to measure the pressure generated by
gunpowder. The account of his experiments was the most important
contribution to interior ballistics that had been made up to that time.
About 1760 French ballisticians determined the relationship of
muzzle velocity to length of barrel by measuring the velocity of a musket ball
and cutting off a portion of the barrel before taking the velocity of the next
shot. By using the results of these experiments and advances in chemistry and
thermodynamics, ballisticians developed formulas showing the relationship
between muzzle velocity and weight and shape of projectile; weight, type, and
grain size of powder charge; pressure and temperature in the barrel; and the
size of the powder chamber and the length of the barrel.
Related Terms in Interior Ballistics
1. Action – term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.
2. Burning Rate - An arbitrary index of the quickness that burning
propellant changes into gas. Burning rate is controlled by the
chemical composition, the size and shape of the propellant grains,
and the pressure at which the burning takes place. IMR 5010
powder is very slow burning and Bulls eye is fast burning.
3. Bulk Density - The ratio of the weight of a given volume of
powder vs. the weight of the same volume of water.
4. Chamber Pressure – the pressure generated within the chamber
erroneously called breeched pressure.
5. Charge Weight to Bullet Weight ratio - This is the ratio of the
weight of the powder charge to the weight of the projectile.
6. Detonation – Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas
instead of solids to cause the high explosives to exert full power of
shock. The speed of detonation varies in different explosive but in
some it is as high as 7000 yards in a second.
7. Energy - is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot-pound means
that amount of energy, which would be capable of lifting a weight
of one pound through a distance of one foot Drop-Block Action-
That type of action in which the breechblock rises and forces
vertically in cuts in the receiver side walls. Lever actuated as a
rule.
 8. Expansion Ratio - The ratio of the capacity of the powder
chamber plus bore (in grains of water) to the capacity of the
powder chamber (in grains of water).
9. Foot – Pound - the amount of work required to raise one pound
one foot high against the force of gravity.
10. Foot second - velocity expressed in foot per second.
11. Gas - a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a
relatively great expansion and spontaneous tendency.
12. Hangfire - Occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or
delayed in firing.
13. Knocking Power - the power of the bullet which delivers a very
heavy paralyzing blow that put the victim down and may then
recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.
14. Loading Density - The ratio of the weight of the powder charge to
the capacity of the powder chamber (case). It is usually expressed
as the ratio of the charge weight to the capacity the powder
chamber in grains of water. (See below.) Generally, the more fully
the powder charge fills the case the more consistent and accurate
the load will be. On the other hand if the loading density is too
low, (too much free space in the case) it can cause erratic ignition,
change in the pressure curve (moving the peak towards the
muzzle), or even overly rapid burning ("detonation") of the powder
charge. (One reason manuals list minimum or starting loads.)
15. Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This is different
from hang fire which merely a delayed combustion, while misfire a
complete failure eve to start combustion.
16. Powder Chamber Capacity - As with most interior ballistics
capacity measurements it is usually expressed in grains of water. It
is determined by measuring the weight of water that a fired case
from the test firearm can contain with a bullet seated to its normal
depth. Note that this varies with different bullets or seating depth
as well as the dimensions of the chamber, and the brand of case.
17. Pressure – Outward push of gases from powder combustion
against cartridge case, chamber and bore.
18. Sectional Density - The ratio of the bullet's weight (in pounds) to
its diameter.
19. PSI - Pounds per square inch. It is often seen designated as PSIA.
This designation is now used to signify a measurement of chamber
pressure taken with a piezo-electric device. Piezo-electric units
operate in a similar fashion to the copper crusher units but use a
reusable crystal "crusher" that changes its electrical properties in
response to pressure. When connected to suitable recording
equipment the entire pressure pulse history can be recorded or
displayed. The peak pressure recorded by a piezo-electric peak
device usually reads about 5,000 psi higher than the figure
determined by the copper crusher method.
20. Recoil – the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the
forward movement of the bullet during the explosions.
21. Residual Pressure – the pressure remaining in the chamber after
the bullet has left the barrel.
EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
Exterior Ballistics deals with the motion of projectiles from the
time they leave the muzzle of the firearm to the time they hit the target. The
flight of most bullet or projectile does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum
range, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation of about 33.
CONDITIONS - refers to the natural laws.
a. velocity - speed per unit of time ex. M16 - 3,300 ft/sec.
b. energy - fatal equivalent of a bullet.
c. yaw - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.
d. gyroscopic action - refers to the stillness of its rotating
motion and attained its highest momentum or stability in
flight and penetrating power.
In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight,
initial velocities, rotation, air resistance, and gravity help determine the
path of a projectile from the time it leaves the gun until it reaches the target.
Until the middle of the 16th century it was believed that bullets
move in straight lines from the gun to the target and that shells fired from
mortars describe a path made up of two straight lines joined by an arc of a
circle. The Italian mathematician Niccolò Tartaglia, in a published work on
gunnery, claimed that no part of the path of a projectile could be a straight line
and that the greater the velocity of the projectile the flatter its path. Tartaglia
invented the gunner's quadrant used to determine elevation of the muzzle of
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a gun. He is and Italian scientist who a book in which he said that the
trajectory of a bullet was really a continuous curve. He directed some firing
tests to determine this angle, and discovered that it was near 45 degrees and he
noted that the trajectory was continuously curve.
Galileo proved that in a vacuum a projectile describes a parabolic
arc. The description of the law of gravitation by the British scientist Sir Isaac
Newton made plain the cause of the curvilinear motion of projectiles. By the
use of calculus he determined the momentum transferred from the projectile to
the particles of air at rest; this method of calculating air drag has been
superseded by the use of tables prepared from experimental firings.
Two methods have been used to determine the velocity of a
projectile after it leaves the gun. One method measures the momentum of the
projectile; the other measures the time required for the projectile to travel a
given distance. The first method is the older, and in the past, when guns and
projectiles were small, velocities low, and ranges short, the results were
sufficiently accurate for most practical purposes. The ballistic pendulum and
gun pendulum were used to measure projectile momentum, but these devices
have been supplanted by cheaper and more accurate machines working on the
principles of the second method.
The ballistic pendulum was developed about 1743 by Robins,
who was the first to undertake a systematic series of experiments to determine
the velocity of projectiles. The principle of the ballistic pendulum, as well as
of the gun pendulum, which was developed by Thompson, is the transfer of
momentum from a projectile with a small mass and a high velocity to a large
mass with a resultant low velocity.
The ballistic pendulum consisted of a massive plate of iron to
which was bolted a block of wood to receive the impact of the projectile; the
pendulum was suspended freely from a horizontal axis. The block, when
struck by the projectile, recoiled through a certain arc that was easily
measured. Knowing the arc of recoil and the masses of the projectile and the
pendulum, the velocity of the projectile could be determined by calculation.
The ballistic pendulum was able to withstand the impact of musket balls only;
however, by determining the relations that should exist between the caliber,
length of barrel, and charge of power, Robins substantially advanced the
science of gunnery.
By the second method, the velocity of a projectile is determined by
measuring the time required for it to travel a known length of its path.
Numerous machines have been devised for this purpose; in 1840 the British
physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone suggested the use of electricity for
measuring small intervals of time. This suggestion led to the development of
the chronograph, a device for recording, by electrical means, the time required
for a projectile to pass between two screens of fine wire.
The formulas and tables for the exterior ballistics of each new type
of gun or cannon are more or less empirical and must be tested by actual
experiment before the aiming devices can be accurately calibrated.
Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and
movements of the bullet after it has left the gun muzzle. It includes:
1. Muzzle blast - the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due
to the sudden escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with
the air in the surrounding atmosphere at the muzzle point.
2. Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point.
3. Trajectory - the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight
from the gun muzzle to the target. The following are the kinds of
trajectory: straight horizontal line - parabola-like flight - vertical
drop
4. Range - the straight distance between the muzzle point and the
target.
a. Accurate (effective) range - the distance within the shooter
has control of his shots, meaning he can place his shots at
the desired spots.
b. Maximum range - the farthest distance that a projectile can
be propelled from a firearm.
* While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver
are supposed to be effective in only 50-70 yards, all of them can send
their bullets much further than that and are capable of inflicting fatal
wounds at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber and
gunpowder content.
 5. Velocity - rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.
Long barrel rifle – up to 3,000 yards accurate range and its hinge
muzzle velocity of 1000-4000 ft./sec.
* Bullets from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000
revolutions per second, but over the first few yards of trajectory –
distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly unstable; the end
of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This
phenomenon is called “TAILWAG”, and is of considerable important
in evaluating gunshot wounds. A bullet with “tailwag” does not strike
its target clearly.
6. Air resistance - resistance encountered by the bullet while in
flight.
7. Pull of gravity - downward reaction of the bullet while in flight.
8. Penetration - depth of entry on target.
Note on the following Contributors:
1. 1707 - Cassini. Suggested measuring of firearms muzzle velocity
2. 1857 – Monsieur Noiles. Published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu
Courtes’. His thesis dealt with the subject of wounds made by
small firearms.
3. 1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse
its load of case shot with a small bursting charge, increasing the
effective range of case.
4. 1898 – Mr. Corin in Paris, France. Published an article titled “La
Determination de La Distance a’Laguelle un Coup de Feu a e’te’
Tire” (Determination of the distance at which a shot has been
discharged from a firearm).
5. 1900 – Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hal in Buffalo, New York (USA).
A very significant article entitled “The Missile and the Weapon”
was published in the June issue of the Buffalo Medical Journal.
6. 1903 – Mr. E.J. Churchill in London, England (uncle of Robert
Churchill of later fame as a firearms examiner for the United
Kingdom). He provided testimony as to some experimentation that
he had performed involving the distance of which a shot had been
fired into a human skull.
7. 1900 - Dr. Albert Llewellyn. He wrote an article entitled “The
Missile and the Weapon”, which dealt with a variety of issues to
include how measurement of land and groove markings are made
on bullets. He also discussed the examination of gunpowder
residues in barrels of firearms and the changes that take place over
time after the weapon is fired.
8. 1921 - Mr. Jorge T. Filho. He published an article entitled
“Estimation of Distance from which a Bullet was Fired” (“Da
Diagnose da Distance nos Tiros de Projecteis Multiplos Chumbo
de Caca”).
9. Emile Monnin Chamot. He authored a 61-paged monograph
entitled “The Microscopy of Small Arms Primers”.
Note on the following Terms in Exterior Ballistics:
1. Accuracy Range – The maximum distance at which a particular
gun and cartridges will consistently place all shots in the standard
target for that distance.
2. Accurate Range – The distance within which the shooter has
control of his shots.
3. Back Curve - This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that
drops below the critical zone beyond the point blank range. Past
this point the trajectory begins to drop off very rapidly with range
and the point of impact becomes very difficult to estimate.
4. Ballistic Coefficient – The means that the bullet may lose its
speed very rapidly during its flight the air. This is a number that
relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet's flight and which can
be used to later predict a bullet's trajectory under different
circumstances through what are called "drag tables."
5. Bullet Energy – the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in
other words, its ability to keep going when it meets an obstacle and
to do work on the obstacle is immense importance, for obviously
the more power a bullet has an the harder it is to stop the more
effective it can be as a weapon
6. Bullet Trajectory - This is the bullet's path as it travels down
range. It is parabolic in shape and because the line of the bore is
below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward, the
bullet's path crosses the line of sight at two locations.
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7. Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's path where it neither
rises nor falls greater than the dimension specified. Most shooters
set this as ± 3" to 4" from the line of sight, although other
dimensions are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based
on one-half of the vital zone of the usual target. Typical vital zones
diameters are often given as: 3" to 4" for small game, and 6" to 8"
for big game and anti-personnel use.
8. Drift - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand
rifling curves to the right while that of the left and rifling curves to
the left.
9. Effective Range- The maximum distance at which a bullet may
reasonably be expected to travel accurately and kill a particular
type of live targe
10. Extreme Range – The greatest distance the bullet will travel when
the cartridge is fired.
11. Flat Trajectory - A comparative term used to indicate very little
curvature in the flight in the bullet from muzzle to point of impact.
When the velocity is high, comparatively flat trajectory.
12. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association
of America, gallery rules required stance from firing point to target
of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for
.22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing
may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of
25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as
“indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually only to the
short range .22 caliber installation.
13. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association
of America, gallery rules required stance from firing point to target
of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for
.22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing
may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of
25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as
“indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually only to the
short range .22 caliber installation.
14. Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first
crosses the line of sight. This is normally occurs at a range of about
25 yards.
15. Instrument Velocity - the velocity of a projectile measured by the
scientific instrument called chronograph, at a specified point on its
trajectory. Always lower than the muzzle velocity.
16. Key-hole Shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting
the target sideways as a result of not spinning on its axis.
17. Maximum Point Blank Range - This is the farthest distance at
which the bullet's path stays within the critical zone. In other
words the maximum range at which you don't have to adjust your
point of aim to hit the target's vital zone. Unless there is some over
riding reason to the contrary shots should not generally be
attempted much past this distance. In the words of the Guru, "It is
unethical to attempt to take game beyond 300 meters." If you do,
you should write yourself a letter explaining why it was necessary
to do so. An approximate rule of thumb says that the maximum
point blank range is approximately your zero range plus 40 yards.
18. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be
propelled from a firearm.
19. Maximum Ordinate - This is the maximum height of the
projectile's path above the line of sight for a given point of impact
and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the zero range and
it is determined by your zeroing range.
20. Mid-range Trajectory - This is the height of the bullets path
above the line of sight at half way to the zero range. It does not
occur at the same range as the maximum ordinate height which can
be greater.
21. Minute of Angle (MOA) - A "minute" of angle is 1/60 of a degree
which for all practical purposes equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of
range. Thus 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch and at 300 yards it is 3
inches. The term is commonly used to express the accuracy
potential of a firearm.
22. Point Blank Range – Popularly used to indicate the distance the
bullet will travel before it drops enough to require sight
adjustment. A short fired so closed to the target that no sighting is
necessary for effective aiming.
23. Ricochet – The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its
original trajectory (normal path) after striking a resistant surface.
24. Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the
instantaneous death of the victim.
25. Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out
of action instantly. So it should be understood that stopping power
 is not necessarily the same thing as killing power. However,
stopping power depends very largely on the location of the sot.
26. Target – an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged.
27. True Drop – the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of
flight to the target. This is not the same as what we speak of when
we discuss drop in the ordinary sense, which is more properly
termed effective or apparent drop
28. Zero Range - This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight
and the bullet's path intersect.
TERMINAL BALLISTICS
It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on
the target. Penetration of the bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is
important also in determining safety requirements for target backstops. They
are important to both sportsman and military.
TERMINAL BALLISTICS involves:
1. Terminal accuracy - size of the bullet grouping on the target.
2. Terminal energy - energy of the projectile when it strikes the
target. Also known as striking energy.
3. Terminal penetration - depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and
effects that occur at the end of the projectile's flight as an integral and un-de-
formed body. The flight may end in one of two ways:
1. the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or
2. its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge
SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and
pellets.
CHOKE - When the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout
the bore, it is called true cylinder.
The bore of the gun is sometimes constricted near the muzzle end.
That is, the diameter near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter
of the bore of the rest of the barrel. The barrel is said to be choked.
Full – if reduced by one mm; half if reduced by one-half mm;
quarter if reduced by ¼ mm; and improved cylinder if reduced by about
1/10 mm.
The amount of spread in the shot is controlled by the choke. If a
barrel will put 70 percent of its shot charge in a 30-inch (76-centimeter) circle
at 40 yards (37 meters), it is called full choke. Modified choke will deliver
about 60 percent; improved cylinder about 50 percent. A full choke 12-gauge
gun will kill ducks that are about 60 to 65 yards (55 to 59 meters) away.
Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the
addition of a slight amt. of antimony.
WOUND BALLISTICS – It is the study of the effects of projectile to human
body.
Gunshot Wound (GSW). It is an open wound produced by the
penetration of bullet slug within the tissues of the body. The bullet which was
propelled from the gun as well as the flame from the heated expanded gases in
short range fire is the one that produces injury.
Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the
Weapon
1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of
the body.
2. Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
3. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.
Range of Fire - an important aspect of forensic ballistics.
1. Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed
in suicide cases. The whole charge (projectile, wads, if any,
smoke, unburnt or semi-burnt powder particles and hot gases) enter
into the target. No burning, blackening and tattooing are observed.
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Instead, they are observed inside the hole through careful
examination. The edges are found ragged (torn in star shape) and
the wound is like an exit wound.
2. Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot
projectiles as is commonly believed. It is also known as burning or
charring.
3. Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all
types of powders at close ranges. Being light particles, they soon
lose their velocity and get deposited on any material available in
the path.
4. Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of
unburnt and semi-burnt powder particles into the surface of the
target. These particles are slightly heavier than the smoke
particles. They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and
consequently cause tattooing to a distance of about one and a-half
times blackening range.
Other GSW Characteristics
1. Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the
skin and flesh.
2. Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on
them) around the wound. Existence of this indicates the entrance
side of a firearm injury & does not indicate range.
3. Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to
bluish black - varies somewhat with the age of the injury). It takes
the form of a belt around the wound. It is of uniform in thickness.
4. Foreign Materials – Their presence not only permits the
identification of the firearms injury but they also permit a fairly
reliable guess of firearm.
Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds
1. Kind of weapon - The higher power the weapon is the more
destructive to the tissues of the body.
2. Caliber of the weapon - The higher the caliber of the wounding
bullet, the greater will be the size of the wound of entrance, hence,
greater destruction to the tissues.
3. Shape and composition of the missile - The conical shape free
end of the bullet slug has more penetrating power but less tissue
destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical free end had less
penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.
* Some bullets were made to be deformed upon
heating the target like the hallow point, dum-dum and soft
point bullet. Bullets made of hard metals like the magnum 44 and
the armor-piercing bullet are not usually deformed upon hitting
the target. Other bullets and the fragments may cause further
injury to the body. The tracer bullet is in flame during its flight to
the air and may caused burn upon hitting the body and this bullet
is also used in targeting the low flying airplane.
4. Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also
due to the pressure of the heated expanded gases, flame and
articles of gunpowder. However, in long range fire, the
characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.
5. Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body
will produce a round shape wound of entrance in short distance
fire, while in acute angle of approach the bullet will produce an
oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the
side of the acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to
deflect to another direction upon hitting the target.
6. Part of the body involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of
the body; the bullet penetrates and usually without any change in
direction, however upon hitting the bones and other hard body
structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury
or may deflect to another direction.
Description of the wound of entrance is based on the distance of the body
from the fired gun
1. Contact fire. This is burst due to the explosion of the powder
which produces the heated and expanded gases. There is burning
of the tissues because it is within the flame zone; singeing of the
hair; and particles of gunpowder in and around the wound of
entrance; skin is separated from the underlying tissues in the
affected area and the blasted tissues are cherry red in color because
 of the presence of carbon monoxide; pressure of the bullet will causing burning of the skin and the tissues. There is singeing of
caused caving-in or excavation of tissues and the contusion collar the hair; presence of wads and particles of gunpowder inside the
is seen around the wound of entrance. The size of the wound is wound of entrance.
rather small. 2. Near shot up to six inches distance. There is marked laceration
2. Near contact up to six inches distance. There is bursting of of the skin and destruction of tissues due to the pressure of
tissues, burning and blackening of the skin as in contact fire but the explosion. The burning on the surface of the skin and particles of
particles of gunpowder are present inside as well as around the gunpowder are present inside and around the wound of entrance.
wound of entrance. The shape of the wound maybe lacerated or There is singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads inside and
slit-like and the size is larger than the diameter of the missile. The outside the wound of entrance.
excavation of tissues due to the pressure of the penetrating bullet 3. Distance about one yard. The pellets penetrate the tissues as one
slug but it can be severe as in contact fire. mass making the wound with irregular edge of the wound of
3. Distance above six inches up to 24 inches. The size of the wound entrance. There will also be blackening of tissues with slight burn-
gradually approximates the size of the missile. The farther the ing, singeing of the hair or gunpowder tattooing.
target, the lesser the burning or blackening of tissues, gun powder 4. Distance about two to three yards. The wound of entrance has a
tattooing, singeing of the hair and excavation of tissues and lesser big central hole with ragged edges and a few stray wounds of
until they disappear beyond the 24 inches distance. entrance around the central hole. At this distance, there will be no
more blackening or burning of the skin, gunpowder tattooing,
Differentiation between gunshot wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit singeing of the hair and pieces of wads or near the wound of
entrance.
Differential points Wound of Entrance Wound of Exit 5. Distance of four yards. A small group of pellets may penetrate
the tissues producing a central core, although plenty of pellets in a
1. Size of the wound  smaller than the  bigger than the wider dispersion may produced separate wound of entrance. The
2. Edge of the wound missile missile Everted pellets dispersed about one and a half the distance in yards in non-
3. Shape of the  Inverted  no definite choked barrel while in full-choked bore the dispersion is one half
wound  Round or oval shape less but there is a wider dispersion in short barrel shotgun.
4. Contusion collar  present in  absent
5. Gunpowder contact  absent Points to consider in the reporting of gunshot and shotgun injuries
tattooing  and near contact  maybe absent if
6. Presence or fire the slug is 1. Detailed description of the gunshot and shotgun wound
absence  always present lodged inside 2. Location of wound in the body
7. Protrusion of tissue  Absent the body 3. Measurement of the wound as to diameter and depth
8. Paraffin test  + in contact and  maybe present 4. Number of wound of entrance and exit
near fire  negative 5. Direction and length of the bullet tract
6. Organs or tissues involved
Determination whether the gunshot injury is Suicidal, Homicidal or 7. Location of the slug if lodged in the body
Accidental 8. Diagram, photograph, sketch or drawing of the gunshot or shotgun
wound
A. Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal

1. Accessibility of the involved part to the hand of the victim

2. Usually only one gunshot wound
3. Usually the distance is short range or class range
4. Presence of suicide note
5. History of frustration or despondency of the victim
6. Presence of cadaveric spasm on the hand of the victim
7. Exclusion of other evidences to prove that it is not suicide
Effects or complications of wound
B. Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal
1. Hemorrhage – Bleeding. It is the loss of blood from the ruptured
1. Wound is located at any part of the body vessel secondary to trauma or existing pathology.
2. Victim usually at a certain distance from the assailant 2. Direct mechanical injury - This is the direct damage to the tissues
3. Signs of struggle (Defense wound) maybe present in the victim 3. Shock - It is disturbance of the balance of fluid in the body
4. Disturbances of the surroundings. characterized by fall in blood pressure, decreases blood flow or
5. Wounding weapon usually not found at the scene of the crime blood volume in the body.
6. Testimony from the witnesses 4. Infection. It is the appearance, growth and multiplication of the
micro-organism in the living tissues.
C. Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental 5. Embolism. It is the clogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies
such as air or bits of fats or septic embolus causing blocking to the
1. Usually only one gunshot wound blood flow to the distal tissues supplied by the blood.
2. Wound located at any part of the body
3. Absence of personal grudge between the victim and the one Points to consider in the reporting of wound:
who fired the gun 1. Character of the wound
4. Testimony from witnesses 2. Location of wound in the body
3. Measurement of the wound - It is declared in inches, centimeters
Take note: and millimeters.
a. Length
Shotgun Wound - It is an open wound produced by the b. Width
penetration of pellets or shots within the tissues of the body. In shotgun fire, c. Depth
the pellets penetrate and usually lodged inside the body and a tendency for a 4. Number of wound
wider dispersion of pellets at a certain distance except in contact and near 5. Direction of wound
contact fires. 6. Organs involved
7. Severity of the wound
Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance 8. Period of healing or incapacity of the victim.

1. Contact fire - irregular with bursting of the affected tissues due to Other pieces of evidence in dealing with the wound
explosion of the heated and expanded with accompanying flame
1. Evidence from the wounding weapon
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 a. Presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids
on the wounding weapon.
2. Evidence from the victim as well as the assailant
a. Presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids
on the victim or assailant
b. Presence of wound on the victim as well as the assailant
c. Effects or complications of wound such as found in the clini-
cal manifestations on the victim
3. Evidence from the scene of the crime
a. Presence of blood stains or drops of blood on the streets or
flouring, walls, furniture and other materials at the scene of
the crime
b. Presence of bits of tissues, torn clothing and other body fluids
at the scene of the crime
Take Note:
SIR SYDNEY SMITH – founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at
Cairo University and later Regis Professor of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh,
was one of the leading exponents in studying entrance and exit wounds,
powder burns and powder “tattooing” on human skin and other medical
phenomena associated with gun fire.
Studies involving Terminal and Wound Ballistics
 1857 – Monsieur Noiles. He published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies
Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt with the subject of wounds made by
small firearms.
 1889 – Mr. A. Lacassogne of Lyon, France. He published a paper
tided “La Deformation Des Balles de Revolver” (Deformation of
Revolver Bullets) in Volume 5. Archives de l’Antropologie
Criminelle et Des Sciences Penales.
 1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse
its load of case shot whit a small bursting charge, increasing the
effective range of case.
 Anomynous author. Published a thesis an article entitled
“Entrance Wounds and Powder Markings”.
 Mr. Louis B. Wilson. He published an article entitle “Dispersion
of Bullet Energy in Relation to Wound Effects”.
 P. Chavigny and E. Gelma. They authored an article entitled
“Fissures of the Skull by Revolver Bullets at short-range”.
 J. Howard Mathews. Chairman of the Department of Chemistry
at the University of Wisconsin. In this first criminal case, he was
involved on the metallographic analysis of bomb parts used to kill
an individual.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of
firearms by means of ammunition fired through them. This is the real branch
of the science which the police use as their guide in field investigations. This
includes the following:
1. Field Investigations - conducted by the first officers on the
case in the field when they investigate a case or cases
wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of the
investigating officers, and this involves
recognition, collection, marking, preservation, and transmittal
of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms
and allied matters.
2. Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits - This
is the job performed by the firearms examiners in the
laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test
firings of evidence firearms to obtain test bullets and test
shells for comparative purposes, photomicrography under the
bullet comparison microscope, preparation of comparative
charts, and the making of reports on the findings and
observations of the firearms examiners.
3. Legal proceedings - Court Trials - wherein the ballistics
report of the firearm examiner and the ballistics exhibits are
presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.
Take Note:
FORENSIC - As applied to ballistics, or to any other subject,
suggest a relationship to Courts of Justice and legal proceedings.
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FORUM – It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived,
meaning a marketplace, where people gather for "public disputation" or
"public discussion". Thus, the title "Forensic Ballistics" aptly describes the
subject under consideration - the science of investigation and identification of
firearms and ammunitions used in crimes. The terms "Ballistics", Forensic
Ballistics" and "Firearms Identification", have come to mean one and the same
thing in the minds of the public, and they can be used interchangeably.
Studies concerning Forensic Ballistics
 1835 - Henry Goddard. In one of his case in England, where a
homemaker was shot and killed, he was able to identify the mold
mark – the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from molten
leads – on the field projectile. He was the bullet, which could be
traced back to the mold. He also examined the paper patch – the
paper patch provides the seal between the ball gunpowder firearms
– was able to identify it as having been torn from a newspaper that
was found on the room of the guilty servant.
 Paul Jesrich. He took photomicrographs of two bullets to
compare, and subsequently individualize them through the minute
differences.
 1905 - Mr. Kockel. He published an article entitled “The Expert
Examination of Fired Bullets”.
 1912 - Professor V. Baltahazard. He devised a series of
procedures to identify fired bullets to the firearms from which they
were fired. He studied the firearms by taking an elaborate series of
photographs of test fired bullet from the firearms as well as
evidence bullet. He also applied these same specilalized
photographic techniques to the examination and identification of
cartridge casings using firing pin, breech face, ejection and
extractor marks.
 1913 - Professor Balthazard. Published the first article
individualizing bullet markings.
 1922 - Mr. C. Williams. He wrote an article entitle “Fingerprints
on Bullets” which appeared in Outdoor Life magazine.
 1920 - R.E. Herrick. He published an article entitled “Ballistics
Jurisprudence”.
 November 1924 – Dr Sydney Smith. He wrote an article
concerning the details of the investigating that appeared in the
British Medical Journal in January 1926. He relates that he
believes that scientific examination of firearms and projectiles in
Great Britain had its beginning as a result of the publication of his
report on the case.
 1920 - COL CALVIN H. GODDARD (M.D., U.S. ARMY)
pioneered the introduction of this science in Criminology courses
in the different universities.
 1947 - Col Goddard came to the Philippines when Gen. Castaneda
was ambushed together with his aid, Col Salgado in Kamias,
Quezon City, both died.
 1924 – Captain Edward C. ‘Ned’ Crossman. A well-known
shooter and sports writer, examined firearms evidence for the Los
Angeles County Sheriff in April 1925, in New York City, New
York (USA), THE Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was established
by C.E. Waite, Major (later Colonel) Calvin H. Goddard, Philip O.
Gravelle and John H. Fisher.
 1934 - Major Sir Gerald Burrard. He wrote a book entitled
“The Identification of Firearms and Forensic Ballistics”, which
discussed many early cases that occurred throughout the British
Empire.
 1935 Major Julian S. Hatcher. He wrote and published;
“Textbook of Firearms Investigation, Identification and Evidence”
together with the “Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers.”
 1944 – John E. Davis. He joined the Police Department in
Oakland, California establishing its first criminology laboratory.
 Derechter and Mage. They wrote an article entitled
“Communication on the Identification of Fired Bullets and Shells”.
 Arthur Lucas. He published an article entitled “The Examination
of Firearms and Projectiles in Forensic Cases”.
 Jack D. Gunther & Professor Charles O. Gunther. They
published the entitled “The Identification of Firearms”, which
provided additional information about the principles of firearms
identification with approximately one-half of the book discussing
in great detail the Sacco-Vanzetti case to include reprinting large
portions of the actual court transcript. They also discussed the
need for the science of firearm identification to utilize the scientific
methodology.
  1958 – John E. Davis. An eminent criminals and Director of the
Oakland Police Department (CA) Criminalistics Section (Crime
Lab) wrote a book titled “An Introduction to Tool Marks, Firearms
and the Striagraph”. In his book, Davis provided excellent
information about the examination and identification of firearms
and tool mark evidence.
 1996 – Tom A. Warlow. He published a text on firearms
identification titled “Firearms, the Law and Forensic Ballistics”.
Warlow has written a useful text that contains excellent
information for firearm and toolmark examiners.
 1997 – Brian J. Heard. He published a text on firearms
identification titled “Handbook of Firearms and Ballistics
Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence”.
SUBJECTS OF BALLISTICS STUDY
FIREARMS
A firearm is a weapon that fires either single or multiple projectiles
propelled at high velocity by the gases produced through rapid, confined
burning of a propellant. This process of rapid burning is technically known as
deflagration. In older firearms, this propellant was typically black powder, but
modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants.
The term gun is often used as a synonym for firearm, but in
specialist use has a restricted sense—referring only to an artillery piece with a
relatively high muzzle velocity and a relatively flat trajectory, such as a field
gun, a tank gun, an anti-tank gun, or a gun used in the delivery of naval
gunfire.
Firearms are sometimes referred to as small arms. Small arms are
weapons which can be carried by a single individual, with a barrel bore of up
to approximately 0.50 inch (12.7 mm). Small arms are aimed visually at their
targets by hand using optical sights. The range of accuracy for small arms is
generally limited to about one mile (1600 m), usually considerably less,
although the current record for a successful Sniper attack is slightly more than
1 1/2 miles.
Firearm (Technical) is an instrument that is used for the
propulsion of projectile by means of the expansive force of gases of burning
gunpowder.
Firearms or Arm (legal – Sec. 877 of the RAC and Sec. 290 of
NIRC) – includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers and all
other weapons from which a bullet, a ball, a shot, a shell or missiles may be
discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also
includes air rifles, except that are in small in caliber and usually used as toys.
The barrel of any firearm is considered a complete firearm for purposes of
Section 877 of the Revised Administrative Code.
Take Note:
 Rifle – long rifle bored firearm designed to hit targets at a greater
or longer distance, with spiral grooves to fire only a single shot.
 Musket – long smooth bored firearm that is designed to prepare a
single shot.
 Shotgun – long smooth bored firearm having a barrel of 25-30
inches long and designed to shot birds in flight; long smooth bored
firearm and breech loading designed to fire a number of lead
pellets or shot in one charge.
 Carbine – s short barrel rifle, having a barrel not longer than 22
inches and it is designed to fire a single shot through a rifled-bore,
either semi-automatic or full automatic, for every press of the
trigger.
 .22 – minimum caliber - .19 - .18 – if only used as toys, could not
be considered as firearm.
 barrel of any firearm - Possession of any part of a firearm is
considered a violation of illegal possession of firearm (SCRA Dec.
11, 1992).
FIREARM: IN ITS GENERAL CONTEXT
Firearm is any weapon that uses gunpowder to fire a bullet or
shell. Generally, the term is used for light firearms, such as rifles, shotguns,
and pistols. They are often called small arms. Heavier firearms are generally
referred to as artillery.
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Mechanism
Any firearm, large or small, has four essential parts:
1. Barrel – It is a long tube. It may be smooth, as in a shotgun, or
with spiral grooves on the inner surface, as in a rifle.
2. Chamber - It is a widened hole at the breech (rear) end of the
barrel. It holds the cartridge (explosive charge).
3. Breech mechanism - The breech mechanism closes the rear end of
the barrel, holding the cartridge in the chamber.
4. Every up-to-date firearm has some way by which the breech can be
opened for loading and locked for safety in firing. Artillery uses
screw plugs or breechblocks. Machine guns, rifles, and other small
arms usually have a metal cylinder, or bolt, that is locked when the
gun is fired, and drawn back to eject (force out) the empty
cartridge case and to reload.
5. Firing mechanism - The firing mechanism may be electric, as in
some large artillery pieces. In small arms, a spring drives a pointed
firing pin through the breech bolt against a sensitive primer in the
cartridge. The firing pin is cocked (drawn back) against a hook
called the sear. When the trigger is pulled, the sear releases the
firing pin, which in turn leaps forward to strike the primer. A jet of
flame from the primer ignites the rest of the powder, forming a gas.
This explosive gas propels the bullet from the barrel.
HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS
1. Pistol – a handgun that is magazine feed. It is said that pistols
were invented in the Italian town “PISTOIA.” Hence, the name
pistol – arrived in Britain about 1515 as German import.
2. Revolver – A handgun with a corresponding cylinder that revolves
before the barrel which consist of different chambers.
ORIGINS OF FIREARMS
 13th Century – development of firearms followed the invention of
gunpowder in Western Europe.
 BERTHOLD SCHWARTZ – a German monk, and Roger Bacon,
an English monk – are both credited with gunpowder invention.
* Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English
monk and scientist, with the invention of gunpowder in 1248, and
Berthold Schwartz, with the application of gun powder to the
propelling of a missile in the early 1300’s. This powder was that
we now call “black powder”.
 1118 – Moors used artillery against Zaragoza. Early
manuscripts tell o fseveral Moorish campaign in which artillery
was used all dating prior to Bacon and Scwartz.
 1245 – Gen. Batu, the Tartar leader used artillery in Liegnitz when
he defeated the Poles, Hungarians and Russians.
* It is also often stated that gunpowder was first
invented by Chinese were aware of gunpowder and its use as a
propellant long before its advantage became recognized in
Europe. It may also assume the Arabs with their advance
knowledge of chemistry at that time.
 1247 – one of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare was
that o fan attack on Seville, Spain.
 1346 – Cannons used by King Edward III of England at Crecy
 1453 – Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of
Constantinople.
 1500 AD - French Artist LEONARDO DA VINCE as can be
gleaned in his sketch of steam powered cannon to
his primitive wheel lock firearm.
* First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and
were not capable of being carried by an individual soldier hence;
the development of cannons preceded that of small arm weapons
by almost 50 years.
Stages of development of man’s weapon:
> STONES > CLUBS > KNIVES > SPEARS AND DARTS >
SLINGSHOTS TO HURL OBJECTS > BOWS AND ARROWS >
CROSS-BOWS >GUNS > MISSILES
Contributors in Firearms Development
 Col. Calvin H. Goddard, Md., OS, U.S. Army – Father of
Modern Ballistics
 Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith & Wesson and
pioneered the making of breech-loading riffles.
 Daniel B. Wesson – An associate or partners of Smith in revolver
making.
 John M. Browning – Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered
the breech loading single shot riffle.
 John T. Thompson – Pioneered the making of Thompson Sub-
machine gun.
 David “Carbine” Williams – maker of first known carbine.
 Alexander John Forsyth – Father of the percussion ignition.
 Elisha King Root – Designed machinery of making Colt
firearms.
 Eliphalet Remington – one of the first riffle makers.
 John Mahlon Marlin – founder of Marlin Firearms Company.
 James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the Model
1855 riffled-musket.
 Samuel Colt (1814-1862) - of Hartford, Connecticut, produced the
first practical revolver bringing it to what most gunsmiths would
agree was its perfect form in the Colt Army 1873 model, which
became famous for its .45 caliber.
 Other manufacturers followed Colt’s lead: Remington and Smith
and Wesson in the US., Adams and Scott-Webley in BRITAIN,
Star, Luger, Browning and Beretta on the CONTINENT, until
revolvers were in used in every part of the world.
 Henry Derringer – He gave his name to a whole class of firearms
(Riffles and pistols)
 John C. Garand – Designed and invented the semi-automatic US
Riffle, Cal. .30 MI
 Oliver F. Winchester – one of the earliest riffles and pistol
makers.
 John Dreyse (1841) - Invented a breech-loading infantry rifle, the
so called needle gun because of its long sharp firing pin.
 Maj. Cavalli of Sardina (1845) - He develop a serviceable breech
loading artillery rifle.
 Carl Walther (1866) - Develop a reliable small caliber automatic
Pistol.
 Paul Withelm Mauser (1871) - Produced parts of the rifle which
had been adopted by the German government.
 Sergei Mossin (1891) - Designed the Russian Service rifle.
 Kijiro Nambu (1904) - An army gun designer whose design was
first produced by the Kayoba factory.
 Charles Dorchester & George Sullivan (1950) - Formed the
Armalite business.
IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY
1313 – Gunpowder as a Propellant. The age of gunpowder began with
its first use as a propellant for a projectile. Such use has been
recorded as early as 1313.
1350 – Small Arms. Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was
in the middle of the 14th century that portable hand firearms were
introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand-held hot wire or
lighted match.
1498 – Riflings. The first reference to riffled barrels appeared.
Although it’s important as an aid to accuracy was recognized by
some, it was a year after before riffling was generally used.
1575 – Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining both powder and ball were
developed. This greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards
of carrying loose powder.
1807 – Percussion System. The discovery of Forsyth in 1807 that
certain compounds detonated by a blast would be used to ignite the
charge in a firearm, for the basis for all later percussion and
cartridge to come into general use.
1845 - Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Flobert developed a “bullet breech
cap” which was in reality the first rim fire cartridge.
1858 – Center fire Cartridge. The Morse cartridge o f1858 marked the
beginning of the rapid development of the center fire cartridge.
1884 – Automatic machine-gun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully
automatic gun, utilizing the recoil of the piece of load and fire the
next charge.
1885 – Smokeless Powder. In France, Vieille developed the first
satisfactory smokeless powder, a new propellant which not only
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lacked the smoke characteristic of black powder, but also more
powerful.
MECHANISMS OF FIREARM ACTION
Generally, the principles involved in all firearms action are the
same. When the firearm is cocked and ready to fire, a pull on the trigger will
cause the firing pin of the hammer to hit the percussion cap of the cartridge in
the firing chamber which is aligned with the rear portion of the barrel. The hit
by the firing pin on the percussion cap will cause generation of a sufficient
heat capable of igniting the primer.
The primer will in turn ignite the gunpowder or propellant which
will cause evolution of gases under pressure and temperature. The marked
expansion of the gases will force the projectile forward with certain velocity.
Owing to presence of the rifling at the inner wall of the bore, the
barrel offers some degree of resistance to the projectile. In as much as the
riffling is arranged in a spiral manner, the projectile will produce a spinning
movement as it comes out in the muzzle.
Together with the bullet passing out of the barrel are high pressure
heated gases, unburned powder grains with flame and smoke.
During explosion, there is a backward kick of the firearm which in
automatic firearm cause the cocking and the cartridge cause thrown out by the
ejector. The backward movement is called recoil of the firearm.
RIFLING
Rifling refers to spiral grooves that have been formed into the
barrel of a firearm. It is the means by which a firearm imparts a spin to a
projectile to gyroscopically stabilize it to improve accuracy. Most rifling is
created by either cutting with a machine tool, pressed by a tool called a
"button" or forged into the barrel over a "mandrel". The grooves are the
spaces that are cut out, and the resulting ridges are called 'lands'. These lands
and grooves can vary in number, depth, shape, direction of twist ('right' or
'left'), and 'twist rate' (turns per unit of barrel length). The spin imparted by
rifling significantly improves the stability of the projectile, improving both
range and accuracy.
It consists of the number of the helical grooves cut on the surface
of the bore, it includes the lands and grooves are running parallel with one
another concentrically.
* Sporting Rifle
As a bullet is fired from a rifle, grooves in the interior of the barrel cause it to
spin. The spinning motion stabilizes the bullet and increases its distance and
accuracy. This illustration shows a modern hunting rifle and highlights its
main components.
Take Note:
Recent developments - The grooves most commonly used in
modern rifling have fairly sharp edges. More recently, polygonal rifling has
become popular, as it seems to produce better accuracy due to the fact that it
does not damage the bullet as badly as conventional rifling. Polygonal barrels
also tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of the sharp edges
of the land reduces flame erosion. Higher velocities may be generated due to a
reduction of friction and an improvement of the gas seal between the bullet
and barrel. A disadvantage of polygonal rifling is that if simple lead bullets
are used, lead from the bullet tends to accumulate in the barrel (called leading)
resulting in a dirty barrel, poor accuracy, and if the leading becomes severe,
excessive chamber pressure which could cause a barrel or locking failure.
Polygonal rifling is currently seen on most pistols from GLOCK and Kahr
Arms.
CALIBER OF THE FIREARM
The caliber of the firearm is the diameter of the bore of the barrel
measured from land to land in rifled firearm. It is expressed in inches or
fraction of an inch by the American and English manufacturers and
millimeters or in centimeters there by manufacturers in Continental Europe.
THE RIFLE
The rifle, invented about 1500, had spiral grooves in the barrel that
made it more accurate than any previous firearm. Smokeless powder was
developed in the 1800's. Breechloading systems replaced dangerous muzzle
loading. Many improvements since have resulted in high-powered firearms.
Rifle is a gun with spiral grooves in its long barrel that spin the
bullet as it is shot. Rifles are usually held against the shoulder when firing.
Soldiers use rifles in battle. People also use rifles to hunt game and to compete
in shooting matches.
The parts of a rifle - All rifles have four basic parts:
(1) the barrel,
(2) the stock, (3) the action, and
(3) the sights.
How a rifle works. A rifle is ready to be fired when a cartridge has been fed
into the firing chamber. Then the rifle is aimed and the trigger squeezed. The
rifle's hammer or firing pin strikes the rear end of the cartridge and ignites the
primer. The primer in turn ignites the propellant powder in the cartridge. The
powder burns rapidly, creating pressure that drives the bullet down the barrel.
The rifling in the barrel makes the bullet spin. Without spin, a
bullet would not stay pointed forward in flight, but would tumble over and
over. The spinning motion increases the accuracy of a bullet.
Kinds of Rifles
Rifles are classified by:
 type of action: (manually operated, automatic, or
semiautomatic);
 the name of the designer or manufacturer (for example, Remington
or Winchester); or
 caliber. Caliber may refer to the inside diameter of the barrel or the
diameter of the bullet. The caliber is measured in millimeters or in
decimal fractions of an inch.
There are three kinds of repeating rifles with hand-operated
actions-bolt-action, lever-action, and slide-action. These rifles have
magazines (cartridge holders) that feed cartridges into the firing chamber.
The action on two other kinds of rifles-automatic and
semiautomatic-is operated by forces caused by the burning of the propellant
powder in the firing chamber.
1. Bolt-action rifles have an action that resembles a bolt used to lock
a door. When the bolt on the rifle is pulled back, the used cartridge
is thrown out and the hammer is cocked. When the bolt is moved
forward, it pushes a new cartridge into the firing chamber.
2. Lever-action rifles are loaded by moving a lever under the breech
down and back up. The down movement throws out the used
cartridge and cocks the hammer. The up movement inserts a new
cartridge into the firing chamber.
3. Slide-action rifles, also called pump-action rifles, are loaded with
a back-and-forth movement of a rod and handle beneath the front
part of the barrel. When the handle is pulled back, the breech opens
and the used cartridge is thrown out. A live cartridge is inserted
when the handle is pushed forward.
Automatic and semiautomatic rifles are used mainly by soldiers and
police officers. When a rifle is fired, gas is formed by the burning powder in
the firing chamber. The expanding gas drives the bullet out of the barrel. In
most modern automatic and semiautomatic rifles, some of this gas operates
the action. When a cartridge is fired, a fresh cartridge is moved out of the
magazine into the firing chamber, and the firing mechanism is cocked.
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The M16A2 is the automatic rifle used by the U.S. armed forces. It
weighs 8.9 pounds (4 kilograms) when loaded with a 30-cartridge magazine.
The M16A2 can fire one shot at a time, or three shots in a single burst. It uses
a 5.56-millimeter cartridge.
Rifle cartridges are enclosed in a casing (metal covering) made of
brass or steel. Cartridges vary in size according to the caliber of the rifle. The
names of some cartridges include the year the cartridge was put into use. The
.30-06 is a .30-caliber cartridge chosen for use by the U.S. Army in 1906. The
classification of some cartridges includes the caliber and velocity (speed) of
the bullet. The bullet from a .250-3000 cartridge has a velocity of 3,000 feet
(910 meters) per second.
Take Note:
Modern rifles developed from the crude, muzzle-loading firearms
of the 1400's. Rifling of barrels was invented in Europe about 1500. Smooth-
bore firearms (weapons without rifling) could not be depended on to hit
targets more than 100 steps away.
The jaeger rifle of central and northern Europe was the first
accurate rifle. It was developed about 1665. German immigrants brought
jaegers to Pennsylvania in the early 1700's and gave them new features,
including longer barrels. The Pennsylvania-made Kentucky rifle developed
from the jaeger. Some Kentucky rifles were used in the Revolutionary War in
America (1775-1783).
Rifles used round bullets until the 1850's, when more accurate
Minie bullets became popular. Minie bullets had hollow bases and pointed tips
and were used in the U.S. Civil War (1861-1865). Improvements of the late
1800's included repeating rifles, smokeless explosive powder, and jacketed
bullets, which have a tough metal cover over a lead or steel core.
THE HANDGUN:
Handgun is a firearm that can be operated with one hand. Other
types of guns, such as rifles and machine guns, require the use of both hands,
a tripod (three-legged stand), or a shooting rest.
Parts of a handgun (the frame, the grip, the barrel, the sights, and the action)
The frame is the main body of the gun that connects the other
parts. The grip is the handle of the gun, and the barrel is the metal tube
through which the bullet is fired. The lands and rifling (grooves) are
alternating raised surfaces and channels inside the barrel. They cause the
bullet to spin and thus make it travel in a direct path.
The shooter uses the sights to line up the handgun with the target.
Some sights can be adjusted to help aim the gun more easily. All handguns
made for target shooting have adjustable sights.
The action includes the main working parts of the handgun. It
consists of such parts as the trigger, the hammer, and the cartridge chamber.
The type of action determines how the handgun is loaded and fired. The action
of every handgun includes a safety, a mechanism that prevents the gun from
being fired unintentionally. The safety ensures that the gun fires when the
shooter squeezes the trigger, but not, for example, when the gun is dropped to
the ground.
Types of handguns - There are five main types of handguns:
1. single-action revolvers,
2. double-action revolvers,
3. single-action semiautomatic pistols,
4. double-action semiautomatic pistols, and
5. single-shot pistols.
Revolvers carry ammunition in chambers in a rotating cylinder.
Most pistols are loaded with a magazine containing the ammunition. The
magazine is a metal holder inserted in the gun's butt (thicker end).
Single-action revolvers typically hold six cartridges. An arm near
the hammer rotates the cylinder one-sixth of a turn when the hammer is
cocked. This movement puts a cartridge into line with the barrel and the firing
pin (part that strikes the primer to fire the cartridge). After cocking the
hammer, the shooter pulls the trigger. The hammer unlocks and falls,
exploding the cartridge. The Colt single-action Army revolver, first produced
in the 1870's, is the most famous firearm of this type.
Double-action revolvers, like single-action revolvers, typically
hold six cartridges. But, unlike single-action revolvers, double-action
revolvers do not require the user to manually cock the hammer before firing.
Instead, the gun is fired by only pulling the trigger. When the trigger is pulled,
a lock that holds the cylinder in place is released, revolving the cylinder and
cocking the hammer. When the next chamber is lined up with the barrel, the
cylinder locking bolt is raised into the locking notch, securing the cylinder.
The hammer then falls and fires the cartridge. The cycle is repeated for the
next shot.
The main advantage of the double-action revolver over the single-
action revolver is that it can be fired rapidly. The Smith & Wesson military
and police revolver is one of the most popular double-action revolvers. This
firearm was introduced in 1905.
Single-action semiautomatic pistols are fired by first pulling back
a device called a slide to cock the hammer or the firing pin, which is
sometimes called a striker mechanism. When the slide is released, it moves
forward and feeds a round from the clip into the cartridge chamber. When the
shooter pulls the trigger, the hammer falls or the striker mechanism is
released, impacting the primer and exploding the gunpowder in the cartridge.
The explosion causes the slide to move backward. This recoil automatically
ejects the empty cartridge and recocks the gun. When the slide moves forward
again, it reloads the chamber. The most famous single-action semiautomatic is
the Colt .45 automatic pistol. It served as the standard sidearm of the U.S.
armed forces from 1911 until 1985.
Double-action semiautomatic pistols operate somewhat like
double-action revolvers. When the trigger is pulled, the hammer goes through
the firing cycle and fires the cartridge. After the initial shot, the pistol begins
to operate like a single-action semiautomatic pistol. The recoil of the first shot
forces out the empty cartridge case, cocks the hammer, and inserts a new
cartridge from the clip into the cartridge chamber. Double-action
semiautomatics are widely used by sports enthusiasts and police officers. In
1985, the 9-millimeter Beretta, a double-action semiautomatic pistol, became
the standard sidearm of the U.S. armed forces. Other popular models include
the Smith & Wesson Model 39 and the Walther PPK.
Single-shot pistols are used chiefly in international target-shooting
competitions. To load a single-shot pistol, the user moves the operating lever
(part that opens and closes the action) forward and down to lower the breech
block and to cock the firing pin. The breech block closes the breech of the
gun-that is, the part behind the barrel. After the breech block has been
lowered, the cartridge chamber is exposed. The user then inserts a cartridge
into the chamber. Next, the operating lever is pulled up and back to close the
chamber and move the cartridge into the closed position. The pistol is then
ready to fire. When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin drops, exploding the
cartridge. The procedure is then repeated to remove the cartridge and reload
the pistol. Famous single-shot pistols include the Hammerli Free Pistol, the
Walther, and the Martini.
Take Note:
The first gun operated with one hand was the matchlock gun,
which appeared in the 1400's. It was fired by attaching a burning cord or
match to an S-shaped holder called a serpentine. In the early 1500's, the
wheel-lock gun was invented. Its metal wheel struck a spark when it revolved
against a piece of pyrite. With the wheel lock, soldiers no longer had to carry
flames to ignite the gunpowder.
During the mid-1500's, snaphance pistols, which were easier to
operate than the wheel lock, came into widespread use. In the 1600's and
1700's, many kinds of gunlocks were developed, including the flintlock.
In 1807, Alexander Forsyth, a Scottish inventor, introduced the
percussion system. Percussion-system pistols were loaded from the muzzle,
with a sliding can of priming powder on the breech. Small handguns called
derringers are descended from percussion-system pistols, but are breech
loaded. They are named for Henry Deringer, Jr., a U.S. pistol maker of the
1800's.
Rapid-fire handguns - One of the first practical revolvers was the
Colt Paterson, patented in England in 1835 by Samuel Colt, a U.S. inventor.
In 1857, the U.S. inventors Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson began
producing revolvers that used cartridges.
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The Borchardt, the first self-loading semiautomatic pistol,
appeared in 1893. It had an eight-cartridge clip placed in the hollow of the
grip. George Luger, an Austrian-born inventor, improved the Borchardt in the
early 1900's. In 1897, John M. Browning, a U.S. inventor, patented an
automatic pistol that became the basis for later automatics, including the Colt
.45.
THE MACHINE GUN
1. Machine gun is an automatic weapon that can fire from 400
to 1,600 rounds of ammunition each minute. Machine gun barrels range in
size from .22 caliber to 20 millimeters. Ammunition is fed into the gun from a
cloth or metal belt, or from a cartridge holder called a magazine. Because
machine guns fire so rapidly, they must be cooled by air. Machine guns are
heavy weapons and are usually mounted on a support.
Operation: In all machine guns, extremely high gas pressure
provides the operating energy for the firing cycle. The cycle begins when the
propellant charge in the cartridge case burns. This combustion creates the gas
pressure that is used in the blowback, gas, and recoil operating systems. All
three systems fire the projectile through the bore of the barrel, eject the
cartridge case, place a new cartridge in the firing chamber, and ready the
mechanism to repeat the cycle.
In the blowback system, the operating energy comes from the
cartridge case as the case is forced to the rear by the gas pressure. The case
moves against the bolt (a device that opens and closes the bore), driving the
bolt backward against a spring. The case is ejected, and the compressed spring
drives the bolt forward. As the bolt moves forward, it cocks the firing
mechanism, picks up a new cartridge, carries it into the chamber, and the
cycle begins again.
In the gas system, the gas pressure drives a piston against the bolt.
The bolt is driven to the rear, providing energy for a cycle like that of the
blowback system.
In the recoil system, the bolt locks to the barrel when the gun is
fired. These parts remain locked together as they are forced to the rear by the
gas pressure. This movement provides energy to operate the gun.
2. Ground weapons. The 7.62-millimeter M60 machine gun is
a major infantry weapon. It is air-cooled and gas-operated, and fires about 600
rounds a minute. The M60 replaced the Browning machine gun, an important
weapon in World Wars I and II, and the Korean War.
3. Aircraft weapons. By the close of World War I, several
types of machine guns were mounted on airplanes. These types included the
Vickers, Maxim, Hotchkiss, Colt-Martin, and Lewis. Some machine guns
were synchronized to fire in between the blades of propellers.
During World War II, fighters and bombers carried machine guns
as armament. They also carried automatic cannon up to 20 millimeters in size.
During the Vietnam War, airplanes and helicopters called gunships carried
machine guns or cannon. Today, most fighter planes and gunships carry
rockets for air-to-air and air-to-ground use. Bombers use machine guns
mounted in groups of two or four in power-driven turrets. The Vulcan 20-
millimeter aircraft cannon has six rotating barrels. It can fire more than a ton
of metal and explosives each minute.
4. Anti-aircraft weapons. The .50-caliber Browning machine
gun was used as an antiaircraft weapon during World War II. It was used
alone, or in groups of two or four. Large-caliber automatic cannon that fired
explosive shells were also developed as antiaircraft weapons. The 20-
millimeter, Swiss-made Oerlikon gun was used on U.S. Navy ships. It was a
self-fed, self-firing cannon that could fire 600 rounds a minute.
Take Note:
A type of machine gun appeared as early as the 1500's. It consisted
of several guns bound together in a bundle or spread out in a row. A device
that was fitted to the gun barrels caused them to fire simultaneously or in
series. But little success was achieved until the Civil War, when many quick-
fire guns appeared. Practical, rapid-fire, mechanical guns were used in the
Franco-Prussian War, when soldiers operated them with a crank or lever. The
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French Montigny mitrailleuse and the American Gatling were among the more instrument used in the manufacture of any firearm or ammunition: provided,
successful of these guns. that no other crime was committed.

In 1883, Hiram Maxim, an American-born inventor, developed The penalty of prision mayor in its minimum period and a fine of
the first entirely automatic machine gun to gain wide acceptance. By the time thirty thousand pesos (P30,000.00) shall be imposed in the firearm is
of World War I, many different types of machine guns had come into use. classified as high powered firearms which includes those with bore bigger in
diameter than caliber .38 and 9mm such as caliber .40, .44, .45 and also lesser
CLASSIFICASTION OF FIREARMS caliber firearms but considered powerful such as caliber .357 and caliber .22
center fire magnum and other firearms with firing capability of full automatic
A. ACCORDING TO GUN BARREL INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION and by burst of two (2) or three (3): Provided, however, that no other crime
was committed by the person arrested.
1. Rifled Bore Firearms - those that contain riflings inside the gun
barrel. Riflings refers the lands and grooves such as the following:
Rifle – Pistol - Revolver G. THREE MAIN PARTS OF FIREARMS
2. Smooth Bore Firearms – those that have no riflings inside the
gun barrel for the breech end up to the muzzle of the firearm. Such 1. Revolver 3. Rifle – Cal. .30
as the following: Shotguns - Muskets a. barrel assembly a. barrel assembly
b. cylinder assembly b. magazine assembly
SHOTGUN – it is smooth bore firearm designed to shoot a c. frame or receiver c. stock group
number of lead pellets one discharge.
GAUGE – as applied to shotgun indicates that the bore diameter is 2. Pistol 4. Shotgun
equal to the diameter of lead ball weighing in pounds. a. barrel assembly a. barrel assembly
b. slide assembly b. magazine assembly
B. MAIN TYPES OF FIREARM (according to caliber of projectile) c. frame or receiver c. stock group
1. Artillery – propelled projectile is more than one inch in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, mortars, bazookas H. DETAILED PARTS
2. Small Arms – propelled projectile is less than one inch diameter.
Ex. Machine guns, shoulder arms and handguns/arms 1. Revolver 2. Pistol
1. Barrel Assembly a. Barrel Assembly
C. TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL (1) breech end (1) breech end
CONSTRUCTION (2) muzzle en (2) muzzle end
1. Single Rifle Firearms – type of firearm designed to fire only one (3) bore (3) bore
shot for every loading. Example: Pistol, Rifle, Shotgun (4) riflings (4) riflings
2. Repeating Arms – type of firearm designed to fire several shots in (5) front sight (5) chamber
one loading. Example: Automatic pistols, Revolvers, Rifles, (6) make (6) interlocking ribsbarrel link
Shotguns
3. Bolt Action Type – reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt. 2. Cylinder assembly b. Slide
Examples: Rifles, Shotguns. Assembly
4. Automatic Loading Type – after the first shot is fired, automatic (1) chambers
loading or feeding of the chamber takes place. Examples: Rifles, (1) front sight
Shotguns (2) extractor
5. Slide Action Type (Trombone) – loading takes place by back and (2) top strap
forth manipulation of the under forearm of the gun. Examples: (3) extractor rod
Rifles and Shotguns. (3) ejection part
6. Lever Type (Break-type) – loading takes place by lever action on (4) racket
the firearm. Examples: Rifles, Shotguns. (4) rear sight
(5) cylinder grooves
D. TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO USE (5) breech block
(6) yoke
1. Military Firearms (6) breech face
a. Pistols d. Shotguns (7) cylinder locking notches (touch holes)
b. Revolvers e. Machine guns (7) extractor
c. Rifles (8)
2. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms 3. Frame or Receiver c. Frame or Receiver
a. Pistols c. Rifles (1) top strap (1) ejector
b. Revolvers d. Shotguns (2) rear sight (2) hammer
3. Target and Outdoorsman known as Sporting (3) breech face (3) spur
a. Pistols b. Revolvers (4) hammer (4) grip safety
c. Rifles (5) spur (5) disconnector
(6) thumb latch (6) thumb safety
E. UNUSUAL/MISCELLANEOUS TYPES – those that are unique in (7) side plate (7) back strap
mechanism and construction. (8) back strap (8) butt
a. Paltik pistols b. Paltik rifles c. Paltik revolvers (9) firing strap (9) lanyard loop
d. Paltik shotguns (10) butt (10) front strap
(11) front strap (11) magazine well
F. CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO ITS (12) trigger guard (12) right side stock
POWER PURSUANT TO R.A. 8294 (13) trigger (13) left side stock
(14) cylinder lock (14) trigger
Section 1. Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition (15) right side stock (15) trigger stock
or Possession of Firearms or Ammunition or Instruments used or intended to (16) left side stock (16) modes
be used in the Manufacture of Firearms or Ammunitions. The penalty of (17) trade mark (monogram) (17) plunger
prision correctional in its maximum period and a fine of not less than Fifteen (18) serial number (18) serial number
thousand pesos (P15,000.00) shall be imposed upon any person who shall
unlawfully manufacture, dealt in, acquire, dispose or possess any low- I. AUXILIARY PARTS (ACCESSORIES)
powered firearm, such as rimfire handgun, .380, .32 and other firearm of
similar firepower, part of firearm, ammunition or machinery, tool or The following parts must be removed first before disassembly of the
weapon:
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 - recoil plug - recoil spring - barrel bushing - recoil spring guide - slide muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet,
stop pin shot, shell or other missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other
explosives. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned
J. ADVANTAGES elsewhere in the Code.

1. Revolver TECHNICAL DEFINTION – Technically speaking, the term

ammunition refers to a group of cartridges or to a single unit or single
 almost everyone knows something about how to handle it. cartridge – meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge,
 safer for inexperienced people. case, gunpowder and primer. The term may also refer to a “single round”.
 the mechanism allows the trigger pull to be better.
 a misfire does not put the revolver out of action. ORIGIN
 Can handle satisfactory old or new or partly deteriorated
ammunition which reduces velocity. The term “cartridge” evolved from about the turn of sixteenth
century. The earliest small arms ammunition or cartridge consisted of a pre-
2. Automatic pistol measured charge of powder wrapped in a paper. In Webster’s later edition, a
cartridge is defined as “A case capsule, shell or bag of metal, pasteboard, of
 has a better grip, fits the hand and points naturally the like, containing the explosive charge and in small arms and some cannon,
 more compact for the same fire power the projectile to be fired. The term cartridge is derived from the word
 easier to load, easier to clean “charta”, the Latin word for paper. Later on, it came through the French
 barrel when worn or corroded can be replaced without sending the word “cartouche”, meaning a roll of paper, which indicates that the
gun to the factory original cartridges were not the brass gilding- metal tipped units which we are
 gives greater number of shots familiar with today.
 gives greater fire power and greatest ease in firing
 no gas leakage during firing The use of paper-wrapped powder charged greatly speeds the
loading of military weapons, avoided waste of powder from spillage, and
K. DISADVANTAGES provided a uniform charge from shot to shot. In time, the bullet was either
attached faster or more convenient.
1. Revolver
Take Note:
 bulkier to carry
 grip or handle is generally not as good as that of pistol  “ammunition” means any unfired assembly of cartridge case,
 hard to clean after firing powder, primer and projectile which may be used in a firearm.
 slower to load Today, it refers to a “file of assembled cartridges” in bulks as in
 harder to replace worn out parts – it’s a factory job boxes or lots & also used to refer to the supply a person may be
 worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy to carrying with him.
improper lining up of cylinder  “round” refers to a single cartridge.
 shotgun cartridges are commonly referred to as “shell” or
2. Automatic Pistol “shotshell”
 rifle ammunition is referred to as “metallics” or “cartridges”.
 ammunition must be perfect – it causes jam  When an investigator uses a term “cartridge” he invariably refers
 misfire stops the functioning of gun to revolver, pistol, or rifle cartridges.
 when kept loaded for long period of time – magazine spring is  The layman uses the abovementioned terms indiscriminately,
under tension although as general rule he speaks of “cartridges” when referring
 has poorer trigger pull to a pistol, revolver, rifle ammunitions and “shells” when referring
 magazine requires jacketed bullet to shotguns.
 more dangerous to handle especially for inexperienced people  Among the uniformed, the word “bullet” as often misused, as it is
 usually not adopted for reloading commonly used to apply to any sort of any unfired cartridge.
 possible ejection of empty shell towards the face of the firer Actually, it is that solid portion of the cartridge which leaves the
causing flinching muzzle of the gun and does the “striking” or “killing”. The word
 throws out empty shell on the ground to remain as evidence can properly be used in connection with pistol, revolver or rifle
 cannot be fired from the pocket without jamming ammunition but other common designations for the bullet are
“projectile” or “ball” is a relic of old muzzle- loading days when
all rifle projectiles were round lead balls.

PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE (Nomenclature)

L. PRECAUTION FOR REVOLVERS
1. BULLET – the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm
Every police officer should frequently check his revolver for: by means of expansive force of gases coming from burning
1. obstruction in the barrel gunpowder.
2. bulging or swollen barrel 2. CARTRIDGE CASE – the tubular metallic container for the
3. firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is in gunpowder. Sometimes called ”shell” or “casting”.
rearward position 3. GUNPOWDER – It is the propellant which when ignited by the
4. on older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate in primer flash is converted to gas under high pressure and propels
relation to the firing pin hole (insures blow in the center of the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on to the target.
primer) 4. PRIMER – the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming
5. evidence of “splitting lead” around breech of barrel or for mixture of chemical compound, which when heat or struck by
complaints of fellow shooters firing pin would ignite. Such action is called “percussion.”
6. tightness of all side plate screw
7. tightness of ejector rod head if the weapon is S & W
8. cleanliness and protective film of oil to prevent rust
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF FIREARMS

AMMUNITIONS/CARTRIDGES 1. Revolver cartridges

2. Pistol cartridges
LEGAL DEFINITION – it maybe found in Chapter VII, Sec. 290 3. Rifle cartridges
of the National Internal Revenue Code as well as in Sec. 877 of the Revised 4. Shotgun cartridges
Administrative Code. It refers to ammunition as s “loaded shell” for rifles,
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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF PRIMERS
1. PIN FIRE CARTRIDGE – the first cartridge of a self –exploding
type which enjoyed any real general use was the type called the
“pin fire” commonly attributed to Monsier Le Facheux of Paris,
around 1896. Pin-fire cartridges were made for all types was small
arms in appearance to a modern shotgun shell wherein it had a
head of the cartridge and a percussion fixed by a wad or metal cup.
The percussion had a pin resting on its detonating compound. The
end protruding of the e pin is hit by a hammer coming down
vertically from the side of the cartridge instead of penetrating
horizontally from its fear. This type of cartridge is no longer used.
2. CENTER FIRE – priming powder is located at the center.
3. RINGFIRE CARTRIDGE – A type of cartridge used only on
sabotage cases. The chattel cartridges of Steyr advance combat
rifle and Steyr anti-material squad machine gun. This is a special
type of cartridge wherein the priming mixture is placed in a
circular hollow ring about 1/3 of the base of the cartridge.
4. RIM FIRE CARTRIDGE – The simplest form of modern
cartridge is the “rim-fire cartridge”. The name “rim-fire” is
derived from the fact that this type can be fired only if the cartridge
is struck by the hammer of firing pin on the rim of he case. In this
type, the priming mixture is contained or located in a cavity inside
and around the rim of the cartridge which is a very sensitive area.
If a rim fire cartridge is struck anywhere in the sensitive area, the
priming substance is crushed between the front and rear of the case
rim. This denotes or ignites the priming mixture, causing a flash of
flame.
Rim-fire cartridges may be identified by the smooth base of
the cartridge case, which may or may not have a head stamps are merely
letters or design found on the base of the cases that identifies the
manufacturer. These rim-fire cartridges are generally found in caliber
.22s. They can be fired in either caliber .22 pistols, caliber 22. revolvers
and caliber .22 rifles. Rim-fire cartridges can be further classified into:
a. rimmed type – used in revolvers .38 and .357
b. semi-rimmed – used in super .380
c. rimless - .45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun, submachine
guns
TYPES ACCORDING TO CALIBER
1. Caliber .22 – used in revolvers, pistols, rifles
2. Caliber .25 – used in pistols and rifles
3. Caliber .30 – used in carbines and other rifles
4. Caliber .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. Caliber .380 – used in pistols
6. Caliber .38 – used in revolvers
7. Caliber .357 – used in .357 revolvers (Magnum)
8. Caliber .44 – used in Magnum revolvers
9. Caliber .45 – used in Automatic pistols
10. Caliber .50 – used in caliber .50 machine guns
The abovementioned different classes of small arms cartridges are
generally encountered by the Police in the field of firearms investigation in
our jurisdiction. These are commonly used by criminals because they are used
in firearms that are easy to carry, conceal, fire and dispose of.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITIONS ACCORDING TO ITS
EFFECTS
1. Penetrators - pierce targets using a single bullet,
2. High explosives - burst before hitting their target, fragmenting
into thousands of penetrating pieces or becoming a high-speed jet
of molten metal, and
3. Carrier projectiles - break open near the target to deliver leaflets,
radar-deceiving materials, or submunitions (small ammunition).
ARTILLERY AMMUNITION
Artillery includes rocket launchers and such mounted guns as
howitzers, mortars, antiaircraft guns, and naval guns. Most types of field and
naval artillery ammunition are called shells. A single shell, like a single
cartridge, is known as a round. Field artillery projectiles range in size from 50
to 240 millimeters and can weigh over 200 pounds (90 kilograms). Most
13
artillery shells taper to the rear, a shape that gives them greater range. Some
have streamlined ogives (nose shields). Others, known as base-burner shells,
have a small amount of propellant burning in the tail during flight. This
reduces drag (air resistance).
Some shells are high explosives, which detonate on impact and
damage or destroy the target. Detonating the shell's explosive filler shatters
the shell into thousands of fragments. High explosives include TNT; RDX,
also known as cyclonite or hexogen; composition B, a mixture of RDX and
TNT; PETN; and pentolite, a combination of PETN and TNT. Other shells
contain mines or small shells that can be expelled at intervals over a specified
area or during a certain period of time.
Still other shells are filled with a non-explosive substance, such as
a chemical that is poisonous or that produces smoke or fire. Illuminating, or
star, shells light up the battlefield or seascape. A shell with a chaff warhead
expels strips of aluminum, which produce images on a radar screen similar to
those caused by aircraft. Such images confuse radar operators and thus help
protect aircraft from enemy attack.
There are five main types of artillery shells
1. Fixed ammunition fired by artillery consists of a projectile, a
casing, a primer, and a propellant. Like small-arms cartridges,
fixed artillery ammunition shells are manufactured as complete
units.
2. Semifixed ammunition resembles fixed ammunition. However,
the projectile fits loosely into the casing so that the sections can be
separated. Thus, the amount of propellant in the casing can be
increased or decreased, depending on how far the shell is from the
target.
3. Separate loading ammunition, also called bag ammunition,
consists of separate sections for the projectile, the primer, and the
propellant. The propellant is packed into bags that are placed
behind the projectile. The number of bags used depends on the
distance the shell must travel. This type of ammunition is used to
fire the heaviest artillery shells over great distances.
4. Separated ammunition consists of two sections. One section is
the projectile. The other includes the primer, the casing, and a
fixed amount of propellant.
5. Guided ammunition can correct its flight in the air after being
fired. It often uses pop-out tail fins to steer itself. Most guided
ammunition finds its target by tracking a laser spot on the target.
This spot is usually produced by a forward observer, a person or
object forward of the line of fire. Some shells known as smart
shells have small radars and computers in them. These shells can
search for and find such targets as armored vehicles or trucks
without help.
ARTILLERY-VEHICLE AMMUNITION
Armored-vehicle ammunition consists of projectiles fired by guns
mounted on tanks and other armored vehicles. They have diameters from 20
to 125 millimeters.
A common armored-vehicle penetrator is a projectile with a nose
cap of tungsten or another heavy metal. The cap helps the projectile penetrate
opposing vehicles. A high explosive projectile is a hollow-charge warhead.
This warhead is hollow in the front and has an explosive charge in the back.
Its explosion converts a copper cone in the warhead to a molten, high-speed
jet. The jet penetrates the target. Another armored vehicle projectile is a long
dart made of tungsten or depleted uranium (uranium with most of its
radioactivity removed). The dart travels on a device called a sabot, which
breaks away after the dart leaves the gun's barrel.
RIOT CONTROL AMMUNITION
This is used by law enforcement officials to subdue rioters without
causing serious injury. Most of this ammunition consists of hard rubber
bullets. Another type is made of soft rubber rings that look like doughnuts and
may contain tear gas. These rings cause less damage than do the rubber
bullets.
SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE (SHELL)
Shotgun is a shoulder gun that fires a cartridge that contains a
powder charge and a load of metal pellets, called shot. The shot spreads over
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a wide area. This makes it easier to hit a moving target with a shotgun than
with the single bullet from a rifle or a pistol. The shotgun is chiefly a hunting
gun.
Kinds of Shots:
1. bird shot - small shotgun pellets
2. buckshot – larger ones are used to shoot such animals as deer
3. single shot – consist of single unit of projectile
Shotgun cartridges consist of a plastic or paper tube with a brass
or steel case at one end. They contain lead or steel shot instead of bullets.
The caliber of a shotgun is measured by bore, or gauge. The weight
of the lead shot required to fit the muzzle of the gun is the standard of
measurement for the bore. If a bullet weighing 1/12 pound (38 grams) fits the
bore, the shotgun is called a 12-bore, or a 12-gauge, gun. Popular gauges are
10, 12, 16, 20, 28, and .410.
Some shotguns are named by caliber, as for example, the one that
is called .410 gauge shotguns which actually means .41 caliber. A 12-gauge
shotgun has a caliber of .729 inch.
The first shotgun, developed in 1537, was loaded with small shot
instead of one round ball. In 1831, Augustus Demondion patented a cartridge
that held small shot. Modern shotguns are single barrels, double barrels, or
single barrels with automatic repeating magazines that hold several cartridges.
Repeating shotguns are popular in the United States with hunters as well as
with many law enforcement officers.
SHOT WADS. At a distance of 5-8 yards or more from the place of
firing in the approximate direction of fire, one can sometimes find wads.
CARTRIDGE LIFE
The life of well made metallic small arms ammunitions perhaps
10 years on the average. Some last 5-6 years, however, ammunitions may
lose some of its strength in 5 or 6 years. Some may last 25 years or more
depending on the conditions storage. Damp, and warm climates are worst.
In order to prevent the entrance of oil or moisture, it is common
practice to varnish the mouth of the case before the insertion of the bullet
and to put a ring of waterproofing around the joint between the primer and
the primer pocket.
CARTRIDGE CASES/SHELL
It is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds
together the bullet, gunpowder and primer.
It is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from
the automatic firearm during firing and this remains at the scene of the crime.
This is firearm evidence that can help trace a particular firearm from which it
was fired.
FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIGE CASE
The function of cartridge case is basically the same whether it is
fired in revolvers, pistols, rifles, shotguns, or machine guns. These include:
1. It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the
cartridge case are forced against the walls of the chamber by the
pressure. It serves as a “gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel.
PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE
1. RIM – the projecting rims of rimmed and semi-rimmed cases
serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of cartridges into
their chambers and thus also limit the clearance, if any between the
head and the supporting.
2. PRIMER POCKET – performs three functions:
a.) holding primers securely in certain position;
b.) providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of
the cartridge;
14
c.) providing a primer support for primer anvils, without which
the latter could not be fired.
3. VENTS ORFLASH HOLES –the “vent” or “flash holes” is the
hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket through which the
primer “flash” provides ignition to the powder charge. It is the
“opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the
gunpowder.
4. THE HEAD AND BODY – the “head” and “body” constitute the
“cork” that plugs the breech of the barrel against the escape of the
gas.
5. NECK – applied to that part of the cartridge case that is occupied
by the bullet to prevent the bullet from being push back or
loosened.
6. CANNELURES – shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that
are sometimes found rolled into the neck and body of cases at the
location of the cases of the bullet to prevent the bullet from being
pushed back or loosened.
7. CRIMP – is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon
the bullet. It works two ways a) it aids in holding the bullet in
place; b) it offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of
the neck which affects the burning of gunpowder.
8. BASE - the bottom portion of the case which holds: a)the primer
which contains the priming mixture; b) the shell head which
contains the head stamp, caliber, and year of manufacture.
9. SHOULDER –that portion which supports the neck.
10. EXTRACTING GROOVE – the circular groove near the base of
the case or shell designed for the automatic withdrawal of the case
after each firing.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASESHAPE
1. Straight – all rimmed shell and most centerfire revolver cartridges.
Ex. Cal. 38 special
2. Tapered – very rare but being used in so-called “magnum jet” Cal.
.22.
3. Bottleneck – ex. 5.56mm cartridge cases
4. Belted – ex. .30 magnum
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HEAD FORMS
1. Rimmed – diameter of base is very much bigger than of the body
2. Semi-rimmed – diameter of base is slightly bigger than of the
body
3. Rimless – diameter of base is the same as of the body
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCORDING TO THE
CONFIGURATION OF ITS BASE
1. RIMMED – It has a flange at the base which is larger than the
diameter of the body of the cartridge case. This flange is to enable
the cartridge to be extracted from the weapon in which it is used.
2. SEMI-RIMMED – It has a flange which is slightly larger than the
diameter of the cartridge case and a groove around the case body
just in front of the flange.
3. RIMLESS – The flange diameter is the same as the body and there
is, for extraction purposes, a groove around the case-body in front
of the flange.
4. REBATED – It has an extractor flange which is less than the
diameter of the cartridge case.
5. BELTED CASE – It has a pronounced raised belt encircling the
base of the cartridge, the belt is for additional strength in high
pressure cartridge.
CARTRIDGE CASES ACCORDING SHAPES
1. Straight cased – where the case diameter is approximately the
same along its length.
2. Bottled-necked – where a wide bodied case is, just before the case
mouth, reduced in diameter to that of the bullet.
3. Tapered case – where a wide based cartridge case is gradually
reduced in diameter along its length.
FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASE
1. Serves as container for bullet, powder charge and the primer
2. Prevent the escape of gases
3. It serves as the waterproof container of the powder charge.
Take Note:
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  Annealing – is the process of making cartridge case by heating a
brass to become very soft and ductile and very weak: when it is * Another improvement in bullets was the boat-tail in which the
drawn or otherwise worked, it becomes hard, strong and elastic. name became .30 M1. The “M” stands for Mark but some contend
 Belted Cartridge – A cartridge, which has a raised belt before the stands for MODIFICATION.
extractor groove. The cartridge seats on this belt, most “Magnum”
cartridge case. Also called a European type primer. COMMON BULLET TYPES
 Blank Cartridge – Is a cartridge consisting of the case with its
primer, powder charge and a wad to train the powder. 1. solid lead point
 Blank Cartridge Pistol – A firearm without opening in the 2. solid hollow
muzzle, the gas may escape through the hole in the top of the 3. solid paper patch
frame. 4. metal cased
 Center Pin – serve us a locking device for the cylinder. 5. soft point
 Drawing – a machine operation in manufacturing cartridge cases. 6. metal cased hollow point
Is the process of making case by punching discs from a sheet of 7. metal point
brass and then making these discs out into tubes closed to one end. 8. rifled slug
 Guard Cartridge – one loaded with buckshot or a reduced charge 9. glycer type bullet
ball. 10. quadraximum
 Rolled Crimp – One in which the mouth of the cartridge case is
turned inward into a cannelure on the bullet all around its PURPOSES OF BULLETS
circumference to retain the bullet at the proper seating depth.
 Round – One single complete cartridge. 1. .38 – disability purposes
 Ruptured Case – Any cartridge case, which has been split in 2. .45 – knocking power – subduing a maniac or amok
firing so that the gas has escape. 3. M16 – fatal effects
 Short Cartridge – a metallic cartridge loaded with a small shot. 4. Garand and Carbine – penetration and long range shooting
 Signal Cartridge – one containing vari-colored luminous balls of
the “roman candle” variety. TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO USE

BULLETS (Projectiles)
Bullet is also knows as PROJECTILE – is a metallic or non-
metallic body usually referred to as a bullet that is completely dependent upon
an outside force for its power.
Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles
propelled from shotguns although strictly speaking these projectiles designed
for shotguns are called “shot”, “slug” or pellets. In a layman’s viewpoint, a
projectile fired from a firearms is called slug, although what be actually meant
is a “bullet”.
The term “bullet” originated from the French word “boulette”, a
small ball. In common Police parlance, a bullet may be called “slug” which
is a colloquial term.
CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL
CONSTRUCTION
Basically there are two (2) kinds of bullets:
1. Lead Bullets – those which are made of lead or alloy of this metal
such as lead, tin and antimony.
2. Jacketed Bullets – those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket
of harder metal such as guiding metal and copper zinc.
1. Ball Bullets – have a soft cores and are used against personnel.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet – have hardened steel cores and are fired
against vehicles, weapons and armored targets in general.
3. Tracer Bullets – contains compound usually similar to barium
nitrates which is set on fire when the bullet is projected. The flash
of this smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to
be seen.
4. Incendiary Bullets – contains a mixture such as phosphorous or
other materials, that can be set on fire by impact. They are used
against target that will burn readily such as aircraft.
5. Explosives Bullets – contains a high charge of high explosive and
because of their small size it is difficult to make a fuse tat will
work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this reason the use of
high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20mm and above.
BULLETS’ MEASUREMENT (DIAMETER)
Cartridges used in weapons other than shotguns are measured by
caliber (the diameter of the bullet). Manufacturers and users of ammunition in
the United States have traditionally specified caliber in decimal fractions of an
inch. For example, a .30-caliber cartridge has a diameter of 30/100 inch (7.6
millimeters). However, it is becoming customary to use millimeters instead.
The U.S. armed forces specify caliber in millimeters. Small-arms cartridges
are less than 20 millimeters or .78 caliber.
EQUIVALENT OF CALIBER TO MILLIMETER

Purposes of the jacket 1. Caliber .22 about 5.56 mm

2. Caliber .25 about 6.35 mm
1. keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when it strike the 3. Caliber .32 about 7.65 mm
target. 4. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Mauser)
2. prevent damage while in the weapon 5. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Luger)
3. control expansion 6. Caliber .38 about 9mm
7. Caliber .45 about 11.43 mm
Take Note:
CONVERSION TABLE
 copper plated steel maybe used instead of gilding metal for the
jacket of caliber .45 - jacket of metal patch made of cupro nickel or Multiply
gilding metal. 1. cm to mm - 10.0
 If jscket bullets are used in revolvers, the gun barrel will be 2. mm to inch - 0.03937
loosened or destroyed. 3. inch to mm - 25.4
4. meter to yard - 1.094
TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO SHAPE 5. grain to gram - 0.06480
6. gram to grain - 15.43
1. Pointed bullet 7. gram to kg - 0.001
2. Round Nose bullet
3. Wad Cutter bullet Take Note:
4. Semi-Wad Cutter bullet
5. Hollow Point bullet  .0002 second – explosion of a bullet by means of tremendous
6. Boat Tailed bullet explosion of burning gases.
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  Resistance of .38 is 15,000 to 45,000 ft./found.
 Buck-shot – it ranges 50 yards
Take Note:
 Ball Bullet – Bullets have soft lead cores inside a jacket.
 Cannelure (bullet) – A knurled ring or serrated grooved around
the body of the bullet which contains wax for lubrication in order
to minimize friction during the passage of the bullet inside the
bore.
 Dumdum Bullet – an out-moded and generally misused term –
hollow point bullets manufactured in Dumdum, India.
 Explosive (Fragmentary) Bullets – Contain a high charge
explosive, because of heir small size, it is difficult to make a fuse
that will work reliably in small arms ammunitions. For this reason
the use of high explosive bullets is usually to 20 mm. and above.
 Hollow Point – designed to increase expansion (sometimes called
“express bullets”)
 Iced Bullets or solidified bullets – super cooled water made as a
projectile.
 Lead Bullets - Actually a mixture of lead and one or more
hardening ingredient.
 Metal Cased Bullet – colloquially used to indicate either a metal
patched of full patched bullet.
 Metal Patched Bullet – any metal-jacketed bullet. Technically, it
is a bullet having a metal cup over the base and extending forward
over that portion of the bullet which bears against the rifling, the
lead core being exposed at the nose of the bullet.
 Mushroom Bullet – colloquially. Any bullet designed to expand
on impact. Technically, a metal patched bullet with exposed round
nose.
 Ogive – the curved portion of the bullet that is symmetrical and
forms the head of the projectile of ogival shape.
 Plated Bullet – a bullet covered with a thin coating of a copper
alloy to prevent leading on the inside of the barrel.
 Pointed Bullet – more effective ballistically because there is less
surface resistance to air, thus the speed is less retarded and greater
velocity.
 Soft or Drop Shot – shotgun pellets made of ordinary soft lead
made into round pellets.
 Soft Point Bullet – expands on striking hence it produces more
serious damage and have greater stopping power: from a high
velocity rifle, it will expand upon striking a flesh until it looks like
a mushroom, hence, they are often called mushroom bullet. Such
bullets are of little effect than a full-jacketed bullet in revolvers or
automatic pistols, because the velocity is too low to cause the
bullet to expand.
 Steel Jacketed Bullet – bullet having soft steel jacket, often clad
or plated with gliding metal to prevent resting and reduce frictional
resistance in the bore.
 Tracer Bullet – a bullet containing a substance inside the jacket at
the base of the bullet which is ignited when fired showing a
brilliant “tail light” during its flight. It has an incendiary effect if
they strike before the “tail light” base burned put.
GUNPOWDER
It is a substance or a mixture of substances which upon suitable
ignition releases a large amount of chemical energy at a high and controllable
rate, the energy liberation is to convert the propellant into a high of gas.
CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION
Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:
1. Black Powder (Europeans) – the standard ingredients are:
Potassium nitrate 75%, Sulphur 10% and Charcoal 15%. It’s
characteristics are:
a. oldest propellant powder
b. consist of irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny
black surface
c. produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in
the barrel
d. burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited
Qualities (typical to all explosives)
16
a. when ignited, it will burn by itself without aid from the
outside air
b. in burning, it gives off large amount of gas
c. a considerable amount of heat is evolved
2. Smokeless Powder – Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the
major ingredients, mixed with one or more minor ingredients such
as centralite, Vaseline esters, inorganic salts and etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF SMOKELESS POWDER
1. Single based (Nitrocellulose) – pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with
nitrocellulose
2. Double based - Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine with the
following minor ingredients:
a. centralite
b. Vaseline phthalate esters
c. Inorganic salt
Purposes of the minor ingredients:
a. insure stability
b. reduce flash or flame temperature
c. improve ignitability
Characteristics
a. gray green to black in color and grains are similar in size and
shape to the single-base propellants
b. almost all have a perfectly definite shape such as: small
squares; discs; flakes; stripes; pellets; and perforated
cylindrical grains
3. Triple based – Nitrocellulose, Nitroglycerine and Nitroguanadine
- It was devised in an attempt to compromise between the low
power single based powders and high power but excessive heat of
double based powders. The percentage of nitroglycerin is small,
but sufficient to give added power. The nitro-guanidine lowers the
flame temperature while still adding active explosive constituent.
One of its virtues is that it is entirely flashless though it does not
generate rather more smoke than the other types.
4. High ignition temperature propellant – Its main constituent is
from RDX group of high explosives. It was moderated to the
process of gelatinozation and was then developed by Dynamite
Noble of Germany in conjunction with Heckler and Koch for the
latter’s G11K2 rifle. This is a caseless cartridge.
Take Note:
 Cordite – A British propellant made by dissolving gun cotton and
nitroglycerin and adding 5% of Vaseline.
 Gun Cotton – A very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerin which
is a chemical compound and not a mixture. This is formed by the
action of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton or any other kind of
cellulose.
PRIMER
It is an assembly which ignites the propellant. The primer
assembly of center fire cartridges consists of a brass or guiding-metal cup that
contains a primer composition pellet of sensitive explosive, a paper disc (foil),
and a brass anvil.
A blow from the firing pin of a small arms weapon on center of the
primer cup
compresses the primer composition violently between the cup and the anvil,
thus causing the composition to explode. The hole or vent in the anvil allows
the flame to pass through the primer vent in the cartridge case, thereby
igniting the propellant.
Rimfire ammunition, such as the caliber .22 cartridge does not
contain primer assembly; the primer composition is spun into the rim of the
cartridge case and the propellant is in intimate contact with the composition.
In firing, the firing pin strikes the rim of the case and thus compresses the
primer composition and initiates its explosion.
Take Note:
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 1807 – Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion
ignition system. He was a Scotch Presbyterian Minister, chemist and hunter.
First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium
chlorate.
TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL
1. Boxer primer (one flash hole) – favorite in U.S. invented by Col.
Edward Munier Boxer in 1869.
2. Berdan (European Type) – two flash holes or vents invented by
Hiram Berdan of New York in 1850’s.
PARTS OF PRIMER AND FUNCTION
1. Primer Cap – it is the soft guiding metal which serves as the
container of priming mixture, paper disc and anvil.
2. Priming Mixture – contains a small amount of explosive mixture
which is sufficiently sensitive to result of chemical reaction being
set up by the caused by a sudden blow.
3. Paper Discs – this is made of thin shellacked paper disc that
protects the priming mixture that will cause its disintegration. Its
two-fold purposes:
a. help hold the priming mixture in place and
b. exclude moisture
4. Anvil – it is made of spring tempered brass place inside the primer
and it is on this side or point which the priming mixture is crushed.
5. Battery Cap – battery cap as applied to shotgun primer serves as
the main support for the whole primer components.
PRIMING COMPOUNDS
1. Corrosive – it has potassium chlorate – IF ignited produces
potassium chloride which draws moisture from the air and this moisture
speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.
CORROSION – chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel
due to rust formation or chemical reaction by products of combustion
during firing.
EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the
gun barrel due to mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.
2. Non-corrosive
Mixture 25 yrs. ago:
a. potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) – 45%
b. antimony (element & fuel) – 23%
c. fulminate of mercury (initiator) – 32%
WWII – Frankford Arenal (FH 42)
sulfur – 21.97% ; potassium chlorate – 47.20%; antimony sulfide –
30.83%
Typical rimfire (Cal. .22) – Frankford Arsenal
potassium chlorate – 41.43%; antimony sulfide – 9.53%; copper sulpho-
cyanide – 4.70%; ground glass – 44.23%
Germans
fulminate of mercury – 39%; barium nitrate – 41%; antimony sulfide –
9%; picric acid – 5%; ground glass – 6%
Swiss by Ziegler – 1911
fulminate of mercury – 40%; barium nitrate – 25%;
antimony sulfide – 25%; barium carbonate – 6%; ground glass – 4%
Take Note:
 Match Slow – a slow burning fuse or twisted cotton soaked in a
solution of saltpeter or hemp or on matchlock weapons.
 Maynard Primer – another form of percussion cap. Explosive
pellets were sealed at proper intervals between two strips of paper.
This primer tape was then rolled and inserted in guns of suitable
design. The action of cocking the hammer pulled the primer tape
until a primer pellet lay under the hammer and over the ignition
vent into the chamber ready for firing. Similar forms are used in
cap pistols.
17
FORENSIC BALLISTICS (FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION)
It is the study of recovered projectiles to identify the firearms
which fired them. It would be better termed firearms identification. The
evidence thus obtained is generally accepted in criminal Courts trials to
establish use or possession of a certain weapon.
Formerly, all that an “expert” could testify in Court concerning a
bullet recovered from the scene of a crime was that it was a certain type and
caliber. Thus a caliber .38 bullet could not have fired in a caliber .45 revolver.
Linking a bullet to a specific revolver was not then possible. About 1920,
great advances began to be made in identifying firearms by their fired bullets
and/or cartridge cases, and for the first time, formed criminology courses were
offered by universities to train individuals in the techniques of Forensic
Ballistics. Colonel Calvin H. Goddard was the leader in this effort. The most
important tools used was the Comparison Microscope, a binocular instrument
so arranged that two similar objects can be compared in detail simultaneously,
with corresponding surfaces adjacent.
When bullet is fired, it acquires marks or scratches from the bore
surfaces. These marks, from irregularities left by the tool cuts or caused by
wear and rust, by reproducible by firing another bullet through the same
barrel. The bullet is evidence and the second bullet can then be compared for
match. The pattern obtain is comparable to a fingerprint, thus making
coincidence of identical patterns from two different guns most unlikely if not
impossible. A composition is that, was yet, there has been no system devised
to classify such patterns, as there is with fingerprints.
When a cartridge is fired it is pressed forcibly against the
breechface of the firearm, there receiving an impression of any tool marks.
The firing pin also leaves its marks can be compared by the microscope, and a
fired cartridge case thus be linked to a specific weapon.
ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION
How a firearm is manufactured?
The first thing which is of importance for the Firearms Examiner
is the understanding of the construction of a gun barrel and to be sufficiently
familiar with the various steps in the manufacture of firearms which may
influence the investigation of the crime. There should always be sound reason
for all markings, scratches or dents visible or firearms evidence and it is the
function of the firearms examiner to determine how and why they were made
and also to interpret their significance both to himself as well as to the Court
of Justice.
The process of manufacture starts with a solid steel bar which,
when drilled from end to end makes it is steel pipe. The interior surface at
this stage bears numerous scratches resulting from irregular cutting of the drill
and the metal chips which mark the finish. For smooth bore barrels, after the
drilling process the inside of the barrel is made very smooth by a process
known as “lapping”. In barrels intended for rifles the next steps after drilling
consists of “reaming” and drilled hole for its entire length, this removes some
of the sears and scratches. The reamer removes metal from the entire surface
because it is slightly larger in diameter than the drill.
If the barrel is to be rifled it is done with the use of modern tools
which automatically cut the spiral grooves on the inside the barrel and impart
to every firearms characteristics which are peculiar to the barrel. Each
manufacturer has its own characteristics designed for the lands and grooves.
It has its individual patterns which determine whether the grooves are inclined
to the left or to the right.
In addition to these peculiarities there are other markings left by
the rifling tools which cuts the grooves that is as the rifling cutter wears small
imperfections on its surface are transmitted to the surface of the barrel and in
similar manner the accumulation of metal chips remove by the cutter will
scratch the barrel as it passes along. Even in the button system imperfection
will remain after the lapping and finishing operations are completed. These
microscopic scars will make a series of striations on every bullet which passes
through the barrel. It is the comparison of these bullet striations which is the
basis of examination.
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 Another phase of firearm manufacture which is of great fire from another barrel. And conversely,. The engraving on
importance to the identification of firearms is finishing operations of the bullet from the same barrel will be the same.
breechface of the breechblock of the firearm. It is that portion of the firearm c. Every barrel leaves its “thumbmark” on every bullet which is
against which the cartridge is fired. fired through it, just as every breech face leaves its
“thumbmark” on the base of the fired cartridge case.
TWO (2) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS REGARDING FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION 2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED BULLETS AND CARTRIDGE
CASES
1. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – are those characteristics which are
determinable even before the manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized a. The first thing to do in the examination of bullets is to
into the following: conduct a visual examination of the bullets in order to
familiarize with all markings appearing on it.
a. Caliber b. Conduct examination of the bore of the firearm.
b. Number of Lands and Grooves c. Determine the conspicuous characteristics appearing on the
c. Width of Lands and Grooves bullet or any markings appearing therein.
d. Twist of riflings d. Markings appearing on the test bullet No. 1 and does not
e. Pitch of the rifling appear on the succeeding test bullet such markings should be
f. Depth of grooves disregarded. Consequently, such markings are called
accidental markings which came from foreign substances.
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT FIREARMS e. If the bullet is undersized or the bore of the firearms is badly
worn out there will be a cylindrical passage of the expending
a. Colt Type ---------------------------------------- .45 6L gas will appear dark or black in the picture.
G2X
b. Grease Gun ------------------------------------- .45 6R G+ WHAT TO COMPARE?
c. Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .45 6R GL
d. Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .38 5R G=L 1. Evidence Bullet
e. Colt Revolver ---------------------------------- .38 6L G+ 2. Test/Standard Bullet
f. Colt Pistol Super-------------------------------- .38 6L G+
g. Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .32 6L G+ Before proceeding in the examination of the firearm by
h. Colt Pistol --------------------------------------- .32 6L G+ means of the fired bullets, first identify the particular firearm
i. Colt Pistol --------------------------------------- .25 6L through the class characteristics appearing on the cylindrical
G2X surface of the bullet.
j. Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .22 6L
G2X Manufacturers of firearms make certain marks which
k. Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .357 6L may distinguish firearms manufactured by them from that of other
G2X manufacturers. Each manufacturer makes specific number of
l. Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .32 5R G=L spiral grooves and direction of the twist of rifling. A bullet
m. Smith and Wesson MRF Rev. ---------------- .22 6R recovered at the crime scene or from the body of the victim may
G=L show those marks and on examination, the examiner may
n. Enfield Revolver -------------------------------- .38 7R presumptively state from what make of firearm it came from, thus,
G2X if one examination or recovered bullet, it was found out that there
o. US Carbine -------------------------------------- .30 4R G3x are six (6) grooves and the rifling marks are twisted to the left, then
p. Browning Pistol --------------------------------- 9mm 6R it is possible that it came from a Colt firearm. Smith and Wesson
G=L manufacturer has five (5) lands, five (5) grooves and with right
q. Star Pistol ---------------------------------------- .380 6R hand twit of rifling. Other class characteristics varied from one
G+ manufacturer to another.
r. Llama Pistol ------------------------------------- .380 6L
G+ 3. SHELL Identification
s. Beretta Pistol ------------------------------------.32 6R
G2X a. The breechface and the striker of every single firearm leave
t. Astra Pistol -------------------------------------- .32 6R microscopically individualities of their own. The firearm
G2X leaves its “fingerprint” or “thumbmark” on every cartridge
u. Arminius Revolver ------------------------------ .22 6R which is fires.
G2X b. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that
v. Burgo Revolver --------------------------------- .22 8R G+ since the breechface of every weapon must be individually
w. Marlin M57 Rifle -------------------------------- .22 2OR distinct, the cartridge case which it fires is imprinted with this
G+ individuality.
c. The imprints on all cartridges fired from the same weapon
2. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – are those characteristics are the same and those cartridges fired from different weapon
which are determinable only after the manufacture of the firearm. They are must always be different.
characteristics whose existence is beyond the control of man and which have a
random distribution. Their existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools
in their normal operation resulting through wear, tear, abuse, mutilations,
corrosion, erosions and other fortuitous causes. These are the irregularities
found on the inner surface of the barrel and on the breech face of the
breechblock of the firearms as a result of the failure of the tool beyond the
control of the manufacturer to make them smooth as a minor.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING FIREARMS EXAMINATION
IMPORTANCE OF FIRED BULLET IN FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION
1. BULLET IDENTIFICATION
a. By means of fire bullet you can determine the particular
a. No two barrels and microscopically identical as the surface of
barrel of firearm used.
their bores all posses individual characteristics markings.
b. Recovered bullet can tell the type, caliber and make of
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes
firearm from which it was fired.
engraved by the riflings and this engraving on a bullet fired
c. Can determine also the condition of the firearm us
from one barrel will be different from that on a similar bullet

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FIREARM CARTRIDGE CASE
Before proceeding in the examination, conduct a preliminary
examination on the cartridge case having a visual examination on the
condition of such cartridge case. Determine whether or not it came from a
revolver or from an automatic pistol and sub-machine guns. Examine those
markings that are present on the base portion, the breechface marks, firing pin
impression, the location of the extractor and ejector markings. Check also the
markings caused by the chamber of the firearm. The magazine and the ejector
port markings must also be taken into consideration particularly those
cartridge cases from gums having full automatic mechanism.
MARKINGS APPEARING ON A FIRED CARTRIDGE CASE
1. Breechface marks
2. Firing pin impression
3. Ejector mark
4. Extractor mark
5. Chamber mark
TWO TYPES OF MARKINGS (individual)
1. Impression type – those markings caused by direct pressure
contact. (ex. Breechface mark)
2. Striated mark – those markings caused by sliding contact. (ex.
Minute striations on the cylindrical surface of the bullet)
Take Note:
 Abrasion (in the bore) – Scratches caused by using improper
cleaning materials, or by firing ammunition with bullets to which
abrasive material was adhering. Normal enlargement of the bore
and wearing away of lands due to the abrasive action of the bullets.
 Accidental Characteristics - Those ate characteristics or marks
left by some individual gun that occurred on that particular shot
and may or may not reproduced on any other shots. For example, a
grain of send of shaving of steel happened to be in the barrel when
a shot was fired.
 Ballistician – Person whose knowledge in firearms identification
is accepted by the courts and other investigation agencies.
 Definitive Proof – after the gun is finally completed, it is again
fired with a heavy charge to ensure against accident. This is the
definitive proof and guns passing this test are stamped with still
another marked.
 Expert - As used in courts includes all witnesses whose opinions
are admitted on grounds of specialized knowledge, training and
experience.
 Fouling - The accumulated of a deposit within the bore of a
firearm caused by solid by-products remaining after a cartridge of
is fired.
 Heavy Rusting - Usually called corrosion rather than fouling.
 Proof Marks – It is the examination and testing of firearms by a
recognized authority according to certain rules and stamped with a
mark to indicate that they are safe for sale and used by the public.
 Provisional Proof – the testing of the rough gun barrels and fired
with a heavy charge of powder to see if they are strong enough to
be finished and assembled into gun. This provisional proof and a
certain stamp are placed on barrels so tested.
 Secondary Firing Pin Impression – Is a mark on the side of the
regular impression usually found in pistols.
 Shaving Marks – a shaving on the ogive portion of the fired bullet
due to poor alignment of the cylinder with the barrel. This shaving
is often found in the revolver.
 Skid Marks – When the bullet first starts forward without turning,
that before the bullet can begin to turn, it moves forward a small
distance and this makes the front of the groove in the bullet wider
than the rear part. This skidding is more pronounced in revolvers.
 Slippage Marks – Scratches of the fired bullet due to badly worn
rifling or when the bullet is small or too soft for the velocity used,
there is a tendency for it to go straight forward without turning and
it jumps the rifling or slips.
 Stripping Marks – scratches on the fired bullet due to worn out
barrel.
TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION
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1. Physical – Evidence bullets, cartridge cases and suspected
firearm once submitted by the requesting party will be physically examined to
determine its markings or initials made by the investigator for identification
purposes. If no identifying marks were found the firearms examiner will,
before anything, affix his own identifying markings or initials derived form
the names of the requesting party, victim or suspect in that order of priority.
The firearm will also be physically examine to determine its safety devices
seeing to it that there is no cartridge inserted in the chamber that will cause
accidental firing. Likewise, it will be examined of its vital parts whether or not
it is in operating condition and a tag will be attached for distinction.
Bullets of different class characteristics will be segregated from
one another especially the determination of caliber, number of lands and
grooves, twist of rifling, etc. to facilitate its easy final microscopic
examination.
Cartridge cases will also be segregated to determine the caliber,
type and make of firearm from which they were fired. Misfired or dud
cartridges will also be taken into consideration. Although they may not have
any ballistics probative value, yet, they may give a clue to the solution of a
crime.
2. Test Firing – The firearm is test fired before a bullet recovery
box in order to obtain test bullets and test cartridge cases for comparison with
the evidence bullets and cartridge cases, respectively,. But before firing, the
cartridge will be marked at the side of the case and on the nose portion of the
bullet with letter “T” (to represent test) followed by the last two digits of the
serial number of the firearm of the test to be made (eg) T-77-1 to T-77-3 in
their order of firing to distinguish the number 1 test from the number 2 or 3 as
the case may be.
3. Microscope Examination – After the recovery of the test
bullets and cartridge case, they will be compared with the evidence cartridge
cases under the Bullet Comparison Microscope to determine whether or not
the have the congruency of striations or the same individual characteristics.
BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE
Toady, the most widely and reliable instrument in Firearms
Identification is the Bullet Comparison Microscope. With this instrument, the
firearms examiner can make a complete examination and comparison of the so
called Class and Individual characteristics that appears on the fired bullets and
fired cartridge cases.
This instrument consists of two single tubes fitted with a cross arm
and comparison eyepiece, in which the images of two objects held on its two
adjustable stages are fused into one, forming a single image as can be seen on
the comparison eyepiece. The microscope tubes are built as a unit with the
comparison eyepiece which has a prism arrangement that brings the images of
the specimen held under the microscopic tubes into a side by side position in
the left and right side of the eyepiece field the eyepiece is threaded for
focusing on the dividing line between the two fields.
Under the microscope the two fired bullets or fired cartridge cases
can be examined in a “juxtaposition” and whatever the observation and
findings obtained during the examination can be photographed for court
presentation and also to give the Court a better understanding and good
appreciation of how he came to that conclusion.
HOW TO OPERATE THE MICROSCOPE
Place the two objects on the two adjustable stages under the two
microscopic tubes and peep through the comparison eyepiece. If the objects
cannot be seen, adjust the stages through the rock and pinion mechanism.
Once the two objects focused, the next step is to find the similarities existing
between the objects either shifting them vertically or horizontally.
Every examiner, no matter how experienced or expert he may be,
has had the experience of spending many hours in the attempt to get the
satisfactory and convincing matching in cases where there was every reason to
believe that the has the gun that fired the evidence bullet or shell.
Obtain matching as many as possible, because convincing one’s
self and convincing the Court “beyond all reasonable doubt” are two quite
different matters. Te expert must always keep in mind the fact, judges are
always keep in mind the fact, judges are always unpredictable: if some pairs
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of grooves (or lands) match and others do not, the expert must be prepared to
explain why they do not.
FINDINGS/CONCLUSION
Findings are the bases of conclusion. A conclusion cannot be made
without the findings. A good conclusion is always based on good findings. In
comparative examination of the evidence bullet that are found on the
periphery running from the forward shoulder to the base portion (these are
surface of the barrel), are discernible with the test bullet or if they have the
congruency, correspondence or intermarriage, then the evidence bullet and the
test bullet were fired from one and the same firearm. For conclusive of
findings, there should be at least three (3) tests that should be compared. The
first is for preliminary, the second is for confirmation and the third is for
conclusion. This is also true for fired cartridge cases. Although the individual
characteristics of the cases may be found at the base portion where
breechface, ejector, extractor markings are found on the sides that are in
contact with the inner surface of the chamber.
Clip or magazine markings may also give discernible markings.
Like the ejector or extractor markings if considered singly may not be a basis
for conclusion. These only serve as corroborative characteristics but certainly
lack legal significance. This is so because the case may have these markings
even if they were unloaded from the firearm without firing. As a rule, the
point of the examination and comparison is at the area of the primer proper
where breechface markings together with the firing pin impression are
located. Primers are softer metals and receive more prominent striation than
any other portion of the base.
Conclusion is the opinion gathered from the finding. This is the
end result of the examination and should be taken seriously as it involves the
life and liberty of the suspect. When the evidence and the test bullets or
cartridge cases have the same individual characteristics, the competent
examiner will conclude that they were fired from one and the same individual
characteristic; the competent examiner will conclude that they were fired from
one and the same suspected firearm. If they have different individual
characteristics, certainly, the evidence bullet or case was not fired from the
suspected firearm. Where the evidence has prominent or minor striations that
the three tests, it calls for uncertainty and doubt for a positive or negative
conclusion. Only those evidence bullets or cases that have the same individual
characteristics may be taken of photomicrograph for Court presentation.
REQUIREMENTS FOR A POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION
1. PROMINENT – Standing out or projecting beyond a surface or
line, readily noticeable.
2. CONSISTENT – Possessing firmness. The impression or striation
found on the evidence bullet or cartridge case appearing in every
test bullets and cartridge cases.
3. SIGNIFICANT – The markings have meaning or capable of being
interpreted by the Firearms Examiner or Ballistician.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN FORENSIC BALISTICS
1. Analytical or Torsion Balance – Used for determining weights of
bullets and shotgun pellets for possible determination of type, and
make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope – This valuable instrument is
specially designed to permit the firearms examiner to determine
the similarity and dissimilarity between two fired bullets or two
fired shells, by simultaneously observing their magnified image in
a single microscopic field.
3. Bullet Recovery Box – Consist of a wooden box, 12 “x”12”x 96,
with a hinged to cover and with one end open. This long box is
filled with ordinary cotton and separated into sections by
cardboard petitions.
4. CP–6 Comparison Projector – An instrument very much similar
with the bullet comparison microscope, where 2 fired bullets or
shells can be compared in one setting of the firearms examiner.
Also in one sitting, the evidence fired shell can b4e immediately
compared with the test fired shell with the use of this equipment is
absolutely no strain of any kind. No eye strain because the
magnified image appears on a large screen and is observed as a
vertical and comfortable viewing distance. No back strain from
stooping over a microscope several hours a day. No mental strain
because comparison of evidence is faster, easier and less tiresome,
thus allowing a more efficient and productive of investigative time
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in the crime laboratory with method that can be seen in the screen
can be photographed by any kind of camera.
5. Filan Micrometer Eye Piece - a measuring microscope to read the
width of the land and groove marks and to obtain the pitch of the
rifling in turns per inch.
6. Helixometer – Type of instrument used in measuring pitch of
rifling firearms. This instrument is generally used in high advanced
ballistic laboratory. It is not very much needed in a typical police
ballistic laboratory. With the use of this instrument it is possible to
measure the angel of twist in a rifle, pistol, or revolver barrel. It is
used by the insertion of a telescope aligned with the axis of the
bore. There is an eyepiece and an objective. The scope is mounted
on a routable bearing with graduated discs that permits reading
circular measurements, there is a scale graduated in inches. From
the discs we can get the angel of the pitch, this can be combined
with the scale reading to compute how many inches of barrel
length would be needed for one complete turn of the rifling.
Comparing this figure with those in tables of manufacturers’
specifications, we can often identify the making and the model of a
weapon whose other features have been destroyed already.
7. Machine Rest - A machine use for testing the accuracy of a
firearm.
8. Caliper – an instrument used for making measurements such as
bullet diameter and bore diameter.
9. Micrometer – similar in use as caliber.
10. Onoscope – a small instrument sometimes used in examining the
internal surface of the gun barrel in determining the irregularities
inside the bore of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp at the terminal
portion and this is inserted inside the bore for internal examination.
11. Optical Sight – sight containing series of lenses to form an optical
system being contained in one unit. Optical sights do not
necessarily have telescopic properties. The optical system may
merely include range indicating, or range estimating devices, plus
the necessary means of adjusting for elevation and wind age.
12. Shadow Graph – Equipment used in firearms identification. It
contains a series of microscopic lenses of different magnification
that can be used in examining fired bullet or fired shells to
determine their class characteristics and also for orientation
purposes. It greatly differs from the bullet comparison microscope
and stereoscope microscope, that this instrument contains a large
ground glass, 14 inches more or less in diameter, wherein the
observation and comparison of the class characteristics is done by
the firearm examiner. Similarly with the bullet comparison made in
the circular ground glass.
13. Stereoscopic Microscope – unlike the bullet comparison
microscope does not have any camera attachment and no
photomicrograph can be taken for court presentation. It is generally
used in the preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells
to determine the relative distribution of the class characteristics or
for so-called orientation purposes. It can be used also in the close-
up examination of tempered serial numbers of firearms. It has two
eyepieces and the lenses and objectives can be manipulated
vertically with a series of magnifications. It is one effective
instrument for firearms identification.
14. Taper Gauge – It is used primarily for determining bore diameter
of firearms. This instrument is very useful for giving quick idea as
to the caliber of a gun.
15. Telescope Sight – an optical employing the principle of the
telescope to enlarge the image of the target.
OTHER TERMS TO PONDER IN BALLISTICS
1. Accelerator – A device used in some automatic and semi-
automatic weapons to accelerate the rearward travel of the bolt of
breechblock by applying leverage at the critical point in the bolt’s
travel. Any device of linkage designed to speed the movement of
some portion of the mechanical train.
2. ACP – Arms Corporation of the Philippines.
3. Barrel Length - In interior ballistic work this differs from the
"barrel length" use in general measurements. It is measured from
the face of the muzzle to the base of the seated bullet or base of the
case neck.
4. Barrel Telescope – Instrument used to make a visual inspection of
the inset of a gun barrel to see a sign of having been fired recently,
to look for leading or metal fouling and to see how distinct the
lands and grooves appear.
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5. Blow back – As pertains to automatic and semi-automatic arms, a
weapon in which no mechanical locking system is employed. The
breech is held closed at the moment of firing by the action of recoil
springs and the weight of the slide, hammer and other moving
parts. The weight of these parts is so much greater than the breech
action has been appreciably overcome; then the breechblock action
is blown backward, by residual pressure. A term commonly used to
describe the backward escape of powder or primer gases from the
chamber around the breechblock or bolt due to split or fractured
cartridge case or punctured primer.
6. Blow Forward – An automatic of semi-automatic firearm having a
standing breech, in which the barrel is blown to open the action
and eject the fired cartridge case. The barrel is then forced back
against the standing breech by a powerful spring. The gun is
cocked and reloaded as the barrel is forced to the rear.
7. Bore Centerline - This is the visual line of the center of the bore.
Since sights are mounted above the bore's centerline and since the
bullet begins to drop when it leaves the muzzle the bore must be
angled upwards in relation to the line of sight so that the bullet will
strike where the sights point.
8. Breech Block – The steel block which closes the tear bore against
the force of the charge; or the face of the block.
9. Burr Hammer – An expose hammer having a serrated knob at the
top to provide a griping surface for cocking.
10. Camming – lug bolts – that type which employs one or more bolt
locking logs which are cammed outward from the interior of the
bolt cylinder to unlocked the action.
11. Chamber – the rear portion of the barrel where the cartridge is
inserted.
12. Cylinder – serves as chamber and magazine and a revolver.
13. Cylinder Stop – stops and holds the cylinder in alignment for
firing.
14. Delayed Blowback – Sometimes called hesitation locking the
breech, although not positively locked, must overcome a
mechanical disadvantage, such as knuckle joint, to open.
15. Disconnector – The lever in the gunlock which prevents the
release of the hammer unless the slide and barrel are in forward
position safely interlocked.
16. Double – Set Triggers – A pair of triggers so arranged that
pressure on one trigger engages the sear in such fashion that the
slightest tough on the second trigger will then discharge the gun.
17. Double Action Sear – Built into weapon to allow double action
fire.
18. EC- Evansille Chrisler
19. Ejector - The mechanism in the firearm which causes the cartridge
case or shell to be thrown out from the gun.
20. Extractor – That mechanism in a firearm by which the cartridge
case or shell is withdrawn from the chamber mechanism in a
revolver that pulls the empty shells simultaneously.
21. Extractor Rod – That mechanism in revolver that activates the
extractor and is a locking device.
22. FA – Frankford Arsenal.
23. Falling Block Action –That type of action, which the breechblock
is pivoted at the rear of the receiver so that the face of the
breechblock swings down below the chamber to open the action.
24. FCC- Federal Cartridge Company
25. Firearm (Other Definition) - Means any pistol or revolver with a
barrel les than 12 inches, any riffle with a barrel less than 15
inches, other weapon which is design to expel projectile buy the
action of explosion.(Uniform firearms act of Pennsylvania)
26. Flying Firing Pin – A firing pin shorter that the length of its travel
in the breechblock. A spiral spring coiled around the pin forward
compressing the spring and exploding the primer, the compressed
spring immediately draws the firing pin back into the breechblock.
This is a safety feature since the firing pin is not in contact with
the primer except when driven forward by the hammer at the
instant of firing. Also known as rebound type firing pin Ex: Colt
Government Model Caliber. 45 and Tokarev 7.62 mm.
27. Folding Trigger - A trigger hinged so that it can be folded forward
close to under side of the frame. Ex: Italian 10:35 mm Bodego.
28. Frame - Part of the firearm that houses the internal parts.
29. Front sight - A protrusion or attachment above the barrel near the
muzzle. It may be fixed or adjustable.
30. Grip or Automatic Safeties - Flat lavers of plungers normally
protruding from some portion of the grip such position that when
the hand firing the piece is squeezed around the grip, by the firer,
automatically releasing the firing mechanism. In most cases, when
21
pressure on the grip is relaxed the safety automatically resets itself,
In a few instances, it must bee usually reset.
31. Hair Trigger – A term loosely applied to any trigger which can be
release by very light pressure.
32. Hammer – mechanism in a firearm that strikes the prime.
33. Hammer Block - Safety device that prevents hammer blow to
primer.
34. Hand (Pawl) - Mechanism of a revolver which rotate the cylinder.
35. Hanged Frame - A weapon in which the barrel including the
cylinder in the case of revolver is pivoted to the forward end of the
frame. Closing the gun swings the barrel into firing position where
the chambers are firmly locked against the standing breech.
36. Headspace - The distance between the breech of the gun and the
support for the cartridge rim; in other words, it is the space
occupied by the head of the cartridge when the gun is loaded.
37. Head stamps - Merely the letters or design placed on the base of
the cases by the manufacturer to identify his product.
38. Inertia Firing Pin - A firing pin assembled into the breech block
and free to move forward and backward. It is impelled forward by
the blow of the hammer or striker and backward by the explosions
of the primer.
39. LC- Lake City Arsenal
40. Leaf Sight - Any metallic sight which is hinged at the base to
permit raising it to a vertical position sighting and lowering it to a
horizontal position to avoid damage and carrying leaf sight.
Principle is usually applied to rear sight only.
41. Line of Sight - This is the visual line of the aligned sight path.
Since sights are mounted above the bore's centerline and since the
bullet begins to drop when it leaves the muzzle the bore must be
angled upwards in relation to the line of sight so that the bullet will
strike where the sights point.
42. Mainspring – mechanism in a firearm that provides energy to the
hammer to activate firing mechanism.
43. Metallic Sights – normally consist of a pair of front sight and rear
sights.
44. Muzzle Brake – a device attached to the muzzle of a gun designed
to deflect the propelling gases emerging from the muzzle behind
the bullet and to utilize the energy of these gases to pull the gun
forward to counter the recoil of the weapon.
45. Open Sight – any sight in which there is to tube or aperture
through which aim is taken.
46. Paradox Gun – a shotgun having the last few inches of the muzzle
rifled so that it will impart a spin to the patented slug that is used
with it when it is desired to fire a large single projectile instead of a
charge of shot.
47. Parker size – a Gray rust preventive finish for metal.
48. Post Sight – A front sight resembling a post or one of generally
rectangular of quadrilateral design.
49. Pump Action – Popular term for slide action.
50. Pyramidal Sight - a front sight of generally pyramidal design.
51. RA or REM – Remington arms company.
52. Ramp Sight – A front sight mounted at the ramp, which inclines
upward and forward, a rear sight having a sliding member, which
may be moved up and down a ramp to change the elevation of the
sight.
53. Rear Sight – The rear-most of a pair of metallic gun sights. It may
be mounted on the barrel, receiver, frame, slide, tang, cocking
piece, bolt sleeve or stock; may be fixed or adjustable.
54. Receiver Sight – Any type of sight fastened to the receiver bridge.
55. Recoil Operated – Pertains to automatic and semi-automatic arms,
a weapon in which the barrel and breechblock are locked together
at the instant firing. As the bullet leaves the barrel, the rearward
thrust of the powder gases starts the locked barrel and bolt to the
rear.
56. Repeater – Any firearm holding more than one round at a time.
57. Rolling Block Action – that type of action in which the
breechblock rotates its about an axis pin downward and backward
from the chamber.
58. RPA – Republic of the Philippines Arsenal
59. Sear – The lever in the gunlock, which hold the hammer until the
released by the trigger.
60. Semi-Automatic Revolver – are those in which the recoil from
one shot plus spring action revolvers, the cylinder aligns a chamber
and cocks the hammer ready for firing the next shot.
61. Set Trigger – An adjustable trigger design to operate reliable with
a very light trigger pull. Colloquially a “hair trigger”.
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62. Shoat Trigger – An absolute form of trigger in which no trigger
guard was used. The trigger was mounted in and projected only
slightly from the frame just forward of the grip.
63. Shoulder – Portion of a shell that support the neck.
64. Slide Action – That type of breech closure, which is moved
forward and backward along guide ways paralleling the lower side
of the barrel. The operating rod is properly linked to the
breechblock to provide the desired and closing action.
65. Slide Plate – Part of the revolver that provides access to the
internal part.
66. Signal Radius – the distance between forward and rear sight.
67. Silencer – A device intended to be attached to muzzle of a firearm
to prevent or reduce its noise.
68. Single Action Revolvers – Are those in which the hammer must
be manually cocked.
69. Solid Frame – in a revolver, a swing-out cylinder or rod ejector
type. There is a break or hinge in the frame.
70. Spur Hammer – a hammer having a cocking spur.
71. Stab Crimp – a series of small indents at intervals around the
cartridge case, engaging a cannelure in the bullet jacket. Both types
of crimp are also used on high-pressure cartridge to hold the
primer in the pocket.
72. Standing Breech – when a receiver is not cut away at its rear to a
point below the line of the gun bore, the solid rear wall of the
receiver is the “standing breech”. In the case of hinged frame
weapons the solid rearward portion of the frame (receiver) against
which the heads of the chambered cartridge rest after the gun has
been closed and locked is the “standing breech”. In a revolver or
single shot pistol that section of the frame that supports the head of
the cartridge in the cylinder or chamber is the “standing breech”.
73. Straight-line Hammer – a metal forced straight back by bolt
action during bolt reciprocation to cocked position. When released
it drives straight ahead to fire. Found on reising and similar guns.
74. Straight-pull Action – that type in which the rotary motion
required to turn the bolt locking lugs into or out of engagement
with their locking recesses is applied by the action of studs on the
bolt sliding in helical grooves cut inside a bolt cylinder.
75. Sub caliber Barrel – a barrel of small caliber inserted down the
bore or mounted over the barrel of a large caliber gun, permitting it
to be used for practice work with less powerful, cheaper
ammunition. Generally, it is called a “Sub-caliber tube”.
76. Thumb latch – mechanism in a revolver that actuates bolt to
release the cylinder.
77. Thumb trigger – a button design on or near the tang. It fines the
rifle when depressed normally by thumb pressure. Tang-rear-ward
projecting arms of the receiver into which the butt stocks is
fastened.
78. Trigger – the lever operated by the shooter which releases the
firing pin and allows it to discharge the cartridge.
79. Trigger Guard – the bent strip of metal that protects the trigger
from accidental discharge.
80. Trigger Lever – mechanism in a revolver that contacts the
rebound slide to return the trigger forward.
81. Trigger Spring – spring that provides energy for return movement
of rebound slide.
82. Trigger Stop – mechanism in a revolver that prevents excessive
rearward movement after hammer release.
83. Tube Sight – a tube in which front and rear sights are mounted.
84. Turn-bolt Action – that type of firearm which locked by the
turning one or more bolt locking lugs into locking recesses cut into
the receiver.
85. U or UT – Utah Ordinance Company
86. Vernier Sight – metallic sights which may be adjusted for
elevation or wind age by the action of a vernier screw. Also called
a micrometer sight. Screw having a head calibrated to indicate the
amount of movement transmitted to the sight.
87. WCC – Western Cartridge Company
88. Wedge-type Bolts – that type which employs a ramp or camp
arrangement raise lower, or move to either side, one end of the
bolts so that the end of the bolt or lug thereon is wedged against a
supporting surface in the receiver to lock the action.
89. WRA – Winchester Repacking Company
90. Yoke – mechanism in a revolver that connects pivot between the
frame and cylinder.
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POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Photography is an invaluable aid to modern day scientific crime
detection and investigation as well as crime prevention. Perhaps it could be
stated that without photography our law enforcement officer in the so-called
modern day scientific crime detection would still be lagging a hundred years.
The year 1839 is considered generally as the birth year of
photography. Its first landmark in police history is generally confined to its
application to the problem of personal identification. In those days the
Bertillon system of the facial features of the criminal were measured, as well
as the bone structures of the various parts of the body. These measurements
were worked into a classification system and the photograph of the criminal
was used to supplement the classification. Later, the Bertillon system was
superseded by the fingerprint system of personal identification. Under the
fingerprint system the photograph of the subject is still placed on his finger
print chart, not to supplement the identification system but to have available
photograph if needed for investigation purposes.
This course is divided into two main topics: TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY
AND FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY.
TECHNICAL: technical concepts and principles which includes
characteristics of photographic rays, the use of camera, lenses, filters,
structure of film and photographic papers, chemical processing and others.
FORENSIC: covers investigative photography, preparation of mug file and
crime scene photography.
Objective:
The objective of this course is to help the students become aware
of the basic principles and concepts of photography. Although this course is
not intended to make the students become professional photographers, it is
designed to give them enough information for them to realize the vital use of
photography as a significant tool in law enforcement and criminal
investigation. As future law enforcers and criminal investigators, they must be
knowledgeable on how to utilize effectively and efficiently photographic
evidences during court proceedings.
Significance:
The usefulness of Forensic Photography in criminal investigation
is very extensive. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed
may escape in the first phase of examination by the investigator but may be
seen and recovered, only after closed examination of the photographs of the
crime scene.
Investigators are sometimes compelled to reconstruct or describe in
court some of the details of the crime scenes they investigated several months
ago. With the bulk of cases the investigator handle, perhaps he would be
confused or may not exactly recall some of these details or exact location of
objects. However, with the aid of photographs taken from the crime scene,
investigator will not find hard time to refresh in their minds and will be able to
describe or explain exactly the details in court.
A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record, which is
always available, especially in court presentation. In court proceedings,
judges, prosecutors and defense lawyers have generally never visited the
scene of the crime. Therefore, photographers should bear in mind to obtain a
normal, sharp and free of distortion photograph. As a general rule, take many
photograph of the crime scene and select the best.
A photograph of the crime scene is a factual reproduction and
accurate record of the crime scene because it captures TIME, SPACE AND
EVENT. A photograph is capable of catching and preserving the:
SPACE - the WHERE of the crime (Locus Criminis)
TIME – the WHEN of the crime
EVENT – the WHAT of the crime – what is the nature or
character of the crime?
Uses of photography in police work
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 1. Identification files- Criminals missing persons, lost property,
licenses, anonymous letters, bad checks, laundry marks, and
civilian of personal fingerprint IF In the case of atomic attack or a
catastrophe such as an airplane crash, the fingerprints from a
civilian file are proving helpful in making positive identification
2. Communication and microfilm files- Investigative report files,
Accident files transitions of photos (Wire Photo) Photographic
supplements to reports. With modern day electro photography
machines accident reports can be made in seconds and sold to
insurance adjusters for nominal fees. An excellent source of
revenue for department is the sale of photographs of traffic
accidents to insurance companies and lawyers.
3. Evidence- Crime scenes, traffic accidents, homicides suicides,
fires, objects of evidence, latent fingerprint traces. Evidence can be
improved by contrast control, by magnification and by visible
radiation.
4. Offender detection – Surveillance, burglar traps, confession,
reenactment of crimes intoxicated driver test. One of the newest
applications of police photography is to record on motion picture
film arrests in which the suspect offers resistance. The practice has
been instituted by at least one metropolitan law enforcement
agency to counter charges of police brutality.
5. Court exhibits- Demonstration enlargements, individual photos,
projection slides, motion pictures.
6. Reproduction or Copying – Questionable checks and documents,
evidential papers, photographs, official records and notices.
7. Personnel training- Photographs and films relating police tactics,
investigation techniques, mob control, and catastrophe situations.
8. Crime and Fire prevention – Hazard lectures, security clearance,
detector devices, photos of hazardous fire, conditions made when
fire prevention inspection are made.
9. Public relations – Films pertaining to safety programs, juvenile
delinquency, traffic education, public cooperation, and civil
defense.
*Four primary ways of using photography in Police Work:
1. As means of identification.
2. As a method of discovering, recording and preserving evidence.
3. As a way to present, in the courtroom, an impression of the
pertinent elements of a crime.
4. As a training and public relations medium for police programs.
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLE
In photography, the light writes when it strikes minute crystals of
light sensitive surfaces (films and photographic papers), a mechanical device
(camera) and chemical processing (film development and printing). As a
process, photography is the method of using light to produce identical image
of an object that can be preserved permanently by employing:
a. camera: camera use to regulate, absorb and filter light
b. film and any sensitized material to record light
Photograph is a mechanical result of photography. To produce a
photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized material (films and
photographic papers). Light radiated or reflected by the subject must reach the
sensitized material while all other lights must be excluded. The exclusion of
all other lights is achieved by placing the sensitized material inside a light
tight box. The light maybe visible or invisible.
The effect of light on the sensitized material is not visible in the
formation of images of objects. The effect could be made visible with the aid
of chemical processing of the exposed sensitized material called development.
Photography is the production of visible images by using the action
of light on a sensitized material. The word photography was derived from two
Greek terms PHOTO which means light and GRAPHY which means to write.
Thus, literally, photography means to draw with light.
PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS
What is light? Many as good while darkness the opposite as bad
have associated light. In case of anxiety, fright, severe mental disorders and
depression many experienced dream like apparitions. In states of religious
ecstasy, visions and hallucinations occur which can be attributed to the high
sensitivity of the retina. Many frequently perceived light impressions, which
cannot be attributed to external stimuli of an altogether different kind, such as
pressure, impact and functional disturbances in our body and nervous system.
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Everyone also knows light. It excites the retina of the eye. Light
makes things visible. There is no exaggeration to say that man cannot live
without light. Same things are true in photography, because light is needed to
produce a photograph.
LIGHT AND THE EYE
Our eyes are sensitive to light, which give us information about the
shapes, colors and movements of objects around us. Light is a form of
electromagnetic radiation and we know it travels in the form of waves. The
complete range of electromagnetic spectrum and our eyes are capable of
seeing only part of the spectrum. We can see a large part of the wavelengths
emitted by the sun, that is white light but the sun also emits other waves,
which we cannot see.
Infra red is a wavelength emitted by the sun which cannot be seen,
though we can feel it in our bodies as warmth or heat. Ultra violet is another
form of light we cannot see, but we know about it because it tans our skin in
summer.
HOW LIGHT BEHAVES
Light moves in straight lines from its source, but it can be bent and
scattered by objects placed in its path. We see rays of sunlight streaming
through a window on a sunny day because some of the light is scattered by
dust particles in the air. We can only see a ray of light when it strikes the eye
directly. Then it forms an image of the object from which it has come, either
the light source itself, or something from which it has been reflected, such as a
motorcar. Non-luminous objects are one, which are only visible when they
reflect the light from a light source. In a totally dark room, you would not be
able to see a desk, but you would be able to see the hands of a luminous clock.
If the totally black room had no dust particles floating around it, you would
not able to see the beam of light, but only the light source itself and any object
that reflects the light.
SPEED OF LIGHT
Even an electric light appears to glow immediately it is switched
on, a small but definite time lag occurs between the light coming on and the
electromagnetic radiation entering our eyes. In a room, this time lag is too
short to be noticeable, but for distant objects like stars, the lag is thousand of
years. Even light from the moon, which is relatively close to earth,
experiences a time lag of one second. The speed of light, measured in a
vacuum is 299, 792.5 km/sec (approximately 186,281 miles/sec / 186,000).
BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT
INTERFERENCE - Any phenomenon having a periodic
disturbance of some sort and travels outward from a source is called a wave.
To understand how energy can travels in waves, think of a wooden log
floating in the ocean. Light maybe visualized as such as the high points are
called crest while the low points are called troughs. The distance between two
successive crest and troughs is called a wavelength.
When two light beams cross, they may interfere in such a way that
the resultant intensity pattern is affected. When two waves meet or interfere,
they reinforce one another (crest form a higher crest than either) at some
points and annul one another (crest of one wave interfere with the trough of
the other) at other points.
The crest of one wave meets the trough of another wave. The
phenomenon is called annulment of waves. The British physicist Thomas
Young in the experiment illustrated first demonstrated such an interference
pattern. Light that had passed through one pinhole illuminated an opaque
surface that contained two pinholes. The light that passed through the two
pinholes formed a pattern of alternately bright and dark circular fringes on a
screen. Wavelets are drawn in the illustration to show that at points such as A,
C, and E (intersection of solid line with solid line) the waves from the two
pinholes arrive in phase and combine to increase the intensity. At other points,
such as B and D (intersection of solid line with dashed line), the waves are
180° out of phase and cancel each other.
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 The source of all daylight is the sun. The combination of color and
contrast ascertains the quality of the daylight. The lighting contrast depends
upon the sunlight available in the daylight, when clouds do not cover the sun.
Then, the contrast is high on the contrary; if clouds cover the sun the contrast
is low. In the process of photographing and object; the lighting contrast must
be considered in the exposure of the film. It is suggested that the
recommendations, given by the manufacturer of the film be observed
religiously to produce good and presentable photographs.

Color of the daylight will also affect the appearance of the objects
being photographed specially in color photography. Some of the factors
affecting the color of the daylight:

DIFFRACTION – light in space and not within the gravitational
field of any object travels in a straight line. The bending of light around an
object gives rise to the phenomenon called diffraction. This phenomenon is
responsible for the partial illumination of object parts not directly in the path
of the light.
LIGHT AND MATERIALS
Materials, which allow light to pass through so that objects on the
other side can be distinguished, are called transparent.
Those that allow light to pass through but diffuse the flow of light
so that objects on the other side cannot be distinctly seen are called
translucent.
Materials, which allow no light to pass through, are called opaque.
When light strikes an object such light is absorbed, transmitted and
or reflected practically. The amount of light transmitted or reflected depends
upon the characteristics of the material, the quantity and quality of the light
the angle of the source etc.
THE LAW OF REFLECTION – refers to the rebounding or
deflection of light. The angle of reflection depends upon the angle of the light
striking the material, which is referred to as the angle of incidence.
THE LAW OF REFRACTION – when the material in the path
of the light is transparent a change in the direction of the light occurs.
The change in the direction of light when passing from one
medium to another is called the phenomenon of refraction. The change in the
direction of the light is due to the change in the speed of light when passing
from one medium to another. The displacement depends upon the angle of
incidence, the kind of material and its thickness.
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
By using a prism made of glass or plastic, it is possible to see the
colors that made up the sunlight. The colors separated in this way are called a
spectrum. Another way to see the spectrum of sunlight is to look at a rainbow.
The light is bend as observed, and because some of wavelengths bend more
than others, the colors are separated. The violet rays are bent the most, and the
red rays least.
The prism experiment shows how white light is made up of a
combination of wavelengths of different colored lights. To make colors it
would seem that we would need paints or dyes of every possible colors and
shade to get exactly what we want but in fact any color can be made by
combining various proportions of the three basic colors. These are called the
primary colors.
The whole range of radiant energy that includes radio waves,
microwaves, infrared light, visible light, ultra violet lights, x-rays and gamma
rays. Visible light, which makes up only of a tiny fraction of the
electromagnetic spectrum, is the only electronic radiation that humans can
perceive with in their eyes.
a) atmospheric vapor
b) atmospheric dust
c) reflected light reached the objects and directly coming from the
source.
Daylight maybe classified according to its intensity. They are:
a) Bright sunlight
b) Hazy sunlight
c) Dull sunlight.
These classifications are modified by the film manufacturers like
a) Open bright sunlight
b) Under shade bright sunlight
c) Hazy sunlight
d) Cloudy bright sunlight
e) Cloudy dull sunlight.
To distinguish this classification of daylight according to intensity,
the appearance of the shadows of the objects must be considered. In bright
sunlight, the subject will produced a strong shadow, because the source of
light in not covered and the objects or subjects appear glossy in open space
due to direct sunlight and reflected light coming from the sky which act as a
reflector.
In Hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by thin cloud and the shadow
appears bluish because of the decrease of light falling on the subject in open
space. The shadow cast is transparent to the eye and more details are visible
under this lighting condition than a bright sunlight.
In dull sunlight, the sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No
shadow is cast to the uniform illumination of lights all around the subjects in
open space.
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
Almost all artificial light sources can be used in photographing of
objects, as long as the light is capable of exposing the sensitized materials
(film). Some of the artificial lights are electronic flash, photoflood lamp,
fluorescent lamp, and Infrared and Ultra-Violet lamp.
COLORS OF LIGHT FOUND IN VISIBLE SPECTRUM
Visible Spectrum - a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum
where the visible light is found, the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
that affect the human sense of sight. Visible light includes all those radiation
having a wavelength ranging from 400 – 700 mu.
COLOR
Primary Colors Approximate
Wavelength

A. Red (longest wavelength) 700 mu

SOURCES OF LIGHT
B. Blue 450 mu
There are two sources of light, they are known as natural and C. Green 550 mu
artificial. Natural lights are lights which come to existence without the
intervention of man and artificial lights are lights which are man made. In Complementary Colors
photography natural light is used for outdoor photography and artificial lights
A. Magenta (shortest wavelength) 400
are utilized in indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting condition.
B. Cyan 500
C. Yellow 590
NATURAL LIGHT
Neutral Color

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 same material, it will appear red. And green light of the same material it will
A. Gray appear green. Such material exhibits what is called non-selective absorption.
B. White There are other materials, which behave differently as stated
C. Black above, when light incident upon other such material they appear red, or blue
or green but not white. With green or blue light the same material appears
COLOR MIXING black because practically all lights are absorbed. A material appears red under
white light because only red light is practically reflected while all other
1. Color Addition wavelengths are absorbed. Such materials which selectively reflects and
R+B+G = W absorbed others wavelength exhibits selective absorption characteristics.
R+B= M M+Y= R
R+G= Y Y+C= B
B+G= C Y+C= G
MEDIUMS OF LIGHT
2. Color Subtraction
W-R= C W-C=R C-G=B Objects that influence the intensity of light as they may reflect
W-B=Y W-Y=B Y-G=R absorb or transmit.
W-G=M W-M=G Y-R=G
Mediums of light maybe classified as:
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS
TRANSPARENT OBJECTS – mediums that merely slow down
The three primary colors in light are red, green and blue. White the speed of light but allow to pass freely in other respects, transmit 90% or
light can be made by mixing red, blue and green. The process of making more of the incident light.
colors by mixing primary colors of light is called addition, because one color
is added to another. TRANSLUCENT OBJECTS – mediums that allow light to pass
Colors made by combining two primary colors are called through it in such a way that the outline of the source of light is not clearly
secondary colors. They are yellow (red and green), cyan (blue and green) and visible, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.
magenta (blue and red). When the primary colors are mixed in different
proportions any color at all can be produced. OPAQUE OBJECTS – A medium that divert or absorb light, but
does not allow lights to pass though, they absorb most of the light while
Painted objects do not produce their own light, they reflect light, reflecting some of it.
when objects look red, because it is reflecting only red light to our eyes. To
do this, it absorbed the other primary colors in the white light it is reflecting. It THE RAT LAW
absorbed green and blue and reflects red.
When incident light hits a medium, three things might happen, the
light maybe:
OPTICS
A. Reflected
Optics is the study of light. It is concerned with the nature of light B. Absorbed
and the way it behaves in optical instruments. Light is a form of energy and so C. Transmitted
an object may only produce light when there is energy present. A red-hot
piece of metal receives energy in the form of heat and converts some of it into MECHANICAL DEVICE (CAMERA)
red light.
The principle of photography are derived from science and the
images on the film or paper made by the rays or light through the camera are
ATTRIBUTE OF COLORS dependent on the same general laws which produces images upon the retina
through the lens which produce images upon the retina through the lens of the
Radiant energy within a limited frequency range has the property eye.
of stimulating the retina of the eye to create color sensation, which the brain
interprets. Radiant energy, which has this property, is called light, the physical A camera basically is nothing more than a light tight box with
stimulus of vision. pinholes or lens, a shutter at one end and a holder of the sensitized material at
one end. While there is various kind of camera from the simplest in
Color can be defined in qualitative terms according to certain construction (the box type) to the most complicated, all operate in the same
psychological attributes. These attributes are hue, brightness and saturation. principle. The exposure of the sensitized material to light is controlled by the
Hue is the attributes of chromatic colors, which distinguishes them from lens and its aperture and the shutter through its speed in opening and closing
achromatic colors. Brightness is the attributes of colors, which allows the the lens to light.
relation of colors in it to be related to given tones of gray ranging in a series
from white to black. Saturation is the attribute of a chromatic color, which The essentials of any camera, therefore, are light tight box, a lens,
designates to which the color differs from a gray of the same brightness. a shutter, and a holder of sensitized material. All other accessory of any
Brightness and saturation can be understood in a practical sense from the camera merely makes picture taking easier, faster, and convenient for the
following, take a very vivid red (single saturation) and either a small amount operator and is call accessories.
of white or black. The color will change to lighter or darker. In both instances,
the vividness of the color is lessened (decreased saturation). The purity of the Light tight box suggests an enclosure devoid of light. An enclosure
color is then affected. By adding at the same time small amount of white and is one which would prevent light from exposing the sensitized material inside
black, the brightness can be held constant and only saturation is affected. the camera. This does not necessarily mean that the box or enclosure be
When sufficient amount of white and black are added the hue becomes no always light tight at all times because if it does, then no light can reach the
longer recognized from the gray tone to which it was originally related in sensitized material during exposure. Light tight box means that before and
brightness. after the exposed to extraneous light which is not necessary to form the final
image.
SELECTIVE AND NON SELECTIVE
The lens, which must be focus at the object at the time of picture
Absorption refers to the taking in of light by the material. taking, is one of the most important parts of any camera. The function of the
Following the law of conservation of energy, such light taken in is not lost but lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates more or less the
merely transformed into heat. same way as the lens of the eye. It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness of
Materials in their appearance are sometimes deceiving when light the image formed through which light passes during the exposure of the
strikes them. For instance, when light strikes a material and all the light is sensitized material inside the light tight box. The area of the lens may large or
practically reflected, it will appear white. However when red light strikes the small during the exposure of the sensitized material depending upon the light
coming form the subject to be pictured. The quantity and quality of the light
25 www.rkmfiles.net
coming from the subject depend upon the light source. As a rule the more
light we have from the source the more light will be reflected and vice versa.
Should the light be too great the area of the lens maybe reduced with the focal
number adjustment. The smaller the area of the lens the greater is the
numerical value of the focal number. The greater the focal number
numerically the less light will pass through the lens but more distance will
appear in reasonable sharpness.
The shutter has for its function through its action called shutter
speed the control of the duration of the exposure of the sensitized material to
light. The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed the shorter will be
the duration of the opening and closing of the lens. As an effect only a small
amount of light will pass through the lens.
Thee holder of sensitized material located at the opposite side of
the lens has for its function to hold firmly the sensitized material in its place
during exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred image of the
subject.
CAMERA TYPES
Frequently it asked, “What is the best camera?” The answer would
be the best camera is the one that takes the best pictures. Regardless of the
type or kind of camera, a good operator will get results even with a cheap one.
THE PINHOLE CAMERA - The simplest camera is a pinhole
camera, which consists of a box with a small hole in one of its sides. To
produce a sharp image, the hole must be very small and this restricts the
amount of light entering the camera. Quite a long time may be necessary to
let enough light through to affect the film and this causes problems because if
the subject moves the picture will be blurred. It is impossible to photograph
anything like a moving car or a galloping horse with a pinhole camera.
CAMERA OBSCURA - Is a box used for sketching large objects?
The term means dark chamber. The box contains a mirror set at 45-degree
angle. Mounted in the front end of the box is a double convex lens like that in
a photographic camera. Light from the object or scene is transmitted through
the lens. The mirror reflects this light upward to ground glass screen on the
top of the box. There the light forms an image of the object or scene that can
be sketched easily.
FIXED FOCUS CAMERA - The most basic of all camera, have a
non-adjustable lens. Most models have a single diaphragm setting and only
one or two shutter speeds. Most fixed focus cameras, including many
inexpensive, pocket-sized models, use 110 or 126 size film. The negative of
such film require considerable enlargement, which may produce a fuzzy
image.
In general, a fixed focus camera can take satisfactory photographs
in ordinary daylight but not in dim light, because its lens does not admit much
light. The camera may produce a blurred picture is moving or less than two
meters away. Many fix-focused cameras can take flash pictures.
Disposable cameras are a kind of fixed - focus camera that
combine a plastic lens, a shutter, a film in one small box. The entire camera is
taken to the photo laboratory when the roll of film has been exposed.
POINT AND SHOOT CAMERA - Have many automatic
features that make them easy to use. Electronic devices inside the cameras
automatically adjust the focus, set the light exposure and the shutter speed and
advance and rewind the film. A built in electronic flash automatically supplies
light when too little light reflects from the subject. The cameras are equipped
with high quality lenses that produce a sharp image. Some of them have a
zoom lens. Point and Shoot cameras use films that measure 35 mm. Since
their introduction in 1970’s theses cameras have gained wide popularity
among amateur’s photographers.
SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERAS - Appealed to skilled
amateur photographers and to professional photographers. The camera’s name
refers to its viewing system. The photographer views the subject through the
camera lens rather than through a separate viewing lens. A mirror between the
lens and the film reflects the image onto a viewing screen. When the shutter
release button is pressed to take a picture, the mirror lifts out of the way to
allow the light to expose the film. Thus the photographer sees almost the exact
image that is recorded on the film. SLR cameras use 35 mm film. The
photographer can adjust the focus, select the shutter speed, and control the
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opening of the diaphragm. Many new models can also adjust the focus and
control the light exposure automatically.
The standard lens of the SLR camera can be replaced by special
purpose lenses that change the size and depth relationship of objects in a
scene. These lenses include wide-angle lens, telephoto lens, and zoom lenses.
A wide-angle lens provides a wider view of a scene than a standard lens does.
A telephoto lens has a narrow angle of view and makes objects appear larger
and closer. A zoom lens combines many features of standard, wide angle and
telephoto lenses. With other accessories, many SLR cameras can take pictures
through a microscope, telescope or underwater.
Reflex cameras, both the SLR and the TLR types, are equipped
with mirrors that reflect in the viewfinder the scene to be photographed.
The twin-lens reflex is box-shaped, with a viewfinder consisting of a
horizontal ground-glass screen located at the top of the camera. Mounted
vertically on the front panel of the camera are two lenses, one for taking
photographs and the other for viewing. The lenses are coupled, so that
focusing one automatically focuses the other. The image formed by the
upper, or viewing, lens is reflected to the viewing screen by a fixed mirror
mounted at a 45° angle. The photographer focuses the camera and adjusts
the composition while looking at the screen. The image formed by the
lower lens is focused on the film at the back of the camera. Like
rangefinder cameras, TLRs are subject to parallax.
In the SLR type of reflex camera, a single lens is used for both
viewing the scene and taking the photograph. A hinged mirror situated
between the lens and the film reflects the image formed by the lens through
a five-sided prism and on to a ground-glass screen on top of the camera. At
the moment the shutter is opened, a spring automatically pulls the mirror
out of the path between lens and film. Because of the prism, the image
recorded on the film is almost exactly that which the camera lens “sees”,
without any parallax effects.
Most SLRs are precision instruments equipped with focal-plane
shutters. Many have automatic exposure-control features and built-in light
meters. Most modern SLRs have electronically triggered shutters;
apertures, too, may be electronically actuated or they may be adjusted
manually. Increasingly, camera manufacturers produce SLRs with
automatic focusing, an innovation originally reserved for amateur cameras.
Minolta's Maxxum series, Canon's EOS series, and Nikon's advanced
professional camera, the F-4, all have autofocus capability and are
completely electronic. Central processing units (CPUs) control the
electronic functions in these cameras. Minolta's Maxxum 7000i has
software “cards” which, when inserted in a slot on the side of the camera,
expand the camera's capabilities.
Autofocus cameras use electronics and a CPU to sample
automatically the distance between camera and subject and to determine
the optimum exposure level. Most autofocus cameras bounce either an
infrared light beam or ultrasonic (sonar) waves off the subject to determine
distance and set the focus. Some cameras, including Canon's EOS and
Nikon's SLRs, use passive autofocus systems. Instead of emitting waves or
beams, these cameras automatically adjust the focus of the lens until
sensors detect the area of maximum contrast in a rectangular target at the
centre of the focusing screen.
TWIN LENS REFLEX CAMERAS - Have a viewing lens
directly above the picture - taking lens. The image in the viewfinder appears
on a flat screen on top of the camera. Photographer found such a viewing
screen helpful in composing a picture. Photographers do not hold the
viewfinder to the eye, as they do with a fixed focus, point and shoot, and
single lens reflex camera. They usually hold the camera at the chest or waist
and look down into the viewfinder. The image appears reversed from left to
right. In most models, nearby subjects appear lower in the picture area of the
viewfinder than they appear in the photograph. Most twin lens reflex cameras
use film that produces negatives measuring six by six centimeters.
VIEW CAMERAS - View cameras are generally larger and
heavier than medium- and small-format cameras and are most often used for
studio, landscape, and architectural photography. These cameras use large-
format films that produce either negatives or transparencies with far greater
detail and sharpness than smaller format film. View cameras have a metal or
wooden base with a geared track on which two metal standards ride, one at the
front and one at the back, connected by a bellows. The front standard contains
the lens and shutter; the rear holds a framed ground-glass panel, in front of
which the film holder is inserted. The body configuration of the view camera,
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unlike that of most general-purpose cameras, is adjustable. The front and rear
standards can be shifted, tilted, raised, or swung, allowing the photographer
unparalleled control of perspective and focus.
It is the largest and most adjustable type of camera. Most have
accordion like body, with a replaceable lens in front. They have a large
viewing screen instead of a viewfinder. Most models have an adjustable
diaphragm and shutter speed. View cameras must be mounted on a stand for
efficient operation.
A photographer focuses a view camera by moving the lens end or
the back end of the camera forward or backward to produce a sharp image. A
view camera can provide artistic distortions of subjects more effectively than
any other kind of camera.
Many professional photographers use view camera for portraits
and other subjects. A view camera uses sheet of film that range in size from
60 to 90 mm to 280 by 360 mm. The picture is often contact printed. A
contact print is a photograph made to exactly the same size a negative. It is
made by shining light through the negative, which is held in contact with light
sensitive paper.
INSTANT CAMERAS - Use film that provides a print without
first being developed into a negative. The cameras produce a print 15 seconds
to 2 minutes after the photographer takes a picture. The time varies according
to the camera and to the type of film. Instant camera use film that provides
pictures ranging in size from 73 by 94 mm to 508 by 610 mm. Special types
of film for instant camera also provide negatives. Some instant cameras can
take flash pictures and focus automatically as the photographer lines up a
subject in the viewfinder.
ELECTRONIC CAMERA - Create pictures that can be viewed
on a television screen. The lens in most electronic cameras focuses light on
light sensitive mechanism called CHARGED COUPLED DEVICE OR CCD.
The CCD changes the light into electronic signals. The electronic pictures can
then be stored on small magnetic discs similar to those I=used in computers.
With additional equipment, electronic images can also be sent over telephone
lines or printed on paper.
FILM CAMERAS - Takes pictures that re-create the motion of a
subject when they are viewed. Professional filmmakers generally use large
cameras that take 35 or 16 mm film. Most amateur’s records on 8 mm film
called super 8. Today, many amateur filmmakers use portable video cameras
called CAMCORDERS. These cameras convert light reflected by the subject
into electronic signals that are recorded on magnetic tape. Most film cameras
and camcorders can record sound at the same as they record images. Most of
them also have a zoom lens.
STEREO CAMERAS - Have two identical picture taking lenses
with matched shutter. When a stereo camera takes a picture, each lens
photographs the same subject, but from a slightly different angle. When
shown to a device called a stereoscope or seen through glasses that polarize
light, the two images blend in one picture that seems to have depth. Stereo
cameras are made for taking photographs or for making films.
SPECIAL PURPOSE CAMERA - Have been designed for
industrial, medical, military, and scientific uses they include aerial cameras
used in space and underwater cameras.
Folding cameras favored for their compact design and
movable bellows, have been in use for many years. The
camera’s lens is incorporated into the bellows, which is slid
back and forth along a rail to change focus. The dark clothe
covering the photographer and the box body of the camera
blocks out undesirable light, which might otherwise interfere
with the picture.
Box cameras like this “Brownie” were the earliest cameras
used by the general public. Relatively simple in design and
operation, they consisted of a wooden or plastic box, a drop-
blade shutter, and a holding device for the film. Modern box
cameras are similar to early models, generally featuring only
one shutter speed and one opening; the very easy operation
makes it a popular camera among casual photographers.
The Polaroid, or instant, camera delivers a finished print
directly following exposure. Although most models are
somewhat larger than the standard personal camera, the
27
advantage of this system is the convenience and speed of the
results. Special film used in conjunction with the camera is
designed to develop itself, and represents one of the more
recent chemical revolutions in photography.
Reflex cameras use mirrors to form an image of the scene to
be photographed in the viewfinder. The 35-mm single-lens
reflex (SLR) camera is one of the most popular cameras on the
market today because of its compact size, speed, and
versatility. Most models offer a combination of automatic and
manual options.
Single-lens reflex, or SLR, cameras are among the most common in
use today. Single-lens reflex means that the same lens is used for
viewing and taking the photograph. The movable mirror between the
lens and the film reflects the image on a ground-glass viewing screen
while the user adjusts the focus. When the shutter release button is
depressed, a spring pushes the mirror out of the way, and the image is
recorded on the film. The cameras are popular because users often have
the option to control elements such as shutter speed, focus, and
aperture manually or automatically. This option allows photographers
to achieve a wide variety of effects with relative ease. The quality of
SLR camera pictures is generally superior to that of the so-called point-
and-shoot camera.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
CAMERA WITH LENSES
A lens can be used to focus the light onto the film to produce a
bright, clear image. The hole behind the lens is called the aperture and on
many cameras the size of the hole, or aperture can be altered. The length of
time that light is allowed to enter the camera is called the exposure and is
controlled by the shutter. In its normal position the shutter is closed and
prevents light entering the camera. When the button is pressed, the shutter
flies open for a pre - determined length of time, depending on the light
conditions in which the photograph is being taken. This can be as long as one
second or as short as 1/1000 second or even shorter. On a dull day you need a
longer exposure than on a sunny day.
Both the diaphragm and the shutter need to be adjusted according
to the amount of light that is available for taking a photograph. At midday in
summer there will probably be plenty of light. On a winter afternoon there
may not. In a living room at night, the light maybe quite good for the eye, but
not enough for the camera.
A camera is essentially a sealed with an opening at one end to
admit light and a device at the other end for holding photographic film or
other light sensitive material.
THE CAMERA AND ACCESSORIES
LENS – The lens of a camera consist of one or more glass or
plastic disk with flat, concave, or convex surfaces, each disk is called element.
The purpose of the lens is to focus light on the film. The focal length of the
lens is the distance between the optical center and the film. For any given film
size, the shorter the focal length is, the greater the field of view – that is, the
greater the area covered in the picture. Focal length also affects depth of field
– the amount of the foreground and background that will be in sharp focus in
the picture. The shorter the focal the greater is the depth of field.
Lenses of various focal lengths can be used interchangeably on
some cameras, allowing the photographer to vary the field of view without
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taking the camera to a different position. A zoom lens has an adjustable focal
length and stays focused on one object as its focal length is change.
The light power of the lens is determined by the ratio of its focal
length to its effective diameter (the effective diameter is equal to the diameter
of the aperture - the circular opening that controls the amount of light that
passes through the lens). The ratio expressed with the symbol f/, is called the
f- number. The larger the aperture in relation to the focal length, the smaller is
the f- number.
SHUTTER – The shutters on most cameras can be adjusted to
different shutter speeds. The shutter speed means the length of time the shutter
is open. This might be several seconds ( or even hours if you are
photographing a night sky ) or one thousandth of a second or even less with
special cameras. Most cameras have a shutter speed dial showing speeds from
one second to, for example, one thousand of a second. The dial is set to the
speed the photographer wants. Of course, the faster the shutter speeds the
shorter the time the shutter is open and the smaller the amount of light let in.
Shutter speed are arrange so that each setting will let in half the amount of
light let it half the amount let in by the one below it and twice the amount of
the one above it. There is usually also a time exposure setting so that the
shutter can be left open for minutes or even hours in certain conditions.
The shutter is a device that prevents light from reaching the film
until the photographer is ready to take a picture. When a lever or button is
released or button is pushed, the shutter is released, and a spring or magnet
snaps its aside, exposing the film to light for a certain light of time. The length
of time is adjustable on all but the simplest camera,, it ranges from one second
to 1/1000 of a second or less. Most adjustable cameras are capable of making
time exposure – exposure of more than one second. Typically, time exposure
is made by using a special shutter setting marked “T “(FOR TIME) or “B’
(FOR BULB) referring to a shutter release device used with early cameras.
An adjustable speed shutter is one of two devices a camera has to
permit the photographer to regulate the amount of light reaching the film ( the
diaphragm is the other ) At a given aperture setting, a small shutter speed will
let more light reach the film than a fast shutter speed. However, the lower the
shutter speed, the greater is the chance that the image on the film will be
blurred by the movement of the subject or camera. Some cameras have
electronic shutter control. After the shutter is released the control uses a light
sensing device called a photocell to determine when enough light has been
received for a proper exposure and it then it closes the shutter automatically.
The shutter is located behind the lens, between the elements of the
lens (between the lens shutter) or immediately in front of the films (focal
plane shutter).
The shutter is a sliding door that allows light to pass through the
aperture (opening) onto the film. Different settings on a small dial on the top
of the camera determine how long the shutter will remain open. The aperture
selector is on the body of the lens. The numbers that indicate the size of the
aperture are called f-numbers or f-stops. The f-stop is equal to the ratio of the
focal length of the lens to the diameter of the opening. The shutter speed and
f-stop determine the exposure—that is, the overall amount of light that will
reach the film. However, even when the amount of light is constant, the effect
may be different. Photographers experiment with different combinations to
achieve various effects.
28
The shutter, a spring-activated mechanical device, keeps light from
entering the camera except during the interval of exposure. Most modern
cameras have focal-plane or leaf shutters. Some older amateur cameras use a
drop-blade shutter, consisting of a hinged piece that, when released, pulls
across the diaphragm opening and exposes the film for about 1/30th of a
second.
In the leaf shutter, at the moment of exposure, a cluster of meshed blades
springs apart to uncover the full lens aperture and then springs shut. The focal-
plane shutter consists of a black shade with a variable-size slit across its
width. When released, the shade moves quickly across the film, exposing it
progressively as the slit moves.
DIAPHRAGM – The diaphragm changes the size of the aperture
of the lens. Like a shutter with valuable speed, a diaphragm regulates the
amount of light reaching the film. The diaphragm also affects depth of field –
the smaller the aperture the greater the depth of field.
The diaphragm controls the size of the aperture in the same way as
the iris of the eye, if you look at a cat’s eye when it comes in out of the
darkness you will that the irises have contracted to make the pupils bigger.
After a few moments in a bright light the irises expand and cause the pupils to
become much smaller. The aperture of the camera must also be larger in dim
light and smaller in bright light.
The diaphragm is usually a ring of overlapping metal leaves, which can be
adjusted. The control settings for the diaphragm are referred to as f – stops
and going from one f – stop to the next reduces the amount of light by one
half. The common setting are f /2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16 and f/22.
The diaphragm usually consists of a series of movable blades
attached to a supporting ring. Its various positions are called stops, or f –
stops. The diaphragm is controlled by a hand operated ring or lever, or by
automatic electromechanical device. Simple cameras do not have diaphragm,
so the aperture can not be changed.
Most cameras with diaphragms have a series of standard f- stop
numbers marked on the lens mount, in some cameras, theses numbers are also
visible in the viewfinder. At each succeeding stop, the lens admits half as
much light as at the previous one.
As the shutter speed is increased, the aperture must be larger, if the
same amount of light is to reach the film. The amount of light reaching the
film is the same at f/8 and 1/500 of a second as at f/11 and 1/250 ( the setting
of f/8 provides twice as much light f/11, but the shutter speed of 1/500
provides half as much light as 1/250).
In taking pictures, a photographer will often select a particular
shutter speed and then adjust the f – stop for getting the proper exposure or the
photographer will select a particular f-stop and then adjust the shutter speed.
The diaphragm, a circular aperture behind the lens, operates in
conjunction with the shutter to admit light into the light-proof chamber. This
opening may be fixed, as in many amateur cameras, or it may be adjustable.
Adjustable diaphragms are composed of overlapping strips of metal or plastic
that, when spread apart, form an opening of the same diameter as the lens;
when meshed together, they form a small opening behind the centre of the
lens. The aperture openings correspond to numerical settings, called f-stops,
on the camera or the lens.
The function of the Diaphragm (F/Number)
1. By expanding or contracting the diaphragm or
increasing or decreasing the F/ number numerically it is
possible to regulate the amount of light passing through
the lens reaching the sensitized material.
2. By expanding or increasing or decreasing the f/number
numerically it is possible to control the depth of field.
3. By expanding or contracting the diaphragm, it is
possible to control the degree of sharpness due to lens
defects.
VIEWING AND FOCUSING DEVICES – The viewfinder
shows the photographer the scene being photographed. It maybe a viewing
screen, a miniature lens system, or a sample wire frames.
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 Most modern cameras also have some sort of viewing system or FLASH UNIT
viewfinder to enable the photographer to see, through the lens of the camera, FLASH TERMINAL
the scene being photographed. Single-lens reflex cameras (SLRs) all FLASH ACCESSORY SHOE
incorporate this design feature, and almost all general-use cameras have some TIMER/SELF-TIMER
form of focusing system as well as a film-advance mechanism. CABLE RELEASE
TRIPOD
LENS APERTURE – Adjustable cameras are equipped with an
iris diaphragm, a device located in or near the lens and consisting of thin DAYTIME EXPOSURE (Outdoor) – Without Flash
overlapping leaves that fold together to create a hole of continuously variable
size. In this way the aperture or lens opening, can be adjusted to admit more Bright Sunlight – SS – 125 or250
or less light as required. The diaphragm is usually marked with a series of LO – F5.6 or F8
settings called STOPS, which are designated by F- NUMBERS, such as f/5.6 Hazy Sunlight - SS – 125
or f/5.8. The f/ number expresses the ratio of focal length to aperture. The
larger the number, the smaller the aperture. Bright Hazy -LO – F5.6 or F4
Low Hazy -LO – F2 or F4
To “stop down” or “close one stop” is to set the diaphragm control -LO – F5.6 or F4
at the next smaller marked stop, for instance from f/4 to f/6, or from f/6 to Low Shaded -SS – 30 or 125
f/11. This reduces the amount of light admitted by one half. To open up one -LO – F2 or full open
stop, means to set the diaphragm control at the next wider aperture.
INDOOR WITHOUR FLASH BUT THERE ARE 2 TO 4 FLOURESCENT
DEPTH OF FIELD - The lens aperture not only controls the BULB
amount of light entering the camera, it also affects another fundamental aspect SHUTTER SPEED – 15
of the photograph – depth of field. Depth of field is the range in front of and LENS OPENING - F1.2 or F2
behind a sharply focused subject in which details also look sharp in the final
photographic image. It depends on lens aperture, the focused distance, and the INDOOR BUT WELL LIGHTED- (BRIGHT LLIGHT)
focal length of the lens. A small lens aperture, great camera to subject
distance, and focal length result in greater depth of field. SHUTTER SPEED –60
LENS OPENING - F5.6 orf4
SHUTTER SPEED AND MOTION – Shutter speed determines
how effectively a moving object can be stopped, that is, how sharply it can be INDOOR OR OUTDOOR WITH FLASH (DAY OR NIGHT)
reproduced without blurring, or streaking in the final image. With a fast
shutter speed, the shutter is opened only briefly and the moving object has USE SYNCHRONIZED SHUTTER SPEED WHICH IS 60 OR X ANY
little time to change its position before exposure is completed. With a slow COLORED NUMBER IN THE SHUTTER SPEED.
shutter speed, on the other hand, the shutter remains open for a relatively long
time. Thus, the faster the shutter speed, the sharper the moving object will Distance of the Subject :
appear on the final image, and the slower the shutter speed, the more blurred 1-6 ft = F8
object will appear. 6-10FT = F5.6
10-15FT = F4
The camera shutter must stop the subjects’ apparent speed or the 15FT and above = full open
speed at which its image move across the film, regardless of the subjects’
actual motion through space. Factors such as distance, direction of motion, NIGHT EXPOSURE (TOTAL DARKNESS WITHOUT FLASH)`
and focal length of the lens must all be taken into consideration. Generally, Shutter Speed is = B
the closer the moving subject is to the camera, the greater it’s apparent, Lens Opening is full open
motion will be. Thus, if they wish to get sharp image, most photographers
avoid extreme close – ups of moving subjects. ESTIMATE THE TIME, THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT ENTERS THE
CAMERA, USE TRIPOD AND CABLE RELEASE.
FILM TRANSPORT MECHANISM – Moves new, unexposed
film into position for the next picture. EX. SS = B
LO = F1.2
FILM ADVANCER – Necessary so that the exposed film can be TIME = 90 seconds (Depends upon the available light)
transferred to the take up spool while the unexposed film remain on the
opposite side of the lens for another exposure. CAMERA LENSES

FILM ADVANCE LEVER A camera lens is a transparent material made of glass or plastic,
FILM REWIND CRANK which has two opposite symmetrical and spherical surfaces. A lens is also a
FILM REWIND KNOB piece of transparent material that has at least one curved surface. The lenses
FILM TAKE-UP SPOOL refract (bend) light rays and in doing so can form images of an object. The
image maybe larger, smaller or the same as the object itself.
SHUTTER SPEED DIAL – Controls the opening and closing of
the shutter, regulates the quantity of light that reaches and affects the
sensitized material, a dial which sets the length of time in which the light is The lens, which must be focus at the object at the time of picture
allowed to enter the camera. taking, is one of the most important parts of any camera. The function of the
lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates more or less in
SHUTTER RELEASE BUTTON – The “click” of the camera the same way as the lens of the eye. It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness
that releases the shutter of the image formed through which light passes during the exposure of the
sensitized materials inside the camera. The area of the lens may large or small
FOCUSING MECHANISM – The mechanism that estimates the during the exposure of the sensitized materials depending upon the light
appropriate objects distance from the camera to form a sharp or clear image coming from the subject to be pictured. The quantity and quality of the light
on the photograph. coming from the subject depend upon the light source. Should the light be too
great, the area of the lens maybe reduce with the focal number adjustment.
FOCUSING RING – The outer ring of the lens which is rotated or The smaller the area of the lens the greater is the numerical value of the focal
adjusted to obtain a clear and sharp photograph and it enables the number. The greater the focal number numerically the less light will pass
photographer to adjust focal range. through the lens but more distance will appear in reasonable sharpness.

F-STOP RING The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed, the shorter
F-NUMBERS will be the duration of the opening and closing of the lens. As an effect only
ASA DIAL/SHUTTER SPEED DIAL small amount of light will pass through the lens.
29 www.rkmfiles.net

Artificial lenses are made of various transparent materials such as
glass, plastics or crystals. Quartz crystals are used to refract ultra violet light,
which a very short wavelength.
Interchangeable lenses allow a photographer to capture a variety
of pictures that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to obtain with a
single camera. For instance, a zoom lens may be used to photograph
individual drops of dew on a spider’s web. A telephoto lens might be used to
shoot a close-up view of a dangerous or easily frightened wild animal. Other
options provided by special lenses include wide-angle lenses such as the
fisheye lens, which curves outward to show a view of 180 degrees or more.
The lens is as important a part of a camera as the body. Lenses are
referred to in generic terms as wide-angle, normal, and telephoto. The three
terms refer to the focal length of the lens, which is customarily measured in
millimetres. Focal length is defined as the distance from the centre of the lens
to the image it forms when the lens is set at infinity. In practice, focal length
affects the field of view, magnification, and depth of field of a lens.
Cameras used by professional photographers and serious amateurs
are designed to accept all three lens types interchangeably. In 35-mm
photography, lenses with focal lengths from 20 to 35 mm are considered
wide-angle lenses. They provide greater depth of field and encompass a larger
field (or angle) of view but provide relatively low magnification. Extreme
wide-angle, or fisheye, lenses provide fields of view of 180° or more. A 6-mm
fisheye lens made by Nikon has a 220° field of view that produces a circular
image on film, rather than the normal rectangular or square image.
Lenses with focal lengths of 45 to 55 mm are referred to as
normal lenses because they produce an image that approximates the
perspective perceived by the human eye. Lenses with longer focal lengths,
called telephoto lenses, constrict the field of view and decrease the depth of
field while greatly magnifying the image. For a 35-mm camera, lenses with
focal lengths of 85 mm or more are considered telephoto.
A fourth generic lens type, the zoom lens, is designed to have a
variable focal length, which can be adjusted continuously between two
fixed limits. Zoom lenses are especially useful in conjunction with single-
lens reflex cameras, for which they allow continuous control of image
scale.
History of Lenses
The early history of lenses is unknown. In 1845, an archeologist
uncovered in what is now Iraq an ancient rock crystal ground to form a small
convex lens, but there is no evidence that lenses were widely known or used
in ancient time. An early investigation of the principles of lenses was made in
the 11th century by Alhazen, a Persian physicist. Spectacles with convex
lenses were in common use both in Europe an din China as early as the 13 th
century.
Zacharias Janssen, a Dutch optician, is credited with combining
lenses to make a compound microscope about 1590. Galileo improved the
telescope in 1609. The art of designing and manufacturing lenses has
progressed steadily since that time.
How Lenses Are Made
The refraction of light is always the same under identical
circumstances, allowing physicist to draw up mathematical laws of optics.
These laws are use in determining the shape of a lens for a particular purpose.
The shape is computed mathematically and is expressed by a formula that
guides the lens maker in his or her work.
The glass used for a lens is of the highest quality. It is first molded
into blanks, which are disk about the size of the finished lenses. A lens is
formed by grinding and polishing a blank into shape. Grinding operations are
performed by revolving dish-shaped devices coated with abrasives. The first
grinding, with a carborundum abrasive, gives the lens its general shape. Later,
grindings with finer and finer abrasives give it its final shape. The lens is then
polished with rouge (fine ferrous oxide) and cut to the proper size.
Principles of Lens Action
30
The ability of a lens to bring light to a focus or make it diverge
derives from the fact that the velocity of light changes as the light passes
through different materials. Thus when a ray of light leaves the atmosphere
and enters a lens, it slows down. According to the angle at which it strikes the
lens surface, it is refracted – that is, it changes direction. The ratio of velocity
of light in air to its velocity in the lens material is called the index of
refraction of the material.
A lens refracts light rays in such a way that on of three things will
occur:
1. The rays will come together at a point.
2. The rays will produce an image.
3. The rays will move in parallel lines or in diverging lines.
A LENS can be used to focus the light onto the film to produce a
bright, clear and sharp image. The hole behind the lens is called the aperture
and on many cameras the size of the hole or aperture can be altered. The
length of time that the light is allowed to enter the camera is called the
exposure and is controlled by the shutter. In its normal position the shutter is
closed and prevents the light entering the camera. Both the diaphragm and the
shutter need to be adjusted according to the amount of light that is available
for taking a photograph.
All photographic lenses do the same basic job. Collect light rays
from a scene in front of the camera and project them as images unto the film
at the back. However, the choice of lenses also plays a very important role in
the creative aspects of photography.
CAMERA LENSES CAN BE USED TO CONTROL THE
1. Amount of light that reaches the film.
2. Magnification of the image.
3. Lastly, area of the image to be recorded on the film.
IMAGE FORMATION
The focal length of a single lens is the distance from the lens to the
point at which incoming parallel rays focus. Light converged in the manner
can produce a real images, that is, an image that can actually be projected onto
screen. In a negative lens, rays do not actually come to a real focus but appear
to originate from a point called the virtual focus.
TYPOLOGY OF LENSES
There are two types of lenses, the converging and diverging lens.
As to converging lenses we have the double convex, Plano convex and the
concavo-convex. Under diverging lenses we have double concave, Plano
concave and the concavo concave.
1. CONVEX LENS – DIVERGING LENS
A convex lens causes light rays to converge, or come together, and
is called a positive lens. A positive lens focuses light form a distant source
into visible image that appears on then opposite side of the lens to the object.
A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges. When
parallel rays of light pass through this type of lens, they are bent inward and
meet at a point called the focus. The distance from the center of the lens to the
focus is known as the focal length.
The size, position, and type of image produced by a converging
lens vary according to the distance of the object from the lens. If an object is
more than one focal length from the lens, an inverted real image of it is
formed on the opposite side of the lens. Light rays from the object pass
through a real image and can be focused on a screen. When an object is
located a distance of two focal lengths on a converging lens, the image is the
same size as the object and is located on the opposite side of the lens. A
smaller image of the object can be obtained by moving the objects by more
than two focal lengths from the lens. Placing the object between one and two
focal lengths from the lens can produce a larger image.
If the object is less than one focal length from the lens, no real
image can be formed. Instead a magnified virtual image is formed behind the
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object and is right side up. Light rays from the object do not pass through a
virtual image, and such an image cannot be focused on the screen.
A convex lens has a thick centre and thinner edges. Light
passing through a convex lens is bent inward, or made to converge. This
causes an image of the object to form on a screen on the opposite side of
the lens. The image is in focus if the screen is placed at a particular
distance from the lens that depends upon the distance of the object and the
focal point of the lens. This diagram shows how rays of light starting from
a point, O, on the object, strike the lens and are then brought to focus at
another point, I. The same applies to every point on the object, as is shown
by the pair of points P and J; thus an image, exactly similar to the object is
built up.
1. SIMPLE CONVEX – convexo – convex
2. SPECIAL CONVEX – special positive lens
a. – Plano – convex
b. – convexo – concave
2. CONCAVE LENS – DIVERGING LENS
Concave lens or negative lens spreads the light depends on the
amount of curved on the faces of the lens. The distance between the lens and
the image it produces is called the FOCAL LENGTH. The shorter the focal
length, the smaller the image. The greater the curvature of the faces of the
lens, the shorter its focal length will be. Lens that posses at least one surface
that curves inward. It is a diverging lens, spreading out those light rays that
have been refracted to it. Concave lens is thicker at the edges than they are at
the center. Light rays passing through a diverging lens are bent outward.
Diverging lens form only virtual image.
1. SIMPLE CONCAVE – concavo –
concave - Biconcave lens (with both
surfaces curved inward)
2. SPECIAL CONCAVE – special negative
lens
a. Plano - concave – lens with one flat surface and one concave.
b. Concavo – convex
A concave lens is curved inward; it is shaped like two dishes
placed back-to-back. Light passing through a concave lens bends outward,
or diverges. Unlike convex lenses, which produce real images, concave
lenses produce only virtual images. A virtual image is one from which
light rays only appear to come. This one appears as a smaller image just in
front of the actual object (in this case a shamrock). Concave lenses are
generally prescribed for myopic, or short-sighted, people. Concave lenses
help the eyes to produce a sharp image on the retina instead of in front of
it.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
3. COMPOUND LENSES
31
Simple lenses generally produce aberrated (imperfect) images.
This imperfection in image formation can be reduced using
compound lenses.
TYPES OF LENSES BASED ON LENS SPEED
Lens speed refers to the largest opening of the diaphragm that the
light can pass through it determines the maximum intensity of the light
entering the light tight box.
A. FAST LENS – Lens with high lens speed, a high lens speed is
used during nighttime or in dark room.
B. SLOW LENS – lens with low lens speed, used during daytime or
where the room is very bright.
TYPES OF LENSES BASED ON THEIR FOCUS
Focus: the means by which the object distance is estimated or
calculated to form sharp images.
It also refers to the point at which light rays converge. It is the
point where a set of lights rays converges after passing through a lens or other
optical arrangement. It also refers to the point from which rays appear to
diverge, the place where the visual image is clearly formed, as in the eye or a
camera. The point of principal focus is called focal point.
Focusing is the process of changing the distance between the
centers of the lens to the focal plane. It is the technique of adjusting the focal
length to get the sharp image of the object or scene to be photographed.
Infinity refers to the distance so far removed from the observer
that the rays of light reflected to a lens from a point at the distance maybe
regarded as parallel. It is a distance setting on a camera focusing scale, beyond
which all objects are in focus.
REAL FOCUS – the point of convergence of the light rays.
VIRTUAL FOCUS - the point where diverging rays would meet
if their direction were reversed.
In terms of focus, there are two types of lenses sold today:
1. AUTO FOCUS – are the predominant types to the market.
AFLSR’s focus using a phase detection system that slits the
incoming light into two or more parts and compares them to
determine the amount of DEFOCUS. AF is not perfect, but the
technology has greatly improved since the first AF lenses made
their appearance. As it is, sometimes this phase detection system
can have difficulty with dim lighting and fast – moving objects, but
they are more accurate than the infrared systems found on point
and shot cameras.
2. MANUAL – FOCUS LENSES – YOU SIMPLY TURN THE
FOCUSING RING BY HAND UNTIL THE SUBJECT IS
SHARP IN THE VIEW FINDER. Although AF lenses dominate
the market today, nearly all interchangeable AF Lenses allow the
user to over ride the AF mode with the manual focus option. These
lenses usually have a switch on the barrel, so that you can choose
one or the other to suit the shooting circumstances.
WHY DO LENSES VARY TO EACH OTHER?
The most important way lenses differ is in their FOCAL
LENGTH.
FOCAL LENGTH – the distance between the lens and the film
plane when the lens is focused on infinity. Focal length controls magnification
(the size of the image formed by the lens). A lens is also described in terms of
its view angle, the mount of the image shown on the film.
GROUP OF LENSES ACCORDING TO THE ANGLE OF VIEW
1. Normal Lens – A lens with a focal length equal to the diagonal
measure the image area. The image area of 35 mm camera is
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 24x36 mm, thus a normal lens for any 35 mm SLR is 50 mm
international standards, 50 mm lens may have an actual focal
length of 48 – 52 mm, and the normal lens has a picture angle of 5
degrees that correspond to the viewing angle of the human eye.
CHARACTERISTICS:
 Optimum area coverage than any lens type.
 Minimum distortion and fewer common lens defects.
 Angle of view equal to 75 degrees but not less than 45
degrees.
2. Wide Angle Lens – The wide-angle lens has a shorter focal length
than the normal lens. As a result, it covers a picture angle of 60 –
90 degrees. It enables photographing a widely extended scene from
a close proximity or within a confined area. The range for wide
angles for 35 mm SLR cameras includes 8mm, 24mm, 28 mm, and
35 mm. The 28 mm and 35 mm are the most important for general
wide angle for police work.
CHARACTERISTICS:
 Reduced scale but increases area coverage compared
with any lens at the same distance.
 Increased deep perception at a given scale.
 Increased distortion toward the edges of the negative
material.
 Reducing illumination from the center toward the edges
of the negative material.
 Angle of view exceeds 75 degrees.
3. Telephoto Lens – as telephoto lens, or long focus lens has a longer
focal length and provides a close up image of a distant object. In
contrast to the wide-angle lens, the telephoto lens covers a small
field of view and a shallower depth of field. Because of shallow
depth of field, there will be lack of sharpness of the subject focus
areas in the photograph to be produced. Another characteristics of
the telephoto lens is production of flat composition, far objects
appear enlarged while near objects do not appear proportionally
large.
CHARACTERISTICS:
 Increase scale but reduced area coverage compared to
any lens type.
 Decreased depth perception.
 Image quality usually deteriorates which is apparent
when subject is in great motion.
 Angle of view less than 45 degrees.
Lenses beyond 58 mm are included in the group of telephoto
lenses. For identification shots in police works, lenses of 85 to 135 mm focal
length are frequently used. Long tele lenses are those beyond 200 mm.
4. Super wide Angle Lenses – In this category are fish eye lenses
with a 180 degrees angle of view. Focal lengths run from an
amazing 6 mm to about 18mm. F stop ranges begin at F 1.8 but
average f 3.5 and f 4.
5. Macro Lenses – The word macro is derived from the Greek word
and means, “ to enlarge “. In photographic terms, a macro lens is
designed with extended focusing capabilities to shoot a few inches
from a subject. A lens used for close up photography particularly
in taking pictures in minute objects. Using a macro lens, the
subject being photographed will appear bigger than its actual size.
This group of lens is most helpful in fingerprint work, in recording
evidences such as pollen grains, hair, fiber and the like.
Two Main Types of MACRO LENS:
- One is meant to be used on a held tripod mounted camera and
ranges from 40 mm to about 90 mm with the average about 25
mm.
- The other type is either a wide angle or a lens with a focal length
with 100 mm or more and is designed with a close up bellows
attachment to the camera. The longer lenses give a larger image
and are most suitable for static subjects and painstaking
photography.
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6. Zoom Lenses – The macro zoom is relatively new in both long
and short-range classes. By turning a ring on the lens barrel, you
are able to focus as close as three four inches and still use zoom
capability. Such lens gives you close – ups as well as variable focal
lengths. and the macro zoom is taking this field. A final zoom
category is the variable- focal length lens that operates in the same
manner as the zoom.
7. Special Purpose Lenses – Two special- purpose lenses in
particular should be familiar to you. The first is adjustable through
movement of the front portion up and down for perspective control
(PC). Architectural photographers benefit using a PC lens that
offers some control of perspective similar to the using the tilting
front and back of a view camera.
The other lens, a guide-number (GN) lens, includes a diaphragm
mechanism that changes aperture as the lens is focused to
synchronize exposure and distance with specific flash attachment
on the camera. A GN lens can be handy, but the use of automatic
electronic flash unit would make the GN lens unnecessary.
Incidentally, a number of compact 35 mm range finder cameras
with fixed (non interchangeable) lenses are guide- number
equipped. As a flash unit slips into the accessory shoe on top of the
camera a small pin is activated that synchronizes change of
aperture with focusing. In this way distant subjects are
photographed through wider f tops than close ones, giving the
effect of exposure automation.
8. Add – On Teleconverter Lenses – Add-on lenses. Principal
among add- on lenses is the fishnet lens that is screwed into the
front of a normal 35 mm camera lens, offering a super wide effect
for less cost than a separate fisheye lens.
FOCUSING THE LENS
It is important to have the lens at the right distance from the film
otherwise the image of an object point will be seen as a circle which is blurred
in appearance. The permissible diameter of this circle or disc must be small
enough under certain viewing condition to make impossible to distinguish it
from a point. The image will be seen sharp as long as this circle appears to the
eye as a point. The diameter of the circle that can be accepted varies with the
application. The acuity of the vision of the eye and the condition under which
the print is viewed (contact or enlargement or projected).
For a pinhole camera no focusing is required because the aperture
is too small that such produces a point image of an object point. The image is
almost equally good over a very wide range of positions of the film.
For a lens camera to produce a sharp image must be focused at the
subject. When the camera lens is being focused at the subject one can
observed that the lens travels back and forth from the film. The lens must be
focused at the object point to produce an image point instead of a visible circle
of light.
The question is how an object point pictured as an image point by
focusing the lens? Why are not all objects at different distances from the lens
sharp in the picture? The light bending ability of any one lens is constant that
is the light is bending to the same degree.
GATHERING POWER OF LENS
The light gathering power of lens that is express F/ number system
is equal to the ratio of the focal length of the lens to the diameter of the
aperture. It is otherwise called the relative aperture. A lens does not perform
the same at all apertures. If an f/2 lens is being used its widest aperture, it will
have less depth, poorer resolution and coverage at the corners that if this same
lens were field stopped down to the point of best resolution.
It is important to differentiate between sharpness at the corners of
the field and illumination at these same points. Some lenses will give a
needle-sharp image across the entire slide, but lack of coverage will cause a
darkening at the corners. Conversely, there are those lenses that will give
unsharp images at the corners although the illumination supplied by the lens is
absolutely uniform and no darkening will take place.
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 In most modern high-quality cameras performance at the center of
the field is a seldom a problem at any aperture; it’s the edges that make the
difference. In the case of both illumination and sharpness, the point of best
performance usually occurs when a lens is stopped down from two to three
stops. Actually, this optimum diaphragm setting gives the greatest amount of
sharpness, brilliance, and gradation over the entire field.
When a lens, even a fine lens is used at its widest aperture, the
extreme edges of the lens are being used to form part of the image. These
edges are major source of aberrations. Stopping down prevents these aberrated
rays from reaching the film; it might seem logical, then, that the further the
lens is stopped down, the better. This is not the case, here’ what actually
happens. As the lens is stopped down, further and further, the opening gets
smaller and smaller. When the opening gets so small two things happen. First
of all the opening gets so small that the thickness of the diaphragm leaves
approach the diameter of the opening. When this happen, the edges of the
diaphragm become a refractive unit and a general loss of sharpness occurs. A
second phenomenon of a completely stopped down lens is shift of focus.
Since the image that strikes the film is made up of light from all portions of
the lens, and the lens is actually set for the focus of the rays passing through
an area about 1/3 from its center. In many lenses the point of focus between
these extreme central rays that provides most of the illumination (1/3 from the
center) fall at different points, hence a loss of sharpness due to apparent shift
of focus.
LENS DEFECTS
No lens is perfect in every respect. Usually a lens maker tries to
find the best compromise among such qualities as sharpness of definition,
speed of light transmission, simplicity of construction and others. Special
purpose lenses however are computed for a single purpose only and in order
to achieve the maximum of usefulness in one special field, other qualities are
sacrificed.
Except, the very finest lenses, traces of the following common lens
defects will be found in all, such as chromatic aberration, spherical aberration,
curvilinear, distortion, curvature of field, astigmatism and others. No camera
lens will produce defects so exaggerated as the ones which will be
demonstrated. However, even considerably less pronounced fault
manifestation maybe enough to produce fuzziness, which usually becomes
more severe toward the edges of a picture.
ABERRATION in optics, is the failure of light rays to focus
properly after they pass through a lens or reflect from a mirror. Proper focus
occurs when the light rays cross one another at a single point. ABERRATION
occurs because of minute variations in lenses and mirrors, and because
different parts of the light spectrum are reflected or refracted by varying
amounts.
ABERRATION also defined as an optical imperfection
responsible for image distortion. It can be avoided by combining several
lenses and by elimination of marginal rays refracted through the outer edges
of the lens. Lenses or mirrors that are sections of spheres produce spherical
aberrations. If a beam of parallel rays reflects from a concave mirror, the rays
that reflects from the center of the mirror cross one another at a single point.
The rays that reflects far from the center cross at points closer to the mirror
surface. The imaginary line connecting these points of focus is called a
CAUSTIC.
A CAUSTIC appears as a bright line if it shines on a surface. For
example, when sunlight shines through the open top of a glass of milk and
onto the curve interior acts as a mirror. Consequently, the light reflects onto
the milk in a caustic curve. Without aberration, a bright spot would appear on
the milk. Convex lenses also produce spherical aberration. The light rays that
pass through the middle of the lens focus farther from the lens than do the rays
that pass through the lens of the edges. If the lens is in a camera, the image on
this is blurry. To sharpen the image, a camera has a small opening called a
stop. The stop allows only the rays passing through the center of the lens to
reach the film. Thus, the rays focus at one spot on the film, and the picture is
clear.
There are six ( 6 ) types of optical aberrations:
1. Spherical Aberration
2. Chromatic Aberrations
3. Astigmatism
4. Coma
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5. Curvature of Field
6. Distortion
SPHERICAL ABERRATION
Aberration Geometrical optics predicts that rays of light
emanating from a point are imaged by spherical optical elements as a small
blur. The outer parts of a spherical surface have a focal length different from
that of the central area, and this defect causes a point to be imaged as a small
circle. The difference in focal length for the various parts of the spherical
section is called spherical aberration
Spherical Aberration is found in all lenses bounded by spherical
aberration / surfaces. The marginal portions of the lens bring rays of light to
shorter focus than the central region. The image of a point in space is
therefore not a point, but a blur circle. Spherical aberration is the focusing at
the different parts of spherical lens. This aberration occurs because light
hitting the outer parts of the lens is bent more sharply and comes to a focus
sooner than that passing through the middle. In spherical aberration, the image
is blurred because different parts of a spherical lens or mirror have different
focal lengths.
When parallel marginal rays and axial rays passing through a
simple lens focus at several planes along the optical axis.
CHROMATIC ABERRATION
All lenses (single) made of one material refract rays of short
wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelenght and so brings blue
more to a shorter focus than red. The result is that the image of a point white
light is not a white point, but a blur circle bordered with colors.
Chromatic aberration is the failure of different colored light rays to
focus after passing through a lens, focusing of light of different colors at
different points resulting in a blurred image. When white light, which consists
of colors, passes through a lens, the lens bends the rays. The rays then cross
one another on the other side. The violet rays bend more than the other colors
and focus close to the lens. The red rays bend the least and focus farther from
the lens. Rays on the other colors focus at points between these two points. In
chromatic aberration the image is surrounded by colored fringes, because light
at different colors is brought to different focal points by a lens.
The inability of a lens to bring the different wavelengths (colors)
of white light to a focus on the same plane. Because the index of refraction
varies with wavelength, the focal length of a lens also varies and causes
longitudinal or axial chromatic aberration. Each wavelength forms an image
of a slightly different size, giving rise to what is known as lateral chromatic
aberration. Combinations of converging and diverging lenses and of
components made of glasses with different dispersions, help to minimize
chromatic aberration. Mirrors are free of this defect. In general, achromatic
lens combinations are corrected for chromatic aberration for two or three
colours.
ASTIGMATISM
Astigmatism is the defect in which the light coming from an off-
axis object point is spread along the direction of the optic axis. If the object is
a vertical line, the cross section of the refracted beam at successively greater
distances from the lens is an ellipse that collapses first into a horizontal line,
spreads out again, and later becomes a vertical line
Astigmatism is the failure of a lens to produce a point image of an
object point. Such condition occurs when the lens surfaces are not
symmetrical with respect to the principal axis of the lens. An extreme example
would be one surface is spherical and the other is cylindrical, or when the lens
surfaces are perfectly spherical but the beam of light from the object point
passes through the lens very obliquely.
In astigmatism, the image appears elliptical or cross shaped
because of an irregularity in the curvature of the lens. This is the inability of
the lens to bring horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to the same plane
of focus in the image.
The inability of the lens to project a sharply focused image of both
vertical and horizontal lines upon the same plane, at one lens to image
distance.
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COMA
The result of differences in lateral magnification for rays coming
from an object point not on the optic axis is an effect called coma. If coma is
present, light from a point is spread out into a family of circles that fit into a
cone, and in a plane perpendicular to the optic axis the image pattern is comet-
shaped. Coma may be eliminated for a single object-image point pair, but not
for all such points, by a suitable choice of surfaces.
A pear – shaped image of small circle or point near the edges of
the image plane.
Coma occurs when light falling obliquely on the lens and passing
through different circular zones is brought to a focus at different distances
from the plane film. A spot of light appears to have a tail, rather like a comet.
In come, the images appear progressively elongated toward the edge of the
field of view. The term Coma was coined 1733 by French mathematician
Alexis Clairaut ( 1713 – 1765 ).
CURVATURE OF FIELD
A curved, concave, or saucer – shaped image of an object which
has a flat surface produced by simple lens.
In curvature aberration the relation of the images of the different
points are incorrect with respect to one another. In curvature, the images of
the different points of the plane image lie on a curved surface, with points at
the edge of the field lying nearer to the lens than those at the center. In
curvature, the images distance is different for different points of the same
object due to their differing distance from the axis.
The fuzziness increases toward the edge of the film. Refocusing
brings different circle into focus but others now are blurred.
DISTORTION
Distortion arises from a variation of magnification with axial
distance and is not caused by a lack of sharpness in the image.
When there exists a different magnification for rays at different
angles distortion exists. Any straight light extending across the field is
considered curved and for different lenses the curvature maybe from or
toward the center. The distortion is called barrel distortion (in the first case). It
is the common type of curvilinear defect. The second distortion is the
pincushion defect.
For correction two similar lenses, each of half necessary power are
placed a short distance apart, with a diaphragm between. Such a lens is called
RECTILINEAR LENS.
OTHER OPTICAL DEFECTS
These defects are usually corrected when the lens is designed;
however, they can occur if the lens is misused or through normal wear.
FLARE or OPTICAL FLARE
In a result of double reflection from inner lens surfaces. It exhibits
itself as a misty haze, or a cloudy semicircular patch of light, which may cover
part or the entire image. This doubly reflection may form an image called a
ghost image.
MECHANICAL FLARE
Are bright spots on the film caused by stray light from worn shiny
parts of the lens such as the stop, shutter lens mount, or from the camera itself.
LIGHT LOSS
Most corrected lenses is coated with a substance which will reduce
one type of flare ( optical ) and which will also increase the optics ability to
transmit light thus reducing light loss.
STRAY LIGHT
Can be reduced or eliminated by using the proper lens shade
placed on the front of the lens as shield.
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FOCAL LENGTH
What is focal length?
It is usual to think of the focal length of the lens as the distance
from the lens center or the position of the image it forms of a distant object. It
is important to know that it is the focal length that determines how large an
image is formed by the lens. All lenses of the same focal at the same distance
produce the same of size; whether they are called wide angle, or by any other
names.
The focal length of a lens can be define as the distance from the
optical center of the lens to its focal plane, when the lens is focused upon an
object at infinity in practical terms, means focused on a subject a great
distance away ( 200 ft. or more ) the light rays reflected by that the subject
will be traveling on parallel paths, for all practical purposes, when they reach
the film. The photographer seldom or need not measure the focal length of a
lens, for this characteristic is almost always marked on the front of the lens
mount.
The focal length is a fixed value of a lens that cannot be changed.
It is an inherent factor determined by the thickness of the lens and curvatures
of its surface. The focal is frequently employed to indicate the size of the lens
in millimeter or inches. Thus, a lens labeled as F.L 50 mm. Indicates that
when it is focused on a point at infinity, the distance from the optical center to
the focal plane is 50 mm. And it is also the nearest distance at which such a
lens will sharply focuses an image.
The focal length also controls the image brightness, speed of the
lens and the image size of the focal plane; IMAGE SIZE, the focal length
determines the size of the image at the focal plane, the longer the focal length,
the greater the size of the image on the film when the subject remains at the
given distance. In fact, image size and focal are directly proportional,
doubling the F.L. results in doubling the image size. Because the image size
increases with focal length, it is logically to follow that the longer the focal
length the less of the subject the lens will include on the negative, that is the
negative size remains constant. Or, to state it another way, the greater the lens
focal length, the narrower its field of view (often called angle of view). A
short focal length produces smaller image.
LENS SPEED, the largest opening of diaphragm (aperture) at
which a lens can be used is also known as the speed of the lens. Hence the
light gathering capability of a lens is called lens speed. Speed here refers to
intensity of light reaching the film, and not to any movement. Thus, an F/2
lens is faster than F74, because an F2 has a larger aperture and will admit
more light at a given time. Lenses having a large aperture are called “fast”
lenses because their large aperture makes it possible to take photograph at a
very short exposure interval or under very dim light conditions. The closer
this largest aperture to one (1) or to being equal in diameter to the focal length
of the lens, the faster the lens.
SENSITIZED MATERIAL
Sensitized Material refers to films and papers that are composed of
emulsion containing SILVER HALIDE crystals suspended in gelatin and
coated on a transparent or reflective support.
FILM
A film consists basically, of a random scattering of light sensitive
silver halides suspended in a layer of animal gelatin which is coated onto
acetate support or base.
THE FILM STRUCTURE
A. STRUCTURE OF WHITE and BLACK FILM
1. TOP COATING (TOP LAYER) – scratch resistant coating also
called gelatin coating, an over coating composed of a thin
transparent layer of a hard gelatin which help protect the silver
halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions. The hard gelatin,
which is derived from cows, contains SULFUR. The SULFUR is
very much compatible with silver halides.
2. EMULSION LAYER – SILVER SALT + GELATIN – A layer
composed of silver compounds which are light sensitive and
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 halogens (such as bromide, chloride and iodide bromide in fast
film emulsion). A silver compound when combined with a halogen
becomes SILVER HALIDE. Silver Halides are rare compound that
are responsible in forming the so called the LATENT IMAGE in
the photographic film.
3. FILM BASE – commonly made of cellulose or other material such
as paper, plastic, or glass, which supports the emulsion layer and is
coated with a non-curling antihalation backing.
4. ANTIHALATION BACKING – a black dye applied on the rare
surface of the film. Its function is to absorb light that may
penetrate the emulsion thus making the image sharper since it
suppresses double image. It prevents halo formation in the
photograph. The black dye is removed during processing by one of
the chemicals in the developer. Its second function is to control the
film from curling inwards. (Towards the emulsion surface).
B. STRUCTURE OF COLOR FILM
1. TOP LAYER – sensitive to blue light only, green and red light
passes through it without exposing the color halide.
2. EMULSION LAYER
a. Blue filter
b. Yellow filter – CAREY LEA silver suspended in
gelatin, it is coated between the top and second layer to
absorb any penetrating blue light but allowing green
and red light to pass through.
c. Green filter – a layer that is orthochromatic, the layer
sensitive to blue light (which can not reach it) and
green, but not to red light pass on to the bottom of the
emulsion layer.
d. Red filter – a panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue
(which can’t reach it) and red. It is also sensitive to
green light but to a slight degree that is insignificant.
3. ANTIHALATION BACKING / COATING
4. FILM BASE – Plastic film base
Emulsions are thin, gelatinous, light-sensitive coatings on film
that react chemically to capture the color and shadings of a scene. The
four layers pictured above show the same image as it would appear on
different emulsions in photographic film after the first stage of
developing. For black-and-white photographs, only one emulsion is
required, because it is the amount of light, not the colour that activates the
chemical reaction. Color film requires three layers of emulsion, each of
which is sensitive to only one of the primary colors of light: blue, green,
or red. As light passes through the layers, each emulsion records areas
where its particular color appears in the scene. When developed, the
emulsion releases dye that is the complementary color of the light
recorded: blue light activates yellow dye, green light is magenta, and red
light is cyan (bluish-green). Complementary colors are used because they
produce the original color of the scene when the film is processed.
Color films are more complex than black-and-white films
because they are designed to reproduce the full range of color tones as
color, not as black, white, and grey tones. The design and composition of
most color transparency films and color negative films are based on the
principles of the subtractive color process, in which the three primary
colors, yellow, magenta, and cyan (blue-green), are combined with their
complements to reproduce a full range of colors. Such films consist of
three silver halide emulsions on a single layer. The top emulsion is
sensitive only to blue. Beneath this is a yellow filter that blocks blues but
transmits greens and reds to the second emulsion, which absorbs greens
but not red. The bottom emulsion records reds.
When color film is exposed to light by a camera, latent black-
and-white images are formed on each of the three emulsions. During
processing, the chemical action of the developer creates actual images in
metallic silver, just as in black-and-white processing. The developer
combines with dye couplers incorporated into each of the emulsions to
form cyan, magenta, and yellow images. Then the film is bleached,
leaving a negative image in the primary colors. In color transparency film,
unexposed silver-halide crystals not converted to metallic silver during the
initial development are converted to positive images in dye and silver
during a second stage of development. After the development action has
been arrested, the film is bleached and the image fixed on it.
35
C. TYPOLOGY OF FILMS
Exposure is made simultaneously in the three layers. Each layer
responding to only one of the additive primary colors (red, blue and green).
After exposure and during the film processing, the yellow color of the filter
layer is destroyed.
Films maybe classified according to their forms and types.
Basically, films that are available in the markets today are in various forms.
They can be in rolls, in cartridges and cut sheets. Light sensitivity of the film
can be ascertained through its various types.
There are some films that are sensitive to all colors while there is
some that are sensitive only to one or specific set of colors.
Classification according to USE
1. BLACK and WHITE FILM – for B and W Photography
2. COLOR FILM – films that have names ending in COLOR
- Color negatives for prints
The negative in this type of film is divided into blocks and is color
positive. It is composed of hue dyes. In between the blue and green hues,
yellow gelatin is placed so that the blue rays of light would not affect the
green hue and in between the green and the red dye, magenta gelatin is placed
so that the green rays of light would not affect the red hue dye of the
emulsion.
3. CHROME FILMS – films with names ending in CHROME
- For color transparency (slides); films that are exposed
by slides, mounted in a cardboard for slide projectors:
reversal type.
4. X – RAY FILM – films that are sensitive to X- radiations
Types based on FILM SPEED (according to light sensitivity)
1. FAST FILM – contains numerous number of large grains of silver
halides that usually develop in groups; film that are very sensitive
to light. When the available is dim, this type of film is the best
choice because of the low reflection power of the subject against a
background. It is low in contrast but high in brightness. However,
the use of fast speed film is not advisable due to its graininess
result.
2. SLOW FILM – film that require longer period of time to
completely expose their emulsion to light; film with fine grains of
silver halides.
Film Speed Film is classified by speed as well as by format. Film
speed is defined as an emulsion's degree of sensitivity to light, and determines
the amount of exposure required to photograph a subject under given lighting
conditions. The manufacturer of the film assigns a standardized numerical
rating in which high numbers correspond to “fast” emulsions and low
numbers to “slow” ones. The standards set by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) are used throughout the world, although some European
manufacturers still use the German Industrial Standard, or Deutsche Industrie
Norm (DIN). The ISO system evolved by combining the DIN system with the
ASA (the industry standard previously used in the United States). The first
number of an ISO rating, equivalent to an ASA rating, represents an
arithmetic measure of film speed, whereas the second number, equivalent to a
DIN rating, represents a logarithmic measure.
Low-speed films are generally rated from ISO 25/15 to ISO
100/21, but even slower films exist. Kodak's Rapid Process Copy Film, a
special process film, has an ISO rating of 0.06/-12. Films in the ISO 125/22
to 200/24 range are considered medium speed, while films above ISO
200/24 are considered fast. In recent years, many major manufacturers have
introduced super fast films with ISO ratings higher than 400/27. And
certain films can be pushed well beyond their ratings by exposing them as
though they had a higher rating and developing them for a greater length of
time to compensate for the underexposure.
DX coding is a recent innovation in film and camera
technology. DX-coded cartridges of 35-mm film have printed on them a
characteristic panel corresponding to an electronic code that tells the
camera the ISO rating of the film as well as the number of frames on the
roll. Many of the newer electronic cameras are equipped with DX sensors
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that electronically sense this information and automatically adjust
exposures accordingly.
Differences in sensitivity of a film emulsion to light depend on
various chemical additives. For example, hypersensitizing compounds
increase film speed without affecting the film's color sensitivity. High-
speed film can also be manufactured by increasing the concentration of
large silver-halide crystals in the emulsion. In recent years, a generation of
faster, more sensitive films has been created by altering the shape of
crystals. Flatter silver-halide crystals offer greater surface area. Films
incorporating such crystals, such as Kodak's T-grain Kodacolour films,
have a correspondingly greater sensitivity to light.
The grain structure of faster films is generally heavier than that
of slower films. Grain structure may give rise to a mottled pattern on prints
that have been greatly enlarged. Photographs taken with slower-speed film
appear less grainy when enlarged. Because of the small size of their silver-
halide grains, slow-speed films generally have a higher resolution—that is,
they can render fine details with greater sharpness—and can produce a
broader range of tones than fast films. When tonal range and sharpness of
detail are not as important as capturing a moving subject without blurring,
fast films are used.
Types based on SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY (color sensitivity)
Spectral sensitivity – responsiveness of the film emulsion to the
different wavelength of light source.
1. MONOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensitive to a single
color of light (for white and black)
a. BLUE SENSITIVE FILM – a film specially treated
that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of light
b. ULTRA-VIOLET SENSITIVE FILM – sensitive to
UV rays only
2. PANCHROMATIC FILM – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, and all
light found in the visible spectrum, especially to blue and violet
light. It is suitable for general use in the preparation of black and
white photography because it produces the most natural
recording of colors.
Panchromatic films are further sub classified according to their
degree of sensitivity to each primary colors or light. There are three classes of
panchromatic film. They are the following:
a. Process Panchromatic Film – permit short exposures
under average lighting condition and has the
advantage of fine grain structure.
b. Grain Panchromatic Film
c. High Speed Panchromatic Film – designed originally
for photographing objects under adverse lighting
condition.
Contrast of the panchromatic film usually varies with the color of
the light and using filters can attain proper contrast in photograph.
3. ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensitive to UV rays,
blue and green colors, but not to red. Red portions are recorded
as dark tones, while green and blue parts appear as light tones
when printed. This type of film is popular in the market as the
KODALITH FILM.
4. INFRARED FILM – a special type of film that is sensitive to
infrared and ultra-violet radiation (radiation beyond the human
eye’s sensitive). It is also sensitive to all the colors found in the
visible spectrum. Although the infrared film is sensitive to blue
color, a red filter can exclude the blue color. The red filter
transmits only long red and infrared radiation. IR film is useful in
penetrating haze because of its longer wavelength. In
Investigative Photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis of
questioned documents, in discovering old ( or faded ) tattoos
under the skin, and in the construction of camera types.
D. FILM SPEED – (EMULSION SPEED)
EMULSION SPEED – the sensitivity of the film to light; the
extent to which emulsion is sensitive to light.
36
The light sensitivity of the film is also known as the FILM SPEED. Speed of
the film is determined through the numerical film speed labels given by the
film manufacturer. There are two classical speed ratings that became popular:
1. ASA (American Standard Association) rating - This is expressed in
arithmetical value system. The speed in numbers is directly
proportional to the sensitivity of the material. A film with an
arithmetical value of 400 is four times as fast as one with a speed
of 100.
2. DIN (Deutche Industrie Norman) rating – This is expressed in
logarithmic value system. In this system, an increase of 3 degree
doubles the sensitivity of the film.
 ISO rating (International Standards Organization) –
combination of ASA and DIN rating. The higher the
ISO number, the more sensitive the film to light and the
pictures can be taken indoors or in dim light condition.
 ISO 100-200 – film for general purpose
One film maybe rated ISO – 100, and another film ISO- 200. This
means that the 200 films are twice as fast ( twice more sensitive to light ) than
the ISO-100 film. Hence, it would only require half the amount of light to
produce a satisfactory negative. Each time the film speed is doubled, it is
equal to one f / stop higher. For instance, in the example given, if ISO-1 is
exposed at f / 8, then ISO-200 should be exposed at f / 11 to produce the same
negative image quality. Any film above ISO-200 can be considered grain. The
suggested uses of the following film exposure under varying conditions are:
1. ISO – 25 – slowest speed that natural condition will permit, for
best color and sharpness.
2. ISO – 100 to ISO – 200 – for general purpose
3. ISO – 100 – slow speed film; needs sufficient light and low shutter
speed; has fine grains of silver halides; produce sharp image.
4. ISO – 200 – twice as fast and as sensitive as ISO – 100; has large
grains; produce large sharp image.
5. ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject
6. ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions or for fast
moving objects
 When DX is attached to the film speed, it means that
the film automatically sets the film speed dial (ASA
dial).
E. FILM SIZE
1. 110 – for cartridge loading pocket cameras
2. 126 – for older and larger cartridge loading type
3. 120 – variation of the 2.25 inch-wide roll film that was first
introduced for box cameras a decade ago and now used in
professional medium format cameras like the Hasselbald or
Mamiya.
4. 135 – commonly known as the mm. so named because the film is
35 mm wide
5. 220 – the same with 120 but twice as many exposure
FILM AND LIGHT
An alteration in the spectral response of a photographic material
brought about by a change in the spectral distribution of energy in the light
source used for exposure is a difference in a relative brightness in which
different colors are reproduced by the photographic material.
A comparison of the relative brightness in which the different
colors of the original are produced by two light sources shows that the
employment of tungsten illumination with its greater abundance of long wave
radiation, has resulted in yellow, orange and red being produced relatively
lighter, and violet and blue darker, than with sunlight. The relative brightness
in which different colors are reproduced depends on the distribution of
spectral sensitivity with the particular light source used for the exposure. The
greater the effective sensitivity in any particular part of the spectrum, the
greater the density of the negative and the lighter the tone of gray in which the
corresponding color sensation is represented in the print.
EXPOSURE
Photographic exposure is defined as the product of illumination
and time. The unit of exposure is usually in meter candle second which is
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equivalent to exposure produced by a light source of one candlepower, in the
second at a distance of one meter from the surface of the sensitive material.
When light is brought in its focus by the camera lens and strikes
the front surface of the film emulsion, a number of tiny crystals of light
sensitive silver halide rendered developable forming later the image is known
as the latent photographic image. This image becomes visible by chemical
development. This image conforms to the shape of the object points in the
subject according to the capability of the lens and film.
VIEWING FILTER – Are designed to show by direct
observation the relative values in which colors will be reproduced by a
particular type of sensitized without or with a given filter.
NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTER – Are used to reduce the light
intensity to prevent over exposure.
POLARIZING FILTER – Are used primarily to control light
reflected from highly polished surfaces, metallic objects and others.

While at this point the light had done all that it has to do, however The Principle of Color Filters
it continue to penetrate the emulsion layers throughout whose depth lie
suspended millions of other light sensitive halide crystals. As the ray moves Objects are distinguished from their surroundings by the contrast,
deeper and deeper into the emulsion, it moves farther and farther away from which may be the result of a difference in brightness or color. At times parts
its original point of entry into the emulsion, and parts are scattered off in of a subject may differ slightly in brightness yet the contrast due to difference
every direction. During this travel it has struck and therefore made in color is very marked to the eye. For example red and green colors show a
developable, many more light sensitive crystals than it originally affected to striking difference to the eye yet when photograph on a panchromatic film the
form the latent image at the surface of the emulsion. Finally, it bumps into the brightness difference is very slight to be notice by the eye. To show the
anti- halation backing and is absorbed. difference the use of a green filter will render the green color lighter and the
red color darker (in the print or positive).
FILTERS To render a color lighter in effect than it would appear, a filter,
which selectively transmits light of the same color, should be used. To render
Filters made of gelatin or glass; filters are used in front of a a color darker a filter, which absorbs the color, should be used. To transmit
camera lens to alter the color balance of light, to change contrast or means to allow or to pass through while to absorb means to stop partially or
brightness, to minimize haze, or to create special effects. In black-and- wholly.
white photography, color filters are used with panchromatic film to
transmit light of the matching color while blocking light of a contrasting Filter Factor
color. In a landscape photograph taken with a red filter, for example, some
of the blue light of the sky is blocked, causing the sky to appear darker and
thereby emphasizing clouds. Under a blue sky, a yellow filter produces a A photographic material exposed to such filtered radiation will
less extreme effect because more blue light is transmitted to the film. The receive a small amount of light than one without any filter. To compensate for
No. 8 yellow filter is often used for outdoor black-and-white photography the loss of radiation because of the absorption of the filter, the shutter speed
because it renders the tone of a blue sky in much the same way that the should be increased or a longer time in opening and closing or wider lens
human eye perceives it. aperture, or an increase in the intensity of the light source is necessary. Filter
factors depend upon:
Conversion filters, light-balancing filters, and color- 1. Absorption characteristics of the filter.
compensating filters are all widely used in color photography. Conversion 2. The subject
filters change the color balance of light for a given film. Tungsten films, 3. The spectral sensitivity of the emulsion
for example, are designed and balanced for the color temperature of amber 4. The processing conditions.
tungsten light. Exposed in daylight, they will produce pictures with a bluish
cast. A series 85-conversion filter can correct this. Daylight film, on the The general effects of filter may be given as below:
other hand, balanced for sunlight at noon, which has a greater Color of Subject Rendered Lighter Rendered Darker
concentration of blue wavelengths than tungsten light, will have a yellow-
amber cast when exposed under tungsten light. A series 80-conversion Red Filters F, A or G
filter corrects this problem. Filter B or C-5
Green G, X-1, X-2
Light-balancing filters are generally used to make small Filter A or C-5
adjustments in color. These pale-toned filters eliminate undesirable Blue Filter A
colorcasts or add a general warming hue. Color-compensating (CC) A, F, G, or B
magenta filters can balance greenish fluorescent light for daylight or Magenta Filter F or A
tungsten film. Another type of filter, the polarizer, is used primarily to Filter B
reduce reflection from the surface of shiny subjects. Polarizing filters are Yellow Filter F or G
also used in color photography to increase color saturation. Filter C-5
Orange Filter G or A
Photographic filters maybe divided into four classes: a) color Filter C-5
filters b) viewing filters c) neutral density filters and d) polarizing filters
Filter Guide
COLOR FILTERS – Are used to control the relative tone values
in which colors are rendered by the photographic process, to lighten or G---- Deep Yellow
darkened particular colors or to obtain color separation records for color B---- Green
photography works. X-1, X-2 - - - Lighter Green
A or F - - - - Shades of Red
A color filter maybe defined as an optically homogenous filter in
which the absorption of light and transmission of light varies with the SENSITIZED PAPER (PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER)
wavelength.
The result of photography in its final form is the photograph. The
 Blue Filters – A blue filter can be used effectively when materials necessary to produce a photograph (POSITIVE PRINT) are a
photographing blood in black and white. When used outdoors as sensitized paper. It has emulsion that is coated with opaque material like
blue filters will make the sky, or any blue object appears white in paper.
photograph.
 Green Filters – Are now used in place of blue filters for
A. STRUCTURE OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER
photographing blood.
 Yellow Filters – Yellow filters cut through haze to certain extent
and can be used with good results to photograph an accident on a After the process of producing the negative image is produced
hazy day. from the negative, which is a true presentation of the relative brightness of all
parts of the object and is now called a print. A print is ordinarily made on

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paper that is coated with light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is similar to
the. Basic layers of printing paper are:
1. Emulsion Layer – the layer containing minute silver suspended in
gelatin; the layer of chemical needed to reproduce the opposite
tone of the negative print.
2. Baryta Layer – a gelatin layer containing Baryta crystals (barium
oxide particles) to increase the reflectivity of the paper.
3. Base – made of hardened white paper, which must be chemically
pure to ensure that it will not interfere with the chemical processes
to which the emulsion is subjected. Available either in single or
double weight paper.
In the preparation of photographic papers, there are three important
factors to be considered, the:
1. Type of emulsion
2. Contrasting light rays and
3. Physical characteristics
Each type of emulsion has its own substance and use in the
preparation of photographs. The types of emulsion use in photo papers are:
1. Silver Chloride emulsion
2. Silver Bromide emulsion
3. Silver Chlorobromide emulsion
B. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
BASED ON EMULSION USED
1. SILVER CHLORIDE PAPER – contains silver chloride
emulsion; grained and produce deep black images; used for contact
printing. Its sensitivity to light is low. Generally, the size of the
positive print is the same as the size of the negative used and
usually it will give blue-black tone if properly developed.
2. SILVER BROMIDE PAPER – contains silver bromide emulsion.
Light sensitivity of this type is faster than the silver chloride paper.
This photographic paper is used for projection printing or
enlarging process wherein the negative image is projected or
enlarged. If properly developed, the silver bromide paper will give
a black tone.
3. SILVER CHLOROBROMIDE PAPER – contains a
combination of silver chloride emulsion; its emulsion speed lies
between that of chloride and bromide papers; used both for contact
and projection printing. The sensitivity of this paper is either slow
or fast. The slow emulsion is used for contract printing while the
fast emulsion is used for projection printing.
4. VARIABLE CONTRAST PAPER – combines the contrast
ranges in one paper, it uses a special Chlorobromide emulsion that
produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different
colored light.
The manufacturer of the films according to their own ideas
classifies the contrast range of photographic paper. They produce different
photographic papers intended for the specific contrast of the negatives to be
printed. Generally, this contrast range is classified into four: They are the
following:
1. Low Contrast
2. Normal and Medium Contrast
3. Hard Contrast
4. Very Hard or Extra Hard Contrast
The low contrast paper is usually suitable to a very contrast
negative to produce a normal print or photograph. On the other hand, the high
or hard contrast is suitable to a very low contrast paper is suitable to a very
low contrast negative to compensate for lack of brilliance and produce a
normal print or photographs.
Photographic papers are made with different characteristics. They
are the combination of thickness and finish. The texture maybe smooth, rough
or linen, its finest maybe glossy with a very smooth surface texture. Other
type of textures may produce a mate or semi-glossy finish in rough or linen
texture.
The paper base of the photographic paper maybe either white or
tinted. Its weight or thickness maybe either lightweight or single-weight or
double-weight.
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The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the
purpose of the photographs to be made. Black and White object are usually
printed in a white base photographic paper. Reproduction of photographs
would give satisfactory results if printed on glossy white photographic paper.
For portrait photograph, a cream paper base photographic paper is
recommended and for law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic
paper is necessary so that the detail of the image appear and appreciated by
the viewers.
ACCORDING TO CONTRAST
No. 1 ---- No. 2 ---- No. 3 ---- No. 4
Photographic papers are supplied in different grades. Numbers
and or descriptive names, # 4 or hard, # 3 or medium, # 2 or normal, # 1 or
soft contrast designates them. The type of paper to be used is frequently the
opposite in the name to the type of negative. For instance, hard paper is used
for thin, and normal paper is used for the so-called normal negative.
ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Photographic paper is made with different characteristics. They are
the combination of thickness and finish. Photographic papers are supplied
according to weight or thickness of the base, surface, color and contrast.
1. WEIGHT
A. Light Weight – are used when the thickness of the
paper is not a consideration and high degree of
flexibility is necessary. Intended for purposes,
which involve folding.
B. Single Weight – are paper used for small print or
print which need to be mounted on solid and fine
details are necessary in the production. Used only
for ordinary photographic purposes.
C. Double Weight – generally used for large prints
because they stand up better under rough
treatment.
2. SURFACE TEXTURE
A. Glossy Papers – are preferred where fine detail and
brilliant images are required.
B. Semi – mate Papers – are with decided textures which
obscure fine details
C. Rough Papers – used for large prints or where breadth
rather than detail is necessary.
3. COLOR
A. White – are preferred for cold effect
B. Cream – are preferred for pictorial effect, portraits,
landscapes or when warmth effect is desired.
C. Buff Papers – are preferred for tone prints.
The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the
purpose of the photographs to be made. Black and White object are usually
printed in a white-based photographic paper. Reproduction of photographs
would give satisfactory results if printed in glossy white-based photographic
paper. For portrait photograph, a cream based photographic paper is
recommended. For law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic
paper is necessary so that the details of the image appear and appreciated by
the viewer.
GRADE OF PRINTING PAPERS
Because of the fact that all negative do not print best on one kind
of paper, and in order to permit printing for special effects, photographic
papers is made in several different grades of contrast and surface texture.
Velox paper made by Kodak offers six degrees of contrast and glossy surface.
VELOX No. 0 – used for printing from extremely contrast
negatives, the low contrast in the paper sensitizing counteracts the high
contrast in the negative to give a new print.
VELOX No. 1 – used for high contrast negative
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 VELOX No. 2 – a paper for normal contrast used with normal
negatives
VELOX No. 3 – used for negatives that have weak contrast
VELOX No. 4 – provides for sufficient contrast to compensate for
very thin or weak negatives. It is useful in printing pictures which high
contrast is desired
VELOX No. 5 – for flat negative that is unprintable
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
GENERAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. DOCUMENT. Any material containing marks, symbols, or
signs either visible, partially visible that may present or ultimately
convey a meaning to someone, maybe in the form of pencil, ink
writing, typewriting, or printing on paper.
The term “document” applies to writings; to words printed,
lithographed, or photographed; to maps or plans; to seals, plates, or
even stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved. In its plural
form, “documents” may mean; deeds, agreements, title, letters,
receipts, and other written instruments used to prove a fact.
 Latin word “documentum”, means “lesson, or example
(in Medieval Latin “instruction, or official paper”), OR
 French word “docere”, means to teach.
According to Microsoft Encarta Reference Library (as a noun):
1. formal piece of writing
2. object containing information
3. computer file
As a verb, Microsoft Encarta gives the following definition:
1. record information in or on media
2. support a claim with evidence
B. QUESTIONED. Any material which some issue has been raised
or which is under scrutiny.
C. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT. One in which the facts appearing
therein may not be true, and are contested either in whole or part
with respect to its authenticity, identity, or origin. It may be a deed,
contract, will, election ballots, marriage contract,
check, visas, application form, check writer, certificates, etc.
D. DISPUTED DOCUMENT. A term suggesting that there is an
argument or controversy over the document, and strictly speaking
this is true meaning. In this text, as well as through prior usage,
however, “disputed document” and “questioned document” are
used interchangeably to signify a document that is under special
scrutiny.
E. STANDARD a.k.a. STANDARD DOCUMENT - Are condensed
and compact set of authentic specimens which, if adequate and
proper, should contain a cross section of the material from a
known source.
"Standard" in questioned documents investigation, we
mean those things whose origins are known and can be proven
and which can be legally used as examples to compare with
other matters in question. Usually a standard consist of the
known handwriting of a person such case, "standard" has the
same meaning as is understood by the word "specimen" of
handwriting.
F. EXEMPLAR. A term used by some document examiners and
attorneys to characterize known material. Standard is the older
term.
G. HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT. Any document completely
written and signed by one person; also known as a holograph. In a
number of jurisdictions a holographic will can be probated without
anyone having witnessed its execution.
H. REFERENCE COLLECTION. Material compiled and
organized by the document examiner to assist him in answering
special questions. Reference collections of typewriting, check
writing specimens, inks, pens, pencils, and papers are frequently
maintained.
LEGAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENTS
A. LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS:
39
1. In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119: any written
document by which a right is established or an obligation is
extinguished.
2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed
or instrument executed by person by which some disposition or
agreement is proved, evidenced or setforth.
3. In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule:
any physical embodiment of information or ideas; e.g. a letter, a
contract, a receipt, a book of account, a blur print, or an X-ray
plate (Black’s Law Dictionary).
B. KINDS OF DOCUMENT:
1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT - notarized by a notary public or
competent public official with solemnities required by
law.(Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742)
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENT - issued by the government or its agents
or its officers having the authority to do so and the offices, which
in accordance with their creation, they are authorized to issue and
be issued in the performance of their duties.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENT -executed by a private person without
the intervention of a notary public or of any person legally
authorized, by which documents, some disposition or agreement is
proved, evidenced or set forth (US vs Orera, 11 Phil. 596).
4. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT - executed in accordance with the
Code of Commerce or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition
of commercial rights or obligations.
Take Note:
A private document may become a public or official document
when it partake the nature of a public or official record. So if the falsifications
committed on such document that is, when it is already a part of the public
record, falsification of public or official document is committed. However, if
such private document is intended to become a part of the public record,
even though falsified prior thereto, falsification of a public document is
committed.
WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE DOCUMENTS - based on
some Supreme Court Rulings.
1. A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the
proper authority (People vs. Camacho, 44 Phil. 484).
2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are
not filled up (People vs. Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or
agreement are not documents but are mere merchandise (People vs.
Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).
CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
1. Documents with questioned signatures.
2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent
alterations.
3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.
a. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL - will entirely written in the
handwriting of the testator
b. NOTARIAL WILL - signed by the testator acknowledge
before a notary public with 3 witnesses.
4. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.
a. with a view of ascertaining their source
b. with a view of ascertaining their date
c. with a view of determining whether or not they contain
fraudulent alterations or substituted pages.
5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.
6. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their
production.
7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they
identify some persons through handwriting.
a. anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. Superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings.
DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
ADDITION - Any matter made a part of the document after its original
preparation may be referred to as addition.
CONCLUSION - A scientific conclusion results form relating observed
facts by logical, common-sense reasoning in accordance with established
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 rules or laws. The document examiner's conclusion, in legal term is referred B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis. This is more focused in
to as "opinion". determining the author of writing. It is more difficult procedure and
requires long study and experience.
DOCUMENT EXAMINER. One who studies scientifically the details
and elements of documents in order to identify their source or to discover FORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to as EXAMINATION
handwriting identification experts, but today the work has outgrown this
latter title and involves other problems than merely the examination of A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)
handwriting. 1. examination of signatures and initials
2. examination of anonymous letters
ERASURE - The removal of writings, typewriting or printing, from a 3. hand printing examination
document is an erasure. It maybe accomplished by either of two means. A B. Examination of Typewritings and typeprints.
chemical eradication in which the writing is removed or bleached by C. Examination of Inks
chemical agents (e.g. liquid ink eradicator); and an abrasive erasure is D. Examination of Erasures, alterations or obliterations, etc.
where the writing is effaced by rubbing with a rubber eraser or scratching 1. Detection of alteration
out with a knife or other sharp with implement. 2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writings
EXAMINATION - It is the act of making a close and critical study of any E. Counterfeiting
material and with questioned documents, it is the process necessary to 1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like.
discover the facts about them. Various types are undertaken, including 2. Examination of fake documents
microscopic, visual photographic, chemical, ultra violet and infra-red F. Miscellaneous aspects
examination. 1. Determination of age of documents
2. Identification of stamps
EXPERT WITNESS. A legal term used to describe a witness who by 3. Examinations of seal and other authenticating devices
reason of his special training or experience is permitted to express an
opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, which is DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (In General)
involved in a court action. His purpose is to interpret technical information
in his particular specialty in order to assist the court in administering A. VALUE -
justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an expert witness. 1. In the commission of a crime, the criminal often finds it necessary
to employ one or more documents in furtherance of his act.
INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION - The term "insertion" and 2. In some crimes, such as forgery, the document is an integral part of
"interlineations" include the addition of writing and other material the crime.
between lines or paragraphs or the addition of whole page to a 3. In others, such as false claims against government, documents
document. often play an important part in proving the commission of the
crime.
NON-IDENTITIFICATION (Non-identity) – as used in this text it 4. Proof of the fact that a document was altered or made by a
means that the source or authorship of the compared questioned and particular individual may show that:
standard specimens is different. a. He committed the crime.
b. He had knowledge of the crime.
OBLITERATION - the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make c. He was present in a certain locality at a specified time.
the original invisible to as an addition.
B. PURPOSE - A document may be examined to know the following:
OPINION. In legal language, it refers to the document Examiner's conclu- a. Identity of the author.
sion. Actually in Court, he not only expresses an opinion but b. True contents of the document.
demonstrates the reasons for arriving at his opinion. Throughout this c. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
text, opinion and conclusion are used synonymously. d. Alterations or erasures which have been made.
e. Authenticity of the document.
QUALIFICATION. The professional experience, education, and ability
of a document examiner. Before he is permitted to testify as an expert
witness, the court must rule that he is qualified in his field. THE LOGICAL PROGRESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT
EXAMINATION
REASON FOR QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
A. FIRST - ASCERTAIN THE FACTS: to select "QUESTIONED",
Generally, examination of questioned documents is restricted to "DENIED" or "ADMITTED", "AUTHENTIC", and "DOUBTFUL"
“Scientific Comparison” which means that determination of authenticity, documents.
genuineness, falsification or forgery lies on the availability of known
standards for comparison. After thorough comparison, the following 1. Concerning the Document in Questioned.
principle of identification is applied: a. Is only one signature in questioned?
b. Is any part of the document in question?
“When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar c. Is the date of the document in questioned?
and specifically oriented characteristic of such number and significance as d. Is the paper or the typewriter used in the document in ques-
to preclude the possibility of their occurrence by mere coincidence and there tioned? Etc.
are no unaccounted for differences, it may be concluded that they
are same in their characteristics attributed to the same cause.” 2. Regarding the Standards:
a. Make sure that there are sufficient numbers of authentic
documents for comparison submitted. If there are inadequate
DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION standards, obtain more.
b. Determine whether the standards are authentic ones, on
A. Criminalistics Examination. This involves the detection of forgery, which a foundation can be built for admitting them in
erasure, alteration or obliteration of documents. evidence.

Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner of questioned
documents said that an intelligent police investigator can detect
almost 75% of all forgeries by careful inspection of a document with
simple magnifiers and measuring tools.
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B. SECOND - ANALYZE THE DETAILS: Synthesize the elements,
date, circumstances, conditions, technical problems and the like.
1. The examiner after ascertaining the facts, should have detailed
information as to the circumstances of the document in questioned,
the condition of an alleged writer, or of any condition that may
have affected the writing or typewriting or any facts that are part of
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 the technical problem with the document that is submitted to the
expert.
2. He should inquire about the circumstances and conditions as far as
the client knows, such as; was the document signed sitting on the
wall, on the lap, or lying in bed? Sitting on bed, lying on his back
or side? For example, a document could have been signed in a
moving automobile or while having a drink at the bar.
C. THIRD - QUALIFY THE CASE:
1. How much time is needed for the examination?
2. Is it possible to complete the study from the original papers, or is it
necessary to make special photo-enlargements for proper
examination?
3. If it is possible to make arrangements with the client for photo-
enlargement, is it advisable to do so?
4. Photo-enlargements are always useful for demonstrating the
reasons on which the opinion is based, especially in Court.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
EXAMINATION
A. Analysis (Recognition) - properties or characteristics, observed or
measured.
B. Comparison - Properties or characteristics of the unknown
determined thought analysis are now compared with the familiar
or recorded properties of known items.
C. Evaluation- Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or
characteristics will each have a certain value for identification,
determined by its likelihood of occurrence. The weight or
significance of each must therefore be considered.
The criteria of scientific examination of documents are:
A. Accuracy – correspondence between results obtained and the truth.
B. Precision – measure of the consistency of results obtained in repeated
study or experimentation.
“In scientific study of signatures/handwritings, we learn the basic
facts and then reason carefully and logically from these facts according to
established and recognized rules in order to form an opinion or conclusion
as to whether a questioned signature/handwriting is genuine or forged”
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS
It is the initial examination conducted on a document to determine
whether it is genuine or not. It is not a misnomer, for in reality it consists of
painstaking analysis more than looking at a document and expressing an off-
hand opinion.
A. THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT:
1. ensures preparedness;
2. avoidance of delay; and
3. ensures success of the case.
B. Principal points for consideration in the PRELIMINARY
EXAMINATION of questioned documents. Please note that these
questions may not be applicable in every case.
1. Is the signature genuine?
2. Is the signature in a natural position?
3. Are the signatures of the witnesses genuine and were they written
in the order as they appear?
4. Does the signature touch the other writings? Or was it written last?
5. Are there remains of pencil or carbon marks which may have been
an outline for the signature of other writings?
6. Is the signature shown in an embossed form on the back of the
sheet?
7. Is the writings written before the paper was folded?
8. Is the signature written before or after the paper was folded?
9. Is more than one kind of ink used in the preparation of the
document?
10. Are the several sheets of the document exactly the same sizes,
thickness and colors?
11. Is the paper torn, burned or mutilated in any way, and if so, for
what purpose?
12. Is the paper unnecessary soiled or crumpled?
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13. Does the document contain abrasion, chemical/pencil erasures, and
alterations/substitutions of any kind?
14. Does the document show abrasion, erasure or lack of continuity
when viewed by transmitted light?
15. Has the document been wet in any way and if so, for what
purpose?
16. If typewritten, are the contents of the document all written on the
same machine?
17. Was each sheet written continuously at one time without being
removed from the typewriter?
18. Are there added figures, words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs or
pages written on a different typewriter?
19. Do the perforations agree with the stubs from which the alleged
document came?
20. If the document is a carbon copy, does it conform in the size,
position, and arrangement of matters with original letterheads?
21. If the document is a letter, does postmark, postage stamps, manner
of sealing and opening of envelope have any significance?
22. Are there indentations in the paper from handwriting or
typewriting on a sheet placed above the paper examined?
23. Is the rubber-stamp impression if any appears made from a genuine
stamp?
24. Is the attached seal of proper date or the seal impression made
from a genuine seal and is it made in proper sequence?
C. Who Conducts the Preliminary Examination? – It should be
conducted by a QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT.
D. Who is a Questioned Document Expert? A Questioned Document
Expert is one who has:
1. Attained the appropriate education and training;
2. Sufficient knowledge on the technical, scientific, and legal aspects
of document examinations; and
3. A broad experience in handling questioned document cases.
E. REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
EXPERT:
1. Assurance of preparedness;
2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted with document
cases; consequently, they do not possess the knowledge of the
documents expert's ability of the various methods that exist for
determining forgeries.
3. Avoidance of an “OFF-HAND” opinion.
F. What is an “OFF-HAND OPINION”? Off-hand opinion is usually
a conclusion that is not based on thorough scientific examination.
G. THE DANGER OF OFF-HAND OPINIONS - It has happened in
some cases that an off-hand opinion, has sent an innocent man to
prison, while a murderer was given a chance to escape.
INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED
DOCUMENT EXAMINATIONS
A. MAGNIFYING LENS – Bank personnel and other people involved
in currency examinations usually use and ordinary hand-lens; the
maximum diameter of which is four inches, and this appears big with
its wide frame it has a magnifying power of two times the original
only. Magnifying lenses of five times or more magnifying power,
with built-in-lighting are more useful.
B. SHADOWGRAPH – a pictorial image formed by casting a shadow,
usually of the hands, upon a rightful surface or screen.
C. STEREOSCOPIC BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE – a tri-
dimensional (3D) enlargement is possible.
D. MEASURES AND TEST PLATES (TRANSPARENT GLASS) –
those used for signatures and typewritings.
E. TABLE LAMPS WITH ADJUSTABLE SHADES (Goose Neck
Lamps) – used for controlled illumination; needed in sidelight
examination wherein light is placed at a low-angle in a position
oblique to plane or document.
F. TRANSMITTED LIGHT GADGET – a device where light comes
from beneath or behind glass on document is placed.
G. ULTRA VIOLET LAMP – this is usually used in the detection of
counterfeited bills but can actually be used to detect security features
of qualified documents.
H. INFRARED VIEWER – primarily used to decipher writings in a
charred document.
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 I. COMPARISON MICROSCOPE – similar to that of the bullet
comparison microscope.
TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED
DOCUMENTS
A. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any examination or study
which is made with the microscope in order to discover minute
physical details. Stereoscopic examination with low and high power
objectives is used to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen-lift
in signature analysis. With proper angle and intensity or illumination,
it aids in the decipherment of erasures, some minute
manipulations not perfectly pictured to the unaided eye and the
sequence of entries done by different writing instruments.
B. TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION – In this examination,
the document is viewed with the source of illumination behind it and
the light passing through the paper. Documents are subjected to this
type of examination to determine the presence of erasures, matching
of serrations and some other types of alterations.
C. OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION - An examination with the
illumination so controlled that it grazes or strikes the surface of the
document from one side at a very low angle. Decipherment of faded
handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery, embossed
impressions, etc. are subjected to this type of examination.
D. PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION - This type of examination is
very essential in every document examination. Actual observations
are recorded in the photographs.
E. ULTRA-VIOLET EXAMINATION - Ultraviolet radiation is
invisible and occurs in the wave lengths just below the visible blue-
violet end of the spectrum (rainbow). These visible rays react on
some substances so that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon
known as FLOURESCENCE. This type of examination is done in a
darkroom after the lamp has been warmed up in order to give a
maximum output of the ultra-violet light. Exposure to the ultra-violet
light should be to the minimum duration in order to avoid fading of
some writing ink and typewriter ribbon.
F. INFRARED EXAMINATION - This examination of documents
employs invisible radiation beyond the red portion of the visible
spectrum (rainbow) which is usually recorded on a specially
sensitized photographic emulsion.
PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
A. PURPOSES OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN QDE:
1. serve as record of the initial condition of a disputed document;
2. make clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct;
3. enlarge a writing in question so that every quality and
characteristics of it can be clearly and properly interpreted
whether the facts so shown point to genuineness or to forgery;
4. enable any number of accurate reproductions of document, thus
affording unlimited opportunity for study, comparison and
evaluation by any number of examiners, which would not be
possible by using the document alone;
5. allow cutting apart as may be desired and the various parts
classified for comparisons;
6. can show delicate discolorations due to chemical erasures or
other fraudulent changes, which may otherwise be overlooked,
or misinterpreted;
7. can show very clearly any erasures by abrasions made by
ordinary rubber eraser and it can record in permanent form with
the paper placed obliquely to the plane of the lens and plate and
inclined at just right angle of reflection so as to show
differences in the reflected light from different portions of the
paper surface; and
8. with transmitted light, photographs is useful in:
a. examination of watermarks
b. determining the identity, or the differences in paper by
showing arrangement of the fibers and the markings of the
wire gauze and dandy roll
c. showing the continuity of strokes and
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d. determining retouching or patching of a writing by
showing clearly the presence of added ink film and the
uneven distribution of ink in interrupted strokes.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
A. ERASURES - One of the common inquiries in questioned document
is whether or not an erasure was actually made on a document. In
cases like this, the following examinations are made:
1. Physical inspection: using ultraviolet light, observation with
light striking the surface at a sharp angle, and observation under
the microscope maybe considered.
2. Fuming with iodine may cause an almost negligible stain, but in
most instances not the slightest semblance of a stain remains.
B. INDENTED WRITING - Indented writing is a term usually applied
to the partially visible depressions appearing on a sheet of paper
underneath the one on which the visible writing appears. These
depressions or indentation are due to the application of pressure on
the writing instrument and would appear as a carbon copy if a sheet
of carbon paper had been properly inserted. Indentation may also
appear on a blank sheet of paper if such is used as a backing sheet
while typing out a message on a typewriter. Methods of examination
are:
1. Physical methods maybe used by passing a strong beam of
nearly parallel light almost horizontally over the surface of the
paper.
2. Fuming the document maybe of values in some cases.
3. Powders of various kinds maybe used without changing the
document.
C. BURNED OR CHARRED PAPER - A piece of paper maybe
subjected to the action of a limited amount of heat, causing it to
become scorched and retaining a certain amount of its identity or it
maybe subjected to intense heat, reducing it to ashes and losing its
identity. However, if the combustion is incomplete, a certain amount
of success maybe realized provided the pieces are large enough to
form a coherent message.
The following methods maybe applied to decipher the original
message contained thereon:
1. Photographic methods, using various types of filters and
different angles of illumination may determine the writing
contained thereon without changing the appearance of the
charred fragments.
2. Chemical methods, such as spraying, painting, or bathing
charred pieces with solutions of different chemical reagents.
3. Photographic plates maybe utilized by allowing the charred
paper to remain in contact with the emulsion sides in total
darkness from one to two weeks.
D. ADDING MACHINES - The construction of an adding machine
differs greatly from the typewriter but the methods and principles of
identification are related.
Manufacturers use different types of numerals and from time to
time change their design. The spacing between columns is also not
standardized for all machines. Those factors form the basis of determining the
make of the machine and for estimating the period in which it was built.
Another kind of approach is the ribbon impression, for the ribbon is made and
operates very similarly to the typewriter.
HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
A. THE CARE OF DISPUTED DOCUMENTS AND
DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
1. It is a basic requirement, that when a document becomes disputed
and deposited in court or with the attorney, in order to maintain
its original condition, it should be kept UNFOLDED AND IN
A SEPARATE, PROPER SIZE ENVELOPE OR FOLDER.
This is true not only for the disputed documents, but for many
other important documentary evidence.
2. It is also advisable that right after the document becomes
disputed, or questioned, it is important to make not only the usual
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 photo static copy (Xerox), but also a proper photograph or photo-
enlargement, done if possible by the document expert or under the
supervision of the document expert.
3. When working in the preparation of case, it is often
necessary for the lawyer or court to handle repeatedly the
disputed document. Should this be necessary, instead of
handling and working with the original document, the photograph
should be used.
4. Every touching, folding, refolding or pointing to certain parts of a
document, can change the physical condition of the case.
For example, touching with wet hands or fingers can create
smearing in the ink, pointing with a pencil can leave marks that
create a suspicion of previous pencil marks, or experiments as
proof of attempted forgery.
5. Pointing a document with any other instruments, such as sharp
stick, can cause slight damage which although it can not be seen by
the naked eye, can show definite marks under the microscope or on
the enlarged photograph.
6. No test should be made to alter the conditions of the document; for
example, the old-fashioned ink test, which was used to determine
the age of the ink-writing.
7. Should any test be necessary, insist that it should be done in the
presence of a chemist, or in court, or in front of both parties
involved the case.
B. DO's and DON'T's in the CARE, HANDLING AND
PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS
1. “DO’S”
a. Take disputed papers to Document Examiner's Laboratory at
the First Opportunity.
b. If storage is necessary, keep in dry place away from
excessive heat strong light.
c. Maintain in consequential document, unfolded and in
transparent plastic envelope or evidence preserver.
2. “DONT’S”
a. Do not underscore, make careless markings, fold, erase,
impress rubber stamps, sticker, write on, or otherwise alter
any handwriting.
b. Do not smear with fingerprints powder or chemicals.
c. Do not carry handwriting document carelessly in wallet,
notebook or brief case on grounds of interviews.
d. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry then in
pocket for a long time.
e. Do not marked disputed documents (either by
consciously writing instruments or dividers)
f. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing,
cutting, tearing or punching for filing purposes.
g. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make
chemical or other tests; do no treat or dust for latent finger
prints before consulting a document examiner.
C. HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENTS
1. Those extremely fragile must be handled as little as possible and
transporting them to the laboratory requires extra-ordinary care.
With forethought and caution they can be brought from the distant
fire scene to the laboratory.
2. They should be moved in the container in which they are found
whenever possible. When the fragments are not packed tightly,
they should be padded with lightweight absorbent cotton. If jarring
can not be entirely eliminated jarring the box must be kept to a
minimum.
3. Thus every precaution must be taken in handling and transporting
the charred residue in order to prevent the large pieces
from becoming unnecessarily and badly broken. The
fragment must be held firmly without crushing and prevent
movement or shifting when finally packed in a sturdy container.
HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION
HANDWRITING - It is the result of a very complicated series of
facts, being used as whole, combination of certain forms of visible mental and
muscular habits acquired by long, continued painstaking effort. Some defined
handwriting as “visible speech.”
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I. KINDS OF WRITINGS:
A. Cursive – connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.
B. Script – separated or printed writing.
C. BLOCK – all CAPITAL LETTERS.
II. BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
A. In Wignore's Principles of judicial Proof, handwriting is defined as a
visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost unconscious
expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting from fixed mental
impression of certain ideas associated with script form.
B. Environment, education and occupation affect individuals so
variously in the formation of these muscular habits that finally the act
of writing becomes an almost automatic succession of acts stimulated
by these habits.
C. The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes
difficult because the other person cannot by mere will power
reproduce in himself all the muscular combination from the habit of
the first writer.
Take Note:
Is handwriting/signature identification an “exact science”?
In the hand of a qualified examiner operating under proper conditions,
identification by means of handwriting/signature is certain. Proper conditions
include:
1. sufficient questioned writing
2. sufficient known writing
3. sufficient time
4. use of scientific instruments
III. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING
In writing the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The
fingers transmit to the paper, the directive impulse and the variation in
muscular tension that according to the nature of tie writer's nervous
organization occur during the act or writing. This center near the motor area of
the cortex is responsible for the finger movement involved in handwriting.
The importance of this center is that when it becomes diseased as in a graphic,
one loses the ability to write although he could still grasp a fountain pen, ball
pen or pencil. Thus, the ability or power to hold a fountain pen or pencil to
form symbols and words can be said to emanate from its cortical center.
Two Groups of Muscles Involve in Handwriting:
1. extensor muscles - push up the pen to form the upward strokes
2. flex muscles which push the pen to from the downward strokes.
Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in
writing - those which operate the joints of the fingers, wrist, elbow, and
shoulder. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in writing work
together to produce written form is known as motor coordination.
IV. VARIATIONS IN HANDWRITING
A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the
subjective mind but the hand does not always produce a stereotyped duplicate
of that pattern. The hand ordinarily is not an instrument of precision and
therefore we may not expect every habitual manual operation to be absolutely
uniform. The greater this skill in the art of penmanship, the less the variations
there will be in the form of individualize letters as well as in the writing as a
whole.
CAUSES OF VARIATION
1. Function of some external condition i.e. influence of the available
space.
2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects,
inebriation's, emotion and deception.
3. Position of letter - all the letters are to be found initially, medially,
and finally. The fact of a different position, especially in
combination with another and particular letter, may modify any
of them in some way or another.
IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION
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1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is
also a highly important element of identification. The qualities of
personal variation include both its nature and its extent. It becomes
necessary to determine the amount, extent, and exact quality of the
variations.
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in
handwriting will be exactly duplicated in two individuals that such
a coincidence becomes practically impossible and this multitude of
possible variations when combined is what constitutes
individuality in handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal
divergence in size, lateral spacing and proportions actually indicate
genuineness. Variation in genuine writing is ordinarily in
superficial parts and in size, proportions, degree of care given to
the act, design, slant, shading, vigor, angularity, roundness and
direction of stroke.
Take Note: “The most common error in the identification of
handwriting is due to the fact that the evidence of actual forgery is executed
on the ground that there is variation in genuine writing.”
V. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL
1. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.
2. After acquiring some degree of skill the children no longer follow
the school model.
3. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break
down.
4. In the course of trial and error, modification are made,
simplification and elaborations, addition and omissions occur.
a. The writing pattern of each child embodies unique
combinations of such deviation from the standard letter forms
or school model, and becomes his personal habits.
b. Although thousands learn the same system and that the
natural result is identity, but facts show that it is not because
those who were taught the same system or school copy a
class of writers, but such impairs does not by any means
produce a slavish uniformity.
c. Variation begins as soon as writing begins and continues
until each writer in the way that seems best and easiest to
him.
VI. SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (school model) - refers to the standard
of handwriting instruction taught in particular school. Classes of
copybook depend on the standard school copy adopted by a writer.
A. SYSTEMS of Early American Handwriting
1. Old English round hand - an Italian hand popular in 1840.
2. Modified round hand - early edition of the Spencerian, and the
Payson, Dunton, and Scribners copybook - 1840 -1860.
3. Spencerian - there is simplification by the omission of extra strokes
and flourishes. And a general tendency toward plainer letters than
the preceding system, some of which were very ornate - 1860-
1890.
4. Modern Vertical writing 1890-1900
5. The arm movement writing - the manner or method of writing,
instead of the form alone is especially emphasized.
Out of these five divisions of early handwriting, the modern
commercial hand systems developed. This is characterized by free movement.
And the forms adopted are best suited to easy rapid writing. These are the
Zaner and Blozer system of arm movement writing and the Palmer system of
American arm movement. The last great revolution in American handwriting
was the adoption of vertical writing which was in fact a reversion to the
old system of slow but legible writing. The connecting stroke is based on the
small circle and is the most distinctive "round hand" ever devised. It was very
slow compared with writing based on the narrow ellipse like the Spencerian in
which all connections were almost points instead of broad curves. Most
commercial handwritings tend toward straight connecting strokes and narrow
connections.
B. SOME MODERN SCHOOL MODEL FORMS
1. Palmer Copybook
2. D’Nealian Copybook
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3. British Copybook
4. French Copybook
5. German Copybook
C. SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COPY FORMS or System
Characteristics as Basis in the Identification of Handwriting
1. Similarities of form are not indicative of identity unless
they concern unusual form or what are termed deviations from the
normal. Similarities are bound to occur in different writings but
such similarities exist only in letters which are normal in form, the
fact bears no significance.
2. All differences in form are indicated of non-identity
3. The likeness in form maybe general and simply indicate the class
or genus or the difference that does not differentiate maybe nearly
superficial.
4. In many systems of writing, the date and influences of system of
writing have an important bearing on the question of genuine or of
forgery and in other cases, the presence of European
characteristics in handwriting is a vital and controlling fact.
D. IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS (System
of Writing)
1. To the nationality of the writer.
2. To the system learned.
3. To the date when the writing was acquired and
4. To some of the influences that have surrounded the writer.
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING
IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATIONS
ALIGNMENT - Is the relation of parts of the whole of writing or line
of individual letters in words to the baseline. It is the alignment of words
or the relative alignment of letters.
ANGULAR FORMS – Sharp, straight strokes that are made by
stopping the pen and changing direction before continuing.
ARCADE FORMS – Forms that look like arches rounded on the top
and open at the bottom.
CHARACTERISTICS - any property or mark which distinguishes and
in document examination commonly called to as the identifying details.
COLLATION - side by side comparison; collation as used in this text
means the critical comparison on side by side examination.
COMPARISON - the act of setting two or more items side by side to
weigh their identifying qualities; it refers not only a visual but also the
mental act in which the element of one item are related to the
counterparts of the other.
DISGUISED WRITING - A writer may deliberately try to alter his
usual writing habits in hopes of hiding his identity. The results,
regardless of their effectiveness are termed disguised writing.
DOWNSTROKE – The movement of the pen toward the writer.
FORM – The writer’s chosen writing style. The way the writing looks,
whether it is copybook, elaborated, simplified or printed.
GARLAND FORMS – A cup-like connected form that is open at the
top and rounded on the bottom.
GESTALT – The German word that means “complete” or “whole”. A
good gestalt needs nothing added or taken away to make it “look right”.
Also a school of handwriting analysis that looks at handwriting as a
whole picture.
GRAPHOANALYSIS - the study of handwriting based on the two
fundamental strokes, the curve and the straight strokes.
GRAPHOMETRY - analysis by comparison and measurement.
GRAPHOLOGY - the art of determining character disposition and
amplitude of a person from the study of handwriting. It also means the
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scientific study and analysis of handwriting, especially with reference to
forgeries and questioned documents.
HANDLETTERING. Any disconnected style of writing in which each
letter is written separately; also called handprinting.
LETTER SPACE – The amount of space left between letters.
LINE DIRECTION – Movement of the baseline. May slant up, down,
or straight across the page.
LINE QUALITY - the overall character of the ink lines from the
beginning to the ending strokes. There are two classes: Good Line
quality and Poor Line quality. The visible records in the written
stroke of the basic movements and manner of holding
the writing instrument is characterized by the term "line quality". It is
derived from a combination of actors including writing skill, speed
rhythm, freedom of movements, shading and pen position.
LINE SPACE – The amount of space left between lines.
MANUSCRIPT WRITING. A disconnected form of script or semi-
script writing. This type of writing is taught in young children in
elementary schools as the first step in learning to write.
MARGINS – The amount of space left around the writing on all four
sides.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any study or examination which
is made with the microscope in other to discover minute details.
MOVEMENT – It is an important element in handwriting. It embraces
all the factors which are related to the motion of the writing instrument
skill, speed freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremors and the like.
The manner in which the writing instrument is move that is by
finger, hand, forearm or whole arm.
NATURAL WRITING - Any specimen of writing executed normally
without any attempt to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual
quality or execution.
NATURAL VARIATION - These are normal or usual deviations found
between repeated specimens of any individual handwriting.
PEN EMPHASIS - The act of intermittently forcing the pen against
the paper surfaces. When the pen-point has flexibility, this emphasis
produces shading, but with more rigid writing points heavy point
emphasis can occur in writing w/out any evidence of shading; the act
intermittently forcing the pen against the paper with increase pressure.
PEN HOLD – The place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen
and the angle at which he holds it.
PEN POSITION - relationship between the pen point and the paper.
PEN PRESSURE - the average force with which the pen contacts
the paper. Pen pressure as opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual
of average force involved in the writing rather than the period increases.
PRINTSCRIPT – A creative combination of printing and cursive
writing.
PROPORTION or RATIO - the relation between the tall and the short
letter is referred as to the ratio of writing.
QUALITY. A distinct or peculiar character. Also, “quality” is used in
describing handwriting to refer to any identifying factor that is related to
the writing movement itself.
RHYTHM – The element of the writing movement which is marked by
regular or periodic recurrences. It may be classed as smooth,
intermittent, or jerky in its quality; the flourishing succession of motion
which are recorded in a written record. Periodicity, alternation of
movement.
SHADING - Is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure
on a flexible pen point or to the use of a stub pen.
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SIGNIFCANT WRITING HABIT – Any characteristic of handwriting
that is sufficiently uncommon and well fixed to serve as a fundamental
point in the identification.
SIMPLIFICATION – Eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from
the copybook model.
SIZE – May refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions
between zones.
SKILL - In any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a
specimen of handwriting usually contains evidence of the writer's
proficiency; degree, ability, or skill of a write proficiency.
SLOPE/SLANT - the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters
relative to the baseline. There are three classes: Slant to the left; Slant to
the right; and Vertical Slant.
SPEED OF WRITING - The personal pace at which the writer’s pen
moves across the paper.
SPEED (SPEEDY) WRITING - Not everyone writes at the same rate
so that consideration of the speed of writing may be a significant
identifying element. Writing speed cannot be measured precisely from
the finished handwriting but can be interpreted in broad terms of slow,
moderate, or rapid.
SYSTEM (OF WRITING) - The combination of the basic design of
letters and the writing movement as taught in school make up the writing
system. Writing through use diverges from the system, but generally
retains some influence of the basic training.
TENSION – The degree of force exerted on the pen compared to the
degree of relaxation.
THREADY FORM – An indefinite connective form that looks flat and
wavy.
VARIABILITY – The degree to which the writing varies from the
copybook model.
VARIATION – The act or process of changing.
WORD SPACE – The amount of space left between words.
WRITING CONDITION – Both the circumstances under which the
writing was prepared and the factors influencing the writer’s ability to
write at the time of execution. It includes the writer’s position (sitting,
standing, abed, etc.), the paper support and backing, and the writing
instrument; writing ability may be modified by the condition of the
writer’s health, nervous state, or degree of intoxication.
WRONG-HANDED WRITING. Any writing executed with the
opposite hand that normally used; a.k.a. as “with the awkward hand.” It
is one means of disguise. Thus, the writing of a right-
handed person which has been executed with his left hand accounts for
the common terminology for this class of disguise as "left-hand writing".
WRITING IMPULSE – The result of the pen touching down on the
paper and moving across the page, until it is raised from the paper.
MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING
A. KINDS OF MOVEMENT
1. Finger Movement - the thumb, the first, second and slightly the
third fingers are in actual motion. Most usually employed by
children and illiterates.
2. Hand Movement - produced by the movement or action of the
whole hand with the wrist as the center of attraction.
3. Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm
with the support of the table.
4. Whole Forearm Movement - action of the entire arm without
resting. i.e., blackboard writing.
B. QUALITY OF MOVEMENT
1. Clumsy, illiterate and halting
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 2. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness
3. Strong, heavy and forceful
4. Nervous and irregular
5. Smooth, flowing and rapid
C. SPEED - Slow and drawn; Deliberate; average; and rapid
D. DIFFERENT MOVEMENTS EMPLOYED AFFECT WRITING
IN – Smoothness; Directness; Uniformity; Continuity of strokes; and
Connecting or curves between letters
MOTOR COORDINATION
It is the special way in which the various muscles used in writing
work together to produced written forms.
The Characteristics of Motor Coordination are:
1. Free, smelt rounded curves
2. Speed and gradual changes of directions
3. Pressure is always in a state of change, moving from light to heavy
or from heavy to light.
4. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of
the line whereas in writing produced with a slow motion as in the
finger movement, the shading often has a "bunchy" appearance, in
which the maximum width of the shaded line is attained abruptly.
Faulty motor coordination’s are characterized by the following:
1. Wavering and very irregular line or strokes with uncertain and
unsteady progress. There is no freedom of movement along the
strokes of the letter-forms. The writing is obviously very slow and
is typical of the writing of a young child or for any one who
painstakingly draws a picture of an unfamiliar form.
2. Angular Line - a very common fault of coordination. Curves,
large and small are not smoothly rounded and there is no
gradual change of direction. On the contrary, and angle marks
almost every change are direction in the line. Investigation has
disclosed that angles are accompanied by a lessening of writing
speed.
RHYTHM IN HANDWRITING
Rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes working in
full coordination. This is manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes, which
increase and decrease in which like perfect cones. Pressure is always in a state
of change moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.
A. LACK OF RHYTHM - Characterized by a succession of
awkward, independent, poorly directed and disconnected motions.
B. IMPORTANCE OF RHYTHM - By studying the rhythm of the
succession of strokes, one can determine if the writer normally and
spontaneously or write with hesitation as if he is attempting to for
another signature.
C. LETTER OF CONNECTIONS - Determine the essential
expression of the writing pattern. It is a mean indicator of the
neuromuscular function. Words are formed by connection letters to
one another. Even letters are formed by the joining of the upward and
downward strokes. These types of connections are:
Arcade - a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is a slow
mode of connection resulting from controlled movements.
Garland - Links the downward stroke to the upstrokes with a
flowing curve swinging from left t right. It is an easy, effortless
mode of connection, written with speed.
Angular connective form- When the downward strokes and
upward strokes meet directly, angular connection is formed.
This type of connection imposes a check on the continuity of
movement which is characterized by an abrupt stop and start in
each turning point.
The threadlike connective form - the joining of downward and
upward strokes is slurred to a threadlike tracing or where
rounded turns used at both top and bottom produce a double
curve. These forms appear both in the shaping of letters within
the word.
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HANDWRITING STROKE
STROKE is a series of lines or curves written in a single letter;
one of the lines of an alphabet or series of lines or curves within a single
letter; the path traced by the pen on the paper.
1. ARC – a curved formed inside the top curve of loop as in small
letters “h”, “m”, “n”, & “p”.
2. ARCH - any arcade form in the body of a letter found in small
letters which contain arches.
3. ASCENDER - is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.
4. BASELINE - maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be
imaginary alignment of writing; is the ruled or imaginary line upon
which the writing rests.
5. BEADED - Preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually
occurs in capital letters.
6. BEARD - is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.
7. BLUNT - the beginning and ending stroke of a letter (without
hesitation).
8. BODY - The main portion of the letter, minus the initial of strokes,
terminal strokes and the diacritic, of any. Ex: the oval of the letter
"O" is the body, minus the downward stroke and the loop.
9. BOWL - a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete
into "O".
10. BUCKLE/BUCKLEKNOT - A loop made as a flourished which is
added to the letters, as in small letter "k & b", or in capital letters
"A", "K","P"; the horizontal end loop stroke that are often used to
complete a letter.
11. CACOGRAPHY - a bad writing.
12. CALLIGRAPHY - the art of beautiful writing.
13. DESCENDER - opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.
14. DIACRITIC - "t" crossing and dots of the letter "i" and "j". The
matters of the Indian script are also known as diacritic signs; an
element added to complete a certain letter, either a cross bar or a
dot.
15. ENDING/TERMINATE STROKE OF TOE - the end stroke of a
letter.
16. EYE/EYELET/EYELOOP - a small loop or curved formed inside
the letters. This may occur inside the oval of the letters "a, d, o";
the small loop form by stroke that extend in divergent direction as
in small letters.
17. FOOT - lower part which rest on the base line. The small letter
"m" has three feet, and the small letter "n" has two feet.
18. HABITS - any repeated elements or details, which may serve to
individualize writing.
19. HESITATION - the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink
which is found when writing slows down or stop while the pen
take a stock of the position.
20. HIATUS/PEN JUMP - a gap occurring between a continuous
stroke without lifting the pen. Such as occurrence usually
occurs due to speed; may be regarded also as a special form of pen
lift distinguish in a ball gaps in that of perceptible gaps and appear
in the writing.
21. HOOK - It is a minute curve or a ankle which often occurs at the
end of the terminal strokes. It also sometimes occurs at the
beginning of an initial stroke. The terminal curves of the letters
"a", "d", "n", "m", "p", "u", is the hook. In small letter "w" the
initial curve is the hook; the minute involuntary talon like
formation found at the commencement of an initial up stroke or the
end terminal stroke.
22. HUMP - Upper portion of its letter "m","n","h" ,"k" - the rounded
outside of the top of the bend stroke or curve in small letter.
23. KNOB -the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke
due to the slow withdrawal of the pen from the paper (usually
applicable to fountain pen).
24. LIGATURE/CONNECTION - The stroke which connects two
stroke of letter; characterized by connected stroke between letters.
25. LONG LETTER - those letters with both upper and lower loops.
26. LOOP - A oblong curve such as found on the small letter "f", "g",
"l" and letters stroke "f" has two. A loop may be blind or open.
A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the open
space.
27. MAJUSCULE - a capital letter.
28. MINUSCULE - a small letter.
29. MOVEMENT IMPULSES - this refer to the continuity of stroke,
forged writing is usually produced by disconnected and broken
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 movements and more motion or movement impulses than in
genuine writing.
30. PATCHING - retouching or going back over a defective portion of
a written stroke. Careful patching is common defect on forgeries.
Take Note:
1. AIRSTROKE – The movement of the pen as it is raised from the
paper and continues in the same direction in the air.
2. COVERING STROKE – A stroke that unnecessarily covers
another stroke in a concealing action.
3. FINAL – The ending stroke on a letter when it is at the end of a
word.
4. UPSTROKE – Movement of the pen away from the writer.
5. SEQUENCE OF STROKES - The order in which writing
strokes are placed on the paper is referred to as their sequence.
6. SUPPORTED STROKES – Upstrokes partially covering the
previous down strokes. Originally taught in European schools.
7. TRAIT STROKE – a school o handwriting analysis that assigns
personality trait manners to individual writing strokes.
QUALITIES OF THE STROKES
1. Expansion - whether the movement is extended or limited in its
range with respect to both vertical and horizontal dimension.
2. Co-ordination - whether the flow of movement is controlled or
uncertain, smooth or jerky, continuous or interrupted.
3. Speed - whether the movement has been rapid or slow and whether
the pace has been steady or variable.
4. Pressure- whether the pressure exerted in the movement and its
upward and downward reach.
5. Direction- Left ward and right ward trend of they movement and
its upward and downward reach.
6. Rhythm - in the sequence of movements that weave the total
pattern, certain similar phases recur at more or less regular
intervals.
HANDWRITING PROBLEMS
1. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality
is genuine and corresponds perfectly to the ordinary, and
habitual signatures of that person.
2. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality
was written by him but in a way which was different from the
ordinary manner and which is more or less different from the
common genuine signatures of that person.
3. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality
was written by a third person and which is a forgery written in an
attempted imitation of a model.
4. A spurious signature/handwriting written by somebody who did
not attempt to imitate the signature of a person and who uses a
fictitious name and this to give his work the appearance of a
signature.
5. An uncontested signature/handwriting, in fact, genuine but written
by an unknown person whose name must be deciphered by the
document examiner.
GENERAL CLASSES OF QUESTIONED WRITING
1. Forged or simulated writings in which the attempt is made to
discard one’s own writing and assume the exact writing personality
of another person.
2. Those writings that are disguised and in which the writer seeks to
hide his own personality without adapting that of another.
HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER IDENTIFYING
FEATURES
Writing Habits - Writing by all its thousand of peculiarities in
combination is the most personal and individuals thing that a man does that
leaves a record which can be seen and studies. This is what constitutes
individuality in handwriting.
A. GENERAL(CLASS) CHARACTERISTICS - These characteristics
refer to those habits are part of basic writing system or which are
modifications of the system of writing found among so large a group of
writes that have only slight identification value.
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B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS - They are characteristics which
are the result of the writer's muscular control, coordination, age, health,
and nervous temperament, frequency of writing, personality
and character. They are found in Writing movement, Form and design of
letters, Motor Coordination, Shading, Skill, Alignment, Pen pressure,
Connection, Pen hold, Rhythm, Disconnections or pen lifts between
letters, Speed, Slant as a writing habit, Proportion of letters as an
individual characteristic or habit, Quality of stroke or line quality,
Variation and Muscular control or motor control -
a. Loose writing - this is characterized by too much freedom of
movement and lack of regulation. This is noticed especially
in tall letters forms.
b. Restrained writing - there is lack of freedom
and inhibited movements. It gives you the impression that
every stroke was made with great difficulty. This writing is
small. There is distortion of letter forms which may lead to
illegibility.
Indications of speed (speedy) writing
a. Smooth, unbroken strokes and rounded forms.
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the right.
c. Marked uncertainty as to the location of the dots of small
letters "I", "j" & crosses of small letter "t".
d. Increased spontaneity of words or small letter "t" connected
with the following words.
e. Letters curtailed or degenerated almost to illegibility towards
the end of words.
f. Wide writing - width of letters is greater than the connecting
spaces adjoining it.
g. Great difference in emphasis between upstrokes and down
strokes.
h. Marked simplification of letters especially capital letters.
i. Rising line.
j. Increased pen pressure.
k. Increase in the margin to left at the beginning of the line.
Indications of slow writing
a. Wavering forms and broken strokes.
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the left.
c. Conspicuous certainly as to the location of the dots of small
letters "I","j","or "t" crosses with scarcely perceptible
deviation from the intended direction.
d. Frequent pauses by meaningless blobs, angles, divided letters
and retouches.
e. Careful execution of detail of letters, toward the end or
names.
f. Narrow writing.
g. No difference in emphasis in upstroke and down stroke
h. Ornamental or flourishing connections.
i. Sinking lines
C. EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHARACTERISTICS
1. Ordinary copy-book form
2. Usual systematic slant
3. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio
4. Conventional spacing
D. CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Permanent characteristics - found always in his handwriting.
2. Common or usual - found in a group of writers who studied the
same system of writing.
3. Occasional - found occasionally in his handwriting.
4. Rare - special to the writer and perhaps found only in one or two
persons in a group of one hundred individuals.
E. HOW INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ARE ACQUIRED
1. Outgrowth of definite teaching
2. Result of imitation
3. Accidental condition or circumstances
4. Expression of certain mental and physical traits of the writer as
affected by education, by environment and by occupation.
F. EXAMPLES OF SOME OF THE INDIVIDUAL
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Hook to the right and hook to the left
2. Shape, position, size and angle of "i" dots "t" crossing
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 3. Idiosyncrasies
4. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS
5. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement endings
6. Abbreviation of letters STANDARD - They are known writings, which indicate how a
7. Simple and compound curves and graceful endings person writes. A writer manifests fixed habits in his writings that identify him.
8. Labored movement producing ragged lines This fact provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion regarding any
9. Terminal shadings and forceful endings writing identification problem.
10. Presence and influence of foreign writing, with the introduction of EXEMPLARS - Specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly
Greek "e" known as exemplars. The term standards is a general term referring to all
authenticated writings of the suspects while exemplars refers more especially
PRINCIPLE IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION to a specimens of standard writing offered in evidence or obtained or request
for comparison with the questioned writing.
1. When any two specimens of handwritings contain a combination
of corresponding or similar and specifically oriented char- SAMPLE - A selected representative portion of the whole is known
acteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the as a sample. In this text, the term "sample" follows closely the statistical
possibility of their occurrence by mere coincidence, and there are usage.
no unaccounted for difference, it may be concluded that they are TYPES OF HANDWRITING "STANDARDS"
similar in writing characteristics and therefore written by one and
the same person. 1. Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) handwriting of an
2. Handwritings are fixed habits. individual such as signature and endorsements on canceled
3. These writing habits like habits of speech become so automatic and checks, legal papers letters, commercial, official, public and
unconscious that even by the most strenuous effort, it is almost private document and other handwriting such as letters,
impossible to change them. It is one of the most permanent of memoranda, etc. Written in the course of daily life, both business
human habits. and socials.
4. No duplication of handwriting by two individuals. 2. Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand
printings) written by an individual upon request for the purpose of
CORRECT CONCLUSION comparison with other handwriting or for specimen purposes.
3. Post Litem Motan Exemplars - writings produced by the subject
1. To reach the conclusion that two writings are written by the after evidential writings have come into dispute and solely for the
same hand, characteristics or "dents" and scratches" should be purpose of establishing his contentions.
in sufficient quantity to exclude the theory of accidental
coincidence; to reach the conclusion that writings are by different TYPES OF STANDARDS DESIRABLE FOR COMPARISON USE IN
hands, we may find numerous likeliness in class characteristics THE TWO MOST COMMON TYPES OF QUESTIONED
but divergences in individual characteristics or we may find DOCUMENTS PROBLEMS
divergences in both but the divergence must be something 1. Submit collected and request standards signature from both
more than mere superficial differences. individual case.
2. If the conclusion of identifying is reached, there must not remain 2. When anonymous letter writings other than signature are in
significant differences that cannot reasonably be explained. This questioned:
ignoring of the differences or the failure properly to account for a. Submit request standards writings of general nature from
them is the cause of the errors in handwriting identification. both victim and suspect's (as much standards writing as
3. Although there is no specific approach, the document examiner possible to obtain within reason).
always observed: Analysis; Comparison; and Evaluation. b. Submit request standards of the questioned text written (or
printed) - at least 3 writings by the suspect/s and in some
POINTS TO CONSIDER IN EXAMINING EXTENDED WRITING instanced by the victim.
(Anonymous, threat, poison letters)
SUGGESTED PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST
1. Uniformity- Does the questioned writing have smooth, rhythmic HANDWRITING STANDARDS IN ALL TYPES OF QUESTIONED-
and free-flowing appearance? DOCUMENT PROBLEMS
2. Irregularities - Does the questioned writing appear awkward, ill- 1. Have subject seated in a natural position at table or desk having
formed slowly drawn smooth writing surface.
3. Size & Proportion- Determine the height of the over-all writ- 2. Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those
ing as well as the height of the individual strokes in proportion to used in questioned writings, lie; paper should be same size, and
each other. ruled or unruled; as questioned document: if questioned document
4. Alignment - Are they horizontally aligned, or curving, uphill or is in written furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.
downhill. 3. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned
5. Spacing - Determine the general spacing between letters, spacing document.
between words. Width of the left and right margins, paragraph 4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is
indentations. hand printed): give no assistance in spelling or arrangement on
6. Degree of Slant- Are they uniform or not. page. Dictate at a rate of speed, which will produce the subject
7. Formation and Design of the letters, "t" (-) bars, "i" dots, loops, natural writing habits.
circle formation. 5. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in
8. Initial, connecting and final strokes. consequence, date, time and identify by initiating each, and request
subjects to sign each specimen.
HANDPRINTING 6. Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt
of disguise, and whether subjects appears to be normally right or
The procedure and the principle involved are similar to that of cursive left handed, etc.
handwriting. In block capital and manuscript writings, personal individual
rests principally in design, selection, individual letter construction, size ratios SPECIAL PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST
and punctuation habits. The initial step in handwriting examination is to HANDWRITING STANDARDS WHERE CHECKS FORGERY IS
determine whether the questioned handwriting and standards were CHANGED OR SUSPECTED
accomplished with:
1. Furnish subjects with check blanks similar to the questioned
1. A fluency of movement and a certainty of execution indicative of check/s.
familiarity with and a measure or skill in handwriting of 2. Dictate the entries to be made on specimen checks as follows:
conversely. a. Date - Same as shown on questioned check
2. A conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic execution denoting b. Payee - - do -
either unfamiliarity with or disguise in the subject’s handwriting. c. Amount- - do -
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 d. Signature- - do - Type of Signature Remedy (Required Standards)
e. Any other handwriting shown on questioned check 1. Signature of the careless Collected standards
3. Give subjects to help or suggestions in completing specimen or highly erratic writer.
checks. 2. Receipt Signature. Other receipt signatures
3. Near - Illiterate Writer. Requested standards if writer is still
MISCELLANEOUS living
4. Signatures of Physical a. Collect standards written in
1. The laboratory should be informed of the age apparent health and Impaired Writer the same situation
physical condition of the time standards are written. a. The b. Collect 2 or 3 times more
2. Do not fold, staple or pin document: handle questioned documents intoxicated standards
with care. signature c. Similar to old age deterioration
3. Indicate in the sample handwriting the time, place, date signature b. Old age
of writer as well as witness of the handwriting. deterioration
c. The sick bed
SOME SOURCES OF SIGNATURES WRITTEN IN THE COURSE OF signature.
DAILY AFFAIRS 5. Disguised signature or Specimen written in normal
writing condition could not be used
1. Canceled Checks therefore consider collected and
2. Signature cards for saving, checking and charge accounts and safe requested standards.
deposit boxes. 2.
Abnormally small writing.
3. Credit applications and cards 3.
Alteration in slant (usually backhand).
4. Signature on sales slips, on job orders slips, requisition slips and 4.
Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing (with in
purchase slips. a single signature).
5. Court records and affidavits, such as naturalization papers, 5. Printed forms instead of cursive forms.
bankruptcy proceedings, divorce papers. Probated wills and estate 6. Diminution in the usual speed of writing.
files, powers of attorney, etc. 7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing.
6. Passports, marriage application, license and affidavits. B. KINDS OF DISGUISES
7. Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of licensee 1. Change of slant - from right to left or vice versa.
applications 2. Change of letter, either from cursive to block style or vice-
8. Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services versa.
9. Loan application and receipts 3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block form or vice-
10. Records from currency exchanges, check-cashing agencies and versa.
pawnshop 4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa.
11. Time sheets, payroll, pay receipts and personal forms 5. Deteriorating one's handwriting.
12. Barangay registration, petitions 6. Using the wrong hand (AMBIDEXTROUS).
13. Signature for certain drug purchases, hotel registrations EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING
14. Church, club and professional society record
15. Veteran records A. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL EFFECTS - Intoxication affects the
16. Fingerprint records physiological being of an individual hence, the manner of
17. School or University class records and cards handwriting is also affected.
18. Application for firearm and licenses B. EVIDENCE OF ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION IN
19. Application for export and import and dollar allocations HANDWRITING - Bizarre letter forms, Greatly enlarged writing,
20. ID cards Illegible forms and writing generally, Uneven baseline, Meaningless
blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing, Inconsistency in slant of
HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING writing, Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters.
STANDARDS?
Factors to Consider in the Selection of standards ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARD WRITINGS
A. THE AMOUNT OF STANDARD WRITTEN The following are standard writings which are admissible for
B. SIMILARLY OF SUBJECT MATTER. If the questioned writings comparison purposes:
are hand printed, then get hand printed standard or exemplar. Standard writings witnessed, Standards writings admitted, Record
C. RELATIVE DATES of the questioned and the standards writing Maintained in Regular Course of Business as Standard Writings, Government
standard signatures or writing must be those written five (5) years Document as standard Writings, Ancient writings, Other Writings Standards -
before or five (5) after the date of the questioned signature or writing. Among writings admissible as standard are signature on spelling motion or
other instruments, such as an appearance bond, which may without further
The importances of contemporaneous standards are: proof of genuineness be used as a standard. Familiarity sometimes establishes
1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s handwriting standard writings.
or signature.
2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation Take Note
Opinion Evidence - The court seem to be in general agreement that
D. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED proof of the genuineness of a standard cannot be established by the opinion
AND THE STANDARD ARE PREPARED. Look for standards of experts testifying from a comparison of the writing sought to be used as
prepared under comparable circumstances such as: paper rested on standard with another writing.
the knee; standing; sitting; lying down; and/or while on moving
vehicle. Genuineness of standard decided by court - The sufficiency of the
proof of the genuineness of a standard of writing is a matter to be decided by
E. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used the court.
in the preparation of the questioned document must be obtained in the
standards INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF
SIGNATURES
HANDWRITINGS/SIGNATURES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE
- Some problems are complicated and harder to solve that includes: SIGNATURE defined – It is the name of a person written by
him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement. Or, it is a name or a
mark that a person puts at the end of a document to attest that he is its author
DISGUISES IN HANDWRITING or that he ratifies its contents. Microsoft Encarta Reference Library has these
A. COMMON DISGUISES
1. Abnormally large writing.
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to say about signature: signed name, signing of name, distinctive
characteristic.
SIGNIFICANT TERMS
A. CROSS MARK. Historically, many who could not write signed with
a cross mark or crude X. This authenticating mark is still used today
by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can legally stand for a
signature. Ballot marks are also referred to as cross marks because of
the common practice of marking with an X.
B. EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE - Is not simply a signature - it is a
signature, signed at a particular time and place, under particular
conditions, while the signer was at particular age, in a particular
physical and mental condition, using particular implements, and with
a particular reason and purpose for recording his name.
C. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE. A forged signature. It involves the
writing of a name as a signature by someone other than the person
himself, without his permission, often with some degree of imitation.
D. FREEHAND SIGNATURE. A fraudulent signature that was
executed purely by simulation rather than by tracing the outline of a
genuine signature.
E. GUIDED SIGNATURE. A signature that is executed while the
writer’s hand or arm is steadied in any way. Under the law of most
jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a legal document provided
it is shown that the writer requested the assistance. Guided signatures
are most commonly written during a serious illness or on a deathbed.
F. IMITATED SIGNATURE. Synonymous with freehand forgery.
G. MODEL SIGNATURE. A genuine signature that has been used to
prepare an imitated or traced forgery.
H. THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of setting two or more
signature in an inverted position to weigh their identifying
significance, the reason being that those we fail to see under
normal comparison may readily be seen under this theory.
THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS CONSIDERED A
SPECIALIZED BRANCH OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION,
FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
1. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore
most fluently written.
2. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal
significance.
3. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other
details.
4. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the
mechanics of its production and is written automatically.
5. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.
TYPES OF SIGNATURES
A. FORMAL (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL or COPYBOOK FORM) -
complete correct signature for an important document such as will.
B. INFORMAL (CURSORY) - usually for routine documents and
personal correspondence.
1. Personalized
2. Semi-personalized
C. CARELESS SCRIBBLE - for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the
autograph collector.
FORGERY
Forgery is, strictly speaking, a legal term which involves not only
a non-genuine document but also and intent to fraud. However, it is also used
synonymously with fraudulent signature or spurious document.
CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES (CATEGORIES OF
FORGERY OF SIGNATURES)
A. SIMULATED OR FREEHAND IMITATION FORGERY –
executed purely by simulation rather than by tracing the outline of a
genuine signature can be referred as freehand imitation or simulated
forgery. Or it refers to the free-hand drawing in imitation of model
signature.
1. SIMULATED WITH THE MODEL BEFORE THE FORGER
a. DIRECT TECHNIQUE - forger works directly with ink.
b. INDIRECT - forger works first with pencil and afterwards
covers the pencil strokes with ink.
2. SIMULATED FREE HAND FORGERY (TECHNIQUE) - used
by forgers who have a certain skill in writing? After some
practice, the forger tries to write a copy of the model quickly.
B. TRACED FORGERY (TRACED SIGNATURE)
1. DIRECT TRACING - tracing is made by transmitted light.
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2.INDIRECT TRACING - forger uses a carbon paper and place
document on which he will trace the forged signature under the
document bearing the model signature with a carbon paper
between the two.
The types of Traced Signatures are:
1. CARBON PROCESS
2. INDENTATION PROCESS
3. TRANSMITTED LIGHT PROCESS
C. SPURIOUS SIGNATURE (SIMPLE FORGERY) - Forger does not
try to copy a model but writes something resembling what we
ordinarily call a signature. For this, he uses a false (spurious) name
and makes a rapid stroke, disturbing his usual writing by adopting a
camouflage called disguise.
D. FORGERY BY MEANS OF A STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A
GENUINE OR MODEL
E. FORGERY BY COMPUTER SCANNING
SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE
STEP 1 - Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the
juxta-position or slide-by-side for simultaneous viewing of the various
elements and characteristics.
STEP 2 - The first element to be considered is the handwriting
movement or the manner of execution (slow, deliberate, rapid, etc). The
fundamental difference existing between a genuine signature and an almost
perfect forgery is in the manner of execution.
STEP 3 - Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the
presence or tremors, smooth, fluent or hesitation. Defect in line quality is only
appreciated when simultaneous viewing is made.
STEP 4 - Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very
significant, determine whether the appearance blunt, club-shaped, tapered
or/vanishing.
STEP 5 - Design and structure of the letters - Determine as to
roundness, smoothness, angularity and direction. Each individual has a
different concept of letter design.
STEP 6 - Look for the presence of retouching or patching.
STEP 7 - Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
STEP 8 - Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the
capital letters, for theses are the often changed according to the whim of the
writer.
CHARACTERISTICS PRINCIPLES THAT SUPPLY MOST CASES:
1. Pen pressure
2. Movement
3. Proportion
4. Unusual distortion of the forms of letters
5. Inconspicuous characteristics
6. Repeated characteristics
7. Characteristics written with speed
INDICATIONS OF GENUINENESS
1. Carelessness
2. Spontaneity
3. Alternation of thick and thin strokes
4. Speed
5. Simplification
6. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
7. The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing
8. Rhythm
9. Good line quality
10. Variation
INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED (Direct & Indirect Techniques) and
TRACED FORGERIES
1. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters,
indicating points at which the writer has temporarily struck.
2. no rhythm
3. carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
4. no contrast between upward and downward strokes
5. slow writing- angular writing
6. blunt beginning and endings
7. placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of letters
8. absence of spontaneity - lack of smoothness of letters
9. restrained writing - there is lack of freedom or "inhibited"
movements THAT gives the impression that every stroke is made
with great difficulty. This writing is small.
10. no variation
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INDICATIONS OF SIMPLE OR SPURIOUS FORGERY CHARACTERISTICS OF GENUINE AND COUNTERFEIT PAPER
1. Writing habits of the writer (forger) is evident in the forged NOTE/BILL
signature.
INDICATIONS OF FORGERY BY MEANS OF STAMPED GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE SIGNATURE MAIN PRINT
1. flat strokes
2. no contrast between upstrokes and down strokes Portrait
3. deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or where two strokes
cross each other.
4. no variation - All signature will superimpose over each other. Distinctive feel & embossed Generally smooth
PROCEDURE IN THE COMMON SIGNATURE PROBLEMS effect
A. Genuine Signature which the writer refuses to admit not genuine. 1. The fingers will readily feel 1. The fingers will hardly feel the main
Generally presence of tremors, remnants of carbon, retouching the the main print on the front prints of the front & back even on
(patching) indicates forgery. Produced, the probability of genuineness & back on fairly new notes. new notes.
B. Genuine Signature Deliberately Modified. Examination of this 2. This is due to the measurable 2. This is brought about by offset print
kind of signature is confidently discover that the modification is only thickness of the ink deposited the most common process employed
on the prominent features of the letter designs that are pointed out by on the paper which gives the by counterfeiters
the disclaimer, while the rest appear to be normal. There are unnatural prints an embossed effect. 3. The prints are mere stains on the
tremors and retouching. The minute details in genuine signatures are coating of the sensitized paper which
present. is glossy.
FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION Water marks
A. COUNTERFEITING - It is the crime of making, circulating or
uttering false coins and banknotes. Literally, it means to make a copy 1. The watermark 1. This is imitated by printing white ink
of; or imitate; to make a spurious semblance of, as money or stamps, underneath the security or dry block on the finished paper.
with the intent to deceive or defraud. Counterfeiting is something lacework on the right
made to imitate the real thing used for gain. hand side of the note is
B. FALSIFICATION – The act/process of making the content/s of a the same on the colored
document not the intended content. portrait.
WATERMARK 2. The design is placed by 2. Sometimes wax or other oily medium
C. FORGERY – The act of falsely making or materially altering, with means of dandy roll is stamped to give transparency to the
intent to defraud, any writing which if genuine, might be of legal during the manufacture portion where the designing appears.
efficacy or the foundation of a legal liability. of the paper.
Take Note: In forgery, every person who, with intent to defraud, 3. Sharp details of the 3. Printed outline is placed on the inner
signs the name of another person, or of fictitious person, knowing that he outline or the light & sheet where merely a paper cutout is
has no authority to do so, or falsely makes, alters, forges or counterfeits any - shadow effect are placed inside. As a result course or
checks, drag - due bill for the payment of money or property - or counterfeits discernible when harsh and occasional irregular lines &
or forges the seal forged, or counterfeited, with intent the same to be fake, viewed with the aid of sometimes-opaque areas are very
altered forged, or counterfeited, with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud transmitted light. obvious.
any person.... is guilty of forgery. 4. The relief of the
features can be felt by
MAKING OF PAPER MONEY running the finger on
A. ENGRAVING – It is the process by which the line to be printed are the design.
cut into pieces of metal by hand or with a machine. Ink is rubbed
over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal and the extra ink wiped-off
1. Appears life-like 1. It appears dead.
the top. The pressure of the paper on the plate causes the ink in the
holes to be lifted on the surface of the paper. The ink lines will be 2. The eyes sparkle. 2. The eyes do not sparkle.
felt to be raised above the surface. The engraving process is used for 3. The tiny dots and lines 3. It appears blurred, dull, smudgy
the production of all genuine bank notes. (Vignette) forming the details and poorly printed.
B. LETTERPRESS PRINTING – is the most common form of of the face, hair, etc. are 4. Hair is lifeless.
printing books, magazine, letterheads and the usual printing in clear, sharp and well defined.
common uses. In the process, the letters are made on raised pieces of 4. Each portrait stands out 5. The face and/or forehead are
metal which covered with ink and then impressed upon the paper in distinctly from background. often naturally white or pale due
the same form as a rubber stamp or cliché. The serial numbers of a This is noticeable along the to absence of most of the details.
bank note are usually added by this letterpress process after the note shoulders.
has been produced by an engraving. 5. The background is composed 6. The concentric lines depicting the
C. OFFSET PRINTING – is the method a photograph is taken of the of multi-colored fine pattern eyes often merged into solid
desire material and a print is made on a specially prepared aluminum of lines in varying tones and printed areas.
plate. The plate is kept wet with water. When ink is applied, it sticks shades interlacing with each 7. The background often blends with
only these parts of the plate where printing is desired. The aluminum other. These shadings or the portrait and is usually
plate is then put in contact with rubber roller which transfers the ink toning are intricately printed “scratchy.”
to the papers. The offset process is quite used in small printing in such a way that the 8. The lines are thick with rough
plants. Because it was photographic process, it is the most common contrast or shifting of colors edges.
modern used by counterfeiter to make false paper money. creates the impression of life 9. The multi-colored prints on
BANK NOTE PAPER & vividness to the notes. genuine notes are extremely
Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If a good grade of paper is difficult to duplicate and as a
not used, they would soon wear out and have to be replaced. Even with the result, counterfeit notes are
best paper, the old two peso bill usually wears out and has to be replaced at usually off-color & not of the
the end of thirty days. Government buy the very best grade of paper they can right shade or tone.
get, in order that the paper will last as long as possible. Special paper also
makes it difficult for the counterfeiter to duplicate it. It is usually the use of
wrong paper that causes the counterfeited bank note to be detected by
ultraviolet light.

Take Note: In most modern printing, papers have chemicals

added to make look whiter. These chemicals cause brilliant fluorescence
under ultraviolet light. Bank notes paper does not have this filler and does not
show.
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COLORED FIBERS OR SECURITY FIBERS
The geometric pattern
which looks like a delicate
lacework along the border
on both surfaces,
embellishing the portraits,
value panel & vignettes are
multicolored & composed of
harp lines, which are,
continuous & traceable even
at the joints.
LACEWORK DESIGN
On counterfeit, these geometric
patterns are often blurred, round on the
edges & blotch on the joints. Its
continuity could not be traced. The color
appears faded.
1. This is a special thread 1. Counterfeit by means of printing
placed vertically on the on the back of the note, on the
paper during manufacture. inner side of the paper, insertion of
2. On the surface of the paper twin thread or simply folding the
where this thread is located note vertically where the thread
are patterns of short vertical appears on the genuine bill.
lines.
METTALIC THREAD
1. As well as inspection under ultraviolet light, the investigator
should look at the banknote with a hand lens.
2. He should pay particular attention to the quantity of the portrait in
the bank note. This is the one extremely fine detail of a good
engraved plate.
3. The color of the ink should be compared with the color of a
genuine banknote. It is very difficult for counterfeiter to match
exactly the same shade of ink by a genuine manufacturer.

1. These fibers are scattered on the
surface of the paper (front &
back) at random & can be readily
picked off by means of any
pointed instrument.
2. The colors of these fibers are red
& blue.
On counterfeit, this is simulated CHARACTERISTICS OF U.S. PAPER MONEY
by printed lines, cannot be picked
off, but can be easily erased with A. TYPES:
ordinary rubber or by agitating with
wet fingers. 1. Federal Reserve note – with GREEN treasury seal and serial
number.
2. United States Note – with RED treasury seal and serial number.
3. Silver Certificate – with BLUE treasury seal and serial number.

COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION B. FEDERAL RESERVE NOTES - Each Federal Reserve Note also
carries a regional seal at the left of the portrait on the face of the bill.
This seal is printed in black and bears the name of the Federal
SERIAL NUMBERS Reserve Bank of issue. Numbers and letters representing the Federal
Reserve District in which that bank is located, are:
1. The prefix 1. On counterfeit, the letters & numbers are 1 - Boston - “A” 7 - Chicago- “G”
letter/s & poorly printed. They are usually of 2 - New York - “B” 8 - St. Louis- “H”
numbers (Six different style. 3 - Philadelphia - “C” 9 - Minneapolis- “I”
of them 4 - Cleveland - “D” 10 - Kansas- “J”
except on 5 - Richmond - “E” 11 - Dallas - “K”
replacement 6 - Atlanta - “F” 12 - San Francisco - “L”
note) are
clearly C. SALIENT FEATURES COMMON TO ALL TYPES: Portrait –
printed. every denomination has the following
2. They have 2. Most often, they are evenly spaced &
peculiar style poorly aligned. $1 - Washington $50 - Grant
& are $2 - Jefferson $100 - Franklin
uniform in $5 - Lincoln $500 - McKinley
size & $10 - Hamilton $1000 - Cleveland
thickness. $20 - Jackson $5000 - Madison
3. Spacing of 3. The numbers are too big or too small, too
the numbers thick or too thin & in certain cases shaded COINS
is uniform & on the curves.
alignment is These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for
even. use as money or collectively referring to metal currency.
VIGNETTE
MAKING OF COINS

CLEARNESS OF PRINT
The registry of the
different printed features is
perfect. The lines are very
clear & sharp. There are no
Burrs clinging to the sides.
In general, a spurious not exhibits
a Second hand look. It is dirty due to
the sputtering of ink on the interior
area. Over-inked areas are visible
instantly. The shadings & coin or metal blank by pressure.
ornamentations of the letters & figures
are thick & usually merged.
CASTING is the most common method of making gold coins.
Plaster molds bearing an image of gold coins are filled (within a low
temperature) with alloy made with lead or tin. Some molds are used for high
temperature metal such as copper or silver alloy.
STRIKING OR STAMPING is the making of an impression of a
COIN CHARACTERISTICS

EXAMINATION OF SUSPECTED COUNTERFEIT BANKNOTE A. Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details
of the profile, the seal of the Republic of the Philippines, letterings
1. The lines & dots composing 1. On counterfeit usually
& numerals are of high relief, so that it can be readily felt distinctly
the vignettes are fine, distinct dull & poorly printed.
by running the fingers on theses features. The beadings are regular
& sharp.
& the readings are deep & even.
2. The varying color tone gives 2. It appears dirty.
a bold look to the picture that 3. The lines are B. Counterfeit coins feel greasy & appear slimy. The beading
makes it stands out of the comparatively thicker composed of tiny round dots surrounding the genuine coin appear
paper. with rough edges.
4. There is no variation in
color tone so that the
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picture appears flat.
 irregular & elongated depressions & are not sharp & prominent as
in the genuine. The letterings & numerals are low & worn out due
to the lack of sharpness of details. The readings are uneven &
show signs of filing.
COUNTERFEIT METAL MONEY OR COIN
1. Coin made of gold was to widely use but are not now often see.
Government kept their gold in the form of heavy bars called
bullions and then issue papers for the value of gold.
2. Metal coins issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its
face value. In most countries, the possession of gold coins is now
forbidden except for coin collectors.
EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT COINS – should be examined by a
magnifying lens; comparing it with a known coin
DEFECTS IN CAST COIN ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY: formation of
air bubbles, or removal of small parts of the sole along with the coin. The best
place to examine a counterfeit coin is on the edge since there are usually
special milling marks or designs which are added to a genuine coin by
machinery.
COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT
Passports are rarely counterfeit, because they are quite complicated
in design and manufacture. The most usual method of forgery is to steal a
genuine passport and make change in it. Many safety features are incorporated
in passport and are easily detected by close inspection. Ultraviolet light is very
useful in this type of examination. The investigator should look particularly at
the photograph in any passport as identification card. This is always
necessary because sometimes forgers remove and change or substitute the
picture. Hence, the position of perforation caused by staples and another
pasting device should be studied carefully.
LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND
FALSIFICATION
(Pursuant to Title Four, Chapter One, Revised Penal Code – Crimes against
Public Interests)
A. FOREGERIES - What are the crimes called forgeries?
1. Forging the seal of the government, signature or stamp of the
chief Executive (Art. 161).
2. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163).
3. Mutilation of coins (Art. 164).
4. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to
bearer (Art. 166).
5. Counterfeiting instruments not payable to bearer (Art. 167).
6. Falsification of legislative documents (Art. 172).
7. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or
ecclesiastical minister (Art. 171).
8. Falsification by private individuals (Art. 172).
9. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone
messages (Art. 173).
10. Falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit or
service (Art. 174).
B. ACTS PUNISHABLE UNDER ART. 161: Forging the great seal of
the Government of the Philippines; Forging the signature of the
President; Forging the stamp of the President.
C. What are the crimes under counterfeiting coins? They are: Making
and importing and uttering false coins (Art. 163); Mutilation of coins –
importation and utterance of mutilated coins (Art. 164); and Selling of
false or mutilated coin, without connivance (Art. 165).
D. Reason for punishing forgery - Forgery of currency is punished so as
to maintain the integrity of the currency and thus insure the credit
standing of the government and prevent the imposition on the public and
the government of worthless notes or obligations.
E. ACTS OF FALSIFICATION (Art. 171 & 172)
1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric;
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2. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or
proceeding when they did not in fact so participate;
3. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or
proceeding statements other than those in fact made by them;
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts; Altering true
dates;
5. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document
which changes its meaning;
6. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a
copy of an original document when no such original exists, or
including in such copy a statement contrary to, or different from,
that of the genuine original; or
7. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof
in a protocol, registry, or official book.
WRITING MATERIALS
A. ANACHRONISM – It refers to something wrong in time and in
place. This means that the forger has trouble matching the paper, ink,
or writing materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been
written.
B. PAPER – These are sheets of interlaced fibers - usually cellulose
fibers from plants, but sometimes from cloth rags or other fibrous
materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or
mat, to form a solid surface.
C. WATERMARK - Certain papers are marked with a translucent
design, a watermarks impressed in them during the course of their
manufacture.
D. WRITING MATERIALS – Any material used primarily for writing
or recording such as papers, cardboard, board papers, Morocco paper,
etc.
WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS - The
common (probable) questioned on paper is its age, whether the actual
age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of preparation of the
questioned document.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
A. PAPYRUS - This came into use about 3,500 B.C. - people of Egypt.
Palestine, Syria, and Southern Europe used the pith (soft spongy
tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grass-like herb) CYPERUS
PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.
B. PARCHMENT - writing material made from skin of
animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats - was probably developed
in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with papyrus.
It came into wide use only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of
PERGAMUM in ANATOLIA.
C. VELLUM - writing materials from fine skins from young calves or
kids and the term (name) was often used for all kind of parchment
manuscripts, it became the most important writing material for
bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts.
Almost every portable surface that would retain the marks of brush or
pen was also used as a writing material during the early period.
D. DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING
1. It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally
attributed to a Chinese court official, CAI LUN (TSAI LUN), in
about A.D. 105. He is the first to succeed in making paper from
vegetable fibers, tree barks (mulberry tree), rags, old fish nettings.
2. The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese
acquired it in the 7th century A.D.
3. In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by
marauding Chinese and some Chinese taken as prisoners were
skilled in papermaking and were forced by the city Governor to
build and operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became the
papermaking center of the Arab world.
4. Knowledge of papermaking traveled westward, spreading
throughout the Middle East, the Moorish invasion of Spain led to
the invention (A.D. 1150) or erection of the first European paper
mill, at JATIVA, province of VALENCIA.
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 5. Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and by 16th century,
paper was manufactured throughout most of Europe.
6. The first paper mill in England was established in 1495.
7. The first such mill in America in 1690.
8. The first practical machine was made in 1798 by the French
inventor Nicholas Louis Robert. The machine reduced the cost of
paper it supplants the hand-molding process in paper manufacture.
9. Robert's machine was improved by the British stationers and
brothers Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier, who in 1803
produced the first of the machines that bear their name.
10. The solution of the problem of making paper from cheap raw
material was achieved by the introduction of the groundwood
process of pulp making about 1840 and the first of the chemical
pulp processes approximately ten years later.
11. CHLORINE - This was introduced in the 19th century
for bleaching and colored linen could already be manufactured for
paper.
12. ESPARTO – This is a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and
North Africa was first introduced in England in 1861.
13. STRAW – This was used to make paper in 1800.
14. SULPHITE – This is a paper from wood was not attempted until
1869 and paper called SULPHITE (modern type) was first used
between 1880 and 1890.
15. OLDEST MANUSCRIPT - Letters dated A.D. 874 have been
found in Egypt and the oldest manuscript in England on cotton
paper dated AD 1890.
TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT)
The age of the document may be estimated from paper. Four cases
were reported by Lucas where the age of the document was established from
the compositor/composition of the paper. In one of these cases, a document
dated 1213 A.H. (A.D. 1798) was found to be written on paper composed
entirely of chemically prepared wood cellulose. Considering that this type of
paper was not introduced not until about 60 years later, the document is
obviously a fake one.
WATERMARKS
1. Definition – It is a term for a figure or design incorporated into
paper during its manufacture and appearing lighter than the rest of
the sheet when viewed in transmitted light. The earliest way of
identifying the date of manufacture of the paper is by the
WATERMARK - a brand put on the paper by the manufacturers.
2. How watermark is made? The watermark was made when the
semi-fluid paper pulp (mixture of cotton or other fibers) was being
drained on a grid of laid (warp) and chain (woof) wires. Fine wires
forming the desired design were tied on top of the grid and
impressed into the pulp. This impression made the paper thinner,
and therefore, more transparent, where it appeared.
3. Origin. Watermarks first appeared on papers produced in Italy
around 1270, less than 100 years after the art of papermaking was
introduced to Europe by Muslims from the Middle East. Early in
the 19th century, papermakers began to solder the watermark wires
to the grid frame, thus insuring uniformity of impression and
aiding in the detection of counterfeiting and forgery. The first
British postage stamps of 1840 bore a watermark, but stamps of the
United States were not so marked until 1895. When paper began
to be machine-made, the watermark wiring was simply transferred
to the grid cover of the dandy roll, a turning cylinder that passed
over the paper.
4. Concept of document’s age detection thru watermarks.
a. Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the
document by means of watermark, the earliest
known dating from 1282. Unfortunately, however, not all
papers contain watermarks.
b. It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers
called “DANDY ROLL” that make the paper,
and these designs are changed from time to time.
c. Usually watermarks are requested by
their owners/manufacturers with the patent office.
d. If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of
tracing the age of the paper. However, the questioned
54
documents examiner's finding is limited only to the
APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of the paper manufacture.
e. In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is
necessary to ascertain the owner of the watermark in
question or its manufacturer.
f. In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the
laboratory. Once the manufacturer is determined, then
consideration is given to changes in design and defects
of individual design.
g. In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly
incorporated inconspicuous changes in their watermark
design in order to date their products.
h. Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark
that was not in existence at the time the document purports to
have been executed.
5. In case the watermark did not change, the following is applied:
a. Consider any defect in the individual design may furnish a
clue as to the age of the paper.
b. The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be
damaged. This damage is also known as caused by
WEAR AND TEAR which becomes progressively more and
more as time goes by.
c. The damage on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar
markings on the watermark of the paper manufactured or all
papers that will pass through the damaged dandy roll.
d. The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings
caused by the dandy roll's damaged surface, will coordi-
nate with the paper manufacture regarding when such
damage occurred on the dandy roll used.
DISCOLORATION
One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance
of the changes in its physical characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION.
Naturally, a paper will discolor after a passage of time due to numerous
environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc. In case of
papers out of wood pulp, they start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years.
While RUG-SHIP QUALITY papers, they are very old before discoloration
starts.
CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION
1. due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.
2. brown spots due to mold that are very obvious characteristics both
in appearance and distribution.
3. exposure to dust and dirt.
4. occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
5. excrete of rats, mice and other insects.
6. may also due to heat, partial burning, etc.
DETAILED EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIAL
1. Collect standard document from the issuing institution, company
or individual and compare. Consider the physical characteristics of
both questioned and standard documents such as the size, the
thickness, the surface (glossiness, opacity, etc.) and the general
texture of the paper.
2. Check with the issuing institution, company or individual about the
dissimilarity of writing material used in the questioned document.
3. Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as folding
endurance test, folding test, bursting test, etc.
WRITING INSTRUMENTS
A. FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT - One quality of the nib pen is its
pliability. This quality varies which different pens and can be
measured by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a spreading of
the nibs or a given degree of shading.
B. FOUNTAIN PEN - A fountain pen is a modern nib which contains a
reservoir of ink in a specially designed chamber.
After complete filling the pen is capable of writing a number of pages
without refilling.
C. INK - is a fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or
printing.
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 D. PEN - A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink;
or a writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper is a pen. It
came from the Latin word "PENNA", meaning feather.
E. PEN NIBS - The tow divisions or points which from the writing
portion of a pen are its nibs.
F. QUILL PENS - It is a hollow, horny part of large feather usually
from goose and was used for writing on parchment.
Poland, Germany, Russia, and the Netherlands were the largest
producers of quill.
G. WRITING INSTRUMENTS (WRITING IMPLEMENTS) -
Writing Implements, manual devices used to make alphanumeric
marks on or in a surface.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
A. REED PENS/SWAMP REED
1. It came from especially selected water grasses found in
Egypt, Armenia and along the shores of the Persian Gulf, were
prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several months.
2. It was the first writing tool that had the writing end slightly
frayed like a brush. About 2,000 years B.C., this reed pen was
first used in NEAR EAST on papyrus and later on parchment.
B. QUILL PEN
1. Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers
of any bird, those of goose, swan, crow and (later) turkey, were
preferred. The earliest reference (6th century AD) to quill pens
was made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF
SEVILLE, and this tool was the principal writing implement for
nearly 1300 years.
2. To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first hardened by
heating or letting it dry out gradually. The hardened quill is then
cut to a broad edge with a special pen knife.
3. The writer had to re-cut the quill pen frequently to maintain
its edge. By the 18th century, the width of the edge had
diminished and the length of the slit had increased creating a
flexible point that produced thick and thin strokes by pressure
on the point rather than by the angle at which the broad edge
was held.
C. STEEL POINT PENS (BRAZEN PENS)
1. Although pens of bronze may have been known to Romans, the
earliest mention of "BRAZEN PENS" was in 1465. The
16th century Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR mentions
brass pens for very large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but
the use of metal pens did not become widespread until the early
part of the 19th century.
2. The first patented steel pen point was made by the English
engineer BRYAN DONKIN in 1803.
3. The leading 19th century English pen manufacturers were
WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT, WILLIAM MITCHELL,
AND JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.
D. FOUNTAIN PENS
1. In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent,
patented the first practical FOUNTAIN PEN containing its own
ink reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that fed ink to
the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly
while writing.
2. By the 1920's, the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument
in the west and remained so until the introduction of the ball
point pen after WORLD WAR II.
E. BALL POINT PEN:
1. JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball point writing
tool. A ball point pen has in its point a small rotating metal ball
that continually inks itself as it turns.
2. The ball is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a
hole that feeds ink to the socket from a long tube (reservoir)
inside the pen.
3. As early as the 19th century, attempts had been made to
manufacture a pen with a rolling ball tip, but not until 1938 did
Hungarian inventor brothers LADISLAO and GEORG BIRO
invent a viscous, oil-based ink that could be used with such a
pen. Hence, they are attributed for the invention of the first
practical ballpoint pen.
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4. Early ball point pens did not write well; they tended to skip, and
the slow-drying oil-based ink smudged easily. However, the
ball-point pen had several advantages over the fountain pen:
a. the ink was waterproof and almost un-erasable;
b. the ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces;
c. could be hold in almost any position for writing; and
d. the pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making
carbon copies.
5. Ink formulas were improved for smoother flow and faster
drying, and soon the ball-point replaced the fountain pen as the
universal writing tool.
F. FIBER TIP PENS -
1. In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into the U.S. market
and have since challenged the ball point as the principal writing
implement.
2. The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO
HORIE of Japan in 1962. It was ideally suited to the strokes of
Japanese writing, which is traditionally done with a pointed ink
brush.
3. Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a writing
fluid. As a result, the fiber tip pen can produce a wide range of
colors unavailable in ball point and fountain pen inks. The tip is
made of fine nylon or other synthetic fibers drawn to a point and
fastened to the barrel of the pen. Dye is fed to the point by
elaborate capillary mechanism.
G. Felt-tip markers are made of dense natural or artificial
fibers impregnated with a dye. These markers can be cut to a
variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A
modification of the ball point pen using a liquid dye fed to a
metal/plastic ball was introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INKS
1. Indian Inks - The oldest form of Indian ink consisted of a
suspension of carbon black (soot or lampblack) in water to which
glue or a vegetable gum was added. Inks of these compositions are
still on the market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes.
2. Log wood Inks - These inks which were used extensively about a
century ago, have now because obsolete and are no longer
manufactured. They were made from an aqueous extract of
logwood chips and potassium chromate. These inks will be found
only on old.
3. Iron Gallotanate Inks - This ink has been used as writing for over
a thousand years. Formerly it was made of a fermented infusion of
gall nuts to which iron salts were added. The ink was composed of
suspension of the black, almost insoluble ferric tannate.
4. Fountain Pen Inks - These inks are regarded as special fountain
pen inks, and consisting of ordinary iron gallotannate inks with a
lower iron content in most cases but with a higher dyestuff
content than normal inks.
5. Dyestuff Inks - These inks are composed of aqueous
solutions of synthetic dyestuffs, to which a preservative and a flux
are added.
6. Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks - These inks are
special group of dyestuff inks. They consist of a pigment paste
and a solution of shellac made soluble in water by means of borax,
liquid ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate.
7. Alkaline Writing Inks - These are quick drying inks which
possess a ph of from 9 to about 11. They penetrate quickly
through the size of the paper allowing the ink to penetrate quickly
into the paper. The dyestuff in these inks consists of acid dyes,
sometimes combined with phthalo cyanide dyes.
8. Ballpoint Pen Inks - The ballpoint pens did not appear on
the European market before 1945. The development of the present
pen was accomplished during World War II because the Army and
the Air Force needed a writing instrument which would not leak at
high altitude and which supplied quick drying water resistant
writing.
a. In principle, the construction of all ballpoint pens is the
same. The differences are in the finish, the
precision with which the instrument is made, the size
and the material of the ball, and the composition of the
ink.
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 b. As a rule, the diameter of the ball lies between 0.6 and
1.0 mm, the cheapest makes having the largest
diameter. The ball is made of steel while the more
expensive makes of sapphire.
c. The quality of the pen is chiefly to be judged by the
writing angle. The best writing angle for a
ballpoint pen is 90 degrees, but a normal hand of
writing seldom uses this angle.
d. The cheaper makes have a minimum writing angle of
55-60 degrees. If one writes at too small an angle, the
brass socket holding the ball will scratch a lined into the
paper, parallel with the ink line.
9. Stamp Pad Inks - They are made with the acid of substances such
as glycerol, glycol, acetin or benzyl alcohol and water. Airline
dyes are added as coloring matter. For quick drying stamp pad
inks, more volatile organic solvents are used as acetone, ethanol,
etc. As a vehicle, dextrine, gum arabic, or tannin
is sometimes added. Through the addition of tannin,
the stamp impression becomes water resistant after drying.
10. Hectograph Inks - These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks
and are exclusively made with basic dyes. To the
dyestuff solution several other substances are added such as
glycerol, acetic acid and acetone.
11. Typewriter Ribbon Inks - These inks are usually composed of a
blend of aniline dyes, carbon black and oil such as olein or castor
oil. The two-tone ribbons however contain no dyes, but pigments
suspended in oil base. This is necessary because aniline dyes tend
to bleed and would cause the sharp division between the differently
colored halves of the ribbon to merge.
12. Printing Inks - Printing inks often consist of a mixture of colored
pigments, carbon black and a "base" which may consist of oil, re-
sins, synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is possible to remove
printing ink from a document by scrubbing the document with an
aqueous solution of a suitable detergent. The rubbing and
breaking up of the surface of the ink and the detergent facilitates
the suspension and eventual removal of the carbon and other
ingredients by the water.
13. Canceling Inks - These inks often contain carbon and
this fact should be burned in mind when it is required to decipher
faint cancellation marks on a postage stamp and wrappers. Carbon
is opaque to infra-red sensitive plate and be relied upon to improve
the legibility of any marking affected by a carbon containing
canceling ink. Erasure of canceling ink on valuable stamps is
usually affected by attack on the medium which bind the carbon to
the surface of the stamp and it is to be regretted that many cancel-
ing inks are manufactured with media which offer resistance to
attack so that the resistant carbon can simply be swabbed off.
This can be usually be detected by infrared photography which will
reveal the traces of carbon, which almost invariably remain on the
stamp.
14. Skrip Ink - These are manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen
Company since 1955. The inks contain a substance that is
colorless in visible light and has a strong affinity for the fibers of
the paper, and yet is not bleached by hypochlorite ink eradicators
or washed out by soaking on water.
THE EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INK
1. In most cases the inks to be examined are not available in liquid
form. One kind of examination centers on the question as to
whether the ink of some writings or of alterations in a police
blotter is identical with the ink found in the possession of the
suspect.
2. For this reason, the examination of questioned documents is
restricted to a comparative examination of certain properties of
these inks. However the examination carries with it
certain difficulties as the quantity of material available
for examination is small and the examination can be done only
one.
3. It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is
attempted, which results in a partial destruction of writing, an
exhaustive examination by non-destructive methods be carried out.
4. These non-destruction methods include visual examination with
the aid of a binocular microscope as well as photographic
examination. They should be used first before any chemical
examination is resorted to.
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5. It is necessary therefore to be acquainted with the composi-
tion and developmental history, method of manufacture of the
types of ink most commonly used. Sometimes, antedating
can only be proven by identifying a component of the ink,
which was not yet included in inks at the alleged date of the
document.
THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF INK
A. THE CHROMATOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION AND
SEPARATION OF THE DYESTUFFS IN THE INK
1. This is restricted to a comparison of the dyestuffs in the ink but
sometimes it is also possible to identify one or more of the
components of the dyes.
2. Regarded as the principal method of ink examination.
3. To identify a dyestuff, it is necessary to possess a collection as
complete as possible of the various dyes used in the
manufacture of inks.
4. The chromatographic separation of the dyes maybe carried out
by paper chromatography.
5. Procedure:
a. Collection of the ink material
(1) Extraction of the inks stroke by scraping
fragments from the ink stroke. Dyestuff inks can
as a rule can be extracted with water. Ball point
ink can be extracted with organic solvent such as
ethanol, acetone or butanone. Pyridine is the best
solvent for ball point inks.
(2) It is also possible to cut a small pocket at starting
line in the chromatographic paper into which the
ink fragments are placed. The pocket is firmly
pressed.
b. The vessel which is a beaker or a flask is filled with the
solvent; then the filtered paper strip containing the ink
material is lowered into the vessel with the ends just
touching the surface of the solvent and let it hang on the
side of the vessel for 15-20 minutes.
c. The chromatography should be carried out in shaded light.
B. DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF THE INK
1. In general, in order to determine the age of writing or the
difference in the ages of different writings, the document
examiner makes use of a property of the ink writing which
changes in the course of time. This selection of properties will
be determined by the composition of ink and the circumstances
under which the writing ages.
2. Procedure:
a. Ball Point Pen Inks
(1) If a document has been written with a ballpoint pen, the
writing in question is bound to date in all probability
from a point of time later than 1945.
(2) The analysis of ballpoint inks may yield an important
clue to the age of the ink.
(3) The first ballpoint inks were practically without
exception based on oleic acid. These inks will flow out
when a drop of benzene or petroleum ether is applied to
them.
(4) Not until 1950 were these inks made on a basic of
polyethylene glycols, which are resistant to treatment
with benzene or petroleum ether.
(5) However, the presence of oleic acid is not yet proof that
the writing in question is old for oleic acid is sometimes
also used in modern ballpoint inks.
(6) In the later case, however, the ink will as a rule not flow
out with the petroleum ether because these inks, no
water soluble coloring matter is worked out. Instead
pigments and dyestuffs are used that will not dissolve in
petroleum ether.
(7) The presence of phthalocyanine dyestuff is an
indication of an ink produced later than 1954-1956.
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 (8) Thus it is not possible to determine the absolute age of
ballpoint inks. Neither it is possible to determine the
relative ages of two ballpoint ink writings, not even if
they are of the same kind. The ink dries rather quickly
because the base is absorbed by the paper.
(9) Recent ballpoint writing can be offset, and efforts have
been made to use the copying power for age
determination.
b. Dyestuff Inks
(1) The dyestuff inks lack properties that would permit age
determination but the presence of an obsolete or
modern dyestuff may indicate age of writing.
(2) If a phthalocyanine dye is found in the ink, it would be
improbable for the document to be dated prior to 1953.
c. Iron Gallotannate Inks - These inks show a remarkable
change of color in maturing. This based on the chemical
change of ferrous to ferric in the course of time. The
following are the methods used to show the gradual change
of inks:
(1) Method based on the change of the Color of the Ink
– This method is useful in those cases where the ink
writing received for examination is too recent that the
process of maturing can be observed visually. The kind
of ink must be known and one or more writings of
known age must be available for comparison.
(2) Methods based on the Solubility of the Ink – The
solubility of iron gallotannate ink decreases
considerably as the ink matures. As with the color
change, it can only be applied successfully to a very
recent writing. This method can establish a difference
in the age of writings on one and the same document.
The solubility is determined by a visual estimate of the
quantity of ink which can be withdrawn with a drop of
water from a stroke. It is necessary however that the
drop of water be applied to ink stroke of the same
intensity.
(3) Method based on the amount of ferrous iron in the
ink – In iron gallotannate ink, the iron is mainly present
in the complex bound ferrous form. As the
manufacturing process goes on, the ric gallotannate is
formed. A drop of aa1-dipyridyl reagent (1% of aa1-
dipyridyl in 0.5N HCL (normal hydrochloric acid)) is
applied to the ink stroke. The reagent is left in contact
with the ink for 1 minute and then recovered with a
piece of filter paper. If ferrous iron is still present in
the ink, the paper will show a red zone of ferrous aa1-
dipyridyl around the stain of blue dyestuff. By
repeating this test daily, it is possible to check the
decrease in the ferrous iron in the ink by the changes in
the coloration of this red zone. However, this method is
applicable when the questioned writing is not more than
a few days old.
(4) Estimation of age based on the detection of the dyes
– Iron gallotannate inks contain an organic dye,
(soluble blue) which is oxidized or at least becomes
insoluble complete or partially as the ink ages. It is
claimed that the organic dye becomes completely
insoluble in four to five years. However, the
application of this method appears to yield results in
practice.
TYPEWRITER AND TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION
EVOLUTION OF TYPEWRITERS
TYPEWRITER - A writing machine with a keyboard for
reproducing letters, figures, symbols and other resembling printed ones; a
machine that can reproduce printed characters on papers or that can produce
printed letters and figures on paper; a machine designed to print or impress
type characters on paper, as a speedier and more legible substitute for
handwriting. .
SIGNIFICANT TERMS
A. ALIGNMENT - Alignment defects include characters which write
improperly in the following respects: A twisted letter, horizontal
57
mal-alignment, vertical mal-alignment, and a character "Off its
feet".
B. ALIGNMENT DEFECT - Include character which write
improperly in the following respects: A twisted letter, horizontal
mal-alignment, vertical, mal-alignment and a character special
adjustment to the types block.
C. CARBON IMPRESSION- Any typewriting which is placed on
the paper by the action of the type faces striking thought
carbon paper is classed as a carbon impression. Generally, carbon
impressions are "carbon copies", but sometime original typewriting
is made directly through a carbon ribbon.
D. CHARACTER - In connection with typewriting identification, the
term "Character" is used to include letters, symbols, numerals, or
points of punctuation.
E. CLOGGED (DIRTY) TYPEFACES - With use the type faces
becomes filled with lint, dirty and ink, particularly in enclosed
letters such as the o,e,p, and g.
F. DEFECTS - The term defect describes any abnormality or malad-
justment in a typewriter which is reflected in its works and which
leads to its individualization or identification.
G. NATURAL VARIATIONS - These are normal or usual devia-
tions found between repeated specimens of any individuals
handwriting or in the product of any typewriters.
H. OFF ITS FEET - The condition of a typeface printing heavier
on one side or corner than over the remainder of its outline.
I. PERMANENT DEFECT - Any identifying characteristics of a
type-writer which cannot be corrected by simply cleaning the type
face or replacing the ribbon is classified as a permanent defect.
J. PLATEN - The cylinder which serve as the backing of the paper
and which absorbs the blow on the type face is known as a platen.
K. PROPORTIONAL SPACING TYPEWRITING - A modern
form of typewriting which resembles printing in that all of
the horizontal space as they do with the conventional typewriter.
For example, the "i" occupies two units. The "o" - three and the
"m" - five. A typewriter of this design is known as a proportional
spacing machine.
L. REBOUND - A defect in which a character prints a double
impression with the lighter one slightly offset to the right or left.
M. RIBBON IMPRESSIONS - Typewriting which is made directly
through a cloth ribbon is called ribbon impression.
N. RIBBON CONDITION - Typewriter ribbons
gradually deteriorate with use and the degree of determination is a
measure of the ribbon condition.
O. TRANSITORY DEFECT - Any identifying typewriter
characteristics which can be eliminated by cleaning the machine
or replacing the ribbon is described as a transitory defects.
Clogged type is the most common defects in this class.
P. TWISTED LETTER - Each letter and character is designed to
print a certain fixed angle to the base line, due to wear, and
damage to the type bars and the type block, some letters become
twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
Q. TYPE FACE - The printing surface of the type block is known
as the type face, with most modern typewriter this block is
attached at the end of a movable arm or type bar which propels
the type face against the ribbon and paper to make the typewriter
impression.
R. TYPE FACE DEFECTS - Any peculiarity of typewriting caused
by actual damage to the type face metal is known as type face
defect. These defect may be actual breaks in the outline of the
letter where the metal has been chipped away sometimes referred
to as broken type, or they may be distorted outlines of the letter
where the type face metal has become bent or smashed, they can
only be corrected by replacing the type block.
1. The first patent, however, was granted by QUEEN ANNE of
England to HENRY MILL in 1714 for a machine designed to
reproduce a letter of the alphabet.
2. In 1829, WILLIAM AUSTIN BURT of Detroit, invented the
TYPOGRAPHER.
3. In 1833 a French patent was given to the French inventor Xavier
Progin for a machine that embodied for the first time one of the
principles employed in modern typewriters: the use for each letter
or symbol of separate typebars, actuated by separate lever keys.
4. In 1843, American inventor Charles Grover Thurber invented a
typewriter which prints through a metal ring that revolved
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 horizontally above the platen and was equipped with a series of
vertical keys or plungers having pieces of type at the bottom. The
machine was operated by revolving the wheel until the correct
letter was centered over the printing position on the platen, and
then striking the key.
5. Several other inventors attempted to produce machines designed to
make embossed impressions that could be read by the blind. One
such machine, developed by the American inventor Alfred Ely
Beach in 1856, resembled the modern typewriter in the
arrangement of its keys and typebars, but embossed its letters on a
narrow paper strip instead of a sheet.
6. A similar machine created by the American inventor Samuel W.
Francis, and patented by him in 1856, had a circular arrangement
of typebars, a moving paper holder, a bell that rang to signal the
end of a line, and an inked ribbon. The keyboard arrangement of
Francis's machine resembled the black and white keys of a piano.
7. The development of the first practical typewriter begun in 1866 by
CHRISTOPHER LATHAM SHOLES and was patented in
1868. He developed the first practical typewriter in cooperation
with two fellow mechanics, CARLOS GLIDEN and SAMUEL
SOULE'.
8. Six years later (1874), Christopher Latham Sholes entered an
agreement with ELIPHALET REMINGTON AND SONS,
GUNSMITHS & SEWING MACHINES MANUFACTURERS,
the company produced the REMINGTON MODEL I
9. Four years later, REMINGTON MODEL II was introduced having
both the lower and upper case of the alphabet.
10. MARK TWAIN (Samuel Clemens) was among the first to buy a
typewriter and the first to submit a typewritten manuscript to a
publisher.
11. GEORGE BERNARD SHAW recognized the importance
of typewriter when he became the first playwright to use it as a
stage prop in Candida in 1897.
12. When THOMAS EDISON visited Sholes to see his machine, he
forecasted that typewriters would one day be operated by
electricity.
13. Soon afterwards, Edison built such a typewriter. He used a series
of magnet, which made the machine cumbersome and too
expensive to be marketed.
14. The first practical electric typewriter was invented in 1914 by
JAMES F. SMATHERS of Kansas City.
15. In 1933, the International Business Machines, Inc. (IBM),
introduced the first commercially successful electric typewriter to
the business world.
16. The latest development in electric typewriter is one which not only
eliminates type bars and movable carriages but can use six
interchangeable type of type faces.
17. The first basic change in typewriting operation appeared in 1961.
Despite of the revolutionary advances in typewriting
capabilities, one essential element has remained unchanged
since the first Remington. The keyboard arrangement, nick-
named QWERTY for the top line of letters, was designed to make
it easier for salesmen to use the machine.
18. A much more efficient arrangement was devised in 1936 by
AUGUST DVORAK. The process of
changing over the DVORAK seemed so difficult that it was never
even begun.
IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITTEN
QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
HAGAN in 1894, made the first comment on typewriting
examination. He wrote that all typewriter machines even when using the same
kind of type become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them.
These peculiarities positively connect them with the printing done by the
machine.
This exposition of the principles of typewriting identification was
followed in 1900 by AMES who wrote that the identity of writing by different
operators as well as that done on different machines can be done with
considerable degree - Different operators have their own peculiar methods
which differ widely in the location of date, address, margins, punctuation,
spacing, signing as well as impressions from touch.
In several articles written between1901 to 1907, ALBERT S.
OSBORNE, the foremost document examiner of the early 20th century,
58
defined the principles of typewriting identification used today. He called it
“THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING IDENIFICATION.”
THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION
1. The type faces used by the different type writer manufacturer can
be differentiated on the basis of design and have dating
significance.
2. Through usage, typewriters develop individuality which can serve
to identify the typewriting of a particular typewriter.
3. The gradual development of typewriting individuality plus ribbon
condition and typeface. Cleanliness can be used to date a
document of fix it written a period of time.
4. Horizontal and vertical alignment, tilting characters, lack of
uniformity of impression (off-footedness); type-face score,
breadths, defects and deformities all serve to identify the type
writing of a particular machine.
5. Peculiar habits of striking the type writer keys,
spacing, arrangement, punctuation, mistakes, corrections, can be
used to identify a typist or differentiate typists.
6. A sheet of paper cannot be reinserted in a typewriter in exact
register with previous typing done on the sheet of paper.
TYPES OF TYPEWRITERS
A. CONVENTIONAL TYPEWRITERS USING TYPE BARS
1. Pica Type - 10 letter/inch
2. Elite Type - 12 Letters/inch
3. 6 Letters/inch
4. Teletype Machine
5. 14-16 letter/inch - specials typewriters
B. TYPEWRITER USING SINGLE ELEMENT OR BALL - A
machine, capable of typing 10 or 12 characters per inch. Change of
horizontal spacing is done easily by the flip of a switch.
C. TYPEWRITER USING A PRINT WHEEL (ELECTRONIC
TYPEWRITER) –This has a disc type device called a print wheel,
The printwheel contains all of characters represented on the
typewriter keyboard. This machine has the capability of typing 10, 12
and 15 letters per inch.
CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEWRITERS BASED ON LETTER
DESIGNS
A. The small “w” – depending on the presence or absence of a center
serif, height of central peak and design of the two central diagonals.
w-1 – central peak is the same height as the top of the outside
stroke and is capped by serif.
w-2 – same with w-1 but has no central serif.
w-3 – central joining is below the top of the sides.
w-4 – low center but the two central diagonals join the sides well
above the base of the letter.
B. Crossbar of small letter “t” – cross bar is either longer on the right or
on the left side and or equidistant on each side. The curved lower
extension of the “t” is either turn upward at a point the left of, to the
right of, or about even with the right terminus of the crossbar of the
“t”.
C. The small letter “g” – upper oval is either much smaller or the same
and/or different or the same in shape than the lower oval. Upper and
lower ovals are either very closely spaced or not.
D. Small letter “r” – right arm is either long with very small curve at its
end or a long right arm with full curve at the end and/or the right arm
is short with its curve moderate to full.
E. Small letter “y” – has three distinctive designs:
lower stroke has a broad turn which forms a very shallow trough.
lower stroke has a deep full curve which clearly curves right ward.
Lower stroke turns sharply upward like forming a narrow trough.
F. Small letter “i” – has two distinctive designs:
center of the dot is aligned with the central line of the vertical staff.
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 Center of the dot is set off to the left of the central line of the
vertical staff.
G. Upper and Lower Strokes of Capital Letter “E” – maybe equal or the
bottom stroke maybe longer than the upper stroke. The serif is either
vertical or oblique. The small “e” may have its straight stroke either
horizontal or oblique.
H. Figure “7” – horizontal stroke is either straight or curve.
I. Figure “5” – horizontal stroke is either straight or slightly or fully
curved.
J. The comma “,” – tail may extend to the left of the dot or only very
slightly to the left of the dot.
K. Parentheses – may vary in curvature.
Take Note: Two typewritten documents are said to be typed from
one and the same typewriter if they agree in type face style, design, spacing,
alignment and three or four scars or damaged type faces.
IDENTIFICATION OF TYPEWRITER BY THE DEFECTS OF THE
STROKE
Each typewriter has its own individual characteristics that enable one
to differentiate the typed characters from a similar machine of the same make.
Typewriter of the same make and model but of different age have differences
attributed to wear.
WHAT TO CONSIDER?
1. A typewriter coming out fresh from the factory has already some
defects which give its own personality. Whatever the quality of
the manufacture, a typewriter is never absolutely perfect.
2. Later, through faults of the typist and also by wear, the typewriter
will acquire a stronger individuality by new defects which become
more and more prominent and in time, progressively overcome the
initial ones.
PROCEDURE
1. Conduct preliminary examination of the questioned document to
determine the make and model of the typewriter.
2. Then study the defects of the stroke which will distinguish the
suspected typewriter from the others.
The defects of the typewriter maybe compared to ailment or
sickness and congenital deformation while its translation on the paper be
compared to symptoms of the defects. This comparison has the advantage of
sorting out the exact conditions of the control of questioned typewritten
documents as follows:
1. First, it will show the actual state of the typewriter and
consequently that the aspect of the stroke is not immutable but
evolves progressively so that a good identification needs the
comparison of documents from sufficiently adjacent period.
2. The health of a typewriter tends to change and the defect
become more and more numerous and characteristics. From
time to time, an overhead or repairs may help the ailment
definitely or at least give a temporary or partial healing.
3. It will show that the expert does not see the defect of the
typewriter right away but only its translation on the paper by a
writing anomaly of which he must appreciate the cause
4. Lastly it will explain that certain anomalies are not even
ascribable to an organic cause of the type writer but to a
phenomenon outside it. For example, an error of manipulation by
the typist may give some anomalies of the stroke and have no
connection with the mechanism of the typewriter itself. Others are
due to a temporary sickness such as a torn ribbon which will give
an incomplete impression of the character or dust which may
choke the mechanism of the stroke. It is only the permanent
faults which permit of a positive identification.
DEFECTS OF A TYPEWRITER
Defects of the Character
59
a The character may show a distortion in its engraving, a
"break" which is shown by an alteration of the design.
Exceptionally, it means a defect of manufacture. Most often,
the break occurs when the machine is working. The metal is
locally damaged by the continued striking of the letter against
hard surfaces and according to the general direction of the
striking will dented or deviated. In the first case the altered
sign will print an incomplete design with broken or
interrupted lines, in the second case it prints a deformed
sign. The predominant cause of the defect is that
corresponding bars one behind the other; the character of
corresponding bars strikes the back of the first and crashes on
it.
b Twist of the printing surface which comes in the course of
manufacturing. Irregular tempering gives an abnormal
contraction of the metal for the bearing of the character again
the plated and gives a local impression more intense and
more heavily inked.
c Misalignment of the two signs engraved on the same
character so that they are not set exactly one under the other.
This defect may be due to a bad engraving of the mold.
Positioning of the Character on the Type-bar
a A bad position of the bar on the plate of the soldering
apparatus, results in a bad portioning of the character. It will
be bent forward, backward or sideways.
b Sometimes a solder fails in the course of typing. The
character turns over the slides along its support. The
changes of alignment become grater and greater growing in
frequency in proportion with the collar of the solder. This
defect is detected in the writing by the fact that the top and
the bottom of the letter are not printed with the same
intensity and mostly, the vertical misalignment has a tend-
ency to vary at each stroke and becomes so important that
often a part of both signs of the deficient characters are
impressed at the same time.
Defects of the Type-bar - The deformations of a type-bar modify
the position of the character in connection with the platen and alter
the originally correct writing.
a Any error of place position of the bar in the basket gives an
incline to its head and to the character.
b The type-bars are outer sinuous. Under the effect of an
intensive working, the bends are modified, so that the type-
bar elongates or shorten and its head inclines forward or
backward. This deformation causes a misalignment of the
character and no longer allows a uniform impression of its
surface.
c Twist of the type-bars is caused by mistakes of the typist. In
depressing, by error, two neighboring keys, two corre-
sponding bars are moved towards the type-bar guide 1, each
bar undergoes the lateral strike of the other and bends along
its longitudinal axis. One error in manipulation does not
great damage but its repetition certainly develops the defect.
The type-bar thus bent no long offers a perfectly vertical
surface to the axis of the platen and the character strikes the
paper more or less off its feet.
Defects of the Ring - On a worn type writer it is not exceptional to
find that the more active type-bars have depressed the metal of the ring at their
point of contact. It no longer has any effect on the type-bars corresponding to
the depression, it no longer stops them in their travel and it does not send them
back to their original position.
These bars strike directly at the platen, stoop their momentarily and
fall back by their own weight giving by this very slow motion a vibration to
the character in the vicinity of the platen. At this time the escapement has
already moved and the character gives two impressions instead of one. The
second impression, displaced in connection with the first and much paler
seems to be its shadow. The name given to it is 'veiled stroke'.
Disorder of the Type bar guide - If the position of the type bar
guide is modified for some reason, the result is a complete disorder of the
writing. A guide moved to the right will raise all signs on the right of the
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keyboard and will lower all the signs on the left. If it is moved to the left, it
will cause the opposite effect.
Alteration of the Platen - The rubber of the platen gets old and
hardens, the surface formally smooth becomes more and more irregular and
rough and does not offer anymore intimate contact with all surface of the sign.
The writing becomes inconsistent and the same sign will print itself partially
or entirely and with a greater intensity and more intensively on the tight or the
left, on the bottom or the top.
General Wear of a Typewriter - The typebars are subjected to a
lateral play particularly felt at the top. This gives poor accuracy at the point of
impact of the character. The same signs print themselves on the right or on
the left of their theoretical point of impact.
TYPEFACE MISALIGNMENTS – synonymous to “alignment defects:
1. Vertical Misalignment - A character printing above or below
its proper position. Possible causes are:
a. a character soldered too high or too low on the typebar;
b. an unsoldered character;
c. a typebar having lost its correct curvature;
d. a type bar having an oval of axis bearing;
e. misalignment of the typebar guide to the right or to the left;
and
f. disorder of the capital letter shift lock.
2. Lateral or Horizontal Misalignment - An alignment defect in
which the character prints the right or left of its proper position is
known as horizontal alignment.
3. Oblique Misalignment – The character leans towards the right or
towards the left.
TYPEWRITING STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS – the procurement of
typewriting exemplars are grouped as follows:
1. Study of the questioned document by the investigator;
2. Procurement of the regular course of business typewriting;
3. Preparation of exemplar typewriting by the suspected writer;
4. Preparation of typewriting exemplar by the investigator on
suspected typewriter; and
5. The procurement of the suspected typewriter itself by the
investigator.
OBTAINING KNOWN TYPEWRITTEN EXEMPLARS - Properly
prepared known typewriting samples not only facilitate the examination in the
laboratory but they aid immeasurably in the demonstration in the court room.
HOW TO OBTAIN EXEMPLARS OF TYPEWRITING?
1. If the typewriter ribbon is obviously new, remove it from the
typewriter and send it to the laboratory with the typewriting
exemplars prepared from another ribbon.(the text of the material
in question may still be discernible of the ribbon)
2. Use paper of about of about the same size as the questioned
material, type out a full word for word copy of the message in
question, typographical errors, using as nearly as possible the
same degree of touch as that used in typing the questioned
material.
3. After placing the typewriter in a stencil position or removing the
cloth ribbon, obtain samples of each character on the keyboard
by typing through carbon paper which has been inserted carbon
side down over a piece of white bond paper.
4. Make certain that each specimen contain the make, model and
serial number of the typewriter from which it was produced as well
as the date and initials of the officer.
5. Typewriter specimens should be taken from suspected
typewriter/s. It is usually not necessary to forward the typewriter
to the laboratory if complete known exemplars are obtained.
6. If possible, after a typewritten exemplar is obtained from a
suspected typewriter, the investigation should insure that the
typewriter is kept in its current condition.
7. With evidence thus obtained from typewritten documents, the
laboratory experts is in position to lend valuable assistance to
the solution and subsequent prosecution of many cases.
PHOTO MECHANICAL PRINTING PROCESS
60
METHODS OF PRINTING
A. RELIEF PRINTING (LETTERPRESS)
In this method of printing, the image characters are raised above
the level of the non-printing areas. The ink is applied to a raised surface
that in turn is applied to paper. The letterpress process is the oldest of
all printing procedures. It prints with cleaner and sharper letters.
After the type has been set, the next step is the actual printing
which is made on one of three principles:
1. The platen or “flatbed press” opens and closes like a clam shaft; it
has raised type on one flat surface and paper on another flat surface
and the two are pressed together. Small hand presses are generally
platen presses.
2. Cylinder presses roll the paper around a cylinder and then across
the flat surface of inked type.
3. Rotary presses pass the paper between two cylinders, one of which
holds the curved printing plates.
B. INTAGLIO (GRAVURE PRINTING) – There are four types of
printing which employ the Intaglio principle of placing ink in an area,
which has been cut out or etched.
1. Gravure – This is a process in which the ink in recessed or sunken
letters is drawn out or sucked out under pressure. The process
produces high quality reproduction of photographs and half-tone
illustrations, but the letters of type reproduced have slightly fuzzy
edges. The printing is done from large copper plates or copper
covered cylinders on presses of two kinds; sheet-fed gravure
presses and web-fed rotogravure presses for longer runs. The
copper plates or cylinders are produced by making film positives
of the art work to be reproduced.
2. Engraving – The paper her is forced into the sunken areas of a
metal plate where the ink is. A special plate is made by the artist
who removes or scratches areas in the metal itself into which the
ink is placed. The actual printing process is very slow, and after the
paper is removed from the plate, time must be allowed for the
drying of the ink to prevent smudging.
3. Planographic – Lithography is the most well known printing
process which employs the principle of putting ink on a chemically
treated surface. The commercial application of lithography is
known as offset. In this process, the copy is placed in front of a
big camera and photographed so that the film is the exact size that
the final result is to be. The film is in turn placed over a sensitized
plate make of paper, albumen or chemically treated metal) and
exposed to a strong light.
4. Stencil – Stencil sheets on which the copy is typed or drawn are
made of a porous lease tissue, covered with a coating which is
impervious to ink. The typing or drawing pushes the coating aside
and exposes the porous tissue. This stencil wrapped around an
inked cylinder and the cylinder is rolled across the paper, forcing
the ink through the porous parts of the stencil.
C. PLANOGRAPHIC (LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING) – In
planographic printing, the image characters are in the same general
plane as the non-printing areas. The ink is applied to a dead level
plate which has been chemically treated such as lithograph and offset.
D. STENCIL – It is a process where the letters or image are holes cut in a
sheet, or a sheet is made more porous in the area of the letters and ink
is applied to paper through the holes or porous areas such as
mimeograph.
E. HALFTONE BLOCK PRINTING – This is offset-related and is used
for the reproduction of pictures and illustrations in little covers. To
prepare a halftone block, the model is photograph and its image is
transferred to a metal surface by photo-printing.
IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PRINTING
A. LETTERPRESS
1. Study of this printing shows that the edges of the letters are more
sharply defined than offset printing.
2. Careful microscopic study and measurement may reveal different
“runs” of letterpress printing which have been made from the same
set-up; the “y” type face may exhibit evidence of damage and the
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 spacing and alignment may be different due to pressure applied by
the frame.
B. OFFSET
1. The edges of the letters are more irregular than in letterpress;
2. The middle portion and the edges of the letters are more or less of
the same density; and
3. There is no indentation of the paper in the area of the printed
letters as is sometimes found in letter press printing.
IDENTIFICATION OF PRINTING – The identification of printing is
based on the general principles which consider the existence of an
adequate combination of class and individual characteristics exceeding
the limits of an accidental coincidence.
A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – maybe grouped under body size
and type face designs.
1. Body size of a type – responsible for the width of a line and depth
of a column.
2. Unit measurement – six picas making an inch.
3. The body size in metallic type – varies from six points up to
seventy points, larger ones being made mainly in wood.
4. According to the type face – there are eight main designs
B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – These come into existence
as a result of:
1. Defective setting in relative space positioning, slant and weight of
type faces; or
2. Due to mutilations and imperfections in the type faces.
applied; the direction the pig is facing; attention to details; line quality;
angular or curved strokes; and emphasis on head of pig.
TYPEWRITING
All typewriters of a particular make and model are pretty much the
same but, through use, the develop defects that translate to paper when the
machine is used. These defects on the typed page can be matched back to the
typewriter that was used to create it.
These defects in the type face are revealed in a number of ways. If
the type bar is bent (the bar on which the letter element is attached and
hammered down to the page) the letter is misaligned or 'off its feet.'
Misalignments can also cause non-printing areas of a specific letter, such as
losing the loop on the bottom of a ‘g.’ The letter can be displaced horizontally
or vertically. Little clumps of plastic can adhere to the type key during
manufacture and are made permanent by the coating process. This defect is
called 'flashing.' As wear and tear increases, the defects become more
exaggerated.
Just looking at the type style, or font, the spacing (horizontal and
vertical) and type size allows for determining the make and model of the
typewriter. Ribbons are a major evidentiary component. It is possible to read
a ribbon to see what it has been used to type.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

HANDWRITING

Graphology, the study of handwriting to determine one's

personality traits, is not handwriting analysis. It's not even considered a
science; more like a parlor trick. True handwriting analysis involves
painstaking examination of the design, shape and structure of handwriting to
determine authorship of a given handwriting sample. The basic principle HANDWRITING AND FINGERPRINT EXPERTS
underlying handwriting analysis is that no two people write the exact same
thing the exact same way. Every person develops unique peculiarities and Illustrations Concerning Forged Signatures in thumb impressions,
characteristics in their handwriting. typed matter, alleged alterations & interpolations etc.

Handwriting analysis looks at letter formations, connecting strokes

between the letters, upstrokes, retraces, down strokes, spacing, baseline,
curves, size, distortions, hesitations and a number of other characteristics of
handwriting. By examining these details and variations in a questioned
sample and comparing them to a sample of known authorship, a determination
can be made as the whether or not the authorship is genuine. The upper disputed signature marked Q is a forged signature in
'Devnagari Script' of Hon'ble Ex-Prime Minister " Sh. Chandrashekhar" on a
Graphology systems tend to be one of three (3) types: (1) those cheque as compared with his admitted signature marked A-1.
based on individual letter formations; (2) those based on stroke analysis; and
(3) those based on an holistic/gestalt method. Over 3000 private business
companies use it routinely (to screen employees), and it enjoys a growing
sense of scientific respectability. The courts appear to be waiting to see
college psychology courses on it. It probably has the most validity with the
following domains: (1) intelligence; (2) attitude toward work; and (3)
interpersonal skills. Recent developments have focused on "profiling" of
uncaptured criminals and sex offenders (where handwriting analysts say they
can spot a "perversion", not exactly the best word for it).

There's some precedent in art therapy and projective psychological

testing for graphology. Many convictions of child sex offenders have
occurred because of what the child victim portrayed in a drawing, and with
psychological testing, there's the famous "Draw a Pig" assignment, which
apparently contains everything you need to make a subjective personality
assessment from: where placed on paper; the size of the pig; the pressure
61 www.rkmfiles.net
 The disputed signature marked Q-3 across the revenue stamp is a
forged signature as compared with the genuine signature marked
A-1.
The upper signature marked Q-2 is a forged signature as compared
with the admitted signature marked A-2.
The upper signature marked Q across the revenue stamp is a forged
signature in 'Telugu Script' as compared with the specimen
signature marked S-4.
The upper fingerprint marked Q is a latent fingerprint developed
from the object of burglary and found to be identical with the
specimen fingerprint (S-78) of the suspect on scientific
comparison.
The fingerprint marked X developed with Chemical Powders from
the object of burglary was found to be identical with the specimen
fingerprint D-5 of the suspect.
A highly enlarged photograph of a clear rolled fingerprint
…oΩo…
62
POLYGRAPHY (LIE DETECTION)
BASIC CONCEPTS
What is Polygraphy? It is the scientific method of detecting
deception with the use of a polygraph instrument. This is the new name of LIE
DETECTION.
What is a Polygraph? It is a scientific diagnostic instrument used
to record physiological changes in the blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration
and skin resistance of an examinee under controlled condition.
What is Lie Detector? It is the popular but misleading name of
the Polygraph. In Greek, Polygraph means “many writings” and the
instrument was so named because it make various ink recordings of a person’s
body functions.
What is the other name of the Polygraph? It is also called
“Truth Verifier” since statistics show that is the vast majority of the instances
the instrument verifies an innocent person’s truthfulness.
What are the Concepts of Polygraph Examination?
1. Used to test an individual for the purpose of detecting
deception or verify the truth of statement
2. Records identifiable physiological reactions of the subject,
such as; blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin
resistance.
3. The effectiveness of the polygraph in recording symptoms of
deceptions is based on the theory that a conscious mental
effort on the part of a normal person to deceive causes
involuntary physiological changes that are in effect a body’s
reaction to an imminent danger to its well being.
What are the objectives of a Polygraph Examination?
1. Obtain additional investigation leads to the facts of the
case/offenses.
2. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth
3. Locate the fruits or tools of the crime or whereabouts of
wanted persons.
4. Identify other persons involved.
5. Obtain valuable information form reluctant witnesses
6. Eliminate the innocent suspects.
What are the Principal uses of the polygraph?
1. Aid in investigation
2. Speeds up processing of investigation
3. Eliminates innocent suspects
4. Pre-employment screening
5. Honesty test (Periodic test)
What is the significance of understanding Lie Detection?
In every criminal investigation, the truth must be established to
ensure proper prosecution of offenders. Criminal investigators must exert all
effort to determine lying not only on the part of the suspect but as well as to
everyone involved in the criminal act – witnesses, victims, etc.
In establishing the truth, criminal investigators apply various
methods such as: observation; mechanical lie detection; use of drugs that
inhibits the “inhibitor”; hypnosis; and interrogation.
What is Lie? Any untruthful statement; Falsehood; Anything that
deceives or creates false impression; to make untrue statements knowingly,
especially with intent to deceive; To give an erroneous or misleading
impression; Lie is also synonymous to Deceit; deception; fabrication;
falsehood; and untruth.
What is the meaning of Detection? The act of detecting,
discovery, perceiving, finding, or uncovering something obscure
What are the Kinds of Lie?
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 1. White Lie or Benign Lie - the kind of lies used to protect or
maintain the harmony of friendship or any relationship.
2. Pathological Lie - this is a lie made by persons who cannot
distinguish right from wrong.
3. Red Lie - this involves political interests and motives
because this is a part of communist propaganda strategy.
This is prevalent in communist countries or
communist infested nation. Lies of means of
propaganda-brain-washing and blackmail via
espionage and treason.
4. Black Lie - a lie accompanies pretensions and
hypocrisies, intriguing to cause dishonor or discredit
ones good image.
5. Malicious or Judicial Lie - this is very pure and
unjustifiable kind of lie that is intended purely to
mislead or obstruct justice.
What are the Types of Liars?
1. Panic Liars - one who lies in order to avoid the
consequences of a confession, He/She is afraid of
embarrassment to love ones and it is a serious blow to his /
her ego, He/She believes that confession will just male the
matter worst.
2. Occupational Liars - Is someone laid for spare years, this
person is a practical liar and lies when it has a higher “pay
off” than telling the truth.
3. Tournament Liars - Loves to lie and is excited by the
challenge of not being detected, this person views an
interview as another contest and wants to win, this person
realizes that he or she will probably be convicted bur will not
give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her confesses,
he wants that people will believe that the law is punishing an
innocent person.
4. Psychopathic Liars - the most difficult type, this person has
no conscience. He shows no regret for dishonestly and no
manifestation of guilt,
5. Ethnological Liars - is one who is taught not to be a
squealer, *squealer – to cry or to shrill voice, used by
underworld gang in order for their member not to reveal any
secret of their organization.
6. Pathological Liars - A person who cannot distinguish right
from wrong (his mind is sick.), Is an insane person.
7. Black Liars - A person who always pretends, (What he
thinks of himself, what kind of person he is, and what he is.)
CONCEPT OF DETECTING LIES
What is the theory of lie detection?
It must be recognized that there is no such thing as an instrument
that will detect lies. The popular name, Lie Detector, given to a collection of
certain medical instruments, is somewhat misleading. No collection of
inanimate objects including the very finest and complicated modern
computers, can detect lies on the part of any human being.
The students can understandably ask, “Well, what does this do
called “lie detector” do?” The answer to that question is that the lie detector
records certain physiological activities of the body. These activities are
constantly in operation as long as the person is alive. The student should be
aware that the most common lie detectors record a breathing pattern of
inspiration and expiration, a continuous pattern of relative blood pressure and
pulse rate, and a pattern of electro dermal activity.
It is well known that the body adapts itself as efficiently as
possible to its environment. If the environment changes, the body will rapidly
adjust itself to these changes. This is done by a complicated system of internal
checks and balance primarily involving the autonomic nervous system. This
ability to adjust is necessary if the organism if the organism or body is to
survive in a constantly changing world. Those organisms that cannot adjust
rapidly die out.
63
Historically, early human beings have their own way of
determining lying or guilt on the part of the accused and accuser. Their
common method is thru the application of “ORDEAL.”
What is Ordeal?
A severe test of character or endurance; a trying course of
experience, A medieval form of judicial trial in which the accused was
subjected to physical tests, as carrying or walking over burning objects or
immersing the hand in scalding water, the result being considered a divine
judgment of guilt or innocence.
It is also a term of varying meaning closely related in the Medieval
Latin “Dei Indicum” meaning “Miraculous decision.” Ordeal is also an
ancient method of trial in which the accused was exposed to physical danger
which was supposed to be harmless if he was innocent.
What are the Early Methods of Detecting Lies?
1. Red hot iron ordeal - Practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in the
North Bengal; Accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron nine
times (9) unless burned sooner; If burned, he is put to death. Not
only that (licking the iron), he is also made to carry the metal into
his hands. It is doubtful whether the ordeal is meant to determined
the physiological changes occurring in description for if this so,
many false observations must have been made.
2. Ordeal by balance - Practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India;
Scale of balanced is used; In one end of the scale, the accused is
placed in the other end, a counter balance; The person will step out
of the scale listened to a judge deliver an extortion is the balance
and her back in. If he were found to be lighter than before then he
should be acquitted.
3. Boiling water ordeal - Used in Africa; the method was that the
subject will plunged their right arms into the boiling pot to the
elbow and step into the other side of the fire. All are told to
undergo the test without a murmur. And when all are finished, they
are told to return at the same tine the next afternoon. The one who
by that time had lost some or showed blisters would prove the thief
(Point out who is the one who steal among his tribe mates).
4. Ordeal by rice chewing - Practiced by Indians; It is formed with a
kind of rice called sathee, prepared with various incantations; The
person on trial eats, with his face to the and then spits upon an
eyeful leaf; If the saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his
mouth swell or he trembles, he is declared then a liar.
5. Ordeal of the red water - Used in a wide region of Eastern
Africa; The ordeal of the “sassy bark” or red water is used; The
accused is made to fast for twelve hours; The swallow a small
amount of rice; Then he will be imbibed in dark colored water.
This water is actually an emetic and if the suspects ejects all the
rice, he is considered innocent of the chare, Otherwise, the accused
is guilty.
6. Combination of Drinks and Food Ordeal -The accused first
fasted for 12 hours and the given small amount of rice to ear
followed by large amount of black colored water. If the concoction
was vomited, the accused was pronounced innocent; Otherwise,
guilty. And practiced by “West African Regions”.
7. Trial by Combat - A fight between the accuser and the accused,
whoever lost the battle will be the adjudged guilty. Originated
from India and one of the examples of this: a rich man or accuser
could hire somebody or bigger one to fight the accused. After the
fight the loser is adjudged guilty of crime.
8. Trial by Torture - The accused was put into a severe physical
test.
9. Drinking Ordeal - The accused was given a decoction to drink by
a priest – if innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die.
Practiced in Nigeria and India.
10. Trial of the Eucharist - This trial is reserved for the clergy, and
administered with pomp and ceremony. If the accused was guilty,
the Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the
accused from swallowing the food given to him. Practiced in the
European countries.
11. Ordeal by heat and fire - The accused was compelled to walk
bare footed through a fire; if he remains unhurt then he is innocent.
Practiced in East Germany, Early Scandinavian Countries and
early England.
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 12. Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water - The accused was forced to dip
his hands into the boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it.
If he remains unhurt then he is innocent. Practiced in Asian
Countries.
13. Ordeal of Red hot Needle - Red hot needle was drawn through
the lips of the accused, if innocent; no blood will be seen flowing
out. Practiced in Wanaka, East Africa.
14. Ordeal of the Tiger - Accuser and accused were placed together
in the same and a tiger set loose upon them. If both were spared,
further elimination followed. Practical in Siam.
15. Ordeal by Combat - Accuser and accused report to a duel where
the winner was adjudged innocent. Those not proficient in
weapons and those who could not afford to do so could hire
champions in the field to do the fighting for them. This type of
ordeal is vividly dramatized in the movie “Ivanhoe” based on the
novel of the same title (became the only legal ordeal). Practiced in
England, time of “King Henry III”.
16. Test of the Cross ordeal - The accuser and accused each were
made to stand with arms crossed on their breasts. The one who
endured the longest was deemed to have told the truth, the other, is
the liar. Practiced in Europe.
17. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal - Psychological theory, the donkey placed
in one room alone and observed it, and if the donkey cried is a
judged of guilty of crimes, because deep in side and conscience he
is guilty.
What are the Common Countries that Practiced Ordeal?
1. Burma - The accuser and accused were given each identical
candle and both were lightened at the same time.
2. Borneo - The accuser and accused were presented by shell fish
placed on a plate. An irritating fluid was then poured on the shell
fish and the litigant whose shell fish moved first was adjudged the
winner.
3. Greece - A suspended axe was spun at the center of a group of
suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever was in line with the
blade as supposed to be guilty as pointed out by the divine
providence.
4. Nigeria - The priest greased a clock’s feather and pierced the
tongue of the accused. If the feather passed through the tongue
easily, the accused was deemed innocent. If not, the accused is
guilty. Another Method (same country) Pour corrosive liquid into
the eyes of the accused who was supposed to remain unharmed if
innocent. Pour boiling oil over the hand of the accused with he
usual requisites for guilt or innocence (if remain unharmed, he is
innocent).
5. Europe and Early United States (17th Century) - Trial by water
was commonly used on those accused of witchcraft. The accused
was bound (hand and foot) and then cast into the body of water. If
the accused sank, he was hauled to the surface half-drowned and
deemed innocent. If the floated, he was deemed guilty and burned
to death.
Detecting Lies through Observation Methods
1. Through Facial Expression
2. Blushing, paling or profuse sweating of forehead.
3. Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of eyeballs and elevation of upper
eyelids.
4. Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, distrust, etc.).
5. Twitching of the lips.
6. Excessive winking of the eyes.
7. Failure to look the inquirer “straight into the eyes”.
8. Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple and the vein at the temple
due to dryness of throat and mouth.
9. Quivering of nose or nostrils.
10. A peculiar monotone of the voice.
11. A forced laugh.
12. Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another
13. Through Postural Reaction
14. Fidgeting, tapping or drumming of fingers on the chairs or the
other surfaces.
15. Swinging of legs or one leg over the other.
16. Unnecessary movements of hands and feet (like scratching, nail
biting, thumb or finger sucking).
17. Pulsation of the artery in the neck.
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18. Incoherence, trembling and sweating of the whole body.
Detection through Regular Police Methods
Police methods sought to answer the legal investigative process to
the following: The “five Wives and One Husband” (5 W’s and 1H) which
stand for: WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, and HOW. The “Three Eyes” (3
I’s) which stands for: Information gathering – through record Check,
Surveillance and Intelligence Check, Investigation – through Interrogation or
Interview for Admission or Confession, Instrumention or Criminalistics
(Police Sciences) with the use of the different Investigative Forensic Sciences
such as Medico Legal or Forensic Medicine, Forensic Chemistry, Police or
Investigative photography, Forensic Ballistics (Firearm Identification),
Questioned Documents Examination, Dactyloscopy, Police or Investigative
Communication, Polygraphy /Deceptography
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPHY
In the middle of the 19th century, Dr. Hans Gross, an Austrian
known as the “Father of Criminalistics”, defined search for truth as the basis
and goal of all criminal investigations. He asserted that “a large part of the
criminalist’s work is nothing more than a battle against lies. He has to
discover the truth and must fight the opposite. He meets the opposite at every
step.
The searches for truth and attempts at uncovering falsehood have
been a universal and almost constant endeavor dating back at ancient times. In
their attempt to discover deception, primitive societies developed complex
procedures founded on magic and mysticism. The doors to the truth, divine
creatures sent messages through fire, boiling water and torture. In some
instances, faith in this powerful mysticism miraculously allowed the innocent
to go unscathed while the guilty bore the mark of guilt.
Some of these rituals were based on sound physiological
principles. Oriental people for example distinguished truth form lying by
having the entire accused chew dry rice and then spit it out. While this was a
simple task for the honest, those who were deceiving have difficulty in
accomplishing this task and were then judged to be guilty and punished
accordingly. This practice recognized that fear slows the digestive process,
including salivation. Thus, the deceptive were unable to spit out the dry rice,
while the innocent, having faith in the power of their deity to clear them of the
unjust accusation, felt little fear in contrast to the guilty who know they would
be discovered.
Throughout the centuries, man continued to experiment with more
scientific methods in determining truth and deception with the following
scientists having contributed much in the development of the polygraph
instrument:
A. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARDIOGRAPH COMPONENT
ANGELO MOSSO – 1895
1. Studied fear and its influence on the hearth and his
observations subsequently formed the basis for the
technique.
2. Developed the SPHYGMAMOMANOMETER and the
SCIENTIFIC CRADLE, which he used in studying fear
on the heart.
CESAR LOMBROSO – 1895
1. Employed the first scientific instrument to detect
deception. This instrument known as
HYDORSPHYGMOGRAPH, measured changes in
pulse and blood pressure when suspects were
questioned about their involvement in or knowledge of
a specific response.
2. Procedure on the use of the
“HYDROSPHYGMOGRAPH” in detecting deception:
Subject’s hand placed in a water filed tank sealed with
membranes of rubber; Subject will be shown pictures
connected with the crime or mention will be made to
relevant facts of the crime; Pulsation of blood in fist
was recorded on smoked drum.
WILLIAM MARSTON – 1915
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 1. He dealt with the sphygmomanometer which was used
to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressure
readings during the course of an examination;
2. He also experienced with and helped to develop the
pneumograph, which records breathing patterns, and the
galvanometer, which registers changes in skin
resistance.
JOHN LARSON – 1921
1. Developed the polygraph, an instrument capable of
continuously records blood pressure, pulse, and
respiration.
2. The polygraph instrument which he developed was
polygraphic apparatus in a portable form. Had
published more than anyone in this field.
D.
THE LARSON POLYGRAPH - This is the first assemblage of
apparatus and some of his co-workers in the Berkeley Police Department. A
strip of paper on which the tracings are recorded is mounted on two drums,
which are turned by a spring mechanism known as a kymograph. The paper is
smoked to reduce the friction of the styluses or recording levers which are
actuated by Marey Tambours. A manometer is placed on the right shoulder of
the subject, the function of whish is to indicate the pressure in the bag, the
pressure bag, encased in a leather cuff, is strapped pneumograph is strapped
around the chest to record respiration. This type of pneumograph or
respiration applicator is sill being used in some of the modern instruments. In
a later model developed by Larson, a Jaquet polygraph replaced the
kymograph and smoked paper, and the pens moved horizontally instead of
vertically as in the original apparatus. In a further modification, metal tambour
stacks were substituted for the Erlanger capsule and rubber covered tambours.
LEONARD KEELER –1926
1. Continued research and development of the polygraph.
In 1949, he invented the Keeler Polygraph with
components that simultaneously recorded changes in
blood pressure, pulse and respiration, as well as the
newly developed galvanic skin reflex.
2. He devised the chart roll paper, a better method of
questioning, and incorporated the kymograh.
3. He also devised a metal bellows.
THE KEELER POLYGRAPH - In 1925, Keeler developed a
compact portal instrument using a modification of the Erlanger pressure
reducer that permitted the blood pressure changes to be recorded over a
greater range. He later made further improvement by substituting metal
bellows or diaphragm capsules in place of the Erlanger type pressure reducer.
The instrument is housed in a steel case with wrinkle finish and chromium
trim. The cover is attached to case by means of slip hinges and can be
removed when the instrument is to be used. Opening of the cover permits
hinged doors at each end of the case to open outward for access to the chart at
one end and the accessories at the other. All connections to the instrument are
made directly under the right end of the panel, which include the hose
connection for the cuff inflation bulb, the tube from the blood pressure cuff, a
connector for the hand electrodes of the electro dermal recording unit, an
extension cord, and a tube from the pneumograph. Space is provided directly
below the attachments for storage of the accessories, and they may be stored
without disconnecting the accessories form the instrument.
B. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH COMPONENT
VITTORIO BENUSSI – 1914
1. Successfully detected deception with a pneumograph,
an instrument that graphically measures an examinee’s
inhalation and exhalation.
2. He demonstrated that changes in breathing patterns
accompany deception.
HAROLD BURTT – 1918
1. Determined that respiratory changes were indicative of
deception.
2. Found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were
of greater value in determining deception than changes
in respiration.
C. DEVELOPMENT OF THE GALVANOGRAPH
COMPONENT
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GEORG STICKER – 1897
1. First to suggest the use of the galvanograph for
detecting deception based on the work of several
predecessors.
2. Theorized that the galvanic skin phenomena was
influenced by exciting mental impressions and that the
will have no effect upon it.
OTTO VERAGUTH – 1907
1. First to use the term “PSYCHOGALVANIC
REFLEX”.
2. Believed that the electrical phenomenon was due to the
activity of the sweat glands.
OTHER PERSONALITIES TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE POLYGRAPH AS KNOWN TODAY
HUGO MUNSTERBURG (1908)
1. Proposed that lie test based on lie detector should be
admissible as evidence in court.
2. The detection is based on using blood pressure
variations for deception detection.
3. He advocates the used of lie detection in court.
4. But it was not known if the same was followed.
CHARLES SAMSON FERE – (1888)
1. French Scientist who discovered that electro dermal
response is caused by an increase in the action of the
heart and vital energy converted with human emotions.
2. He asserted that human body has the ability to generate
store, discharged high voltage of static electricity.
JACQUES D’ARSONVAL – (1851-1940)
1. French Scientist who declared that electricity is
generated by the body and named External Friction as
source of generation.
2. He assorted those sweat glands which the body at times
store the electricity and at other times discharged them.
3. His works helped in the development of the
galvanometer.
PAUL WILHELM AND DONALD BURNS (1951)
1. Michigan City, Indiana, USA, (Independent Lie
Detector Specialists) who invented the Electronic
Psychometric using Electrodermal Response as a basis
for lie detection.
2. Both have proven that results of lie detection test
(during) using their instrumental 95% accurate.
CHESTER W. DARROW (1932)
1. Made a third modification to the Larson Cardio-
Pneumo Psychograph, by adding a galvanometer. The
new instrument included a psycho-galvanometric
record, electrodes on the palm and back of the hand, as
well as a continuous blood pressure record, and a
pneumographic record.
JOHN E. REID – (1945)
1. Devised an instrument for recording muscular activity.
2. The recording made simultaneously with blood pressure
pulse respiration tracings, renders much more accurate
any diagnosis based upon these later phenomena.
SIR JAMES MACKENZLE (1906)
1. Generally overlooked in that history of the lie detector
technique is the fact that so called polygraph was in
existence at least as early as 1906.
2. Its invention, however as not for lie detection purposes,
rather for the use in medical examination.
3. Nevertheless, it did contain the essential features of
present day instrument and first construction was based
upon the same principle.
4. Its inventor was Sir James Mackenzle, the famous
English Heart Specialist which articles entitled “The
Ink Polygraph” which appeared in 1908 number of the
English Journal.
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 CLEVE BACKSTER – (1947)
1. Develop the control question technique which
introduces a lie in the polygraph chart to establish a
yard sticks so that one would know what the reaction
really means.
2. If this person responds to this control lie to a greater
extent than does to the actual questions under
investigation we assume and establish the subject is
telling the truth at that point.
3. If the reverse is true we state that he is not telling the
truth at that point.
THE LEE PSYCHOGRAPH - This instrument was designed by
Captain Clarence D. Lee and known as the Berkeley Psychograph. It consists
essentially of four units:
a) Chart drive or recording unit
b) Pneumograph or respiration unit
c) Cardiograph or pulse-blood pressure unit
d) Stimulus signal unit
PSYCHOLOGY OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
Psychology of the Lying Person
The polygraph technique uses the principle that the bodily
functions of a person are influenced by his mental state. The physiological
changes accompanying deception are capable of being recorded, measured
and interpreted with reasonable certainty.
Telling a lie is usually an emotional experience. A conscious act of
lying causes the mind of the examinee, which produces an emotion of fear or
anxiety, manifested by fluctuations in pulse rate, blood pressure, breathing
and perspiration. The physiologic fluctuations that come with the emotion are
in nature automatic, self-regulating and beyond conscious control because
they affect the functioning of the internal structures that prepare the body for
emergency.
The underlying psychology here includes:
1. The lying person fears detection, causing physiological changes to
take place in his body.
2. Fear of detection must be experienced by the subject; otherwise no
physiological changes will occur.
3. A person “tunes in” that which indicates trouble or danger by
having his sense organs and attention for a particular stimulus, and
he “tunes out “that which is of a lesser threat to his self-
preservation or general well-being.
4. In a series of questions containing relevant and control questions,
the lying subjects will “tune in” on the most intense relevant
questions and “tune out “ the control question and may not be
materially affected by other weak relevant questions.
5. The truthful subject will direct his attention to the control question
wherein he consciously knows he is deceptive and “tune out” the
relevant ones.
Theory of Polygraph Examination
A conscious mental effort of a mentally normal person lie causes
physiological changes within his body. The physiological changes could be
recorded by the Polygraph Instrument and diagnosed of evaluated by the
polygraph examiner.
The physiological effector mechanism in polygraph examination is
the Autonomic Nervous System. The autonomic nervous is the one
responsible for regulating mechanism that corrects the slightest deviation from
a particular standard within very fine limits. Sleeps, oxygenation of the blood
temperature, levels of potassium, sodium, calcium magnesium and all the
essential chemical substances that maintain the activity of all cell membranes
are finely adjusted. This is found at the center of the brain and its central
controls is in the “hypothalamus” – a group of nerve cells of the brain that
reflexes – those that we cannot control consciously such as our heart beat,
pulse rate, increase and decrease in blood pressure and the expansion and
constriction of arteries are governed by the autonomic nervous system. When
one of our senses detects a threat to our well-being, it sends a signal to the
autonomic nervous system, which activates its sympathetic division regardless
whether threat is physical or psychological.
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In polygraph testing, the receptor is the ear of the subject, which
receives the threatening question or stimulus from the polygraphist. The
stimulus is transmitted from the ears via sensory neurons into the brain where
the hypothalamus analyzes, evaluates and resolves that particular question. It
makes a decision for the subject as to whether it is threatening situation. If
affirmative, the hypothalamus immediately activates the sympathetic
subdivision of the autonomic nervous system. When the sympathetic system is
activated, it immediately prepares the body for the fight or flight by the
situation by causing the adrenal glands to secret hormones known as
epinephrine and norepinephrine, so that the blood will be distributed to those
areas of the body where it is most needed to meet the emergency, such as the
brain and the larger muscle group. The chemical norepinephrine causes the
arterioles in certain parts of the body to constrict. Thereby preventing blood
from entering those areas where it is not immediately needed. Other obvious
effect took place when the sympathetic system is activated, the heart pumps
blood harder and faster, increasing blood pressure, pulse rate, and strength,
thus furnishing more oxygenated blood to those areas of the body where it is
vitally needed to meet the emergency, such as the brain when increased
mental activity is demanded. The second division of the autonomic nervous
system is the parasympathetic nervous system. It is functionally antagonistic
to the sympathetic nervous system. Its role is to maintain the homeostasis of
the body necessary for normal functioning. Therefore, it follows to re-
establish the chemical balance of the body.
What are the Tripod Foundations of Polygraph Technique?
1. The Mechanical Leg Basic Premise - The polygraph machine is
mechanically capable of making graphical records containing
reliable information regarding physiological changes
2. The Physiological Leg Basic Premise - Among the physiological
changes that may be recorded and identified are those that
automatically occur only following the stimulation of specific
nervous system component and from which stimulation of those
specific nervous system components can be reliably diagnosed.
3. Psychological Leg Basic Premise - Under the polygraph leg
premise, the specific nervous system component whose stimulation
can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the involuntary mental
and emotional processes of the individual who is consciously
attempting concealment of deception specially if that individual
has something at stake and the prevailing circumstances lead him
to believe that exposure to detection is quite possible though
undesirable.
GOALS, USES AND PURPOSES OF POLYGRAPH TECHNIQUE
What is the ultimate objective of conducting Polygraph examination?
The ultimate objective of Polygraph Examination is to obtain the
Subject’s “ADMISSION or CONFESSION” of the offense committed.
General Purposes of using Polygraph
Polygraph Examination is generally used an investigative
aid/technical aid in the investigative process. It is used to verify if the
statement of the victims/complainant, establish the credibility of the
witnesses, evaluates the truthfulness of the suspects. It is also used for pre-
employment screening and loyalty check of personnel.
Generally, it deals with
1. Security risk – Leakage of Information Intelligence and Counter-
Intelligence.
2. Criminal Law Infraction – Murder, Robbery, Theft, Rape etc.
3. Personnel Screening
4. Misconduct
5. Medical Measurements
Importance of Polygraph to a Law Enforcer
1. Most effective way of establishing the truth.
2. Guilt is separated from truth (guilty separated from innocent)
3. If scientifically determined (lie) the investigator can evaluate the
evidence.
4. Saves time, efforts and money
5. Measures the efficiency and effectiveness of the law enforcer.
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What is the Accuracy of the Polygraph Exam Result?
This has been the unending question among many of us. However,
practitioners have agreed that the accuracy of the polygraph results ranges
from 85% to 100% depending upon the factors that affect it.
Factors that Affects the Accuracy of the Polygraph Results
Generally, the following are factors affecting polygraph
examination accuracy:
1. The instrument.
2. The condition of the Subject.
3. The condition of the examination room.
4. The qualification and skills of the examiner.
Specifically, the 25% errors of lie detection test come from the
following circumstances:
1. Nervousness or extreme emotional tension experienced by a
subject who is telling the truth regarding the offense in question
but who is nevertheless affected by:
a. Apprehension induced by the mere fact that suspicion
or accusation has been directed against him.
b. Apprehension over the possibility of an inaccurate lie
detector test result.
c. Over-anxiety to cooperate in order to assure an accurate
test result.
d. Apprehension concerning possible physical hurt from
the instrument.
e. Anger resentment over having to take a lie detector test.
f. Over-anxiety regarding serious personal problems
unrelated to the offense under investigation.
g. Previous extensive interrogation, especially when
accompanied by physical abuse.
h. A guilt complex or fear of detection regarding some
other offense which he had committed.
2. Physiological abnormalities such as:
a. Excessively high or excessive low blood pressure.
b. Diseases of the heart.
c. Respiratory disorder.
3. Mental Abnormalities such as;
a. Feeblemindedness as in idiots, imbeciles and morons.
b. Psychosis or insanities, as in maniac-depressives,
paranoids, schizophrenia, paretics, etc.
c. Pschoneurosis and psychopathia, as among the so-
called “peculiar” or emotionally unstable persons –
those who are neither psychotic or normal.
4. Unresponsiveness in a lying or guilty subject because of:
a. No fear of detection.
b. Apparent inability to consciously control response by
means of certain mental sets of attitudes.
c. A condition of “sub-shock” or “adrenal exhaustion” at
the time of test.
d. Raionalization of the crime in advance of the test to
such an extent that lying about the offense arouses little
or no emotional disturbance.
e. Extensive interrogation prior to the test.
5. Attempt to “beat the machine” by controlled breathing or by
muscular flexing.
6. Unobserved application of muscular pressure which produces
ambiguities and misleading indications in the blood pressure
tracing.
What are the limitations of the Polygraph?
1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a substitute for
investigation.
2. It is not a lie detector; it is a scientific diagnostic instrument.
3. It does not determine facts, it record responses to that which the
subject knows to be true.
4. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.
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5. The test will not be given until enough facts have been established
to permit the examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable
questions.
6. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the
subject.
7. No indication will be given to any person or placed in any report
that a person will be considered guilty because he refused to take
the test.
8. A test will not be given until the accusations have been explained
with the subject.
9. No attempt to use Polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of
any person.
10. No examination will be conducted on unfit subject.
What are the Barriers to the Polygraph Examination?
There are instances where it is impossible to make an analysis of
polygraph tests because of the following:
1. Pathological liar (a person who cannot determine right and wrong).
2. Mental cases.
3. Persons under the influence of intoxicating liquor.
4. Narcotics related cases.
5. Various heart and other organic troubles.
Problem encountered by Law Enforcement Officer during investigation
and interrogation
1. Determination whether subject is telling the truth regarding the
crime index investigation.
2. Obtaining admission or confession from a suspect after his guilt
has been established.
3. In cases of witnesses, informer and informant who are in
possession of helpful information who are willing but fearful or
reluctant to disclose it to interrogator.
Qualities of a Good Examiner (Backster)
1. To make himself understand and not resented by subject, by his
very exposure to him.
2. Ability to establish or create a rapport with the subject.
3. Much investigative experience as possible.
4. Interrogation Experience.
5. Must be deeply involved in his work (even beyond the call of
duty).
What kind of man should be conducting the Polygraph Test? (Fred
Inbau)
1. Good educational background
2. Intelligent and some degree of maturity
3. Possessed with sense of values
4. Adequate period of training under someone who is experienced
and skilled in the technique.
THE POLYGRAPH INSTRUMENT
The instrument used in the proper application of the polygraph
technique is essentially a pneumatically operated mechanical recorder of
changes in respiration, blood pressure/pulse heat supplemented with a unit for
recording galvanic skin reflexes, or an additional unit for recording abdominal
respiration; muscular movements and pressures; or a plethymograph for
recording changes in blood oxygenation. Attachments for the human body
comprises of a rubber convoluted tube for the chest area, a blood pressure
arm-cuff on one bicep, and, in some models, an electrode on two fingers or
on the palmer side of one hand. These attachments act as the detectors of the
physiological changes and transmit the same to the instrument where it is
connected into mechanical impulses and transformed into tracings of the
respiration, blood pressure and skin resistance or the likes.
How Does the Polygraph Instrument Work?
The polygraph simultaneously records various physiological
phenomena by means a horizontal kymograph. The resulting polygram
indicates tracing of external respiration in the thoraxic and abdominal cavities
by means of a pneumograph tambour assembly, systolic and diastolic
contraction of the heart, as well as pulse fluctuations with the resistance of a
phygmonometer and psycho-galvanic skin response by means o instrument
connected electronics sensors fixed to the person. Each phenomenon is
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recorded by a hallow-tube ink styles moving across horizontally and vertically
ruled being driven by a synchronous electronic motor.
What are the Major Components of the Polygraph?
A. Pneumograph – this occupy the two/upper pens of the instrument
which records the thoraric and abdominal breathing patterns of
respiration. This is accomplished through the use of a
pneumograph consisting of two hollow corrugated tubes about
seven inches in length, each attached to a unit by a rubber hose not
longer than six feet and not larger than one quarter inch in
diameter. This breathing or pneumo unit is a low pressure unit. The
inhalation/exhalation of the subject causes the tubes to expand and
contract, thereby reflecting the change through billows to the pen
into the chart.
B. Galvanometer – this is the longest and the third pen of the
instrument. The electrodes are attached to the index finger and the
ring finger of the left hand, or to the palmar and dorsal surfaces of
the left hand. The electrodes used for obtaining the recording of the
GSR or electro-dermal responses, are fastened to the hand or finger
by means of the passage of an imperceptible amount of electrical
current through the hand or finger bearing the attached electrodes,
a galvanometer unit provides recording of the variation in the flow
of the electrical current.
C. Cardiosphymograph – this is the fourth and the bottom pen of the
instrument. This cardio unit is a mechanically operated unit. It is a
high pressure system. This system records changes in mean blood
pressure, rate and strength of pulse beat by means of a medical
blood pressure cuff containing a rubber bladder that is wrapped
around the upper arm, in a manner that places the bladder against
the brachial artery. The bladder is connected to the rubber hose,
past a pressure indicating gauge to a very sensitive billows and its
connected lever system that powers the pen. The polygraphist
inflates the bladder with a hand pump to a constant air pressure
that will provide tracing amplitude of 0.75 to 1 inch with a dichotic
notch situated about the middle of the diastolic limb of the tracing.
D. Kymograph – This is the chart recording unit of the instrument. It
has a synchronized motor that drives the charts at the rate of six
inches per minute and its speed constant is vital because the
vertical lines, which are spaced either at one-half or one inch
interval, represents five or ten seconds interval on the chart. This
provides the polygraphist with a means of determining pulse rater
and question spacing.
What are the Detachable Parts and Accessories?
1. KYMOGRAPH or chart driving mechanism:
a) Chart roll arbor - Idler roller - Pen table - Paper guides -
Sprocket roller - Cutter bar - Off and on power switch -
Synchronous motor
2. Pen and Inking System:
a) Capillary pen
b) Ink well plates
c) Ink dropper
d) Cuct bill
3. Pneumograph section:
a) Rubber jellows
b) Beaded chain
c) Rubber flexible tubing
d) Pneumograph tube connection
e) Pneumograph connecting tube
f) Pneumograph distributing ink
g) Pneumograph pipe line
h) Vent valve and vent bottom
i) Tambour assembly
j) Sphygmomanometer
k) Resonance control
4. Cardio section:
a) Pump bulb assembly
b) Blood pressure pump connection
c) Blood pressure cuff assembly
d) Connector block
e) Sphygmomanometer pipe line
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5. Galvanograph section:
a) Hand electrode
b) Electrode jellow
c) Galvanometer
Electrodes and Controls
1. RESONANCE CONTROL – It allows you to clear up or make a
better pattern when you have too much pulse pressure of the
subject.
2. HAND ELECTRODE – This is fastened to the hand by a stretched
band. Function is to make electrical contact with the subject.
3. PANEL CONTROL – to allow the operator to control or adjust the
operation of the galvanograph.
There are other five important controls:
1. Off and on power switch – on switch is to energize the
galvanograph section.
2. Subject’s resistance control – is to balance the galvo section to the
skin resistance of the subject.
3. Reactivity control – to adjust sensitivity of the galvo section.
4. Self-centered normal switch – is to select either mode of operation.
5. Self-centering mode – is when the circuit electronically centers the
pen itself after every excursion.
CONTROL OF THE CARDIO-SPHYGMOGRAPH SECTION
1. Manual centering knob – used to place cardio in its proper place on
the chart.
2. Vent Valve – is used to left atmospheric pressure into the system
and used to release pressure all or parts of the pressure.
3. Resonance control – is used to decrease the amplitude of the cardio
tracing and used to sharpen the diacrotic notch.
HOW TO OBTAIN BLOOD PRESURE PATTERN OR TRACING
(CARDIO)
Pen balance is critical. Pen is to be held on paper by friction of the.
Inflate pressure until you reach subject’s mean pressure. The mean pressure is
the midway between the systolic and the diastolic is the lowest pressure. In
order to get the arithmetic mean pressure, add the diastolic and systolic and
the sum divided it by two. To get the geometric mean pressure, plus diastolic,
watch your sphyg-dial when inflating the pressure, for maximum deflection.
CONTROLS OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH SECTION
1. Manual centering knob – used to position base line of the pneumo
tracing on the upper heavy horizontal line.
2. Vent – with the vent down, the system is closed and unoperative.
With the vent up, the system is open and ready for use.
3. Uses of the vent:
a) To stop the pen between the tests and to prevent possible
tambour assembly.
b) To prevent pen from possible jam by moving up or down in
one place of the chart paper.
c) To stop pen during the tube adjustment.
d) To assists in gaining amplitude.
e) To let atmospheric into the system.
HOW TO OBTAIN PROPER TRACINGS OF THE PNEUMO
First observe subject for point of maximum chest motion. Placed
tube at point where maximum motion is observed. The tube must be smug. A
tube that is too loose will result in a distorted pattern. A tube is too tight will
be uncomfortable and distort the pattern. With female subjects the tube is
almost, always placed above the breast. Some females are abdominal
breathers and tubes will have to be lowered.
CAUSES OF REACTION ON EXURSION OF THE PEN
1. Sudden noise
2. Interruption
3. Extraneous thoughts
4. Sudden movements
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HOW TO OBTAIN PROPER TRACING IN MODEL 63 KEELER
MACHINE: (GALVO)
Turn power switch from off and on position. Then the galvo pen
fails to the bottom of the chart, and then galvo section is then ready for
operation from 15 to 18 seconds after you have turned the switch to an on
position.
APPLICATION OF THE ELECTRODES TO THE SUBJECT
Position of hands or tip of fingers for convenience, adjust the
sensitivity - Sensitivity test - Have subject take a deep breath, Touch subject
ear or neck, Quick motion within subject’s line of vision.
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE CARDIO TRACING
1. The ascending limb – pulse wave causes an expansion of the
arterial wall and an increase surface pressure against the cuff
bladder thus forcing air from the bladder through the tubing into
the tambour. The increasing air volume in the tambour increases
pressure against the bellows and forces the bellows forward.
This forward movement provides power to move the penfork
in the attached pen in a lateral clockwise or upward direction pen
in a lateral clockwise or upward direction of the chart surface.
2. Descending limb – when a pulsed wave passes beyond cuff
bladder attendant drop in a surface pressure against bladder
reverses this processes permitting the below to return to or toward
its original position. This return of the bellows to its original
position is transmitted to the penforks and attached pen as a lateral
counter clockwise or downward stoke on chart surface.
3. Diacrotic notch – is cause by the minor secondary pulse wave
passing under and beyond the blood pressure cuff. In the wake of
subsiding primary wave which momentarily halts or slow down the
decrease in the surface pressure against the bladder in turn causing
a hesitation in the bellow movement back to or towards its original
position.
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH TRACING
1. Ascending limb – with the expansion of the chest during the
inhalating, the air capacity in the pneumograph tube is increased
creating a vacuum within the system, which reduces the internal
surface pressure against the bellow. Thus moving the bellows
backward causing a lateral clockwise or upward stroke of the pen.
2. Descending limb – cause by the exhalation thus reversing this
process causing an increase in internal surface pressure against the
bellows, thus moving the bellow to or toward its original position
and producing a lateral counter-clockwise or a downward
movement of the pen.
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE GALVO TRACING
1. The ascending limb – it is caused by the decrease of the subject’s
resistance which throws the established circuit out of balance and
modifies the electric current flow through the magnetic field
surrounding the pivot-movement of the recording pen.
2. Descending limb:
a) Physical cause – is caused by a reverse in the subject
resistance toward the original position thus bringing the
circuit back to or toward balance again producing a lateral
clockwise or downward movement of the pen.
b) Mechanical cause – the fine coil springs attached to the
pivot mountain pen cradle serve as counter balance for pen
movement either above or below the established base line
and assists in returning the pen cradle to or towards the
original position.
COMPUTING RATE
69
Graph paper is lined and spaced in seconds. It is moving under
pens at a uniform rate of six inches per minute. Rate is kept uniform through
medium of synchronized motor. From one heavy vertical line constitute a five
second period. It is also one half inch. Cont the beats inside any five seconds
scale multiply by twelve. This gave you number of heartbeats at any point in
the test. For greater accuracy you count the beats in two five seconds area
multiply by six.
THE EXAMINER
Basis to all that has been said with regards to the utilization and
accuracy of the polygraph technique is the matter of the examiner
qualifications and skills.
An Examiner must be an intelligent person, with reasonably good
educational background – preferably college degree. He should have an
intense interest in the work itself, a good practical understanding of human
nature, and suitable personality traits which may be evident from his
otherwise general ability to “get along” with people and to be well liked by his
friends and associates. No amount of training or experience will overcome
lack of these necessary qualifications.
THE SUBJECT
Types or kinds of Subjects for Polygraph Test are:
1. Subject whose guilt is definite or reasonably certain.
2. Emotional offender
3. Person who commit crimes in the heat of passion
4. Person whose offenses are for accidental in nature
5. Non-Emotional offender
6. Person who commit crimes for financial gain
7. Subject whose guilt is doubtful or uncertain
Three (3) General Types of Subjects
1. Victim or Complainant
2. Witness
3. Suspects
Take Note: All Subjects must be in good physical and mental
condition before he/she may be submitted for polygraph examination. The
following may not be submitted for Polygraph Test:
1. Person who has extreme nervousness
2. Person who has physiological abnormalities such as
high blood pressure/hypertension, heart disease,
respiratory disorder, toothaches, severe headaches and
practically any painful ailments.
3. Person with mental abnormalities
4. Unresponsive persons, such as person who suffer
mental fatigue or under the influence of drugs or
alcohol.
5. Pregnant woman
6. Person below 18 years of age.
THE POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
THE EXAMINATION ROOM
1. Lie-detector test should be conducted in a quiet private room.
2. Select a room with none of the usual police surroundings and with
no distraction within the subjects view.
3. Select a room without any windows at all.
4. The interrogation room should contain no ornaments, pictures or
other objects which would distract the attention of the person being
tested or interviewed.
5. This suggestion refers to the presence within the subject’s reach of
small loose objects such as papers, clips or pencils that he may be
inclined to peck up and further distract during the course of the
interrogation.
(EFFECT) – Tension relieving activities of this sort detract from the
effectiveness of this interrogation, especially during the critical phase
when a guilty subject may be trying desperately to suppress an urge to
confess.
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 6. Estrange noise such as the ringing of a telephone or the
conversation of persons outside the examination room, of the
presence of the arresting officers or other spectators in the room
itself, may produce disturbances and distractions which will
interfere with a satisfactory diagnosis of deception.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
When conducting the polygraph examination:
1. In order to conduct a satisfactory lie-detector test, kit is advisable
for the examiner to obtain from the investigators interested in the
case, all the available facts and circumstances forming the basis of
the accusation or suspicion directed against the person to be
examined.
2. This will include, of course, the details of the case itself. Such
information is essential to the examiner so that he will be in a
position to know questions should be asked of the subject during
the test.
3. The subject who is about to be tested should be informed of the
nature of the test and purpose of it. The instrument should be
pointed out to him as one which is capable of determining whether
or not a person is telling the truth about a given matter. He should
be informed that it records certain bodily changes and that the
instrument will not cause any physical pain except for a slight
temporary discomfort occasioned by the blood pressure cuff.
4. The writer made it a practice, at this point in the proceeding to tell
to the subject somewhat as follows: “If you are telling the truth you
have nothing to worry about, this instrument will indicate you are
telling the truth, and I’ll report the fact to the officers who
requested me to make the test. The machine itself will show it; and
I’ll tell you so, and then I’ll ask you to let me hear the truth. That is
fair enough, isn’t it? And you don’t mind taking the test, do you?”
5. Experience has indicated that such statement tends to relieve the
emotional tensions in a person who is telling the truth, and at the
same time they offer no relief to the liar. Moreover, the asking of
as regarding the subject’s consent has proved worthwhile in those
cases where the criminal confessions are obtained as a result of the
test.
IMPORTANT REMINDERS
1. Do not wait until the last minute to ask a person to take the test.
2. Do not tell the subject everything that you know about the offense
or about him.
3. Do not fail to investigate the case before you ask a person to take
the test.
4. If for some reasons, it must be temporarily taken, the investigator
must continue investigating the case.
5. Do not depend on mass screening of possible suspects to produce a
real or the guilty one.
6. Do not tell anyone that the lie detector will decide whether one is
innocent or guilty. The court will make the decision.
7. If the test indicates that the person did not tell the truth or if the
person confesses after the test, do not think that the investigation is
over.
FOUR (4) PHASES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
1. PHASE I (PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS) - Initial
Interview with the investigator handling the case or person
requesting it. The group involve in this stage are the Victim /
Complaint, Suspects, Witnesses. This stage includes obtaining and
evaluation of facts, determining the areas the subjects needs to be
asked and the investigator must furnish the examiner of the
following:
a. Sworn statement of the suspect / witnesses/ victim/
complainant, Incident or spot report, B.I. of the suspect,
witnesses, and victim / complainants, rough sketch or
pictures of the crime scene and other facts such as
Specific article and exact amount of money stolen.
b. Peculiar aspect of the offense or any strange set.
c. Exact time the offense was committed.
d. Known facts about the suspect’s action or movement.
e. Facts indicating any connection between the suspects,
victim and witnesses.
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f. Exact type of weapon, tool or firearms used.
g. Result of laboratory test.
h. Unpublished facts of the offense known only by the
victim, suspects and the investigator.
2. PHASE II - PRE-TEST INTERVIEW with the subject - The
primary purpose of the pre-test interview of to prepare or condition
the subject for the test.
a. The appraisal of subject’s constitutional right.
b. Obtain subject’s consent to undergo polygraph test by
signing a statement of consent.
c. The taking of personal data of the subject.
d. Determining his/her suitability as a subject.
e. Evaluating the psychological preparation of the subject.
f. Informing the subject of his involvement with the case.
The following rights of the subject must be informed clearly to
him/her:
a. The right to remain silent
b. Anything he/she say may be used in favor or against
him/her
c. The right to have a lawyer of his/her own choice
d. Right to refuse
As earlier noted, subjects will not be scheduled for examination
when they:
a. are obviously fatigued or in ill health.
b. are physically injured or in pain.
c. their judgment is obviously influenced by or impaired
by drugs or alcohol.
d. have just suffered emotional trauma.
The examiner’s interview with the subject prior to the test is of
considerable importance, both for the purpose of conditioning the subject for
the examination and also in order to provoke and observe the helpful
indications of guilt and innocence which are often forthcoming at this time.
The following is the detailed outline of the pre-test interview
which has been found to be effective. (We are assuming in the case illustrated
that the subject has already been advised of the fact that he is to be given a lie-
detector test.)
a. As the examiner enters the waiting room to request the
subject to accompany him into the examination room,
the greeting which the examiner extends should be
cordial, but firm.
b. Upon entering the examination room the subject should
be requested to sit down in a chair alongside the
instrument, and immediately thereafter the examiner
should proceed to the taking of the consent of the
subject.
c. Then fill up the necessary data asked in the
interrogation log.
d. Afterwards inquire from the subject whether he has
been on a lie detector test before. No further comment
should be made by the examiner but he should listen
carefully to whatever the subject himself may say.
e. If the subject has not told of the purpose of his
appearance in the testing laboratories, the examiner
should explain that a lie detector test is desired of him
as part of the investigation regarding the case. Much
time should be spent in the preliminary interview as the
circumstances reasonably warrants.
3. PHASE III (THE EXAMINATION/INSTRUMENTAL TEST)
– The conduct of Instrumentation and Actual Test.
After the pre-test interview, the examiner should proceed to place
the attachment on the subject. The first to be attached is Pneumograph, then
the Cardiosphymograph and the Galvanograph. Review all the questions with
the subject before the actual examination is made. The examiner should
discourage any comments or statement by the subjects. Test instrument must
be given to the subject.
a. Upon completion of the necessary preliminary preparation
the instruments is attached to the subject.
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 b. The blood pressure pulse cuff is wrapped around snugly
around the subject’s upper arm and the pneumograph tube
adjusted around the chest.
c. If female subjects or around the body, if male subjects or
around the torso of male subjects.
d. The cuff is then inflated to a point approximate midway
between the systolic and diastolic blood pressure. That is
midway between the pressure produced by the output action
of the heart and that maintained at the time of the hearts
intake action.
e. The synchronous motor carrying the paper upon which blood
pressure pulse respirations recording are made is then set in
motion, the motor being so timid that the paper moves along
at the rate of a out six inches per minute, then ten to fifteen
seconds after the instrument has been set in motion, the inked
filled pens of the instruments are permitted to make their
blood pressure pulse respiration tracings before the question
are asked of the subject.
f. During the test period the subject is informed that he will be
asked several questions which should be answered by either
yes or no answers, and that they are so brief and to the point.
g. Approximately five to ten seconds after this instruction first
question is asked and then the other questions follows after or
at the interval of fifteen or twenty seconds.
Take Note: The questions may be written in advance of the test or
in the course of the test during the intervals between the asking of each
question. The phraseology of the test question is an extremely important
aspect of the examination. The questions, and every word used in the
questions must be unambiguous, unequivocal, and thoroughly understandable
by the subject. The questions must be states as simply as possible, and with a
complete avoidance of such double inquires as “Did you shoot him and then
run into the house”? All questions must have only a single, unambiguous
meaning. Avoid lengthy questions and avoid legal terms such as rape, murder,
embezzlement, etc.
Limiting Scope of Questions - The relevant test questions used in
any examination should be confined to a single case investigation. The
Polygraph technique is not effective for stimulation testing regarding two or
more unrelated occurrences. With all the gadgets attached to the body of the
subject, the instrument will start running by applying pressure on a button.
The subject then will be asked to answer the following standard test questions:
a. Irrelevant questions (unleaded/immaterial questions) –
these are questions which have no bearing to the case under
investigation.
b. Relevant questions (leaded/material questions) – these are
questions pertaining to the issue under investigation. It is
equally important to limit the number of relevant questions to
avoid discomfort to the subject. Relevant questions must be
very specific to obtain an accurate result.
c. Control questions – These are questions unrelated to the
matter under investigation but are of similar nature although
less serious as compared to those relevant questions under
investigation. The use of control question is considered by
many polygraphists to be the most reliable and effective
questioning technique. These are usually asked if there is
doubt in the interpretation of the subject’s response to
relevant and irrelevant questions.
4. PHASE IV – POST–TEST INTERVIEW/ INTERROGATION
- This includes all consideration that bears on the examination.
This is done just after the instrument is turned off. If the
Polygraph test result indicates deception, the examiner will then
proceed to conduct short interrogation. The purpose of which is to
obtain confession. However, if the Polygraph indicates that the
subject is innocent; the examiner will just release the subject
cordially and thanks him/ her for his/her cooperation.
The purposes of further questioning after the test are:
a. to clarify the findings;
b. to learn if there are any other reasons for the subject’s
responding to a relevant question, other than the knowledge
of the crime; and
c. to obtain additional information and an admission for law
enforcement purposes, if the results suggest deception.
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THE TEST CONSTRUCTION AND PROCEDURES
The polygraph test consists of asking the subject/ person though
the transducer of the instrument, a list of prepared questions in a planned
sequence; comprising of not more than twelve. At least 3 test charts are taken,
each lasting not more than four (4) minutes with a rest interval of five (5) to
ten (10) minutes between charts.
There are two general types of questions to be constructed and
maybe supplemented by other types of questions:
1. General Question Test – most commonly applied.
2. Peak-of-Tension Test – usually used as supplementary test.
There are five set of tests that maybe applied:
Test I – General Question Test - Purposes: To get the standard
tracing of the subject and to establish a true telling pattern for the
initial part of the record.
Test II – Number Test (Psychological Test) - To check the
possible deliberate distortion when the chosen number is asked and
to obtain a chart wherein the subject is not under stress.
Test III – Spot Responder - To determine the responsiveness of
the subject to crucial question on spot responses.
Test IV – Mix Question - To compare the degree of reaction
between control and relevant question.
Test V – Silence Answer Test (SAT) - It is a confirmatory test
with the silence answer test.
THE GENERAL QUESTION TEST (GQT)
This consists of a series of Relevant & Irrelevant Questions asked
in a planned order. Questions are so arranged as to make possible a
comparison of responses to relevant questions with a subject’s norm made
during the answering of irrelevant questions. There are other types of
questions asked in the GQT:
a. Weak Relevant Question – it concern some secondary element of
the crime or problem and deals with mostly in guilty knowledge
and partial involvement.
b. Strong Relevant Question – it is defined as verbal stimulus of
primary important projected in the form of a question which
overcome a psychological excitement level and causes
pneumograph, cardiosphygmograph, and galvanograph tracings
changes from the subject’s physiological norms.
c. Evidence Connecting Question – it is designed to stimulate the
guilty subject and focus his attention on the probability of
incriminating proof that would tend to establish his guilt.
d. Knowledge Question – this question is designed or begun to probe
whether the subject possess information regarding the identity of
the offender, the location of evidences or items of secondary
element of the case.
There are rules to be followed in the formulation of questions such as the
following:
1. Questions must be simple and direct.
2. They must not involved legal terminology such as rape, murder,
etc.
3. They must be answerable by yes or no and should short as
possible.
4. Must be short as possible.
5. Their meaning must be clear and unmistakable phrase in a
language that the subject can easily understand.
6. They must not be in the form of accusation.
7. Question must never contain an inference which presupposes
knowledge on the part of the subject.
8. All questions must refer to one offense only.
9. All questions must refer to only one element of an offense.
10. They must not contain interferences to ones religion races or
belief.
General Question Test (GQT) Sample
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1. Have you ever been called by the name Allan? (Irrelevant)
2. Is today Monday? (Irrelevant)
3. Do you have anything to do with the robbery at SM/ Shoemart last
night? (Weak Relevant)
4. Are you over 20 years of age? (Irrelevant)
5. Were you one of those who robbed the SM/ Shoemart last night?
(Strong Relevant)
6. Have you been involved in a robbery case this year? (Control
Question-Relevant)
7. Do you drink water? (Irrelevant)
8. Was the pair of gloves found at SM yours? (Evidence Connecting-
Relevant)
9. Do you know of anyone involved in the robbery at SM/ Shoemart
last night? (Knowledge Question-Relevant)
10. Have you ever been involved in any robbery in your entire life?
(Secondary Control - Relevant)
11. Have you deliberately lied to any question I have asked you?
(Relevant-Check Question (optional))
OTHER QUESTIONS
1. Check Question – last question asked in the lie test. It is direct
question that relates to the fact that the subject has told the truth to
all questions asked in the lie test.
2. Fishing Expedition Test Question – Used to vagrants or loiters
for routine interrogation. No idea about what offense has been
committed. Examples: a. Have you ever been arrested before? b.
Are you wanted anywhere now by the police? c. Have you stolen
anything since you have been in tour?
SUPPLEMENTARY TESTS
Aside from the standard tests described above, the following
special tests may be performed and incorporated as part of the procedure or
may be used as supplementary tests depending upon the result of the standard
test in order to draw a better conclusion.
A. PEAK-OF-TENSION TEST (PTT)
The subject may be given this test if he is not yet informed of the
details of the offense for which he is being interrogated by the investigation,
or by other persons or from other sources like the print media. This valid test
is only made possibly when there is no widespread publicity about a crime
where intimate details as to the methods of commission or certain facts of the
case is known from the victim and investigator.
The questions formulated are similar in nature and construction,
only one of which is true and the perpetrator who would naturally be in
possession of such unpublicized knowledge will usually exhibit a rise in the
tracing up to that particular question followed by a decline thereafter, caused
by the relief of knowing that a dreaded question dangerous to his well-being,
is past.
Examples of Peak-of-Tension Test:
a. Do you know whether the stolen watch from Allan is a Seiko?
(This is an introductory phrase plus padding question)
b. Is it an Omega? (Padding)
c. Is it a Rolex? (Padding)
d. Is it Timex? (Relevant question)
e. Is it Alba quartz? (Padding)
f. Is it a Citizen? (Padding)
B. GUILT COMPLEX TEST (GCT)
This test is applied when the response to relevant and control
questions are similar in degree and in consistency and in a way that the
examiner cannot determine whether the subject is telling the truth or not. The
subject is asked questions aside from the irrelevant, relevant and control
questions, a new series of relevant questions dealing with a real incident and
that which the subject could not have committed.
If the subject does not respond to the added relevant questions, it
indicates that the subject was being deceptive as to the primary issue under
investigation. However, no conclusion can be drawn if the response to added
guilt complex is similar to the real issue questions.
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C. SILENT ANSWER TEST (SAT)
This test is conducted in the same manner as when relevant and
control questions are asked but the subject is instructed to answer the
questions silently, to himself, without making any verbal response causes
distortion in the tracing such as sniff or clearing the throat.
KINDS OF SPECIFIC TESTING
Known Solution Peak of Tension - This is administered when a
fact relating to the event is known only to the perpetrator of the offense and
the victim, police and client. This material fact, whether it be particular sum
of money, a particular make of weapon, etc. is inserted into test comprising a
list of similar items, the examinee is tested to determine his guilty knowledge.
Proving Peak of Tension - This is administered to obtain
information that might prove valuable to an investigation. It is designed to
determine the location, disposition, modus operandi and amounts on the list of
possibilities.
Pre-employment Test - This test seeks to verify information
contained in a job application and develop relevant information deliberately
committed by the subject.
Periodic Testing - This is conducted for the purpose of
determining the honesty of employees assigned to sensitive position. It also
acts as a constant deterrent to employee’s dishonesty.
SIX (6) STEPS OF CHAIN REACTION THAT PRODUCE VISUAL
RESPONSE
Step 1. – The stimuli
Step 2. – The absorption of the stimuli by the body senses which consist
of hearing, seeing, smelling, feeling, testing and extra-sensory faculties.
(Body senses)
Step 3. – The complicated process that takes place in human being
manifested itself in what is called emotion.
Step 4. – The action of the automatic nervous system
Step 5. – The actual physiological changes that takes place with in the
body as a result of the autonomic nervous system and the well of the
subject.
Step 6. – The final occurrence in the reaction chain (Electro dermal
Response)
DECEPTION DETECTION TRACED ON BODY RESPONSE
Voluntary Response - Include those over which the subject has
definite control and include breathing rate and amplitude. Eye movements,
facial expressions, muscular movements-contraction and relaxation, oral or
implied answers, and the expressions of stipulated emotions.
Semi-Voluntary Response - Include metabolism changes
emotional expressions reaction time in replies and eye-movements. The
average subject has some control over these.
Involuntary Response - Include electro dermal response,
perspiration rates, adrenaline flow rates, blood pressure and pulse rate
chemical changes of the body fluids, psychological reactions, brain electrical
currents, saliva flow rates, body temperature changes, genuine emotion,
face color changes, tremor and polarization of body currents. The average
subject has no control over these phenomena.
What are the Physiological Phenomena as basis of Detecting Deception?
A. Blood Pressure and Heart Beat Frequency
Increase of blood pressure and heartbeat frequency following
relevant questions and the suppression in breathing are the criteria for
detecting deception.
Ink curves as shown on the heartbeat recorded on a moving graph
paper of a polygraph represent the beat frequency (pulse) and the two
pressures (blood pressures) - a. Systolic or high pressure - They exist when
the heart is contracted and the values are open with the blood rushing into the
arteries, b. Diastolic or Low pressure - This exists when the values are
closed and the heart relaxed.
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 Take note: Normal blood pressure is 120/80 8. extraneous factors affecting test chart such as paper jams
9. time interval between questions; and
The Heart is an automatic organ that continues to bat even when 10. chart number, name of subject, time, date, and place taken
removed from the body of provided with proper blood. The rate and force of
the heart beat as regulated by two sets of nerves – a. the sympathetic set - SIGNS AND SYMBOLS (commonly used in Chart Marking)
which accelerate the beat and b. the cranial Autonomic system - which
retard the beat. X / 60 / 1.5 A - first markings of the examiner on the chart
XX / 60 / 1.5 A - examiner’s mark after the test
It is also known that adrenaline - a certain hormone increases the X - start of the test
heartbeat frequency. XX - end of the test
60 - millimeter of mercury shown in
B. Breathing as a means of detecting deception. Breathing consists of two sphygmamometer dial
steps: 1.5 - ohms of skin electrical resistance
A or M - refers to automatic or manual galvo
Inspiration - caused by the contraction of the diaphragm and amplifier used
expansion of the chest cavity those results in the air rushing into the lungs. | | - point where each question begins and end
(also called stimulus mark)
Expiration – caused by a relaxation of the diaphragm and + - Yes answer to question
contraction of the chest cavity resulting in the air rushing out of the lungs. - - No answer to question
A - adjustment
Take Note: The following affects the breathing rates: T - subject talked instead of answering with
1. muscular exercise (muscle movement/jogging) single Yes or No
2. anticipation of muscular exercise (thinking to perform R - subject request for repetition of question
heavy work) C - coughing
3. recalling mentally emotional experience N - noise
4. mental activity S - sigh by the subject
5. anxious expectancy PJ - paper jam
6. shock SN - subject sniffed
7. surprise BI - breathing instruction
OS - tracing changed caused by outside stimulus
C. Electrodermal Response M - movement
IM - movement instruction
This is the most current popular name for the human body L - laugh
phenomenon in which the body, mainly the skin, changes resistance B - used to signify belch
electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli. It consists of two C+ - increase in galvo sensitivity
categories - Normal Response and the Abnormal Response. C- - decrease in galvo sensitivity
Y - yawn
Examples of Abnormal Responses IS - ink stop
CT - clearing of throat
1. Machine Fright Response - Interference abnormal response that
originates in Step 2 (fright to the machine) of the reaction chain or CHART INTERPRETATION
situational fright. It appears on the first question or so and no
longer appears throughout the test. A. The accuracy of instrumental detection of deception is
2. Physical Movement Response - Interfering response caused by dependent upon the examiner’s ability to diagnose truth or deception by
voluntary physical movement by the subject during the lie test and reading and interpreting a subject’s charts. The polygraph chart is the
is found between steps 4 and 5 of the reaction chain. The result of composite record of the pneumograph, cardiograph and galvanograph tracing
such physical movement causes physiological (muscle) changes to from one series of questions. The chart is ruled vertically to represent time
take place within the body that shows up electrodermal response. element at an interval of either in second, five seconds of ten seconds division
3. Outside Interference Response - Interfering response originating and horizontally in fractions of ¼ inch for amplitude measurements. There
in step 1 of the reaction chain in the form of unwanted auditory or are three heavy spaced horizontal lines that serve as the guideline for the 3
stimuli. The slamming of the door or the ringing of telephone, a tracings. The motor that pills the chart under the recording pens has a
cough or sneeze by spectators in the room or any unusual noise to constant speed of either 6 or 12 inches per-minute. A single test may consist
which the subject is not accustomed at the location, will usually of three or more charts taken from one series of questions.
produce outside interference response.
4. Mental Tie-up Response - Interfering response which originates B. The pnuemograph tracing normally, found at the top of the
between step 2 (machine fright) and step 3 (emotion) in the chart, is a record of a subject’s respiratory action during the questioning
reaction chain. Other name is guilt complex. process and is classified as normal or abnormal. The pneumograph pattern
5. Deception Response - Abnormalities as a result of telling a lie consists of inhalation and exhalation strikes with a normal amplitude of form
(more on psychological and such also is accompanied by physical ½ to ¾ inches. The normal cyclic rate is from 13 to 18 breaths per minute and
changes). may vary in reasons of exceptional physical build condition or respiratory
defect. The classification of abnormal is generally applied to those patterns
CHART MARKING that deviate from the norm established by the individual.

To facilitate evaluation and interpretation of test charts, markings Descriptive types of breathing are:
are made with the use of signs and symbols to enable the examiner to Normal; Rapid; Slow; Shallow; Deep; Serrated inhalation / or
determine the following: both;
Deviations caused by coughing and mechanics of answering
1. exact time the test commenced and terminated Pneumograph changes from the individual norm which
2. initial and final blood pressure and galvanograph readings may be indicative of deception are:
3. particular point where each question asked started and ended. Change in rhythm or regularity; Change in amplitude or
Corresponding identification of the question, and the type and time volume; Change in the inhalation / exhalation ratio; Notched
of answer given by the subject or serrated inhalation / exhalation strokes; Change of base
4. duration and amplitude of reaction patterns line; Loss of base line; Hyperverventilation; Suppression;
5. any instruction given or repetition of question made Respiratory block
6. any movement, cough tracing by the suspect or outside distractions
that occurred C. The galvanograph tracing, normally located at the center
7. mechanical adjustment or re-adjustment made position. If the chart, when properly balanced takes from of as lightly
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wavering line across the middle portion of the chart with a minor response to
spoken stimuli. Galvanic tracings which may be indicative of deception are:
1. Vertical rise at point of deception
2. Double saddle response
3. Long duration and / or degree of response following
point of deception
4. Plugging salvo tracing
D. The cardiosphygmograph tracing normally found at the
bottom of the chart, is the three physiological phenomena, a systolic stroke,
a diastolic strokes and a dichotic notch. Normal pulse rate of the average
individual is 72 to 80 beats per minute and may vary due to the emotional tone
of the subject. Amplitude or volume is also subject to variation and dictated
by the physiological structure of the person and the cuff pressure. Tracing
taking the form of specific responses indicative of deception are:
1. Increase or decrease in blood pressure
2. Increase or decrease in pulse rate
3. Increase or decrease in amplitude
4. Change in position or disappearance of dichotic notch
5. Extra systoles (premature contradiction of an auricle or
ventricle while fundamental rhythm of the heart is
maintained)
E. In the interpretation and analysis of charts taken in a Peak
of Tension Test, the following area considered in the evaluation of the level
tracings:
1. An increase or decrease to point of deception then a
level tracing.
2. An increase to point of deception and the an increase
3. A decrease to point of deception and then an increase
4. Level tracing to point of deception and then a decrease
or increase
5. Erratic to point of deception and then an erratic tracing
6. Smooth to point of deception and then an erratic tracing
7. Any changes that may occur at point of deception
F. Other factors; that specific response to be considered as
possible deception in chart evaluation
1. Distribution of reactions
2. Degree of reactions
3. Trend of gross curve
4. Rate of change of the curve
5. Latent period of reaction
6. Duration of reaction
G. For an effective chart interpretation, the following rules
must be followed:
1. There must be a specific response
2. To be specific, it must form a deviation from norm
3. It must appear in at least two (2) test charts
4. The best indication of deception is the simultaneous
specific responses in the three (3) tracings of the chart.
LEGAL STATUS OF POLYGRAPH
When does the Polygraph Result is Admissible in Court?
1. When the examination is conducted upon a court order.
2. When business suffers economic loss and the employee of that
business who refuses the exam is implicated.
3. When the polygraph is made a condition or precedent to
employment in continuous employment.
4. When the nature of the subject’s relation to the public so demand.
(Public Trust is paramount).
What Law or Jurisprudence give the Basis of Admissibility?
The first appellate court decision upon the admissibility the results
of a deception test was rendered in 1923 by a federal court in Fry V. United
States, in which the accused (on trial for murder) offered as evidence the
results of a Marston “systolic” blood pressure” test. The trial court refused to
permit Dr. Marston to testify concerning his results, and upon appeal this
ruling was affirmed. The reason which impelled the court to arrive at the
conclusion of inadmissibility are very clearly stated in the following except
from its reported opinion.
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Ten years after the Fry case decision the Wiscons Supreme Court
was called upon to consider the admissibility of the results of a Polygraph
examination. In this case, State V. Bohner, defense counsel offered to prove
that the results of a Polygraph examination established the truthfulness of the
defendant’s alibi to a robbery charge, which offer the trial court refused.
Upon appeal the Wiscons in Supreme Court sustained the trial court’s ruling
and held that although the Polygraph technique may have some utility at
present, or may ultimately be of great value in the administration of justice a
too hasty acceptance of it during this stage of its development may be
assumed to have.”
Two cases regarding the admissibility of the results of tests
conducted with a galvanic skin reflex recorder were decided by the New York
court in 1938. One of the cases, People V. Kenny, was a trial court decision;
the other, People V. forte, a decision of New York’s highest court, the Court
of Appeals. In the Kenny case the defendant (on trial of robbery) offered in
evidence the testimony of the late Father Summers of Fordham University
regarding the results of a test conducted with a galvanometer. Over the
objection of the prosecuting attorney, the trial court admitted the evidence and
permitted the jury to consider the witness opinion as to the defendant’s
innocence or guilt. The court in the Kenny case apparently was impressed
with Father Summer’s assertion to the effect that this “pathometer” was
“effectively 100 percent efficient.” Moreover, the effect of the Kenny case
must viewed in the light of the latter and more authoritative decision of the
New York Court of Appeals in the Forte case.
In the case the defendant (on trial for murder) requested the court’s
permission to be tested on the same instrument and by the same examiner
(Summers) as in the Kenny case. This request was denied on the ground that
despite the view taken by the court in the Kenny case, the validity of such a
test judicial acceptance. Upon appeal the trial court’s ruling was affirmed by
the New York Court of Appeals.
COLLATERAL ASPECT OF POLYGRAPH
1. Pre-employment Screening – it provide a safe method in
verifying statements of a job applicant, prevent false evaluation
and false judgment as reported by previous employer who carry a
personal grudge against him Done when the subject is applying for
a job.
2. Periodic Screening – conducted to organic employees only, act as
constant deterrent to employee’s dishonesty and create a bond of
mutual strength among employees. We call it as personnel check.
3. Intelligence Testing – provide a scientific method of testing the
intelligence of a person.
ADVANTAGES OF PRE-EMPLOYMENT SCREENING FOR THE
EMPLOYEE
1. Prevent false evaluation and unfair judgment due to personality
conflicts reported by a previous supervisor or employer.
2. It does away with lengthy waiting while employment application is
being check, telephone, telegram or letter.
3. Eliminate the potential hazard of a person knowing to work along
side with other who might endanger their live or job security.
4. Provides a safe method for a person to be cleared of unwarranted
suspicion and unjust accusation and malicious gossip.
5. It will create a bond of mutual strength between employees.
6. It create a desire for incentives
ADVANTAGES OF THE PRE-EMPLOYMENT SCREENING FOR
EMPLOYER
1. Provides an accurate method, whereby the employment
background of an applicant and relevant issues collateral thereto
can be immediately checked and verify at a negligible cost.
2. Detect the chronic alcoholic job jumper and accident prone person.
3. Reveals some of the unusual aspect concerning the psychologically
mal-adjusted agitator amateur and professional theft in private
industry.
4. Reduces costly personnel turnover by helping management put the
right person on the job and ascertaining an applicant attitude
toward job permanent.
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 5. Acts as constant deterrent to employee dishonesty and permit
basically honest employee to work in greater harmony with
basically honest employee.
USE OF THE WORD ASSOCIATION TEST
Lists of stimulus and non-stimulus word are read to the subject
who is instructed to answer as quickly as possible. The answers to the
question may be “yes” or “no”. Unlike the lie detector, the time interval
between the words uttered by the examiner and the answer to the question is
recorded
When the subject is asked questions with reference to his name,
address, civil status, nationality, etc. which has no relation to the subject-
matter of the investigation, the tendency is to answer quickly. But when the
questions bear some words which have to do with the criminal act the subject
allegedly committed, like knife, gun or hammer which was used in the killing,
the tendency is to delay the answer.
The test is not concerned with the answer, be it a “yes” or “no”.
The important factor is the time of response in relation to stimulus or non-
stimulus words.
Like the use of the lie detector, the subject cannot be compelled to
be subjected to the test without consent.
USE OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EVALUATOR (PSE)
When a person speaks, there are audible voice frequencies, and
superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency modulations which are
products of minute oscillation of the muscle of the voice mechanism. Such
oscillations of the muscles or micro tremor occur at the rare of 8 to 14 cycles
per second and controlled by the central nervous system.
When a person I under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor
in the voice utterance is moderately or completely suppressed. The degree of
suppression varies inversely to the degree of psycho logic stress on the
speaker.
The psychological stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and
graphically displays the voice modulations that we cannot hear.
When a person is relaxed and responding honestly to the question,
those inaudible frequencies are registered clearly on the instrument. But when
a person is under stress, as when he is lying, these frequencies tend to
disappear.
Basic Procedure
a. The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific
purpose of the exanimation and to begin formulation of relevant
questions.
b. A pre-test interview is conducted with the subject to help him or
her feel at ease with the examiner, to provide an opportunity to
specify matters, to eliminate outside issues, and to review
questions that will be asked.
c. An oral test of about 12 to 15 “yes” or “no” questions is given
which is recorded on a tape recorder. The questions are a mixture
of relevant an irrelevant questions.
d. Immediately following the test or are a late time, the tape is
processed through the Psychological Stress Evaluator for analysis
of answer.
e. If stress is indicated, the subject is given authority to provide
additional clarification. A retest is given to verify correction and
clarification.
Advantages of Psychological Stress Evaluator over the Lie
Detector Machine
a. It does not require the attachment of sensors to the person being
tested.
b. The testing situation need not be carefully controlled to eliminate
outside distraction
c. Normal body movement is not restricted.
USE OF DRUGS THAT “INHIBIT THE INHIBITOR”
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ADMINISTRATION OF TRUTH SERUM
The term “truth serum” is a misnomer. The procedure does not
make someone tell the truth and the thing administered is not a serum but is
actually a drug.
In the test, byosine hydro bromide is given hypodermically in
repeated doses until a state of delirium is induced. When the proper point is
reached, the questions truthfully. He forgets his acts or may even implicate
others.
NARCOANALYSIS OR NARCOSYNTHESIS
This method of deception detection is practically the same as that
of administration of truth serum. The only difference is the drug used.
Psychiatric sodium amytal o sodium pentothal is administered to the subject.
When the effects appear, questioning starts. It is claimed that the drug causes
depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the brain and the subject talks
freely.
The administration of the drug and subsequent interrogation must
be done by a psychiatrist with a long experience on the line. Like the
administration of truth serum, the result of the test is not admissible in court.
INTOXICATION WITH ALCOHOL
The apparent stimulation effect of alcohol is really the result of the
control mechanism of the brain, so alcohol, like truth serum, and narcoanalytic
drugs “inhibit the inhibitor”.
The ability of alcohol to reveal the real person behind the mad
which all of us are said to wear (“mask of sanity”) is reflected in the age-old
maxim, “In vino veritas” (“In wine there is truth”). (Pathology of Homicide
by Lester Adel son, Charles Thomas, 1974, p. 895)/
HYPNOSIS
It is the alternation of consciousness and concentration in which
the subject manifests a heightened of suggestibility while awareness is
maintained. Not all persons are susceptible to hypnotic induction. The
hypnotic state is characterized by:
a. That it is a comfortable state or complete relaxation in
which the subject will readily and willingly to
cooperate in every way with the hypnotizer.
b. That it is not actually a sleep.
c. That the subject will do whatever he is told to do.
d. That the hypnotizer will not order him to do anything
injurious.
e. After the test, the subject will wake up with feeling of
comfort and refreshment.
The result of this method is not acceptable in court due to the
following reasons:
a. It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the
reliability of hypnosis per in ascertaining the truth from
falsity.
b. The fear that the truer of fact will give uncritical and
absolute reliability to a scientific device without
consideration of its flaw in ascertaining veracity.
c. The possibility that the hypnotized subject will
deliberately fabricate.
d. The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility
in which the hypnotized subject is suspended will
produce distortion of the fact rather than the truth.
e. The state of the mind and professionalism of the
examiner are too subjective to permit admissibility of
the expert testimony.
OBSERVATION
A good criminal investigator must be keen observer and a good
psychologist. A subject under stress on account of the stimulation of
sympathetic nervous system may exhibit changes which may be used as a
potential clue of deception. And since just one or a combination of the
following signs and symptoms is not conclusive or a reliable proof of guilt of
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the subject, their presence infers further investigation to ascertain the truth of
the impression. HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS INVOLVING FINGERPRINTS

Signs or Clues of Deception Are there any ancient records concerning the use of Finger and Palm
Prints?
1. Swearing to God.
2. Failure of subject to look straight into examiner eyes. 1. On the face of a cliff in NOVA SCOTIA, there has been found
3. Rapid movements of adams apple among males. prehistoric Indian picture writing of a hand with crudely marked
Hysteria among females or woman. ridge patterns.
4. Shedding tears of both sexes. 2. Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints on clay tablets
5. Arrogance or indifference to interrogation. recoding business transactions in ancient Babylon and clay seals of
6. Bitting upper and lower lips after a hot stimulus is ancient Chinese origin bearing thumbprints. Some of these seals
profounded. can be seen in the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
7. Changes on the color of the face. WASHINGTON, D.C. Chinese documents identified with the
8. Complete and total denial of the case under Tang Dynasty (618-907) refer to fingerprint being impressed upon
investigation. Questioning accuracy on the polygraph business contracts. It is conjectural as to what extent these earlier
machine. instances of fingerprinting were intended for actual identification
9. Sarcastic laugh of the subject. of the persons impressing the prints. History shows that Emperor
10. Force laugh of the subject. Te In Shi was the first on to use fingerprint in China.
11. Restlessness of the subject. 3. In the Bible, Apostle Paul concludes in one of his epistles with the
12. Show of the unnecessary movements of legs and head. words, “The Salvation of Paul with my own hand, which is the
13. Changing seats from chair to chair. token in every epistle, so I write.” Some have inferred from these
14. Frequent excuses to go to the comfort room. words that Paul used his finger impressions as a distinctive
15. Asking the examiner for a drink or a smoke. signature.
16. Over perspiration despite of an air-conditioned room. 4. In Persia, 14th century, various government papers were reportedly
17. Answering questioning by beating around the hush impressed with fingerprints, and a government official who was
when questioning and answered yes or no. also a physician made the observation that no fingerprints of two
18. Asking the examiner to repeat the question although persons were exactly alike.
propounded clearly. 5. In Holland and China, identification of individuals was by means
19. Asking counter remark who me. of branding, tattooing, mutilation, and also manifested by wearing
20. Making reference to prominent people and mutual clothes of different designs.
friends. 6. In Old Mexico, the Aztecs impressed their hands accidentally or
21. Shifting blame to someone else. intentionally on the molded and still soft clays of their hand-made
22. Pointing the guilt to other. idols to serve as their trade marks. The authorities stamped their
23. Refusal to submit to polygraph examination. hands on the death warrants for the men and women who offered
Consenting to polygraph examination but refuse to sign their lives to sacrifice for their idol-gods.
the consent (written). 7. In France, numerous rock carvings and paintings featuring hand
designs and fingerprints have been found on the granite wall slabs
Physiological and Psychological Signs and Symptoms of Guilt in the Neolithic burial passage of the L’lle de Gavr’nis. Other
specimens were also found in the Spanish Pyrunees caverns, the
1. Sweating numerous digital relics left by Indiana at Keuimkooji Lake in cliff
2. Color Change dwellings in Nova Scotia, in the Balearic Islands, Australis, New
3. Dryness of the mouth England coasts and in Africa.
4. Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple 8. In Babylonia, the first use of fingerprints for personal
5. Fidgeting identification originated when Babylonian Magistrates ordered
6. “Peculiar feeling inside” their officers in making arrests and property confiscation to secure
7. Swearing in the truthfulness and assertion the defendants’ fingerprints.
8. “Spotless past record” 9. Kom Ombo Plain, on the east bank of river Nile, Egypt, lump of
9. Inability to look at the investigator “straight in the eye” hundred much found in Sebekian deposit which shows a portion of
10. “Not that I remember” expression an adult palm during 12,000 B.C.
10. In Judea, Paul, the Apostle, used his own fingerprints to sign his
letters (II Thessalonians 3:17 – “I, Paul, greet you with my own
FINGERPRINTING (DACTYLOSCOPY) hand. This is the mark in every letter. Thus I write.”). Other
significant quotations are found in Job 37:7 – “He sealeth up the
NATURE OF FINGERPRINTS hand of all men, that every one may know his works.” Revelations
13:16 – “It will cause all, the small and the great, and the rich and
A FINGERPRINT is a composite of the ridge outlines which the poor, and the free and the bond, to have mark on their right
appears on the skin surface of the bulbs on the inside of the end of joints of hand or on foreheads.”
the fingers and thumbs. The ridges appearing in a fingerprint are commonly 11. In Jerusalem, fingerprint relics were found in clay lumps during
referred to as papillary or frictional ridges. The ridges have a definite contour the 4th and 5th centuries of the Christian Era. The excavation of
and appear in definite individual details by which positive identification can Palestine by the late Dr. Bade yielded fragments of such specimens
be made. (fingerprints).
12. In China, fingerprint is called “Hua Chi”. The value of
Take Note: fingerprints for purposes of identification was found on a Chinese
clay seal made not later than the 3rd century B.C.
Ridge – literally, the top of long hill 13. During the Tang Dynasty, fingerprints were used in connection
with the preparation of legal documents. Kia Yung-yen, an author
Ducts – these are little pockets underneath the skin where oils or during this time stated that, “Wooden tablets were engraved with
sweats are carried by small holes to the surface of the skin. the full terms of the contract, and notches were cut in the sides
where they were identical so that the tablets could later be matched
Ridge Destruction: Creases – little white lines that are found on a or tallied, thus proving them genuine.”
fingerprint that look like sears (burn/blister). These are not permanent, and 14. The code of domestic relations as described in the Chinese Law
will not show any turning or “puckering.” Skin conditions such as warts and Book of Yang Hwui states: “To divorce a wife, the husband
blisters of temporary impairments caused by certain occupations, e.g. must write a bill of divorcement and state the reasons or
bricklayers, carpenters, have no permanent effect and the individual grounds that are due for action, and then impress his
characteristics revert to their natural alignment once the temporary skin palmprint thereon.” For contracts, fingerprints were also used as
condition has been corrected.
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 signatures of those who were illiterates, who could neither read nor
write. This was under the subject of “Land Tenure.”
15. Early in the 12th century, in the novel, “The Story of the River
Bank,” fingerprinting found itself already in the criminal
procedure of China; and in the 16th century, a custom prevailed in
connection with the sale of children.
16. In Japan, deeds, dotes, and certificates to be used as proofs were
sealed by the mark of the hand (Palm-print) called “Tegata.” In
the treatment of criminals, the imprint of the thumb (bo-in or bo-
an) was taken. The criminal signed only by thumb-print with
regard to his sentence and it was considered as an inferior sort of
signature.
17. In Constantinople, in a treaty of ratification, the sultan soaked his
hand in a sheep’s blood and impressed it on the document as his
seal.
18. In England, Thomas Bewick, an English engraver, author, and
naturalist engraved the patterns of his own fingers on every wood-
work he had finished to serve as his mark so as to establish its
genuineness.
Are there any early publication concerning Fingerprints?
1. 1684-Nehemiah Grew published a report which was read before
the royal society of London, England. He described the ridges and
pores of the hands and feet.
2. 1685-G. Bidloo published a treaty describing sweat pores and
ridges.
3. 1685-Midle wrote a book, “Human Anatomy,” in which he
included a drawing of the thumb print showing the ridge
configuration of the whorl pattern.
4. 1686-Professor Marcelo Malpighi, an Italian anatomist
(GRANDFATHER OF DACTYLOSCOPY according to Dr.
Edmond Locard – “Father of Poroscopy”), commented in his
writings on elevated ridges on the fingertips and alluded to diverse
figures on palmar surfaces.
5. 1751-Hintzo wrote on the ridge formation, but dealt with the
subject from the viewpoint of anatomy rather than identification.
6. 1764-Albinus followed along the same lines as Hintzo had written.
7. 1788-J.C.A. Mayer stated in his book (Anatomische Kupfertafein
Nebst Dazu Geharigen) that although the arrangement of the skin
ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless, the
similarities are closer among some individuals.
8. 1823-Johannes Evangelist Purkinje, (FATHER OF
DACTYLOCOSPY) a Czechoslovakian professor of anatomy at
the University of Breslau, published a thesis in Latin (Commentio
de Examine Physiogico Organi Visus Et systematis Cutansi – A
Commentary of the Physiological Examination System: Dec.
22, 1823, Breslau, Germany) describing the ridges, giving them
names and established certain rules for classification (nine groups).
He involves vague differentiation of fingerprints or use them for
identification.
9. 1856-Herman Welcker took the prints of his own palm. In 1897,
(forty one years later) he printed the same palm to prove that the
prints do not change. (Principle of Permanency).
10. 1883-Kollman, an anthropologist who wrote his book on ridges
and pores. He did not associate fingerprints with identification.
What are the historical events concerning Fingerprints as Method of
Identification?
1. 1858-Sir William J. Herschel (FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY),
in Hoogly, district of Bengal, India, he used fingerprints in India to
prevent fraudulent collection of army pay account and for
identification of other documents. He printed the palms of natives
in order to avoid impersonation among laborers. Prints of the
entire palms were used instead of signatures. The first person
Herschel printed appears to have been one RAJYADHAR
KONAI.
2. 1880-Dr. Henry Faulds, an English (Scottish) doctor stationed in
Tokyo, Japan, wrote a letter to the English publication,
“NATURE” – “On the Skin Furrows of the Hand”, (dtd Oct.
28, 1880) on the practical use of fingerprints for the identification
of criminals. He recommended the use of a thin film of printers
ink as a transfer medium and is generally used today.
3. 1880-Sir Francis Galton, a noted British anthropologist and a
cousin of scientist Charles Darwin began observation which led to
the publication in 1882 of his book “Fingerprints.” Galton’s
77
studies established the individuality of classifying fingerprint
patterns.
4. 1882-Gilbert Thompson, a U.S. geological surveyor in charge of
a field project in New Mexico used his own fingerprints in
commissary orders to prevent forgery.
5. Isaiah West Taber – A photographer in San Francisco advocated
the use of the system for the registration of the immigrant Chinese.
6. 1883-An episode in Mark Twain’s life on the Mississippi relates
to the identification of a murderer by his thumbprint.
7. Twain (Samuel L. Clemens) further developed his theme. Eleven
(11) years later, he causes the publication of “Puddin Head
Wilson”, a novel based on dramatic fingerprint identification
demonstrated during a court trial. His story pointed out the
infallibility of fingerprint identification.
8. 1888-Sir Edward Richard Henry, succeeded Sir William J.
Herschel at his post in India. He became interested in fingerprints
and devised a classification of his own and published his work in
book form and titled it “Classification and Uses of
Fingerprints.”
9. 1889-Sir Richard Henry at Dove, England read a paper detailing
his system before the British association for Advancement of
Science.
10. 1891-Juan Vucetich, an Argentinean police official, installed
fingerprints files as an official means of criminal identification;
based his system of the pattern typed by Sir Francis Galton; and he
also claimed the first official criminal identification by means of
fingerprints left at the scene of crime.
11. In 1892, at La Piata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas who had
murdered her two sons and had cut her own throat, though not
fatal, blamed the attack on a neighbor. Bloody fingerprints on a
door post were identified by Vucetich as those of the woman
herself which led to her confession.
12. 1892-Sir Francis Galton, an English Biologist, wrote his first
textbook. He devised a practical system of classification and
filing. 1894-Sir Francis Galton’s report on fingerprint as a
method of identification, along with his system, was read at
Asquith Committee of London, England. His system was
officially adopted on February 12, 1894.
13. 1900-Alphonse Bertillon’s system of body measurement had by
this time spread throughout the world.
14. 1901-Sir Edward Richard Henry was appointed assistant
commissioner at Scotland Yard. His system was so applicable that
Henry emerged as the “Father of Fingerprints,” at least as the
first man to successfully apply fingerprints for identification. 1901-
marked the official introduction of fingerprinting for criminal
identification in England and Wales.
15. The system employed was developed from Galton’s observation
and devised by Edward Richard Henry, the Inspector-General of
Police in Bengal, India. He later became commissioner of
London’s Metropolitan Police.
16. 1914-Fingerprints were officially adopted in France, replacing
Bertillon age.
What are the important dates concerning the development and use of
fingerprint in the United States?
1. 1882-Gilbert Thompson of the Us Geodetic survey used thumb
print for camp orders on an expedition to New Mexico. This was
not official but it was proven useful (the record was dated Aug. 8,
1882).
2. 1902-Sir Henry P. Forest, chief Medical examiner of New York
Civil Service Commission and an American preacher in fingerprint
science in the US for the New York Civil Service commission to
prevent applicants from having better-qualified persons to take the
test for them.
3. The New York Civil Service Commission, on Dec. 19, 1902
required all civil service applicants to be fingerprinted. Dr. Henry
P. Forest, put the system into practice.
4. 1903-New York State Prison in Albany claims the first practical,
systematic use of fingerprints in the US to identify criminals.
5. 1903-Fingerprints identification was adopted in the following
penitentiaries: Singing Sing, Napanoch, Auborn and Clinton
prisons
6. Captain James Parke of the institution installed the identification
system where the fingerprints of prisoners were taken and
classified and the fingerprint system was officially adopted in June
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 of the year. Today, New York State uses the American system that
is similar to the Henry System and represents the system initiated
by Capt. Parke in 1903.
7. 1904-Maj. R. Mccloughry, the warden of the Federal Penitentiary
of Leavenworth when the office of the Atty. General of the U.S.
granted permission to establish a fingerprint bureau therein. It was
the first national government use of fingerprints.
8. 1904-John Kenneth Ferrer (Perrier) of the Fingerprint Branch of
the New Scotland Yard, attended the St. Louis Missouri Worlds
Fair. He had been assigned to guard the British Crown Jewels.
American police officials became interested in fingerprint through
him and he became their instructor.
9. 1904-The City of St. Louis Missouri, became the first city to
adopt fingerprint. The police department officials adopted the
system on October 29, 1904.
10. 1905-Fingerpritning was officially adopted by the U.S. Army. It
was known as the first military use of fingerprint.
11. 1907-Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Navy
(January 11, 1907).
12. 1908-Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Marine
Corps.
13. 1910-Frederick A. Brayley published what appears to be the first
American book in fingerprints.
14. 1911-The State of Illinois, made the first criminal conviction based
solely upon fingerprint evidence. It was known as the first judicial
ruling on such evidence, (People vs Jennings, 252 Illinois 543-96
NE 1007, 43 LRA (NS) 1206 for 1991).
15. 1915-The International Association for Criminal Identification
was founded. The word “criminal” was later dropped from the
Association’s name. It is the first organized body of professional
identification experts.
16. 1916-The Institution of Applied Science established at Chicago,
Illinois was the first school to teach fingerprint identification (June
16, 1916).
17. 1916-Frederick Kuhne published a book entitled “The
Fingerprint Instructor,” which probably the first authoritative book
in fingerprint to be circulated in the U.S. Munn and Co., served as
the publisher.
18. 1919-Marked the publication of “Fingerprint and Identification
Magazine” (Chicago). The first monthly journal devoted
exclusively to fingerprint science, (July 1919).
19. 1920-The Exceptional Arch, a new pattern, was adapted to
Henry’s system by American experts. The pattern was added after
the study made by the assembly members at annual convention of
the International Association for Identification in 1920.
20. 1922-Haken Jersengen, the sub-director of police in Copenhagen,
Denmark introduced first a long distance identification to U.S. at a
police conference here. The method was adopted and published in
a magazine entitled “Publications” of the International Police
Conference, (New York City Police Department, 1932).
21. Mary K. Holland – the first American Instructress in
Dactyloscopy.
22. 1924-The Identification Division of the FBI was established after
J. Edgar Hoover was appointed Director.
23. 1924-The book entitled “Single Fingerprint System” by T.K.
Larson, was first published in U.S., (Berkley, Police Monograph
Series) D. Application and Co., New York City.
24. 1924-The First National Bureau of Identification was created by
the act of Congress. The bureau was established within the U.S.
DOJ (Washington DC).
25. 1925-Harry J. Myers II installed the first official fact fingerprint
system for infants in Jewish Maternity Hospital in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
26. 1925-The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania used compulsory foot
and fingerprinting of new born infants and mothers which was
enacted into law by Act of General Assembly as approved on April
20, 1925.
27. 1932-The International Exchange of Fingerprint date was
initiated with a number of other nations on February 15, 1932.
28. 1933-The Bureau of Identification, U.S. Department of Justice,
adopted the single fingerprint identification system. The first
national use of single print for identification purposes for certain
crimes only, (Feb. 1933).
29. 1933-Latent fingerprints section, for making technical examination
of latent prints or have inked prints on an individual basis was
instituted on November 10, 1933. The Civil Identification on
Section was established.
78
30. 1937-The Institute of Applied Science installed Photographic and
Firearms Identification (Forensic Ballistics) laboratories. The
institute was the first private school in U.S. which installed
laboratories for instructional purposes only.
31. 1938-A book by Harry J. Myers II, “History of Identification of
fingerprints in U.S.” was published in Fingerprint and
Identification Magazine (Chicago, Illinois, Vol. 20, no. 4, Oct.
1938).
32. 1946-the 100th millionth fingerprint card was received in the
identification division of the FBI. The total grew to 152 million in
May 11, 1959.
33. 1967-“Minutiae” was initiated by the FBI, a computerized
scanning equipment to read and record fingerprint identifying
characteristics.
34. 1972-the prototype automatic fingerprint reader was delivered.
35. 1973-implementation of the first phase of the automated
Identification System (AIS-1), which was to establish the
database consisting of the name, description, and criminal record
of all first offenders with birthdates of 1956.
36. 1978-Journal of Forensic Science – reported that certain
properties of perspiration and body oils contained in latent print
residue will luminesce without pre-treatment and to a degree that
photographs could be taken when activated by continuous Argon-
ION Laser. Hence, the FBI’s Latent Print Detection System was
put into use.
37. 1979-AIS-2 replaced AIS-1. This phase involved the automated
searching by name and other descriptor information of incoming
fingerprint cards against the database.
38. 1979 (Oct. 17, 1979)-A latent fingerprint was developed and lifted
from the hand of a victim in Miami, Florida murder resulting in
identifying the suspect. This was the first known case where a
fingerprint from a human skin was used in the identification,
prosecution and conviction of a perpetrator of a crime.
39. 1982-Missing Children Act was signed into law which requires
the Attorney General to acquire, collect, classify, and preserve any
information which would assist in the location of any missing
person (including an unemancipated person as defined by the laws
of the place of residence of such person) or assist in the
identification of any deceased individual who have not been
identified.
40. 1983-Completion of the conversion of the FBI criminal fingerpint
searching from manual to automated searching. Also, AIS records
became available by mail upon request of the National Crime
Information Center’s (NCIC’s) interstate identification index (III)
– an interstate record exchange.
41. 1984-AIS records became available “ON-LINE” through the
NCIC program. Records from the NCIC and AIS, and
participating state and local telecommunication networks became
available w/in seconds to authorized criminal justice agencies.
42. 1985 (Jan. 2) – a contract was awarded for building the final phase
of the Identification Division Automated System (IDAS).
43. 1989-IDAS implementation. Its features are: integrated
document transport equipment; on-line automated technical
fingerprint search; and simplified processing flow. All, for
expeditious response time of fingerprint cards.
What about Historical Development of Fingerprints in the Philippines?
1. 1900-Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippines
in the Phil. Constabulary.
2. 1918-The Bureau of Prisons records show that carpetas
(commitment and conviction records) already bear fingerprints.
3. Under the management of Lt. Asa N. Darby during the American
occupation in the Philippines, a modern and complete fingerprint
file has been established for the Philippine commonwealth.
4. 1937-The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the
Phil. Constabulary was Mr. Generoso Reyes. Capt. Thomas Dugan
of New York City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano C. Gurrero
of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) gave the first
examinations in fingerprints.
5. 1933-The first conviction based on fingerprints was handed by the
Supreme Court of the Phil. in the case People vs. Medina and this
case is considered the leading judicial decision in the Philippine
jurisprudence concerning fingerprinting (December 23).
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 6. The science of fingerprinting was first offered as a subject in the given to the testimony of experts in the fingerprint identification is
Philippines through the effort of the Plaridel Educational a question for the jury.
Institution.
3. Following the Illinois case was one in New Jersey, State vs.
Cerciello, in which fingerprint evidence was permitted to be
STUDYING FINGERPRINTS introduced.

What are the basic principles of Fingerprint Science? (3 dogmatic
Principles)
1. Principle of Individuality (Variation) – There are no two
fingerprints that are exactly alike unless taken from the same
finger.
2. Principle of Permanency (Constancy/Perennial/Immutable) –
The configuration and details of individual ridges remain constant
and unchanging till after the final decomposition of the body.
4. In the Cerciello Case, the defendant argued that it was an error to
allow the testimony by experts explaining the comparison of
fingerprints obtained from the defendant voluntarily with those
fingerprints found upon a hatchet near the body of the deceased
when the body was discovered. The New Jersey Court of Errors
and Appeals held, “in principle, its admission as legal evidence is
based upon the theory that the evolution in practical affairs of life,
whereby the progressive and scientific tenderness of the age are
manifested in every other department of human endeavor, cannot
be ignored in legal procedure.

3. Principle of Infallibility – That fingerprint is a reliable means of 5. In the case of State vs. Conners (87 N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl. 812
personal identification and all courts accept and adopt fingerprint (1915) ) it was held competent to show by a photograph the
as a means of personal identification. fingerprints upon the balcony post of a house entered, without
producing that post in court, and to show by expert testimony hat
What are the two main layers of the Skin? the fingerprints found on the post were similar to the fingerprints
of the defendant.
1. Outer scarf or Epidermis
2. Inner Scarf or Dermis
6. In the case of Lamble vs. State (Lamble V. State, 96 N. T. L. 231;
Take Note: 114 ATL. (N.J.) 346 (1921) ) which involved the discovery of
fingerprints on the door of an automobile, the court was of the
1. Stratum Malpighi or the layer of the Malpighi – the ridges are opinion that it was not necessary to produce the door as an
formed into patterns by virtue of the fact that the epidermis is evidence. The court stated that a photograph of the fingerprints
penetrated and molded by the dermal papillae noted on the door should be sufficient along with the identification
2. Damage to the epidermis alone does not result to permanent ridge of the fingerprints by an expert to show these of the defendant.
destruction, whereas damage to the dermis will result to permanent The court referred the case of States V. Conners (Supra).
ridge destruction
3. We can identify many fingerprints which we cannot classify. 7. In the case of Commonwealth vs. Albright, (101 Pa. Sup. C.L.
317 (1931) ) a fingerprint expert testified that the fingerprint on a
State the principal uses of fingerprints - Some of the uses of fingerprinting piece of glass, establish to be from a pane in a door that had been
include: broken to effect entrance to the house was the same as the
impression of the defendant’s left index finger and he explained in
1. Identification of criminals whose fingerprints are found at the detail the points of identity which led him to that judgment. The
scene of the crime court stated, “it is well settled that the papillary lines and marks on
2. Identification of fugitive through a comparison of fingerprints the fingers of every man, woman and child possess an individual
3. Assistance to prosecutors in presenting their cases in the light of character different from those of any person and that the chances
defendants’ previous records that the fingerprints of two different persons may be identical are
4. Imposition of more equitable sentence by the courts infinitesimally remote.
5. Furnishing identification data to probation and parole officers and
to parole boards for their enlightenment in decision making 8. In a California case, People vs. Coral (224 cal. 2d300 (1964( ), the
6. Exchanging of criminal-identifying information with identification court stated, “it is completely settled law that fingerprints are the
bureaus of foreign countries in cases of mutual interest strongest evidence of the identity of a person.” This Doctrine was
7. Means of personal identification reasserted in another California case, People V. Riser (47 cal.
8. Recognition by the government of honored dead 2d566 (1956) ) in which the court stated, “fingerprint evidence is
9. Identification of unknown deceased the strongest evidence of identity and is ordinarily sufficient alone
10. Prevention of hospital mistakes in the identification of infants to identify the defendant.”
11. Identification of persons suffering from amnesia where fingerprints
are on file 9. The US Supreme Court in the case of Schmerber vs. California
12. Identification of missing person (Schmerber v. California, 384 us, 757, 763 764 (1966) ), held that
13. Personal identification of victims of disaster works the introduction into evidence of fingerprint impressions taken
14. Identification of unconscious persons; and without consent of the defendant was not an infringement of the
15. Licensing procedures for automobile, firearms, aircraft and other constitutional privilege against self incrimination. The high court
equipment. held that it is constitutional to obtain real or physical evidence
even if the suspect is compelled to give blood in a hospital
Give some important Events, Dates or Personalities showing the basis of environment, submit to fingerprinting, photographing or
the Legality of Fingerprinting measurement, write or speak for identification, appears in court,
stand or walk, assume a stance or make a particular gesture, put on
1. In 1911, an Illinois court, in the case of the People vs. Jennings a cloth that fits him, or exhibit his body as evidence when it is
(252 Ill. 534, 96NE 1077 (1911) ) pass upon the admissibility of material. The Schmerber case points out the fact that the privilege
fingerprint evidence. against self-incrimination is related primarily to
“TESTIMONIAL COMPULSION”.
2. In that case, fingerprint evidence was admitted as a means of
identification may give their opinions as to whether the 10. In the Philippines, several decided cases could be cited where
fingerprints found at the scene of the crime correspond with those fingerprint evidence was admitted, considered and appreciated by
of the accused. The court’s conclusion were based on a the appellate courts with even lesser number of ridge similarities.
comparison of the photographs of such prints with the impressions In the BILANGAWA vs. AMADOR case, (Court of Appeals No.
made by the accused, there being no question as to the accuracy or 37320-b), a fingerprint expert and constabulary sergeant testified
authenticity of the photographs. It was stated that the weight to be and successfully defended fingerprint evidence based on eight
identical ride points.
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 1. Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of intra-
uterine life and will remain unchanged throughout life until the
11. People vs. Medina (59 Phil. 330) - The first leading judicial final decomposition of the body.
decision in the Philippine jurisprudence on the science of 2. The pattern formation formed by the papillary ridges contains
fingerprinting. peculiar characteristics upon which a person can always be
identified by fingerprint examiners.
Admissibility of Fingerprint Testimony 3. Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the
world accept, adopt and utilize the fingerprint system as a means of
Expert’s testimony as to the identity of thumb marks or absolute identification of a person.
fingerprints is admissible. The method of identifying fingerprints is a science 4. The court and other authorities had taken cognizance of its
requiring close study. Where thumb impressions are blurred and many of the importance and reliability as a means of identification.
characteristic marks far from clear, thus rendering it difficult to trace the 5. That fingerprint will speak for itself as it shows the owner thereof
features enumerated by experts as showing the identity of the impressions, the in accordance with the principle of re ipso liquitor (a thing will
court is justified in refusing to accept the opinion that a distinct similarity in speak for itself).
some respects between the admittedly genuine thumb mark and the questioned
thumb mark is evident.
FINGERPRINT CHARACTERISTICS AND FORMATIONS
This method of identification of persons has become a fixed part of
our “SYSTEM OF JURISPRUDENCE”. Proof of the accused found in the Allied Sciences of Fingerprints
place where the crime was committed under such circumstances that they
could only have been impressed at the time when the crime was committed Dactyloscopy – identification of persons through examination and
may be sufficient proof of identity to sustain conviction. comparison of fingerprint. Taken from Greek words: Dactylos – a finger and
skopien – to examine
Number of Ridge Characteristics as Basis for Absolute Identity
1. Poroscopy – Science of palm print identification.
There are no national or international rules or laws that fix the 2. Chiroscopy – Science of palm print identification.
number of ridge characteristics that must be present in both the questioned and 3. Podoscopy – Science of foot print identification.
standard prints that should be used as a basis for establishing absolute identity.
Experts of different countries differ in the requirements of the minimum Pattern Interpretation
number. In England, the minimum is 16 and in USA, the minimum
requirement is 12. However, fingerprint experts in these countries believe that 1. Arches – 5%
identity can be established in lower number of guidelines laid down by the 2. Loops – 60%
famous French Criminalist Dr. Edmond Locard: 3. Whorls – 35%

1. Clearness of the pattern. Take Note: According to studies, the appearance of arches is less
2. Rarity of the type followed by whorls and the loops.
3. Presence of core or delta in the decipherable part
4. Presence of pores What are the Types of Ridge Formation?
5. The perfect and clear identity of the width of ridges and furrows,
of the direction of the lines, and the angular value of the furrows. 1. Recurving ridge – is a ridge that curves back in the direction in
which it started.
Weight of Fingerprint 2. Converging Ridges – Two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge
whose closed end is angular and serves as a point of convergence.
The weight to be given to evidence of correspondence of 3. Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side by side and suddenly
fingerprint when offered to prove identity of the accused as the person separating, one ridge going one way and the other ridge, another
committing a crime is for the determination of the court in the light of all the way.
surrounding facts and circumstances. 4. Bifurcating ridges – A single ridge which splits into two ridges
forming a “Y” shape formation or structure.
To warrant a conviction the fingerprints corresponding to those of 5. Island, Eyelet, lake or Eye – it is a single ridge which bifurcates
the accused must have been found in the place where the crime was where the bifurcating ridges converge at a certain point to form
committed under such circumstances that they could only have been again into a single ridge.
impressed at the time when the crime was committed. 6. Dot or Series of Dots – They are fragmentary ridges formed like a
dot or dots.
Can Fingerprint be destroyed? 7. Short or Series of Short Ridges – they are fragmentary ridges
formed by short or series of short ridges.
John Dellinger, a notorious gangster and a police character, 8. Ridge Ending - It is a termination or ending of ridge or ridges.
attempted to erase his fingerprints by burning them with acid but as time went 9. Fragmentary Ridges – They consist of disconnected sequences of
by the ridges were again restored to their “natural” feature. The acid he short ridges embodied intensely. These ridges are considered in
applied temporarily destroyed the epidermis of the bulbs of his fingers but re the classification of fingerprints if they appear as dark and as thick
occur later. as the surrounded ridges within the pattern area.
10. Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which
Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons, who performed rather painful are shorter in length than the main ridge.
experiments on themselves by burning their fingertips with boiling water, hot 11. Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge between two ridges.
oil and hot metal had shown that after the healing of the epidermis (outer 12. Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of ridge which is
skin), the original patterns of fingerprints reappeared. madly formed, thin, short or broken which appears in the
depressions between two well formed ridges.
Can Fingerprints be forged? 13. Sufficient Recurve – The space between shoulders of a loop, free
of any appendage, and a butting at right angle.
The authorities conducted various experiments and although they 14. Appendage – A short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve
could almost make an accurate reproduction’s till there is no case on record usually at right angle.
known or have been written that forgery of fingerprints has been a complete 15. Core – It is a point on a ridge formation usually located at the
success. center or heart of a pattern.
16. Delta or Triradial Point – It a point on the first ridge formation at
Give the reasons why Fingerprints is one of the most Infallible Means of or directly in front or near the center of the divergence of the type
Personal Identification lines.
17. Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods
or bars.
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 18. Friction ridges – Are strips of skin on the inside of the end joints 1. Ridge Counting – It refers to the process of counting the
of our fingers and thumbs by which fingerprints are made. They intervening ridges that touch or cross an imaginary lien drawn
are also called papillary ridges or epidermal ridges. between the core and the delta.
19. Furrows – Are depressions or canals between the ridges which
maybe compared with the low area in a tire tread. Take Note - It
20. Rod or Bar – is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving applies only to loops.
ridge of a loop pattern.
21. Up thrust - Is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient 2. Ridge Tracing – Is the process of tracing the ridges that emanate
degree from a horizontal place. from the lower side of the left delta towards the right delta to see
22. Dissociated ridges – are unusual ridge structures having no well where it flows in relation to the right delta.
defined patterns; the ridges are extremely short, appear like a series
of “patches” caused by a disturbance of developmental process at Divisions of Fingerprint Patterns
early fetal life of the individuals.
23. Shoulder of a loop – It is that point at which the recurving ridge A. LOOPS
definitely turns or curves. 1. ulnar
24. Puckering – As growth ceases at several ends, the ends curl 2. radial
slightly.
25. Creases – Are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running B. ARCHES
transversely or formed side to side, across the print, causing the 1. Tented
puckering of the ridges. 2. Plain
26. Staple – Single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.
27. Spike – an ending ridge at the center of a pattern which forms the C. WHORLS
up thrust. 1. Plain whorl
2. Central pocket loop whorl
3. Double loop whorl
Type Lines and Pattern Area 4. Accidental whorl

1. Type line – basic boundaries of most fingerprints. RULES ON FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

2. Pattern area – The part of the fingerprint which lies within the
area surrounded by the type lines. 1. Radial Loop - “R” - derived its name from the radius bone of the
forearm; it is one type of fingerprint patterns in which the ridges
What are the Rules on Core and Delta Location? run its direction to the radius bone or to the thumb.

The rules in CORE location are: 2. Ulnar Loop is one type of fingerprint pattern in which the ridges
flow toward the ulnar bone or little finger. Ulnar loop therefore
1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve. derived its name from the ulna bone of the forearm, or little finger.
2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains ending ridges or Its symbol is letter “U” in classification purposes.
rod rising as high as the shoulder of the loop further from the delta.
The exemption to this rule is when both shoulders are equidistant Take Note - A pattern to be a loop must have the
to the center of the sufficient recurve. following four (4) essential requisites:
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number a. It must
of rods rising as high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the have a
end of the center rod whether it touches the looping ridge or not. core
4. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of b. It must
rods rising as high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end have a
of the further one of the two center rods, the two rods being treated delta
as though they were connected by a recurving ridge. c. An
imaginary
Take Note - Always base on the entrance of the pattern in the line must
fingerprint. pass
between
The rule in DELTA location is: the core
and the
1. A dot can be a delta when there is no other alternative. delta
d. It must
have a
Rules in Delta location when there is a choice between two or more Delta ridge
count of a
1. The delta may be located at a bifurcation which does open towards minimum
the core. of at least
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of one (1)
delta, equally close to the point of divergence, the bifurcation is
selected. 3. Plain Whorl - Symbolized by letter “W” in the classification. It is
3. When there is a series of bifurcation opening towards the core at a fingerprint pattern which there are two (2) deltas and in which at
the point of divergence of two type lines, the bifurcation nearest to least one (1) ridge makes a turn through one complete circuit, an
the core is chosen as the delta. imaginary line drawn between the two (2) deltas must touch or
4. The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running cross at least one (1) of the circuiting whorl ridges within the
between the type lines toward the cores but at the nearer end only. pattern area.
The location of the delta depends entirely upon the point of origin
of the ridge between the type lines toward the core. 4. Central Pocket Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “C “ in the
5. If the ridge enters the pattern area from the point below the classification. It is a fingerprint pattern which for the most part of
divergent type lines. The delta must be located at the end nearer a loop, but which has a small whorl inside the loop ridges,
(inner terminus) to the core. sometimes called a composite pattern, which means that it is made
up of two (2) patterns in one, a whorl inside a loop.
Ridge counting and Ridge tracing It has two (2) deltas, one of which appears as the edge of the
pattern area, as in plain loop. And one shows inside the pattern
area just below the counterpart ridges.
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5. Double Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “D” in the
classification. A double loop whorl is a pattern consisting of two
(2) separate and distinct loop formations. One of the loops
surrounds or overlaps the other, also called COMPOSITE
PATTERN, like the central pocket loop whorl. It arises from the
fact that these patterns are a composite or combination of two 92)
patterns in one, with two cores and two deltas.
6. Accidental Whorl - Symbolized by letter “X” in the classification.
It is a pattern which is a combination of two or more different
types of pattern except in the PLAIN ARCH. It is a pattern which
is a combination of two or more different types of pattern except in
the PLAIN ARCH. It can be a combination of a loop and a whorl,
a loop and a central pocket loop whorl, or any combination of two
or more different loops and whorl type patterns.
7. Plain Arch - Symbolized by letter “A” in the classification. It is a
fingerprint pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the
pattern and flow towards the other side with a rise at the center
with not more than one of the four (4) essential requisites for loop
pattern and with no recurving ridge, no angular formation and no
upward thrust.
Take Note - It enters to the left and flows towards the
right.
8. Tented Arches - Symbolized by letter “T” in the classification. It
is a variety of arch family, but their ridge formations are not simple
as those of the plain arch, also considered TRANSITIONAL
PATTERN between a plain arch and a loop. Generally speaking,
TENTED ARCHES are formed in any of these three (3) way
formations, to wit:
a. One or several ridges in the center of the form an
up thrust.
b. The ridge or ridges in the center formed a well
defined angle.
c. The pattern may have two or three or four
essential requisites of a loop pattern.
Take Note - An
up thrust must have an
ending ridge.
REAL FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS
Real Impressions - Impressions of the finger bulbs with the use of
the printing ink on the surface of the paper. Any other coloring materials may
be used but less visible and indelible.
Methods of Producing Real Impressions
1. Plain Method.
2. Rolled Method
Methods of Recording real Fingerprints
Step 1- Ink the roller. Apply a small amount (about ¼ inch long
stream) of fingerprint ink on the right side of the slab, toward the back. Roll
out a two to three inch wide layer of ink on the back portion of the slab-lifting
the roller off the slab after each stroke and return to the starting point (do not
use a back-and-forth motion with the roller). Repeat several times until a thin
film of ink forms on the roller.
Step 2 - Next, using the same roller motion (without rolling back
and forth), spread the layer toward the front edge of the slab, until a smooth,
uniform coating of ink forms. The front edge is where the fingerprints are
rolled. When the ink on the front edge becomes too thin, replenish the ink
roller on the back edge of the slab and repeat step two.
Porelon Pad Method - No advance preparation is needed to use
the Porelon pad. However, the pad surface should be cleaned occasionally to
remove oil and dirt deposits by wiping the surface lightly with a soft, dry, lint-
free cloth.
82
Print Matic Method - Like the slab and roller method, the Print
matic method requires that the ink is embedded within the Print Matic roller,
and coating the slab requires only a few passes of the roller in the same
direction to apply a thin, even layer of ink.
Equipment Used in Preparation for Taking Fingerprint using Slab and
Roller Method
1. INKING PLATE – A 12 inches plate is long enough for most set
of 0 fingers. The width of the plate should not be less than 8
inches, ten (10) is a better width. A 10 inch plate is also wide
enough to ink a complete palm in one operation whenever it
becomes necessary.
2. CARD HOLDER – The simplest is a U-shaped spring clamp.
Made of spring steel, stainless steel or brass of gauge sufficient to
hold its shape in heavy usage.
3. ROLLER – 6 inches long, and 2 inches in diameter. The handle
should have supporting posts or legs to suspend the rubber roller
from developing flat sides and to keep unused portions of the plate
and table top from being smeared with ink.
4. INK - black printers ink is the most commonly used for taking
fingerprint impression. It is a consistency suitable for rolling into a
thin film and it is quick drying when transferred to a card as an
inked impression. Yet it does not dry too fast. Usable for several
hours after a film has been rolled.
What are the reasons why FOUNTAIN PEN INK, COLORED
INK AND STAMP PAD INK are objectionable to be used as
fingerprint ink?
a. They are too thin
b. Dry too quickly
c. Stamp pad smears easily
d. Impressions using stamp pad reproduce ‘weave”
of the pad stamp covering the inked impression.
e. Unsatisfactory for comparison purposes.
5. FINGERPRINT STAND – 32 inches high, the inking surface of a
fingerprint stand should be approximately 12 inches above the top
of an ordinary desk making the printing surface approximately 44
inches from the floor for the average person.
6. STANDARD EIGHT BY EIGHT INCHES FINGERPRINT
CARD – It is found to be adequate for receiving five rolled
impressions across the card the size convenient for handling and
filing.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN TAKING LEGIBLE
FINGERPRINTS
1. Cleanliness of equipment
2. The right kind and correct amount of ink.
3. Proper distribution of ink on the glass slab or inking plate.
4. The distance of the subject from the inking on the fingerprint card.
5. The advice of the operator to the subject to relax and never to aid
in the operation.
6. The pressure exerted must be slight and even the rolling be
continuous movement including lifting.
7. The nail of the fingers should be at rights angle to the slab or to the
card before starting the rolling and always roll the fingers until the
other side of the nail is reached (180 degrees).
8. The inking and printing must always reach below the first of the
fingers.
9. The thumbs should be rolled towards the subject’s body and all
other fingers away from the subject’s body.
STEPS IN TAKING FINGERPRINTS
1. The first and most important step is clear the plate thoroughly.
2. A daub of printer’s ink is deposited near the edge of the plate away
from the operator.
3. The subject’s hand and fingers must be relaxed.
STANCE FOR TAKING PRINTS
Most operators stand on the left side of the person whose prints
are being taken for the simple reason that more people are right handed and
then normally work more efficiently and do better advantage toward the right.
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Therefore, most fingerprint stands are made so that the printing is done on the Finger of Charred Body - In case where it is feared that they will
left front corner. disintegrate by even the slightest, their photo shall be taken as they are.

Take Note: Mummified fingers. Take their mould with silicon, make films
with strippable paint or cortex, and impress.
Rolled Impression – the subject must be relaxed
Plain Impression – the subject may not be relaxed CHANCE FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

FINGER DISABILITIES THAT NEED EXTRA-ATTENTION IN Chance Impressions - These are fingerprints which are imprinted
TAKING PRINTS by mere chance or without any intention to produce the print. Chance print
may be
1. Temporary Disabilities
1. Plastic impression – impressions made by chance on
a. fresh cuts or wounds or bandaged fingers cellophane tapes or any plastic materials.
b. Occupational marks (dry skin) – carpenters, bricklayers, etc. 2. Visible prints – impressions made by chance and visible
c. Excessive perspiration without chemical treatment.
3. Latent prints – impressions which are visible grossly but
2. Permanent Disabilities made visible by the addition of some substances. These are
fingerprints found at the scene of a crime.
a. lack of fingers – in-born or amputated
b. crippled fingers – bent or broken Search for Scene of Fingerprint Impressions
c. deformities – webbed, extra fingers (poly dactyl)
d. old age In order to collect scene fingerprints, it is necessary to clarify
e. split fingers/thumbs where they were impressed. Most scene fingerprints are usually found at the
points of entry, and departure, places ransacked, etc. Therefore, searching for
EXTRAORDINARY TAKING OF REAL FINGERPRINT scene fingerprints should be made with emphasis on such places but be
IMPRESSIONS thoroughly made on their surroundings. Further, there may be cases where a
suspect uses gloves, wipes out his fingerprint after committing a crime, or
1. Excessively sweating fingers - Impressing shall be made after makes other actions in connection with fingerprints. Thus, even when glove
temporarily suppressing sweating by wiping fingers with a lightly impressions or other traces of actions have been found as result of a
squeezed piece of gauze to which formalin alcohol liquid (100 ml. fingerprint search, it is necessary not to give up but to make a thorough search
of ethyl alcohol liquid containing 1-3 ml. of formalin all over the scene of the crime.
pharmacopoeia) is applied.
How to collect Chance Fingerprints?
2. Fingers with stiff joints - Impressing shall be made after shaking
a subject’s hand grasped by the wrist up and down several times to The methods of collecting fingerprints are roughly classified into
smoothen the joint movement. In this case, if the impressing plate eight, i.e., solid method (powder method), liquid method, gas method, lifting
and the glass plate are placed somewhat higher while having the method, flame method, molding method, photographing method and
subject stand somewhat away from the table, handling would be development with lasers.
easier.
SOLID METHOD (POWDER METHOD)
3. Fingers with stiff surface skin, coarse fingers and fingers
suffering from dermatophytosis - Wrap fingers in a steamed This solid method is also called the powder method since powder
towel for several minutes then impress. In this case, somewhat is used, and is the most basic method.
denser ink and somewhat weaker impressing will be better.
Each powder has its own properties of color, adhesiveness, grain
FINGERPRINT IMPRESSING TECHNIQUE FOR A DEAD BODY size, delineability, etc. A suitable powder is selected and used according to
the conditions of impression and object. Sometimes, two or more kidns of
1. Fingers soon after death - Wipe out fingers with a piece of gauze powder are used in mixture. This is called mixture powder. By using mixture
containing alcohol if they are stained. In case where satisfactory powder, color and adhesiveness can be adjusted. For example, by mixing lead
roll impressions are not obtainable by the ordinary impressing carbonate with indigo, the disappearance of fingerprints lifted to gelatin paper
technique, the impression paper shall be cut to a proper size, and can be prevented, while by mixing aluminum powder (gray) with lycopodium,
impressing shall be made onto it using such aids as a fingerprint the excessive adhesion of aluminum powder (gray) can be prevented.
taking pallet from a dead body.
POWDERING METHODS
2. Stiff fingers of a clenched fist - Impressing shall be made using
an aid such as a spatula for taking fingerprints from a dead body. Powdering methods include the brushing method, rolling method,
spraying method and light hitting method
3. Blanched and wrinkled fingers
1. The brushing method is a method where, after affixing powder to
Take Note: an object to be examined with a brush (developing brush) to whose
tip a small quantity of powder has been affixed a fingerprint is
Finger without percolate - Wipe them with a piece of alcohol – developed by lightly sweeping it with another, powder less brush
containing gauze, soften them thoroughly with your finger tips, stretch (finishing brush) to remove excessive powder.
wrinkles, and then impress. 2. The rolling method is method where, after placing a proper
quantity of powder on an object to be examined, lightly moving it
Fingers with percolate - Take their mold with silicon after drying by bending and tilting, spreading out powder all over the object to
with lycopodium powder. In order to obtain fingerprint impressions from have powder adhere to the fingerprint, the fingerprint is developed
silicon molds, strippable paint or cortex shall be used this technique is as by flipping the back side of the object to remove excess powder.
follows: 3. Also, there is another method called the sprinkling or tapping
method where, after having powder adhere to a fingerprint by
Fingers with peeled-off surfaced skin - Wind that surface skin lightly tapping the object to be examined, the fingerprint is
around the operator’s finger. Apply ink to it and impress. When the true skin developed by lightly tapping a part of the object with one’s fist,
is exposed, take photo after applying ink to the true skin or drying it with an etc. to remove excess powder.
aqueous marker in water or alcohol. 4. The spraying method is a method where, after evenly spraying
powder over the object to be examined from a distance of
approximately 30 cm, the fingerprint is developed by removing
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 excess powder by an air spray or with a brush, etc. This method is
suitable for cases where development is made from a porous or
solid object using lowly adhesive powder.
5. In cases where development has been made by using fluorescent
powder, the effect is doubled if observed by utilizing an ultra-
violet ray emitter.
6. The light-striking method is a method where, after having powder
adhere to a fingerprint by, say, lightly striking the object to be
examined with a brush tip to which powder has been applied, the
fingerprint is developed with another brush to which no powder is
applied or by air blowing with a blower-brush or a spray to remove
excess powder. This method is suitable for development from an
object with a porous or adhesive surface.
LIFTING METHOD
Collecting method by lifting fingerprint developed with powder
include methods employing cellophane tape, vinyl tape or other adhesive tape,
and methods employing silicon rubber.
1. The lifting technique with gelatin paper or lifter is as follows:
2. Cut gelatin paper or lifter to proper size.
3. Pull off the backing.
4. Direct the adhesive face toward the fingerprint.
5. Press on corner to the paper firmly to the object.
6. Press the rest of the paper to the object in stages, from the point
already affixed towards the fingerprint.
7. Press it lightly and evenly with your palm, etc. Less air should be
trapped.
8. Peel it off after lifting.
9. Stick it to the backing in the same manner of lifting.
The lifting method using silicon rubber follows the following:
1. Stretch the above thinly and evenly onto a proper-sized piece of
paper or cloth.
2. Add 5-10% by volume of hardener to silicon base.
3. Mix them thoroughly.
4. Stretch the above thinly and evenly onto a proper-sized piece of
paper or cloth.
5. Apply above to a fingerprint to be lifted.
6. Press lightly and evenly with a palm, etc. to prevent bubbles from
being trapped.
7. Pull off after silicon has hardened.
Take Note: Method of Restoration - When the fingerprint
collection by solid method is over, the object should be restored to its original
state by removing powder which has been affixed to it. This is called
“restoration.” Wipe the object lightly with a piece of cloth or a brush which
contains 0.5-1% synthetic cleanser liquid or 2-5% soap liquid.
LIQUID METHOD
1. Affix some chemicals to latent or visible fingerprint to cause a
chemical change in the excreta elements.
2. Develop or clarify it.
3. Record the print by photographing it.
This method is effective for developing a latent print from an
object such as paper, wood or metal and to collect a visible fingerprint such as
a blood fingerprint. This is a chemical collecting method whose principle is
that the element of the chemical liquid reacts to the element in excreta or
blood by changing color.
1. Reagent (chemical liquid) - Reagents commonly used are
ninhydrin, silver nitrate, etc.
2. Method to affix reagent - Method to affix reagent include the
painting method, soaking method and spraying method.
a. The painting method is a method where an object is
painted evenly with a brush 9flat brush for liquid) with
ample reagent to affix the reagent to the fingerprints.
This method is suitable for a large or solid object to be
examined.
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b. The soaking method is a method to affix reagent to
fingerprints by soaking an object to be examined into
regent in a tray or other vessel. This method is suitable
for cases where a small object is to be examined for
development.
The spraying method is as follows:
1. Fill a sprayer for liquid with reagent.
2. Spray evenly over the object to be examined about 30 cm. From
the nozzle for affixing the reagent to the object.
a. This method is applicable to three-dimensional as well as
flat-surfaced objects either large or small.
b. The sprayer used for the thin method should be capable of
spraying as fine as mist as possible.
c. A ninhydrin sprayer is an aerosol-type sprayer exclusively
for fingerprints which sprays the reagent (0.5% acetone
solution of ninhydrin) by means of pressurized gas.
Meanwhile, since silver nitrate reagent corrodes the metallic
portions of a sprayer, it should not be used in development by
spraying method.
Take Note: Method of Restoration - When the fingerprint
collecting work by the liquid method is complete, the article should be
restored to its original state by removing fingerprints impressed thereon and
stains produced by development, this is called restoration. Restoration
methods vary according to types of reagent used for development. For
restoration of a case using silver nitrate reagent, the object shall be washed in
water after being soaked in 2% alcohol liquid of corrosive sublimate. There is
another method of soaking in saturated solution of sodium thiosulphate after
soaking in saturated solution of iodine or of potassium ferry cyanide.
For restoration of a case using ninhydrin reagent, the object shall
either be applied with “Osyfull” oxygenated water) and be warmed, or be
applied with 3% solution of ammonium, or be soaked in hot water at 80
degrees or over.
GAS METHOD
This is a method where a latent fingerprint is developed by means
of coloring by affixing gasified reagent or by causing chemical change in
elements of excreta, and then collected by photographing or by lifting onto
lifting material. This method is suitable for developing fingerprints from
papers, unpainted wood and textiles.
Iodine is exclusively used as a reagent. The developed pattern
disappears with in a few minutes. Therefore, reduction is unnecessary.
a. The methods of affixing the reagent include a method where
gas is blown on to an object to be examined using an iodine
gas generator or a method where gas is filled up into a box in
which an object has been placed. Also, there is another
method where gas is blown into a vinyl bag in which an
object has been placed.
b. Since the fingerprint developed disappears within a few
minutes, it is collected by being photographed.
c. One of the recently developed method is to develop a
fingerprint in white by affixing gas generated from cyan
acrylic instant adhesive. It proves effective for developing
fingerprints from a blackish object, especially the adhesive
face of adhesive tape.
This method follows the following:
1. Apply cyanoacrylate to a plastic or similar plate.
2. The place on which a fingerprint is supposedly impressed
shall be placed and fixed face to face about 3 mm above the
plate.
3. Leave it under a cover.
4. The fingerprint is developed about 3 minutes later at the
earliest.
5. The developed fingerprint shall be collected by being
photographed.
LIFTING METHOD
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 This method includes a method where a visible fingerprint is
directly lifted to lifting material, a method where a fingerprint which has been
directly lifted is processed with powder, chemical liquid, etc., and a method
where a fingerprint is lifted using lifting material processed in advance with
chemical liquid, etc., and then preserved as it is or photographed. These are
effective for collecting dust fingerprints, oil/grease fingerprints, and blood
fingerprints.
Lifting material - All lifting materials used for lifting under the
solid method, gelatin paper, lifter, cellophane tape, transparent vinyl tape, and
other adhesive tapes can be used; but in most cases, gelatin paper is used.
Lifting method - The method of lifting directly to the lifting
material is mostly used for collecting a dust fingerprint or oil/grease
fingerprints.
The method using processed lifting material is to lift the material
to whose surface chemical liquid etc. has been applied in advance. This
method is used for collecting an oil/grease fingerprint and a just fingerprint.
Major collecting methods by tape of visible fingerprint are as
follows:
a. Dust fingerprint - In cases where dust quantity is small, a
fingerprint shall be lifted directly to gelatin paper (black).
Whenever the fingerprint has become unclear after lifting, the
transparent plate shall be peeled off and photograph shall be
taken by lighting from the rear side, or the fingerprint shall
be developed by having lycopodium stick to the peeled
backing by rolling method 7-9 days after lifting. Also if the
transparent plate is peeled off after lifting, its impressed face
is turned upwards, and the plate is soaked in ethyl alcohol for
1-3 minutes, its gelatin film hardens and further change is
prevented.
b. Blood fingerprint - In cases where a blood fingerprint has
just been impressed on an unabsorptive object, it shall be
directly lifted on gelatin paper. In cases whir lifting is
difficult as it has become slightly dryer, it is better to apply
gelatin paper to and lightly press the blood fingerprint
following the technique of lifting, to peel off the paper after
moistening the blood, to stick aluminum powder or gray to
the blood fingerprint by brushing, and to lift it onto other
gelatin paper.
c. Oil/grease fingerprint - When the surface is dry, it shall be
collected by lifting it onto Binio roll lifter as it is. If not dry,
it shall be lifted after drying in the shade. Meanwhile, in
cases of fluid oil/grease, a fingerprint cannot be collected by
this method.
FLAME METHOD
This is a method of developing or clarifying by affixing soot to a
latent or unclear fingerprint. The developed fingerprint shall be collected by
lifting in onto lifting material or by photographing. This method is suitable
for collection from metal or other object with a porous surface.
Soot-generating materials (burning material) include magnesium
(photo flash powder), camphor, pine resin, benzene, kerosene, edible oil,
paraffin and candles.
MOLDING METHOD
This is a method of collecting visible fingerprints with a molding
material, and is suitable for collecting from an object with so complicated and
uneven a surface that lifting with lifting material is unfeasible. This is also
suitable for collecting a latent fingerprint developed from a heated object.
The molding materials include silicon rubber, plaster, “Aljix”,
strippable paint, paraffin was, and plastic liquid. Collection shall be made by
taking a photograph or just preserving the mold.
PROTOGRAPHING METHOD
Space age technology is being used to enhance latent prints that
heretofore were of insufficient quality to be used. While image processing
85
has been used for some time, the high cost of computers precluded the use of
such technology in most crime laboratories. Major advances in the
“microchip” industry and the resulting proliferation of relatively inexpensive
microcomputers have placed this technology within the budgets of many
laboratories.
DEVELOPMENT WITH LASERS
Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. The use
of lasers for detection of latent fingerprint is relatively new and dates from
1976. By 1985, approximately 50 forensic science laboratories, or
approximately 15 percent of the crime laboratories in North America, used
lasers.
With nonporous items (e.g., plastic bags, glass, and so forth), the
evidence is first fumed with cyanoacrylate. If prints are not visible by means
of normal techniques employed, the material is washed with a methanol
solution of rhodamine. Excess rhodamine is washed off with methanol, using
a laboratory plastic wash bottle. If prints are present, the small amount of
excess rhodamine will adhere to them and show up under laser illumination
can be used. A zinc chloride solution is used to change the Ruheman’s purple
coloration, caused by the reaction of ninhydrin with the amino acids present in
the prints, to a yellow-orange color. The color change is luminescent in laser
light, and visible prints may be photographed.
On porous items of evidence (e.g., paper, cardboard, and the like),
evidence is treated in the usual way with ninhydrin. If prints are visible but
have insufficient ridge detail, laser illumination can be used. A zinc chloride
solution is used to change the Ruhemann’s purple coloration, caused by the
reaction of ninhydrin with the amino acids present in the prints, to a yellow-
orange color. The color change is luminescent in laser light, and visible prints
may be photographed.
At this time there are three types of lasers used in latent print work:
the argon ion laser, copper vapor laser, and neodymium: YAG laser.
LATENT FINGERPRINTS ON HUMAN SKIN
Techniques for developing latent fingerprints on human skin have
been devised, but have been successful only in rare instances. They may be
attempted in certain cases. The procedures are simple to use, inexpensive, and
can be accomplished by evidence technicians. The procedures work on both
living and deceased subjects.
The Kromekote card is used to lift the print from the skin surface
by placing the card over the skin in the suspected area and applying pressure
for about 3 seconds. The card is carefully removed and then dusted with
black fingerprint powder to develop the print transferred onto the card. The
fingerprint obtained is the mirror image of a normal print, which can be
reversed through photography. After the Kromekote technique is used,
fingerprint powder can be applied directly to the skin to develop prints. The
literature reports that the Magna-Brush gives results superior to a fiberglass
filament brush. If a print is developed by this method, it must be
photographed and then may be lifted using cellophane lifting tape.
Fingerprints on skin surfaces appear to last about 1-1/2 hours on
living victims. Deceased victims should be examined for latent prints on the
skin as soon as possible. The technique is still somewhat experimental, but
the simplicity and ease of use of the methods will result in greater use through
experience on the part of investigators.
FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE
EVIDENCE PRESERVATION OF CHANCE FINGERPRINTS
1. Whenever scene fingerprints have been found, confirmation by a
witness shall be made prior to collection.
2. Whenever scene fingerprints have been found, they shall be developed
and photographed prior to collection in order to clarify the position of
an object and positions of fingerprint impressions. Picture taking shall
be made by providing the fingerprinted object with a label containing
the name of incident, date and hour taken, place, witnesses, signatures,
collector’s affiliation and name, etc.
3. Whenever fingerprints are collected by lifting (printing0 then the grain
of wood, pattern, or other characteristics original to the object near the
fingerprints shall be lifted at the same time with lifting tape, etc. to
clarify the place where the fingerprints are impressed. In addition, the
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 name of incident, date and hour collected, object of collection, place of
collection, signature of witness, and collector’s affiliation and name
shall also be entered on the back of the lifting paper.
a. A scene fingerprint collection report shall be prepared
to clarify the relationship between the incident and the
place of collection.
b. On the scene fingerprints collection report, all scene
fingerprints collected should be numbered in serial
order, and be entered so as to clarify which fingerprint
was collected at which place by attaching a scene
sketch.
c. Meanwhile, for those fingerprints collected without
taking photographs, it necessary to clarify the
impressed positions and directions by solidly
illustrating objects of collection portions thereof, etc.
PRESERVATION BY PHOTOGRAPHY - Prints found at the
scene of a crime preferably should be preserved by photography. This
procedure has many advantages, including its leaving the object intact so that
further photographs can be taken if the first are unsuccessful. It also makes it
easier to produce the evidence before a court of law if the print has been
recorded since parts of the object that carry the print will be seen in the
picture.
PRESERVATION OF PLASTIC FINGERPINTS - When a
fingerprint has been left in material that has hardened or is able to withstand
transport, and when it is on an object that is small and easily transportable, it
may be sent directly to the crime laboratory. If removing the plastic print
poses some special problem, it should be photographed using oblique light to
bring out as much detail as possible. The fingerprint impression may then be
preserved by an appropriate casting material.
PRESERVATION WITH FINGERPINT LIFTERS -
Frequently, curved surfaces, such as doorknobs, with latent fingerprints
present are difficult to photograph or do not lend themselves to the use of
cellophane lifting tape. For such surfaces, elastic or rubber lifter material
works well. Rubber lifters are commercially available items made of thin,
rubbery material coated with an adhesive. The adhesive is protected by a
transparent celluloid material removed prior to use and replace onto with
different fingerprint powders.
PRESERVATION WITH FINGERPINT LIFTING TAPE -
The most common method of collecting latent fingerprint evidence today is by
special transparent cellophane tape. The material is supplied in rolls and is
usually 1 or 2 inches wide. After the surface is dusted with fingerprint
powder, the tape is placed over the print. Care must be taken to prevent any
air pockets. The tape is smoothed down over the print with the aid of a signer
and then drawn off. Particles of fingerprint powder adhere to the sticky
surface of the tape and thereby transfer the fingerprint pattern. The tape is
finally placed onto a card of suitable color, contrasting with the powder used.
How long does a Fingerprint remain on an object?
Plastic prints remain for any length of time provided that the object
on which they are left or the substance in which they are formed is itself
stable. In investigations, it sometimes happens that police officers find
fingerprints that give the impression of having been made in dust, but on
closer examination are found to be dust-filled plastic prints in oil paint made
years earlier.
Prints that have resulted from contaminated with blood, pigments,
ink, and oil are more resistant and can be kept for a long time under favorable
conditions. Latent prints on glass china, and other smooth objects can remain
for years if they are in a well-protected location. On objects in the open air, a
print can be developed several months after it is made. Fingerprints on paper
are very stable and will last for years provided the paper does not become wet
and deteriorate.
What is the effect of temperature on the possibility of developing
fingerprints?
When objects on which there may be fingerprints are found
outdoors in ice or snow, they must be thawed slowly and placed so that the
thawed water does not run over and destroy the prints. A suitable method of
treating is to scrape away as much snow and ice as possible, with the greatest
care, before the object is brought to a warm place. Only when the object is
dry should the print be developed.
86
When plastic fingerprints are present in oil or grease, the thawing
must be allowed to proceed slowly and under close scrutiny since the print
may easily be destroyed by heat. Such prints should be photographed when
they appear.
Damp objects should be dried in a room at ordinary room
temperature. As a general rule, never examine cold objects, especially metal,
until they have been kept for at least some hours at room temperature. In
indoor investigations in a cold house, the rooms should first be heated. The
heating should be done slowly so that water from thawing does not run off
frosted objects of places.
What is the concept of fingerprint identification?
The identification of a fingerprint is to compare two fingerprints
with each other, to indicate their characteristics, and to determine whether
they match or do not.
Since latent fingerprints are often partial and unclear, their
identification often encounters difficulties. Therefore, those who are engaged
in identification should make a correct identification. This also applies to the
identification of palm prints, middle phalange prints, basic phalange prints and
footprints.
What is the method of identification?
Method of identification include those for comparing
characteristics (type and position) of friction ridges, of sweat pores (sweat
gland outlets appearing on friction ridges like eyes of needles) and of friction
ridge edges (straight, projecting, arch, pocket, table, etc.). In general,
however, a method by characteristics of friction ridge which are
understandable easily and objectively is used.
In identification, the following matters should b examined with the
identification material:
1. Conditions of collection (method of collection, situation of both
the object impressed and the fingerprint left on the scene, time
elapsed, etc.).
2. Kind of pattern, position impressed.
3. Kind of finger.
4. Situation of impression (whether slipped, twisted, duplicated or
not; either surface or true skin; and reversal fingerprint).
In comparison and pointing out of characteristics, the
characteristics of a latent fingerprint and of the formally impressed fingerprint
shall be compared, and matching points of characteristics shall both be noted
by indication lines with numbers for referencing. The indication lines and
numbers shall be entered in red.
A letter of identification shall be prepared bye entering therein
such necessary matters as the kind (latent fingerprints, finger seal, formally
impressed fingerprints, or so) and number of pieces of identification material,
identification item, identification process, identification result, identification
date and identifier.
Meanwhile, in general, a photograph showing the identification
material enlarged three times is attached indicating on the photograph
matching characteristics by indication lines and numbers for easy
comprehension.
Is there any electronic identification of fingerprints?
The computer has greatly affected how fingerprints can be taken.
An Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) can digitize
fingerprint information to produce inkless fingerprints. Latent fingerprints are
scanned and converted into an electronic image that is stored in a data base for
rapid retrieval.
The live-scan method of fingerprinting stores and transmits
fingerprints digitally. The new method allows police to place a suspect’s
finger on a glass plate, which is then read by a special device to produce a
digital image of the prints. The image can then be transmitted over telephone
lines to computerized criminal records centers.
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 Laser fingerprinting eliminates the mess of inked fingerprints and
also many of the problems associated with them.
Take Note: Fingerprint evidence is maintained by:
1. For laboratory examination - Recording made upon receipt
of
a. Name of agency requesting for scientific
assistance or submitting latent print.
b. Date or receipt.
c. Inventory of latent fingerprint evidence.
2. For field laboratory work - It is maintained by following
the procedures below:
a. Crime scene search for latent.
b. Develop the print by developing materials.
c. Photograph developed prints by powder on
original.
d. Lifting latent prints.
Further maintenance is done by lifting the number of fingerprint
evidence, their descriptions, quantity and quality.
COURT PRESENTATION OF FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE
In testifying to fingerprint identification, the expert often prepares
charts to visually aid the court and jury in understanding the nature of his
testimony. Many times it is undoubtedly difficult for the laymen to perceive,
from a vocal explanation alone, the full import of an expert’s testimony, due
to its technical nature; consequently, some graphic representation of the facts
presented is amply justified and rewarded.
The preparation of the charts is ultimately the sole responsibility of
the expert using them. As matter of interest to law enforcement personnel
engaged in fingerprint work, a brief explanation of such charts follows, along
with suggestions and remarks based on long experience in these mattes.
Aside from the photographic equipment, what are other the needed
materials?
A roll of scotch photographic tape -1 inch wide to outline the areas
of the fingerprints on the negative to be used: some stiff cardboard
approximately 1/32 inch thick on which to mount the prepared charts, a tube
of rubber cement and a bottle of translucent ink, other than black or white.
A light-box on which to view the negatives while blocking, and a
lettering set to draw the lines and numbers uniformly on the charts, while not
absolutely essential, are helpful conveniences. A light-box is basically a
frosted pane of glass with a light beneath it to produce soft, even, none glaring
illumination. If no light-box is available, a clear window may be utilized in
“blocking” the negatives.
If the expert finds it necessary to have an outside source prepare
his photographs, he should retain personal custody of the evidence during the
operation. The original latent print and inked print with which it is identical
can be photographed 25 times the actual size. This procedure eliminates
guesswork in enlarging both the same degree. Whatever areas of the two
prints are deemed requisite to illustrate the method of identification are then
outlined (blocked) on subsequent enlargements.
Generally, if the legible area of the latent print is small, it is well to
show the complete print. If the area is large, however, as in a palm print, an
area which will not make the chart too bulky or unwieldy may be selected.
In blocking, the negative is affixed to the window pane or light-
box by means of strips of photographic tape across the corners, with the side
to be blocked up. This prevents constant shifting of the negative while it is
prepared. The latent print should be blocked first. Corners of the blocked
areas should be square.
If the latent print was developed or photographed as a light print on
a dark background, a reverse-color negative should be prepared and blocked
in order that both print may appear as black ridges on light. This is done by
placing the original negative adjacent to a new sheet of film and exposing it.
The resultant negative contains the same image as the original except that the
color of the image has been reversed.
87
If the negative is a photograph of an opaque lift the print appears in
reverse position; that is, as a mirror image, and the negative will accordingly
have to be blocked from the dull or emulsion side in order for it to appear in a
position comparable to that of the inked prints. Failure to present the prints in
question in the same color and position may confuse the observer and nullify
the purpose for which the chart is made.
The degree of enlargement is not important in itself so long as the
ridge of the latent print is readily distinguishable by the eye. Ten diameters
have been found adequate, although any enlargement from 5 to 30 will serve.
It should be remembered however that small enlargements are difficult to see
a few feet away and that large ones lose some of the contrast between ridges
and background. A white border of at least 1 ½ inches or a width equal to
one-third the enlarged area should be left for charting purposes.
All of the ridge characteristics are ample to illustrate for,
identification, but it is neither claimed nor implied that this number is
required. All fingerprint identifications are made by observing that two
impressions have the ridge characteristics of similar shapes which occupy the
same relative positions in the patterns.
Method involving super imposition of the prints are not
recommended because such a procedure is possible only in a very few
instanced, due to the distortion of ridges in most prints through pressure and
twisting. Such a procedure is not necessarily a test of identity. Likewise,
presenting charts with the shapes of the characteristic drawn in the margin is
not recommended. Individual ridge characteristics may vary slightly in actual
shape or physical position due to twisting, pressure, incomplete inking
condition of latent print when developed, powder adhering to background etc.
Identifications are based on a number of characteristics viewed in a
unit relationship and not on the microscopic appearances of single
characteristic. The chart will present a clearer, nearer and more pleasing
appearance if it is numbered clockwise and the numbers are evenly spaced. It
is necessary however, to place the numbers evenly around the photograph.
Ordinarily, the numbers are placed on three sides and the type of print (latent
or ink) noted at the bottom. In any case, the manner of numbering should be
subservient to an explanation of the characteristics in an orderly sequence;
and, if the situation warrants all of the points may be illustrated on a single
side of the photograph.
A single line should be drawn from each characteristic to a
numbered point on the march. Care should be taken to draw the beyond it or
obscuring it. Erasures should be avoided. If the ink runs or blots, it is
sometimes possible to remove it with a cloth in denatured alcohol, without
damaging the photograph.
If the enlargement is great, that is 25 or 30 diameters, it might be
well to draw a small circle around each characteristic and then draw the line
from a circle to the number, since the ridge will be much thicker than the
illustrating line. All lines and numbers should be checked for absolute
accuracy. The expert should also study the enlargements for apparent
discrepancies in the prints, which he might be called upon to explain.
The chartered enlargements are readily mounted on stiff cardboard
with rubber cement, which may be purchased in small tubes. After cementing
the photograph to the cardboard, it should be placed under a heavy glut object
which will cover the entire surface to prevent wearing and wrinkling.
CLASSIFICATION OF FINGERPRINTS
CLASSIFICATION IN GENERAL, in this context, refers to the
sorting things into division or group so that they can at later time be quickly
located.
What are the steps in fingerprint classification?
1. Recording – Simply means the taking of fingerprint impressions,
either rolled or plain impression.
2. Interpretation – Simply means the naming or interpreting of a
fingerprint pattern. Loop (either radial or ulnar), Arch (plain or
tented) or whorl (plain, central pocket loop) whorl, double loop
whorl or accidental whorl).
3. Blocking – This applies only to loop pattern either as ulnar or
radial loop. It means designating by symbol the type of patterns
which each finger and thumb bears and recording for each
respective finger and thumb.
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 4. Classification – This refers to the classification proper this time Central Pocket Loop
you need a complete set of ten (10) fingerprint patterns to obtain Whorl C c
the necessary classification. Double Loop Whorl D d
Accidental Whorl X x
What are the patterns that require special attention?

1. Doubtful – interpretation is very difficult.

2. Questionable – a doubtful pattern
3. Borderline – whereby in either case, it can be the combination of
different kinds of fingerprint pattern. And the classification of
such is confused as to its proper interpretation. Take Note:
4. Approximating – sometimes the same as to that of doubtful.
1. If a finger appears to be amputated (cut off) just place the symbol
Important points to remember in classifying fingerprints or simple abbreviation as AMP and the date of amputation on the
1. Division – for purposes of classification and filing, all the type box of the finger actually amputated.
patterns are divided into two groups; the numeral and the non- 2. In case of partial amputation, place the abbreviation symbol “TIP
numeral. AMP”.
2. Numerical – the numerical group is composed of set of prints
containing whorl pattern.
3. Non-numerical – the non-numerical group is composed of sets of THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
prints in which no whorls are present.
4. Fingerprint analysis – the analysis of fingerprint is the identifying What is the Pure Henry System of Classification?
and distinguishing of fingerprint pattern according to their design
and formation. 1. Primary
5. Classification formula – is the result of combining all the patterns 2. Secondary and small letter groups
of the fingerprints and recording them in a specific order or 3. Sub-secondary
manner at the top right of the fingerprint card. It represents the 4. Final
patterns of all ten fingers of both hands combined. 5. Major
6. Filing – is an orderly manner of starting the card and grouping 6. Key
each card and filing in a specific sequence according to the final
classification formula. PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
7. Pockets – the fingerprint cards are grouped according to the
classification formula and the classification of the extension used Procedure to be followed in obtaining primary classification
in the bureau.
8. Searching – means an attempt to locate in the file a print identical Numbering in natural sequence. The first step in classifying
to the current print and thus established identification. fingerprints is the numbering of the finger and thumbs. The natural sequence,
9. Denominator’s meaning in primary classification – the starting with the right thumb as one and ending at the left little finger as ten is
denominator written below the line constitute the total numerical followed:
value of the finger in which the whorls appear, is the natural
sequence of numbers from one to thirty two (1 to 32). Right hand 1 2 3 4 5
Left hand 6 7 8 9 10
What are the basic rules for tracing whorls?
1. Tracing always begins at the left delta and goes toward the right ODD FINGERS: The odd fingers are 1 (right thumb) 3 (right
delta. middle finger) 5 (right little finger) 7 (left index finger) 9 (left ring
2. An uninterrupted ridge can be traced from the left delta to the right finger).
delta.
3. When the tracing ridge suddenly ends, the tracing is continued on EVEN FINGERS: The even fingers are 2 (right index finger) 4
the ridge below it. A ridge must definitely end before the tracing (right ring finger) 6 (left thumb) 8 (left middle finger) 10 (left little
may be continued on the ridge below. finger).
4. When a ridge bifurcates, the tracing is continued on the lower
branch or the bifurcation. Numerical Value of Whorls - Designated Value of Each Finger with
5. When the delta is dot, the tracing begins on the type line, which is Whorls
the ridge immediately below the delta.
The Henry system designated the value of whorl according to the
What are the rules for beginning and ending ridge count? finger or thumb on which they appear, and in the following sequences.
1. Ridge tracing begins at the extreme left delta and stops at the point Right hand 16 16 8 8 4
directly in front of the right delta. Left hand 4 2 2 1 1
2. In a double loop whorl, the tracing begins at the extreme left delta.
When the tracing passes inside the right delta, one stops at the Total Whorl for Primary - In a set of prints, the numerical value is
nearest point to the right delta on an up thrust. represented by two (2) distinct totals. First: all whorls appearing on the odd
3. In an accidental whorl having three deltas, the tracing begins at the fingers; and second, all whorls appearing on the even fingers. The two totals
extreme left delta and goes towards the extreme delta. Any other obtained constitute the primary classification. ODD and EVEN finger must
delta encountered is ignored. never total together. The ODD numbered fingers shall constitute as the
4. If no up thrust is represented, one continues the tracing until a denominator and the EVEN numbered fingers as the numerator.
point opposite the right delta, or the left delta itself, is reached.
Arbitrary count of one (1) ADDED - To each total, an arbitrary count of one
What are the symbols in Blocking? is added. The purpose of the arbitrary count of one is to avoid a classification
of zero over zero in a set of print in which no whorls appear; this might be
FINGERPRINT PATTERN INDEX FINGER OTHER FINGERS mistaken for the letter “O” which has another specific meaning in the
Arches (Plain) A a classification.
Arches (tented) T t
Radial loops R or / Number of Possible Combinations in the Primary - There are one thousand
r or / and twenty four (1,024) possible combinations of primaries, beginning with
Ulnar loops U or \ “one over one” and ending with “thirty-two over thirty-two”
u or \
Plain Whorl W Take Note: After getting the Primary Classification, you must file
w the fingerprint in the following manner:
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 1/1 - Lowest Classification
32/32 - Highest Classification A small letter in the thumb will produce the writing of the
classification of the index fingers. Small letters in the middle, ring, and little
Illustration: fingers will follow the writing of the classification of the index fingers.

1. 1/1, ½, 1/3, ¼, 1/5, 1/6……………………….. 1/32
2. 2/1, 2/2, 2/3, 2/4, 2/5, 2/6 ……………………. 2/32
3. 3/1, 3/2, 3/3, ¾, 3/5, 3/6 ……………………… 3/32 TILL
4. 32/1, 32/2, 32/2, 32/4, 32/5, 32/6 ……..…….. 32/32
Rules on Amputation and Fingerprint Missing at Birth
1. If one finger is amputated (AMP) or missing at birth (FMB) the
classification is based on the opposite finger with the numerical
value.
Take Note: The numerical value of the (AMP) FMB) must not be
changed.
2. If both fingers are amputated or missing at birth they are treated as
whorl with the respective numerical value and with meeting (M)
tracing.
This aRa would mean a thumb arch, and index radial, and a middle
finger arch on the TUr right hand, and thumb tented arch, and index ulnar,
and a middle finger radial on the left hand.
Importance of small letters - The absence of small letter groups
are of vital importance to the classification system as the small letter occurs
relatively infrequently.
Frequency - The small letter groups, after the index fingers have
been grouped (small) in the following sequence:
1st: The denominator by count (the lesser number of small
letters proceeding the greater).
2nd: By position (small letter to the left of the index finger
proceeding these at the right).
3rd: By type (a,t, r).
SUB-SECONDARY AND FINAL CLASSIFICATION

Sub-Secondary – The sub-secondary classification is the grouping

SECONDARY CLASSIFICTION of prints according to the ridge count of loops and ridge tracing on whorls.

Rank – The secondary classification follows the primary
classification.
Position of Secondary – The secondary classification appears just
to the right of the fraction which represents the primary.
Meaning of Secondary – The numerator (WRITTEN ABOVE)
indicates the type of pattern appearing on the index finger of the
right hand.
Denominator Meaning – The denominator (WSRITTEN
BELOW) Indicate the type pattern appearing on the index finger of
the left hand.
Reason fort Subdivision – The sub-secondary classification is the
group of print within the secondary classification, thus facilitating searches
since it limits the search to smaller groups of the fingerprint cards.
Position of Formula – The sub-secondary classification is placed
on the classification line immediately to the right of the secondary
classification
Recording Ridge Count – The ridge count of the loops are
recorded as “I” (inner) and “O” (outer).
Recording Whorl Tracing – The whorl tracing are recorded as
follows:

Basic Types of Pattern that can Appear INNER (I)

MEETING (M)
1. Arch (A) OUTER (O)
2. Tented Arch (T)
3. Radial loop (R) Fingers Considered - In the sub-secondary classification, six
4. Ulnar loop (U) fingers are considered they are:
5. Whorl (W)
6. Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C) 1. Right index finger
7. Double Loop Whorl (D) 2. Right middle finger
8. Accidental Whorl (X) 3. Right ring finger
4. Left index finger
Sequence - Just as in the sequence of the primary classification, in 5. Left middle finger
filing, the denominator does not change until the numerator has exhausted all 6. Left ring finger
the changes of pattern in their orderly sequence.
Established Number of Ridge Counts
Small Letter Groups - The small letter group of the primary
classification includes prints having plain arches, tented arches and radial INDEX FINGERS:
loops on fingers other than the indexes.
One (1) to Nine (9) ridges ……………………… I (Inner)
What constitute a small letter? For purposes of blocking a set of Ten (10) or more ridges ………………………… 0 (Outer)
fingerprints, the patterns of the index fingers are designated by a capital letter
and the patterns on other fingers and thumbs are designated by small letter. MIDDLE FINGERS:
One (1) to Ten (10) ridges ……………………… I (Inner)
Blocking - For purposes of blocking a set of fingerprints, the Eleven (11) or more ridges ……………………... O (Outer)
patterns of the index fingers are designated by a capital letter and the patterns
on other fingers and thumbs are designated by small letter. These are placed
in their respective blocks. RING FINGERS:
One (1) to thirteen (13) ridges ………………….. I (Inner)
Writing the Formula - For the purpose of writing the Fourteen (14) or more ridges……………………. O (Outer)
classification formula, the same rule held true the capital letters designated on
index fingers and the small letters designated other fingers. The classification Loops and Whorls in Sub-Secondary - In a set of prints having
formula is written at the top of the fingerprint card. loops and whorl only the sub-secondary classification may include two (2),
but not more than three (3) fingers of each hand.
Sequence in writing letter into Formula - The small letters are
written into the classification formula in their natural sequences as they appear
on the hands.
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 “M SYMBOL” - The symbol (M) meeting appearing in a sub-
secondary classification, indicates a whorl in the figures being considered, 1. If the ridges in the whorl pattern is ulnar it is OUTER.
since only a whorl can have a meeting tracing. 2. If the ridges in the whorl pattern is radial it is INNER.

“I” and “O” SYMBOL - The symbols “I” and “O” in a sub- a. Take only the loop excluding the whorl inside it.
secondary classification may relate to a set of prints having loops and whorls b. Left Delta will always be the one to drop. And in
or all loops or whorls. Whether the prints are loops, whorls or loops and counting its ridges include ending ridges and
whorls may be ascertained from the primary classification since “one” over bifurcation.
“one” indicates no whorls, thirty-two indicates all whorls and other primaries
indicates both loops and whorls. FINAL CLASSIFICATION

Filing: The filing of prints within the sub-secondary classification The final classification is the ridge count on the loop (ulnar and
is done according to the following sequences: radial) appearing in the right little finger.

First – I (inner) in loops Position - The final classification is indicated at the extreme right
Second – O (outer) in loops of the numerator.
First: I (Inner) in whorls
Second: M (meeting) in whorls No Loop in the Right Little Finger - If a loop does not appear in
Third: O (outer) in whorls the right little finger, a loop in the left little finger may be used. The little
finger position in the formula remains unchanged, except that the ridge count
As in all other components set of the classification formula, the is noted as a denominator rather than as a numerator.
denominator does not change until the numerator has exhausted the entire
sequence. Arch or Tented Arch - If an arch or tented arch appears in the
little finger, it is indicated in the classification formula by a small dash (-). If
Summary of the Rules: such a formation appears in both little fingers, final classification is not
obtainable. The Arch or Tented Arch appearing in either or both little fingers
1. For AMP and FMB-Apply the rule on primary classification. is not ignored in the classification formula since it is incorporated and
2. Whorl-Apply Ridge Tracing. designated as a small letter in the secondary classification.

For loops (Ridge Counting) Both Little Fingers are used - Both little fingers are considered
by some bureaus and the ridge counts of both are recorded. However, the
Index Finger count of the right little finger governs the sequence for filing within the final
1-9 ridge count………………………………………………… classification.
I (Inner)
10 or more…………………………………………………….. Whorl - If no loops appear in the little fingers but a whorl appears
0 (outer) instead. A final classification may be obtained by a ridge count of the whorl.
Making a ridge count of whorls (in either or both little fingers) is required in
Middle Finger connection with a large collection or group of prints, such as prints having a
1-10 ridge count……………………………………………… primary classification of thirty two over thirty two.
I (Inner)
11 or more……………………………………………………. Search - When a search is made within a group of cards, and when
0 (outer) the final is designated, only prints having the same final count or count are
examined. Some bureaus allow a count of three on either side of the final
Ring Finger classification.
1-13 ridge count……………………………………………….
1(Inner) Little Fingers used only for Final Classification - The ridge of
14 or more ridge count………………………………………… the little finger is used exclusively for the final classification.
0 (outer)
Little Fingers not used for Key Classification - At no time can
For Arches the ridge count of either of the little fingers be used for the key classification.

Use small letter (t) for tented arch.
Use small letter (a) for plain arch
If the index finger, middle finger, and ring finger are all plain
arches just put three dashes in the sub secondary classification and
A2a in the Secondary Classification. (Same is true when both
index and middle fingers are the same).
Importance of Final Classification - The final and the key
classifications may be considered the CONTROL FINGERS for filing and
searching. They limit the number of the prints to be examined each group.
Final not Possible - If the type pattern of either little finger is an
arch, as a tented arch, no final classification is obtained. This is indicated by a
small dash (-).

If the index finger, middle finger and ring finger are all tented
arches just put three dashes in the sub secondary classification and
T2t in the Secondary Classification. (same is true when index and
middle finger are the same).
MAJOR CLASSIFICATION
The major classification represents only the thumb of each hand. It
is the ridge count of the loop and/or the tracing of the whorl appearing in the
thumb of each hand (if such whorls appear).

Position - The major classification is placed immediately to the

left of the primary in the classification formula.

Right and Left Thumbs: Numerator and Denominator - The

For Whorl Tracing
Meeting (M) = 0, 1, 2, ridges either from the left delta or the right
delta.
Outer (O) = 3 or more ridges below the right delta.
Inner (I) = 3 or more ridges above the right delta.
thumb of the right hand appears in the classification formula as the numerator,
and the thumb of the left hand as the denominator.
Symbol for Major Classification - The major classification is
written with specific symbols, which indicates the respective patterns of the
thumb as being either whorls or loops.

Take Note:
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 Ridge Tracing or Ridge Counting - These symbols are governed
by the ridge tracing for whorls or the ridge counts for the loops.
Symbols for Loops: S (small) in loops (ridge count); M
(medium) in loops (ridge count); L (large) in loops (ridge count).
Loops Pattern in Both Thumbs - In a set of prints having loop
patterns in both hands, the ridge count of the left thumb governs the symbol
for the right thumb.
Little Fingers Disregarded - The little fingers are totally
disregarded in obtaining a key classification, for they are exclusively used in
the final classification.
Position - The key, no matter where it is found is always written at
the extreme left of the numerator.
Importance of the Key and Final Classification - The key and
final maybe considered the control figures for filing and searching. To limit
the number of prints, it is necessary to examine within a group.

Left thumb ridge count Right thumb ridge count Take Note: All answers obtained must be put/placed on the
numerator of the key classification. Write the Key at the Left of the entire
1 to 11SMALL (S) 1 to 11 SMALL (S) formula, proceeding all other components of the Classification Formula.
12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M) 12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L) 17 or more LARGE (L) Little Fingers not used - If not used, the little fingers (regardless
1 to 11 SMALL (S) 1 to 17 SMALL (S) of their type patterns or ridge count) as shown by the key for which they
18 TO 22 MEDIUM (M) 12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M) represent, are reserved for the final.
23 or more LARGE (L) 17 or more LARGE (L)
Key no loops - Make ridge count of whorl appearing in the thumb
Either Thumb Missing - When the thumb is missing, the missing of the right at the extreme left delta. This may be used as a key.
one acquires the same pattern, ridge count, or ridge tracing as the thumb of the
opposite hand. On this assumption, the classification proceeds as usual. Key not possible - If the entire set of prints is composed of plain
Since the left thumb, real or assumed, is the denominator, it governs the arches and tented arches, the key cannot be obtained.
classification, filing and searching.
CLASSIFICATION OF SCARRED PATTERNS
Grouping the Prints - Because specific symbols have been given
for loops and others for whorls appearing on the thumb, the prints are grouped Emphasis should be placed upon the necessity for fully referencing
according to their respective patterns. all scarred patterns. In connection with their proper classification, the
following rules should be observed:
Sequence - The filing for prints follows definite within each group.
When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of
Denominator governs the sequence - As in all other groups, the pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable
denominator governs the sequence and remains unchanged until the numerator accuracy, the impression should be given both the general type value and the
has exhausted the entire sequence. sub classification value of the corresponding finger of the other hand.

Sequence for Loops - Since the loops in the thumbs are indicated
as small (S), medium (M), and large (L), the sequence is as follows:
NUMERATOR SML SML
SML
DENOMINATOR SSS SSS
SSS
Sequence for Whorls - For the whorls in the thumbs indicated as
Inner (I), meeting (M), and outer (O), the sequence is as follows:
NUMERATOR IMO IMO
IMO
DENOMINATOR III III
III
Loop and Whorl in Major - When the whorl appears in one
thumb and a loop in the other, a specific sequence is used.
Reference: One Thumb Missing - Although a classification was
obtained for one missing thumb, (as described above), it is necessary to
continue the search in all possible references. The original pattern of the
missing thumb might be different from the thumb of the opposite hand.
Both Thumbs Missing - If both thumbs are missing, they
arbitrarily acquire the classification of meeting whorls, and no other reference
searches are necessary. No major classification is obtainable if one thumb
pattern is plain arch or tented arch. Such print will pertain to the small letter
group (referring to the secondary classification).
Radial Loop on Either or Both Thumbs - The major
classification is obtained if a radial loop is present on either or both thumbs
because a ridge count is possible. However, the print will be filed with the
small letter group.
KEY CLASSIFICATION
The key classification represents the ridge count of the right first
loop appearing in a set of prints, beginning with the thumb of the right hand
but excluding the little finger.
When an impression is partially scarred, i.e. large scars about the
core so that the general type cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy,
but the ridges allow reasonably accurate sub classification by ridge tracings or
counting, the impression should be given the primary value of the pattern of
the corresponding finger and the sub classification value as indicated by
ridges of partially scarred impressions.
When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of
pattern can be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be
traced or counted so as to fall within the proper sub secondary classification,
the impression should be given the ridge count or tracing value of the
corresponding finger of the other hand, if the corresponding finger is of the
same general type. The scarred impression should be given the probable
value and reference to all other possibilities.
When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of
pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable
accuracy, and it so happens that the corresponding finger of the other hand is
similarly scarred, corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred,
both patterns are given the arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracings.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPUTATIONS AND FINGERS MISSING AT
BIRTH
When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it
may be filed separately from those having no amputations in order to facilitate
searching. It is to be noted that before it may be filed in the amputating group,
the card must contain a definite and unequivocal statement or marking by the
contributor to the effect that a certain finger or fingers have been amputated
but which in reality were merely injured and bandaged when previous prints
were submitted.
1. If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical
with that of the opposite finger, including pattern and ridge
count, or tracing, and referenced to every other possible
classification.
2. If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given
classifications identical with the fingers opposite, with no
additional references.
3. If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are
given the classification of whorls with meeting tracings.

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 When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of fingers missing at
birth is classified, the missing fingers should be treated as amputations in that
they are given the identical classifications in that they are given the identical
classifications of the opposite fingers and are filed in the amputation group.
As these fingers are missing from a prenatal cause, they would bane always
receive the identical classification of the opposite finger on any previous
occasion.
If all 10 fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification
will be:
M 32 W MMM.
M 32 W MMM
If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the footprints
should be taken as they, too, bear friction ridges with definite patterns. A
footprints file is maintained by the FBI for identification purposes in instances
where the subject has all fingers amputated or missing at birth.
Partially amputated fingers often present very complex problems
and careful consideration should be given to them. The question often arises
as to the appropriate groups in which they should be filed, i.e., amputations or
non amputations. As no definite rule may be applied, it is a matter of
experience and judgment as to their preferred classification.
In those instances in which a partially amputated finger has half or
more than half of the pattern area missing, it is given the classification of the
opposite finger. It will be filed in the amputation group under those
conducted in all possible classifications of the opposite fingers only and are
governed by the rules concerning amputations.
Generally, a “tip amputation,” or one which has less than half of
the first joint amputated, will always be printed in the future. Therefore, a
partially amputated finger, with less than half of the pattern area missing is
classified as it appears and is referenced to the opposite finger. It will be field
in the non amputation group and reference searches should be conducted
under the classification of the opposite finger, and in the amputation group. It
must be referenced this way even though it never could have originally had
the classification of the opposite finger.
CLASSIFICATION OF BANDAGED OR UNPRINTED FINGERS
If fingers are injured to the extent that it is impossible to secure
inked impressions by special inking devices, the unprinted fingers are given
classification identical with the classifications of the finger opposite. If only
one finger is lacking, reference searches should be conducted in every
possible classification. If more than one finger is lacking, they should be
given the classification of the opposite fingers, but no be given the
classification of the opposite fingers, but no reference searches should be
conducted. If there are two lacking, opposite each other, they should be
classified as whorls with meeting racings.
If, however, in the case of an injured finger, observation is made of
the ridges of the finger itself and indicated on the print, this classification
should be, insofar as it is possible, utilized. For example, a missing
impression labeled “ulnar loop of about 8 counts” by the individual taking the
prints, should be searched in the sub-secondary as both I and 0 but should not
be referenced as a pattern other than a loop. If the finger is used as the final,
or key, it should be searched enough counts on each side of 8 to allow for
possible error in the counting by the contributor using his naked eye.
OTHER IMPORTANT NOTES IN DACTYLOSCOPY
On Fingerprint Identification
Nova Scotia
92
a. Pre-historic picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was
discovered in Nova Scotia.
b. In ancient Babylon, fingerprints were used on clay tablets for
business transactions.
c. In ancient China, thumb prints were found on clay seals.
d. In Peru, aerial photographs have exposed a huge ancient drawing
which can only be accurately viewed from the air. I have exhibited
one of these photos to the International Association for
Identification and suggested it as a "possible" fingerprint pattern.
Aerial Photo in Peru & My Tracing (turned over)
e. In 14th century Persia, various official government papers had
fingerprints (impressions), and one government official, a doctor,
observed that no two fingerprints were exactly alike.
Why Fingerprint Identification?
Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification.
That is the essential explanation for their having supplanted other methods of
establishing the identities of criminals reluctant to admit previous arrests.
Other personal characteristics change - fingerprints do not.
In earlier civilizations, branding and even maiming were used to
mark the criminal for what he was. The thief was deprived of the hand which
committed the thievery. The Romans employed the tattoo needle to identify
and prevent desertion of mercenary soldiers.
More recently, law enforcement officers with extraordinary visual
memories, so-called "camera eyes," identified old offenders by sight.
Photography lessened the burden on memory but was not the answer to the
criminal identification problem. Personal appearances change.
Around 1870 a French anthropologist devised a system to measure
and record the dimensions of certain bony parts of the body. These
measurements were reduced to a formula which, theoretically, would apply
only to one person and would not change during his/her adult life.
This Bertillon System, named after its inventor, Alphonse
Bertillon, was generally accepted for thirty years. But it never recovered from
the events of 1903, when a man named Will West was sentenced to the U.S.
Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas. You see, there was already a prisoner at
the penitentiary at the time, whose Bertillon measurements were nearly exact,
and his name was William West.
Upon an investigation, there were indeed two men. They looked
exactly alike, but were allegedly not related. Their names were Will and
William West respectively. Their Bertillon measurements were close enough
to identify them as the same person. However, a fingerprint comparison
quickly and correctly identified them as two different people.
Will and William WEST
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 LATERAL POCKET
TWINNED LOOP ACCIDENTAL
LOOP

On Fingerprint Identification
On Fingerprint Pattern Classification
Identification by fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed
The classification of fingerprints into distinct groups based on
by the detection of certain ridge characteristics, also so known as Galton
general similarities allows the fingerprint examiner to search for an
details, points of identity, or minutiae, and the comparison of the relative
unidentified fingerprint within a specific section of the fingerprint file rather
positions of these minutiae points with a reference print, usually an inked
than having to search the whole file.
impression of a suspect's print. There are three basic ridge characteristics, the
ridge ending, the bifurcation and the dot (or island).
There are numerous fingerprint classification systems in use
throughout the world today. These systems are all based on three fundamental
ridge formations described by Purkinje, Galton, Vucetich and Henry. They are
the arch, the loop - radial and ulnar, and the whorl.

CLASSIFICATION PATTERNS

Island Dot Bifurcation Ending Ridge

Identification points consist of bifurcations, ending ridges, dots,

ARCH LOOP WHORL ridges and islands. A single rolled fingerprint may have as many as 100 or
more identification points that can be used for identification purposes. There
IDENTIFICATION CHARACTERISTICS is no exact size requirement as the number of points found on a fingerprint
impression depend on the location of the print. As an example the area
immediately surrounding a delta will probably contain more points per square
millimeter than the area near the tip of the finger which tends to not have that
many points.

In image 1 we see part of a fully rolled fingerprint. Notice that the

edges are cut-off so you can safely assume that this is not a fully rolled
RIDGE ENDING BIFURCATION DOT (or ISLAND) impression. If you take a look at image 2 you can see that I have sectioned out
the centre portion of this impression and labeled 10 points of identification.
That was not all the points found but simply the ones that could be mapped
easily without cluttering up the image.
Individuals generally have a mixture of pattern types on their fingertips, with
some correlation between the left and right hands. There is also evidence that
the general fingerprint pattern may be genetically determined. While the loop
pattern is the most common pattern, classification of individuals by assigning
a pattern type to each of the ten fingers in an ordered fashion, serves as a first
line of differentiation, however, no such classification is likely to be unique.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

PLAIN ARCH TENTED ARCH PLAIN LOOP

CENTRAL POCKET 2
PLAIN LOOP WHORL
LOOP

Image 2 when measured 1:1 is just over 1/4" square. If you look
closely you should be able to identify 10 additional points that were not
mapped with the lines. In all I counted 22 points of identification on this 1/4"
square section of the impression. One thing to note here, you might be under

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the impression that making a fingerprint comparison is relatively easy but you
should keep in mind a couple things. The forensic chemist plays an important role in the scientific
criminal investigation. He may be called upon to aid an investigation in:
First, image 1 and image 2 are both taken from the same image. In 1. Determining whether or not a place / location is a clandestine
real life you would have impressions made at separate times and subject to laboratory
different pressure distortions. Secondly, these images are relatively clean and 2. Examination of marked bills / suspects during entrapment
clear where many of the actually crime scene prints are anything but clear. (extortion case)
Last you have to consider that this is an easy comparison because you are 3. Taking Paraffin Test
blessed with having a core pattern and a delta when in some cases you may
have a latent that could be a fingertip, palm or even foot impression. There are four stages of work of a forensic chemist:
1. Collection and reception of specimen for lab. Examination
a. sufficiency of sample
Basic and composite ridge characteristics (minutiae) b. standard for comparison
c. maintenance of individuality
d. labeling and scaling
Minutiae Example Minutiae Example 2. The actual examination of specimen
3. Communication of the result of examine
ridge 4. Court Apparatus
bridge
ending
What are the Primary reasons which may contribute to the Destruction of
Physical Evidence?

double 1. Improper packing of specimen

bifurcation
bifurcation 2. Failure of identification of specimen
3. Improper, precaution use in transmitting the specimen.

Who maybe a Witness? (Eye Witness – one who saw the fatal act)
dot trifurcation
ORDINARY WITNESS - State facts and may not express his
opinions or conclusions. He may testify to impressions of common
experiments such as the speed of a vehicle, whether a voice was that of a man,
island woman or child. Beyond this he is closely limited.
opposed
(short
bifurcations
ridge) EXPERT WITNESS - One who posses a special skill, be it in art,
trade or science or one who has special knowledge in waters not generally
known to men or ordinary education and experiments; one who is skilled in
lake some art and trade or science to the extent that he possesses information not
ridge crossing
(enclosure) within the common knowledge of man.
What is the Difference between an Ordinary Witness with an Expert
Witness?
opposed
hook (spur) bifurcation/ridge 1. An ordinary witness can only state what is senses has perceived
ending while an expert witness may state what he has perceived and also
give his opinions, deduction or conclusion to his perception.
2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the line he his testifying
while an expert witness be skilled in the art, science or trade he is
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY & TOXICOLOGY testifying.
3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts he has not
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY perceived except those provided for any law while an expert
witness must testify on things which he has seen giving his
That branch of chemistry, which deals with the application of opinions, deductions or conclusion on the statements of facts.
chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in connection with
the administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in the elucidation of legal What are the qualifications of an Ordinary Witness?
problems. It is chemistry used in courts of law.
1. He must have the organ and powder to perceive.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE 2. The perception gathered by his organ of sense can be imparted to
others.
Are articles and materials which are found in connection with an 3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for Sec. 26, Rule
investigation and which aid in establishing the identity of the perpetrator of 123, Rules of Court.
the circumstances under which the crime was committed or which in general
assist in the prosecution of the criminal. It encompasses any and all objects Take Note: In the collection of evidence, “partial person” to
that can establish that crime has been committed or can provide a link collect evidence are those who are capable of applying knowledge or theory to
between a crime and its victims or a crime and its perpetrator. practice. They maybe referred to as “Person by Practice”. The ideal person to
collect evidence is the Forensic Chemist.
SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
Take Note: Standard Specimen - Are known specimens to
1. It includes the chemical side of criminal investigation compare with the questioned needed to aid in establishing a suspect’s
2. It includes the analysis of any material the quality of which may relationship to the crime under investigation.
give rise to legal proceeding.
3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal What are the GOLDEN RULES in the practice of Forensic Chemistry?
proceedings.
4. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal In and out of the Crime Scene:
medicine, ballistics, questioned documents, dactyloscopy, and
photography 1. Go Slowly
2. Be thorough
What is the Role of the Forensic Chemist in Criminal Investigation? 3. Take note consult others
4. Use imagination
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 5. Avoid complicated theories
Failure to consider the golden rules will contribute to destruction
of evidence/specimen. The other reasons of forensic disaster are:
1. Improper packing of specimen
2. Failure of identification of specimen
3. Improper, precaution use in transmitting the specimen.
4. Lack of precautions to prevent tampering of the specimen.
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
What is the importance of studying blood?
1. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of
the perpetrator of the crime.
2. As evidence in case of disputed percentage
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the
length of time the victim survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the
assailant
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the
crime was committed.
What is BLOOD?
Blood has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is
refereed to as a highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins, and
inorganic substances. It is the red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is opaque.
On the treatment with either, water or other reagents becomes transparent lake
color. It is finally alkaline. Normally pH is 7.35 – 7.45.
Composition of Blood
(45%) formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells
namely:
1. Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES) around 4 – 5
millions of red cell per cc. of blood.
2. White Blood Cells or WBC (LEUKOCYTES)
3. Blood Platelets (THROMBOCYTES)
(55%) PLASMA – The fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells
are suspended. It is principally composed of:
1. Water ---- 90%
2. Solid ----- 10% ( largely protein in nature and consist of albumen,
several globulin’s and fibrinogen.
In the forensic aspect of blood identification, that is blood
grouping, our discussion will concentrate on the RBC and blood serum.
Serum is pale yellowish liquid just like the plasma.
PLASMA is the yellowish fluid of blood in which numerous blood
corpuscles are suspended. A straw-yellow liquid formed when blood to which
oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to strand.
SERUM is a straw – yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is
allowed to stand for sometime and the clot contracts.
Problems in the Study of Blood
Blood is difficult to be searched, the collection, preservation,
packing and transportation of specimen suspected to contain blood is another.
Blood offers little resistance to decomposition. It undergoes a rapid charge in
its character with the passage of time as process of clotting and drying
commences almost immediately on exposure to air. Sodium fluoride maybe
added to blood to preserve it for a week at room temperature or indefinitely in
a refrigerator. Between 40 – 50 degrees centigrade is the ideal preserving
temperature for blood and other perishable specimens. Collection of blood
stains should be done as soon as possible, mere washing of garments/clotting
removes the blood.
Blood Collection
95
FLUID BLOOD are usually collected from victims of crimes of
violence, parent and child in case of disputed parentage.
DRIED BLOOD OR BLOOD STAINS are collected from smooth
surface like walls, finished floors, table tops, hard surface like axe, hammer,
knives, stones, crowbars, glazed surface like glass, tiles, automobiles, bulky
objects like blackboard, linoleum sheets, doors, window frames, clothing, and
blood absorbed by the soil
Blood Examination
1. PRELIMINARY TEST - determine whether the stain contains
blood or another substance. Determines whether visible stains do
or do not contain blood. It is used to demonstrate the presence of
blood.
2. CONFIRMATORY TEST - determines whether bloodstain really
contains blood. Test that positively identifies blood.
3. PRECIPITIN TEST- determines whether blood is a human or non-
human origin, and if non human, the specific animal family from
which it originated.
4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST - determines the blood group of
human
THE PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD (COLOR TEST)
1. Benzidine Test or Benzidine Color Test
2. Phenolphthalein Test ( also known as Kastle – Meyer Test)
3. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen Test, Day’s or Schonbein’s Test)
4. Leucomalachite Green Test
5. Luminol Test
Benzidine Test
This is an extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute
stain. For many years the most commonly used preliminary test for blood. The
Benzidine test never fails to detect blood even when very old, decomposed
stain with all shorts of contamination is examined. The positive result is only
indicative that the blood maybe present.
REAGENT: Benzidine solution ( small amount of powdered
benzidine dissolved in glacial acetic acid) and 3% solution of hydrogen
peroxide.
PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained
material on a filter paper. Add a drop of benzidine solution and then drop of
hydrogen peroxide solution.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Intense blue color produced immediately
LIMITATION: Benzidine test is not a specific test for blood.
Positive results maybe obtained from substances as sputum, pus, nasal
secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay, gun. The reaction is weaker and
produces faint coloration.
Phenolphtalein Test
This is an alternative test to benzidine test. It can detect blood in a
dilution of 1:80,000,000 parts. A positive results with this test is highly
indicative of blood. The negative result is, therefore, valuable and is
conclusive as to the absence of blood.
REAGENTS: Phenolphthalein solution (1 – 2 grams
phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25% KOH in water added with one gram zinc
powder heated until colorless) and 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide.
PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained
materia on a filter paper. Add a drop of phenolphthalein solution and then a
drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.
POSITIVE RESULT: Rose color develops or deep pink color or
permanganate coor.
LIMITATION: Test is also given by copper salts, potatoes and
horseradish.
Guaiacum Test
A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a
solution of 1:50,000 dilution. It may not react to very old stains.
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 REAGENTS: Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (Few lumps of this to
95% alcohol, then filter) and 3% of hydrogen peroxide or few drops of
turpentine.
PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on
porcelain dish. Soak with fresh tincture of guaiac. Add a few drops of
hydrogen peroxide.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Beautiful blue color that appears
immediately.
LIMITATION: The test also reacts with salvia, pus, bile, milk,
rust, iron salts, cheese, gluten, potatoes, perspiration and other oxidizing
substances.
Leucomalachite Green Test
This is a test not as sensitive as the benzidine test
REAGENT: Leucomalachite Green solution ( 1 gram
leucomalachite green dissolved in 48 ml. glacial acetic acid and diluted to
250ml. water) and 3% hydrogen peroxide.
PROCEDURE: A small piece of the stained fabric on a filter
paper. Add a drop of leucomalachite green solution and after a few seconds
add drop of 3% hydrogen peroxide.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Malachite green or bluish green
Take Note – The principle involved in blood testing is that the
peroxidase present in hemoglobin acts as carrier of oxygen from the hydrogen
peroxide to the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac,
phenolphthalein and leucomalachite) and produces the characteristic colored
compounds by OXIDATION.
Hemoglobin is the red coloring matter of the red blood cells of the
blood.
Luminous Test
It is an important presumptive identification test for blood. The
reaction of luminol with blood results in the production of light rather than
color. By spraying luminol reagent onto a suspect item, large areas can be
quickly screened for the presence of bloodstains. The sprayed object must be
located in a darkened area while being viewed for the emission of light.
(LUMINESCENCE). Luminol test is extremely sensitive test. It is capable of
detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000X. Luminol is known to destroy
many important blood factors necessary for the forensic characterization of
blood, so its use should be limited only to seeking out blood invisible to the
naked eye.
THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD
The actual proof that stain is blood consists of establishing the
presence of the characteristic of the red blood cells of the blood.
The three (3) confirmatory tests for blood are:
1. Microscopic Test - Useful for the demonstration of blood
corpuscles for making the distinction between mammalian, avian,
piscine, and reptilian blood and for the investigation of menstrual,
lochial and nasal charges. In short it differentiates mammalian,
avian, piscine and reptilian blood.
Take Note: The Mammalian red blood cells are
circular, biconcave disc without nucleus birds, fish and reptiles red
blood cells larger, oval and nucleated amphibians-animal living on
land breeding in water. Red blood cells are larger than mammals,
oval and nucleated.
2. Microchemical Test – also known as Microcrystalline test which
include Teichmann Hemin Reaction/Teichman Test/Haemin
Crystal Test, Haemochromogen crystal Test or Takayama Test,
Acetone-Haemin Test. One of the two popular microchemical test
is the Takayama Test, a delicate test for the presence of
hemoglobin.
PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of suspected
material on a glass slide. Add 2 – 3 drops of Takayama reagent.
Cover with glass slip.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Large rhombic crystals of a
salmon pink color arranged in clusters, sheaves and other forms
96
that appears within to 6 minutes when viewed under the low power
objectives. To hasten result heat maybe applied.
REAGENT: Takeyama reagent (3 cc. of 10% NaOH,
33 cc. pyridine, 3 cc. of saturated glucose solution and diluted with
7 ml. of water.
3. Spectroscope Test – is the almost delicate and reliable test for the
determination of the presence of blood in both old recent stains.
This is performed by means of an optical instrument known as
SPECTROSCOPE.
THE PRECIPITIN TEST
It is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is
of human or animal origin
Reagent: Precipitin/antiserum
PROCEDURE: Scrape off blood stain if on hard material. Powder
the scrapings and exact with saline solution. If the stain is cloth, paper or
similar material, cut a small portion and then place in a test tube and add
extract with saline solution. Allow mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to
clean the solution. Dilute with saline solution. Layer an extract of the
bloodstain on top of the human antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube.
POSITIVE RESULT: A white cloudy line or ring or band at the
contact points of the fluid that appears immediately or within one or two
minutes.
LIMITATION: The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins
but also with other body proteins as those as saliva, semen, mucus and other
body fluids.
THE BLOOD GROUPING AND BLOOD TESTING
The Four Blood Groups
1. Group “O”
2. Group “A”
3. Group “B”
4. Group “AB”
Agglutinogen or Antigen
These are characteristic chemical structures or “principles” that the
found on the surface of each red blood cells which stimulates the production
of agglutinins or antibodies. There are two different agglutinogens or antigens
classified as AGGLUTINOGEN A OR ANTIGEN A AND
AGGLUTINOGEN B OR ANTIGEN B.
Antibody or Agglutinin
These are properties or “principles” contained in the serum which
cause agglutination or clumping together of the red blood cells. They are
antitoxic substances within the body which reacts when confronted with a
specific antigen to protect the system. There are two different agglutinins
classified as Anti-A and Anti-B. Agglutinins are demonstrable in about 50%
of newly born infants.
We have the four groups because of the presence of absence of two
antigens A and B in the RBC and two agglutinins Anti-A and Anti-B in the
serum.
(+) Means agglutination or clumping of RBC
(−) Means absence of agglutination or no clumping of RBC
The Blood Typing (M-N System) of Blood
There are two agglutinogens in human red cells which defines
three types of blood. Namely: Type M, Type N, and Type MN.
(+) Means agglutination
(−) Means absence of agglutination
Inheritance of Blood Groups
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 BLOOD ANTIGEN/AGGLUTIN ANTIBODIES/AGGLUTIN
Knowledge of genetics will make it easier to understand the GROUP OGEN PRESENT IN IES PRESENT IN THE
principle involved in the inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of blood THE RBC SERUM
group is predetermined by the presence and absence of two facts or GENES
called Gene A and Gene B. A A ANTI-B
GENES - any of the complex chemical units in the chromosomes B B ANTI-A
by which hereditary characters are transmitted, responsible for the
transmission of hereditary characteristics. They occur in pair. There are two AB A&B NO A & NO B or NONE
genes or factors called gene A and gene B. these are found in the
chromosomes. Since chromosomes go in pair, each of which carries or fails to NO A & NO B or NONE ANTI-A & ANTI-B
carry one of these genes. An individual’s called genotypes, where O
represents the absence in the chromosomes of either the A or B gene.
5. Specimen should be thoroughly dried before packing.
6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube. It maybe preserved by
PHENOTYPES – the term used to denote the expression of the
a few drops of 10% solution of formalin during hot weather.
inherited characteristic as found in the individual. Actually the blood groups
Determination of Spermatozoa in fresh semen
GENOTYPES - Are paired genes.
1. Transfers a drop of specimen to a glass slide.
Application of Blood Group Data
2. Add a drop of water or saline solution and cover with cover slip
3. Examine under the microscope
1. Questions of illegitimacy and relationships in may cause maybe
4. Observe for the presence of spermatozoa
solved by means of the blood groups as determined by the
agglutinogens A, B, M, and N.
Elements which may obstruct detection of Spermatozoa
2. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of
wedlock could or could not be its parent.
1. Nature of fabric
3. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could
2. Age of stain
or could not have been fathered by her legal spouse.
3. Condition to which the stain was exposed reaching the laboratory
4. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a
4. Handling of the specimen
given set of parents in the case of accidental interchange of infants
in a hospital.
GUN POWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES
5. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later
recovered after a long interval could or could not belong to a given
In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, three
set of parents.
most important problems may arise, the problems of:
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS
1. Determination of whether or not a person fired a gun with bare
hands within pertinent period of time
SEMEN AND SEMINAL FLUID - is a whitish fluid of the male reproductive
2. Determination of the probable gunshot range that is the distance
track containing spermatozoa. Its part are:
the firearm was held from the body of the victim at the time of
discharge.
1. seminal fluid
3. Determination of the approximate time of firing of the gun on the
2. formed Elements Cellular
approximate date of last discharge.
3. spermatozoa
4. epithelial cells
Kinds of Gun Powder
5. crystal and choline
1. Black powder - consisting of 15% of C, 10% of S and 75% of
Usual location of semen stain as Evidence
KNO3 or NaNO3. When black powder explodes
1. Under clotting
KNO3 + c + S K2S + N2 CO2
2. Clothing
3. Skin
2. Smokeless powder (which consist of cellulose nitrate or glyceryl
4. Air
nitrate combined with cellulose nitrate and some stabilizers. When
5. Vagina
exploded the following reaction occurs:
6. Rectal contains of the victim
7. Around the genitals
C12H14O4(NO3)6 9CO +
3N2 + 7H2O + 3CO2
Seminal Examination
3. Cellulose nitrate
There are four examinations for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the
4C3H5(NO3)3 12CO2 +
form of stains namely:
10H2O + 6N2 + O2
1. Physical Examination
4. Glyceryl Nitrate
2. Chemical Examination
a. Florence Test
Possible Location of Nitrates when black powder explodes
b. Barberio’s Test
c. Acid-phospahtase Test
1. Residue of the barrel of the gun.
3. Microscopic Examination
2. In or around the wound
4. Biological Examination
3. On the clothing of the fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun
Collection, Preservation, Packing and Transit of Specimen
DIPHENYLAMINE-PARAFFIN TEST - test to determine the
1. Seizure of apparel must be done as soon as possible.
presence of nitrates, a test to determine whether a person fired a gun or not.
2. In packiging of wearing appearel there should be no friction
between the apparel and the stain.
Paraffin test - test performed to extract the nitrates embedded in
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit.
the skin.
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked.
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 Diphenylamine Test or DPA Test – a test that determines the Sometimes they do not even contain the elements necessary for
presence and location of nitrate, chemical needed is diphenylamine reagent. combustion. The materials themselves explode and the explosion
results whether they are confined or not. Examples are Mercury
Possibilities that a person maybe found Negative for Nitrates even if he fulminate, lead azide
actually fired a Gun
3. HIGH EXPLOSIVES - Explode under the influence of the shock
1. Use if automatic pistol of the explosion of primary explosive. They do not function by
2. Direction of wind burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame and in
3. Wind velocity small amount generally burn tranquilly and can be extinguished
4. Excessive perspiration easily. If heated to a high temperature by external heat or by their
5. Use of gloves own combustion, they sometimes explode. Examples are
6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the nitrates Ammonium nitrate, TNT, dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric acid,
plastic explosives.
Possibilities that a person maybe found Positive for Nitrates even if he did
not actually fired a Gun HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBERS

1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on Hair is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur
the hand directly from the barrel of the gun being fired by another everywhere on the human body except on the palm of the hands and the sole
person. of the feet. Hair is not completely round but maybe oval flattened. Its width is
2. An attempt to shield the body by arising the hand in some not always the same along its length. It starts out pointed and narrow and then
instances result in the implanting of powder particles on the hands strays more or less the same.
of a person close to one firing a gun..
Two kinds of Hair (among animals including human being)
How to determine probable gunshot range
1. Real hair ( generally along and stiff)
The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder 2. Fuzz hair ( generally short, fine at times curly and wooly)
residues, singeing, burning, smudging and powder tattooing.
Parts of Hair
Determination of the Probable time the Gun has been fired
1. Roots ( portion embedded in the skin
In the examination / determination of the approximate time of last 2. Shaft ( portion above the surface of the skin. The most
discharge we need the specimen firearm in the examination. The barrel is DISTINCTIVE part of the hair.
swabbed with cotton and the residues examined under the microscope. 3. Tip ( sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair.

Take Note - Rust - Formation of rust inside the barrel after a gun
has been fired is a good indication of the determination of the approximate
time the gun has been fired. If a gun has not fired at all, no rust can be
detected inside the barrel of the gun. If a gun has been fired, iron salts are
formed and are found inside the barrel. This iron salts are soon oxidized
resulting in the formation of rust.
NITRATE - Presence of nitrate (NO2) is determined by addition of
diphenylamine (DPA) reagent. If the color becomes blue nitrates are present,
and we may say that the firearm could have been fired recently.
NITRATES - Presence of nitrates (NO3) is determined by the
addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the color turned yellow green, nitrates
are present, and we may say that the firearms could have been fired but not
recently.
Factors Affecting the Presence and Amount of Gunpowder Residue
Parts of Shaft
1. Cuticle ( outermost covering of the hair. It is consist of one layer of
non-nucleated polygonal cells, which overlaps like the scales on a
fish.
2. Cortex ( the intermediate and the THICKEST layer of the and is
composed of elongated, spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere. They
contain pigment granules in varying proportion depending on the
type of hair.
3. Medulla or Core ( the most characteristics portion of the hair. It si
the central canal of the hair that maybe empty or may contain
various sots of cells more or less pigmented and begins more and
less near the root.
Take Note: Certain hair has no medulla. Therefore hair can be classified
into two categories namely a) hair without medulla b) hair with medulla.
Examination of Human Hair

1. Length of the barrel of the gun 1. Color

2. Type and cal. Of ammunition 2. Melanin (brownish-black pigment in hair, skin, etc. it is the
3. Wind velocity chemical responsible for the color of the hair. Black and brown
4. Direction of firing hair differs only to the amount of melanin.
5. Distance of firing 3. Length by actual measurement
6. Nature of firing 4. Character of hair whether stiff, wiry or soft
7. Humidity 5. Width (breadth)
6. Character of hair tip if present
EXPLOSIVES 7. Manner by which hair had been cut
8. Condition of root or base or bulb of hair
Explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its
sudden decomposition or combustion. Explosive is also a material either pure Hair Root
single substance or mixture of substances which is capable of producing an
explosion by its own energy. 1. Living Root – often found on hair in full growth
2. Dry Roots – dead roots
Classification of Explosive (as to functioning characteristics)
Take note also the following:
1. PROPELLANT OR LOW EXPLOSIVES - Are combustible
materials containing within themselves all oxygen needed for their 1. Character of cuticle (the size, the general shape and the irregularity
combustion that burn but do not explode and function by of the scale)
producing gas that produces explosion. Examples are Black 2. Character of cortex (structural features are studied under the
powder, smokeless powder, firecrackers, and pyrotechnics microscope)
3. Cortex is embedded with the pigment granules the impart hair with
2. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE OR INITIATORS - Explode or donate color. It is the color, shape and distribution of these granules
when they are heated or subjected to shock. They do not burn.
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 provide the chemist with important points of comparison between
the hairs of the different individuals. 3. The religion of the body from which the human hair has been
4. Presence of dye in hair removed

Dye hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the a. Scalp hair ( they are more mature than any other kind of
microscope dyed hair has a dull appearance and the color tone is constant, human hair
whereas natural hair is not and the individual pigment granules stand more b. Beard Hair ( coarse, curved, very stiff, and often triangular in
sharply. cross section
c. Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ear-short, stubby, and
Determine also of whether naturally or artificially curled and the have wide medulla. Eyebrow and eyelashes are usually very
character of medulla. short and has a sharp and has a sharp tip.
d. Trunk hair (very in thickness along the shaft and are
The Medulla immature but are somewhat similar to head hairs. They have
fine, long tip ends.
The medulla and cortex are the most characteristic portion of the e. Limb hair (similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long
hair. Have more distinguishing qualities, thus they yield the most reliable or so coarse and usually contain less pigment.
criteria in the diagnosis of hair. f. Axillary Hair (is fairly long unevenly distributed pigment.
They vary considerably in diameter along the shaft and have
Medulla or core or the central canal of the hair can be continuous frequently a bleached appearance. It has an irregular shape
or interrupted. It is continuous in large number of animals, very often and structure. Looks like public hair but the ends are shaper
interrupted in human, monkey, and horses. Medulla’s diameter can be and the hair is not so curly.
absolutely constant. At times alternately narrow and broader. The diameter of g. Public hair-similar to axillary hair but are coarser, and do not
the medulla is very little importance but the relationship between the diameter appear bleached. More wiry, have more constriction and
of the medulla and the diameter of the whole hair his of great importance. twist and usually have continuous broad medulla. Has many
broken ends the clotting rubs.
1. MEDULLARY INDEX or M.I (is the relationship between the
diameter of the medulla and the diameter of the whole hair. Its 4. The approximate age of individuals
determination is performed under a microscope with micrometer
eyepiece. a. Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have fine pigment and
2. HAIR WITH NARROW MEDULLA (less the 0.5) ( belongs to are rudimentary in chapter. Children’s hair through
human adolescence is generally finer and more immature than and
3. HAIR WITH MEDIUM MEDULLA (approximate 0.5) (belongs to hair but cannot be definitely differentiated with certainly.
hair of cow, horse, others. b. If it is noted that the pigment is missing or starting to
4. HAIR WITH THICK MEDULLA (greater than 0.5) ( almost all disappear in the hair, it can be stated that the hair is from
animals belong to this adult. It is common for a relatively young person to have
prematurely gray or white hair(head hair) but not body hairs.
Comparison between Human and Animal Hair c. The root of hair from an aged person may show a distinctive
degeneration
HUMAN
TEXTILE FIBERS
1. M.I. is less than 0.5
2. Medulla may not be present Textile fibers-fibers that can be converted into yarns.
3. Scale pattern is fine and each one overlaps the other more than 4/5 Yarn-made of fibers which have been twisted together, linked
4. Pigment granules are fine thread.

ANIMAL
Classification of Textile Fibers
1. M.I more than 0.5
2. Medulla always present The two divisions of fibers are Natural fiber and Synthetic or
3. Scale is coarse and overlaps less than ½ artificial fiber
4. Pigment granules are coarse
Natural fibers are:
Other Aspects of Hair Examination
a. Vegetable fibers ( made of CELLULOSE. Examples are seed.
1. Characteristic by race Stem barks or bast fibers, leaf fibers, cotton, woody fibers, fruit or
nut fibers.
a. NEGROID RACE HAIR - contains heavy pigment b. Animal fibers ( made of PROTEIN. Examples are wool, silk, hair.
distributed unevenly a thin cross section of the hair is oval in c. Mineral fiber ( example is asbestos
shape hair is usually kinky with marked variation in the
diameter along the shaft Synthetic or Artificial Fibers are organic fiber such as
b. MONGOLOID RACE - contains dense pigment distributed
more or evenly the Negroid race hair cross section of the hair a. Cellulosic ( example rayon
will around to oval in shape hair is coarse and straight with b. Non-cellulosic ( examples nylon, casein fiber, resin fiber
very little variation in diameter along the shaft of the hair
usually contains a heavy black medulla or core. and Inorganic fibers such as
c. CAUCASIAN RACE - contains very fine to coarse pigment,
and more evenly distributed than is found in Negro or a. mineral fiber ( examples glass fiber wool, glass rock, and slag
Mongolian. Cross section will be oval to around in shape, wools
usually straight or wavy and not kinky b. metallic fiber ( examples finewire filament, steel wool, tinsel
threads.
2. Characteristic by sex
Test Used for Fibers
a. Male hair is generally larger in diameter, shorter in length,
more wiry in texture than t hat of a female a. BURNING OR IGNITION TEST (A simple preliminary
b. Male hair averages approximately 1 / 350 of an inch in macroscopic examination. A test that determines whether fiber is
diameter, female hair averages approximately 1 / 450 of an mineral, animal or vegetable. A single fiber is applied with flame
inch in diameter. at one end and the following are noted:
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  manner of burning 3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of
 odor of fumes plane white paper in folder.
 appearance of burnt end 4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that
 color of ash could possibly mark them.
 action of fumes on moistened red and blue litmus paper
 effect of fumes on a piece of filter paper moistened with The Examination of Questioned Documents
lead acetate
The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are
b. FLUORESCENCE TEST – frequently used to determine the the paper and ink or pencil or writings. The examination of paper maybe
general group to which a fiber belongs. It is not reliable for necessary if we want to know the age of the document, the presence of
positive identification of fiber. alterations, erasures and other forms of forgery.

c. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – the fiber is placed on a slide Problems encountered in Document Examination/Analysis of Paper
teased and covered. In general it is the most reliable and best
means of identifying fibers. 1. Whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source.
2. Determine of probable age of paper.
d. CHEMICAL TEST - Staining Test – the fiber is stained with picric 3. Determination of the composition of paper.
acid, Million’s reagent, stannic chloride or iodine solution.

Picric acid + silk ---------- dyed

Picric acid + wool -------- dyed
Picric acid ) cellulosic fiber ---------------- unchanged
Silk + million’s reagent --------------------- brown Composition of Paper
Wool + million’s reagent ------------------- brown
Cellulosic fiber + million’s reagent -------- no reaction Paper is made of three components namely:
Stannic chloride + cellulose ---------------- black
Dissolution Test – if the fiber is white or light colored it is treated 1. Fiber Composition
with the following chemicals. If dyed, the fiber is first decolorized 2. Sizing Material – to improve quality of paper
by boiling in either 1% hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or dilute 3. Loading Material – to add weight to the paper
potassium hydroxide. The fiber is then treated with the following
and reaction observed. Take Note:

10% NaOH EGYPTIAN PAPYRUS - one of the earliest substances used for
5% oxalic acid writing. It is form the name papyrus, that the word paper was derived.
Half saturated oxalic acid
Concentrated sulfuric acid FIBER COMPOSITION: practically all papers maybe classified
Concentrated and dilute ammonium hydroxide form the standpoint of their basic fiber composition into sets of fiber mixtures
Concentrated nitric acid namely: mechanical pulp-ground wood sulfite mixture, soda-sulfite mixture,
rag sulfite
Characteristics of Common Textile Fibers
SIZING MATERIAL – added to paper to improve its texture.
1. Cotton – unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally to Examples of sizing materials are rosin, casein, gelatin, starch.
right or left on its axis; central canal is uniform in diameter. Cell
wall thick, covered by a thick, structureless, waxy cuticle. Fibers LOADING MATERIAL – added to paper to give weight. It
taper gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end. partially fills the pores between the fibers of the paper. Examples are calcium
2. Mercerized Cotton – straight, cylindrical with occasional twist; sulfate and barium sulfate.
unevenly lustrous, smooth except for occasional transverse fold or
wrinkles; cuticle mostly lacking. The Four Tests for Paper
3. Linen – multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted
and flattened, tapering to a sharp point. Cell walls thick, the lumen 1. Preliminary Test - the test deals with the appearance of the
appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the fiber to appear document and the following are observed:
jointed resembling bamboo.
4. Cultivated silk-smooth, cylinder, lustrous threads, usually single a. folds and creases
but often double, the twin filament held together by an envelope of b. odor
gum. More or less transparent, without definite structure. c. impressions caused by transmitted light
5. Wild silk-similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in d. presence of discoloration and daylight and under ultraviolet
outline. Marked by very fine longitudinal striations with light.
infrequent diagonal cross markings. Take Note: WATERMARKS – it is a distinctive mark or design
6. Artificial silk-cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod. placed in the paper at the time of its manufacture by a roll usually a
7. Wool-easily distinguished by presence of flattened, overlapping dandy roll.
epidermal scales not found on silk or any of the vegetable fibers.
2. Physical Test causing no Perceptible Change - A test
applied on paper without perceptibly changing or altering the
CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION original appearance of the document.

DOCUMENT - An original or official written or printed paper furnishing a. Measurement of length and width
information or used as proof of something else. b. Measurement of thickness
c. Measurement of weight/unit area
Packing, Preservation and Transportation of Evidence/Documents d. Color of the paper
e. Texture
1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as f. Gloss
possible. g. Opacity
2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be h. Microscopic Examination
made along old lines. Place it in a Manila paper envelope or
brown envelope or it can be placed in a transparent plastic Take Note: OPACITY – the quality of paper that does not allow
envelope. light to pass through or which prevents dark objects from being seen through
the paper.
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 3. Physical Test causing a Perceptible Change - This is done only if
sufficient samples are available and if proper authorization from
the court is acquired this can be done.
a. bursting strength test or “POP” test
b. folding endurance test
c. accelerated aging test
d. absorption test
4. Chemical Test - This test determines the fiber composition, the
loading material and sizing material used in the paper.
a. FIBER COMPOSITION – examination is purely microscopic
and it determines the material used and nature of processing.
b. LOADING MATERIALS – is determined by burning and
ashing a portion of the paper and then the ash examined.
c. SIZING MATERIAL – gelatin is extracted by boiling the
paper in water and the solution treated with tannic acid; rosin
is extracted by heating the paper with 95% alcohol. The
alcohol evaporated and the residue treated with acetic
anhydride and strong sulfuric acid; starch is determined by
addition of dilute iodine solution; case in is determined by
addition Millon’s reagent.
The Analysis of Ink
Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of
inks are:
1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different inking from ink on
other parts of the same documents or other document.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made
with the identical ink, or inks of different qualities or in different
conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as purports to be
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently
dated book entries show the natural variations in ink writing or
whether the conditions point to one continuous writing at one time
under identical conditions.
Types of Ink
1. Gallotannic ink or iron-nutgall ink – the type of ink where age
maybe determined. Today the most frequently used ink for
making entries in record books and for business purposes.
Gallotannic ink is made of a solution off iron salt and nutgall. This
ink can penetrate into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on
the surface, thus making its removal more difficult to accomplish.
2. Logwood ink – made of saturated solution of logwood to which
very small amount of potassium dichromate is added.
Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of precipitate.
Phenol is added as preservative. This ink is inexpensive and does
not corrode steel pen. Will not wash off the paper even fresh,
flows freely.
3. Nigrosine Ink or Aniline Ink – made of coal tar product called
nigrosine dissolved in water. It easily smudge, affected by
moisture, maybe washed off from the paper with little difficulty. It
is best determined by spectrographic method.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India Ink – the oldest ink material
known. Made of carbon in the form of lampblack. Does not
penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it may easily be
washed off. Not affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
5. Colored writing ink – today, almost all colored inks are composed
of synthetic aniline dyestuffs dissolved in water. In certain colored
inks ammonium vanadate is added to render the writing more
permanent.
6. Ball Point Pen ink – made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type
solvents as carbitol, glycol or oleic acid. Paper Chromatography is
the best way of determine this type of ink.
Test for Ink
101
1. Physical Test – applied to determine the color and presence of
alterations, erasures, destruction of sizes with the use of
stereoscope, handlens or microscope.
2. Chemical Test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or
reagents are applied on the ink strokes and the chemical reactions
or characteristic color reactions or other changes in the ink is
observed. Reagents used: 5% HCI, 10% oxalic acid, tartaric acid,
2% NaOH, 10% NaOC1, C12, H2O, KCNS, water.
3. Paper Chromatography – a reliable procedure that can be adopted
to identify and compare ballpoint pen ink.
Determination of Age of Document
1. Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this
determination except when the color is black, because on the
observation that within a few hours, the color of ink writings
becomes darker because the dye contain therein is influenced by
the light of the room, oxygen of the air, acidity or alkalinity of the
paper. There are several methods of determining the degree of
oxidation of the ink writing and apparently these methods depend
upon:
a. Physical phenomena such a matching the color of the
ink writing with the standard colors of with itself over a
period of time.
b. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information
concerning the length of time the ink has been on paper.
2. Age of paper through watermarks in certain case from the
composition of paper
Other Aspects of Document Examination
ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS – unnecessary writings that are not
capable of being read usually made on checks, birth certificate, passport and
transcript of record.
a. Erasure – means removal of writing from the paper. Can be
made chemically or mechanically.
b. Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink,
pencil or other marking material.
c. Sympathetic Ink or Invisible ink – substances used for
invisible writing.
d. Indented Writing – term applied to the partially visible
depression appearing on a sheet of paper underneath the one
that the visible writing appears.
e. Writings on Carbon Paper – used sheets of carbon paper can
be made readable.
f. Contact Writing – black paper may contain traces of ink
because of previous contact with some writings.
GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES
What is GLASS?
Glass is a super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and
rigidity. It is a non-crystalline inorganic substance.
Composition of Glass
Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO2 (silica), B2O3
(boric oxide), phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5). For commercial use silica is the
most important oxide. It is the base of commercial glasses. It is made of
silica sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for fluxing, durability and
reduction of viscosity. Glass like window and plate that are made in mass
production is fairly uniform in composition. These may contain incidental
impurities and the presence of these substances in invaluable for the
identification and comparison of glass by spectrographic analysis. Glass has
also presence of trace elements which maybe sufficient to establish or negate
the fact of a common source of two samples of glass.
Analysis/Test for Glass
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 1. SPECTROGRAPHIC TEST – an instrumental method of analysis
that determines the presence of trace element. Shows the
constituent elements of a glass. It will not give sufficient
information to establish the origin of the samples examined. A
rapid examination and an adequate method for glass analysis since
it requires only a small amount of sample.
2. X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS – not as effective as the
spectrographic analysis. Determines the type of pattern of glass.
The type of pattern depends upon the composition of glass.
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXAMINATION – the most sensitive
method of determining differences of composition in glass samples
and it depends upon the study of the physical properties of glass.
Properties like specific gravity or density, refractive index.
4. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION – determines the
differences in the appearance of their fluorescence thus indication
of physical and chemical differences.
5. POLISH MARKS – optical glass and other fine glassware are
usually polished. In the polishing of glass fine marks are often left
on the surface that can sometimes serve as a basis of comparison.
Glass as Evidence of Crime
In the field of Forensic Chemistry, emphasis is placed on:
1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run.
2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of
robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of
assault or other crimes of violence.
Analysis of Glass from Vehicle
Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an
automobile or any vehicle for that matter is discovered in which fragments of
the lens can be found, a comparison maybe made with the fragments found at
the scene of accident employing the methods of analysis for glass.
How Glass Breaks?
When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for
example. The glass first bends a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit
of elasticity if reached the glass breaks along radial lines starting from the
point where the destroying force is applied originating form the opposite
surface of the glass, because this is the portion or surface which is more
subjected to stretching by bending. The front surface is only pushed. While
the radial fractures are taking place the newly created glass triangle between
the radial rays also bend away from the direction of the destroying force. By
this bending the glass is stretched along the front surface and when the limit of
elasticity is reached the glass breaks in concentric cracks. These originate on
the front of the glass because of stretching.
Analysis of Broken Windows
Broken windows caused by bullet holes
On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be
found to have been blown away giving the hole the appearance of a volcano
crater. Such appearance indicates that the bullet was fired from the opposite
direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.
If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flake
marks are evenly distributed around the hole.
If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will
suffer more flaking than the right. Excessive flaking on the right side of a
window pane would indicate a shot fired at an angle from the left.
Broken windows caused by fist or stone or hurling projectile
The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the
window is quite difficult but the principles of radial cracks and concentric
cracks or fractures will apply.
102
The Principle of 3Rs Rule for Radial Crack
3Rs Rule – “Stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to
the rear side of the glass.”
The front side is referred to as the side that was struck.
The Principle of RFC Rule for Concentric Crack
RFC Rule – “Stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right
angle to the front side” that is the side from which the blow came, rather than
the rear side.
PROCEDURE: Piece together as many as you can gather of the
glass fragments as possible. Select a triangular piece bounded by two radial
cracks and one concentric crack. The triangular piece must be adjacent to the
point of impact, it this is not a available select a piece as close as possible to
the point of impact.
Where there are two bullet holes in a window pane
The problem of which one was fired first becomes important to
determine who the aggressor is. It will be found that the fractures caused by
the first bullet will be complete, especially the radial cracks, whereas the
fractures from the second will be interrupted and end-stopped at points where
they intersect those from the first.
Fractures on Safety Glass
Laminated glass, which is now being used in automobiles, does not
shatter when struck sharply. Frequently the cracking of safety glass is not
complete; the radial cracks do not extend to the side of impact and the spiral
cracks do not extend to the other side.
MOULAGE AND OTHER CASTING TECHNIQUES
What is a Casting Material?
It is any material which can be changed from plastic or liquid state
to the solid condition is capable of use as casting material.
The following are the criteria on which the value of casting
material is assessed.
1. Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied.
2. Must harder rapidly to a rigid mass
3. must not be deformable nor shrink
4. must be easy to apply
5. must have no tendency to adhere to the impression
6. should have of fine composition and surface
7. should not inquire the impression
8. should be easily obtainable
9. should be cheap.
The following are recommended formulas
1. Hastening – add one half teaspoonful of the table salt to the plaster.
2. Retarding – add one part of a saturated solution of borax to ten
part water to be used in making the plaster.
3. Hardening – to give a cast a greater durability it can be place on a
saturated solution of sodium carbonate, and allowed to remain in
the solution for sometime. It is then removed and dried.
Tools Impression maybe classified into Two General Classes:
These produced by such instruments like an Axe-hammer, pliers
and cutters which touch the area only once in producing the impression.
1. Compression Marks – which produced by a single application of
tool is the area of contact, for example: the impression of a single
blow of a hammer.
2. Friction Marks – which are series of scratches or striations
produced by pushing a tool across the surface such as those
produced by cutters jimmy or axe.
Take Note:
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 Those produced by such instrument like saw or file which is applied in a
repeated strokes over the same area.
Cast of Human Body is important that the temperature of the negative
material should be below 110OF (43.3OC) a temperature higher than this will
be uncomfortable if not injurious to the subject. Cast of the human body is
made by the use of Negocoll and Hominit or Celert.
a. Degocoll – is a rubbery gelatinous material consisting essentially
of colloidal magnesium scaps.
b. Hominit – is a resinous material used for making positives from
Negocoll negatives. It is a flesh color and is used for external
surfaces.
c. Celerit – is brown and is used for backing and strengthening the
hominid.
METALLURGY (AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION)
METALLURGY – is the art of extracting and working on metals by the
application of chemical and physical knowledge.
METALLOGRAPHY – is a branch of metallurgy that involves the study of
the microstructures of metals and alloys.
Metallurgy is applied to criminal investigation such as in:
1. Robbery
2. Theft
3. Hit and run
4. Bomb and explosion
5. Nail Examination
6. Counterfeit coins
7. Restoration of tampered serial numbers
Counterfeit Coins (coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain)
Two kinds of Counterfeit Coins
1. CAST COINS – coins made in molds or coins made by casting
method. An impression of genuine coin is taken by use of plaster
of Paris, clay, or bronze. The plaster molds bearing the image of a
good coin are filled within a low temperature alloy made with lead
or tin. Sand molds are used for high temperature metals such as
copper or silver alloys. Cast coin has poor imitation. It can be
easily detected. The surface is usually pitted and uneven. The
edges of lettering and designs are rounded instead of sharp.
2. STRUCK COINS – made by striking or stamping method or these
are coins made by means of dies. Consists of making an
impression of a coin on a metal blank by pressure. Stamping is
done by way of steel dies. Often well executed. Its detection is
not easy since weight, specific gravity, composition may all be
good. Careful comparison of smaller details of the designs with
those of the genuine should be made.
Take Note: Examination of counterfeit coins is not wholly chemical.
Restoration of Tampered Serial Numbers
Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching
fluid.
ETCHING FLUID – fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers.
Choice of etching fluid depends on the structure of the metal bearing the
original number.
1. For cast iron and cast steel – 10% sulfuric acid and potassium
dichromate
2. For wrought iron and forged iron-Solution 1 : hydrochloric acid +
water + cupric chloride + alcohol and Solution 2:15% nitric acid
3. For aluminum-glycerin + hydrofluoric acid + nitric acid
4. For lead – 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water
5. For stainless steel – dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid
in alcohol for copper, brass, silver, and other copper alloys-ferric
chloride + hydrochloric acid + water
6. For Zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide
103
7. For Tin – 10% hydrochloric acid
8. For Silver – concentrated nitric acid
9. For Gold and Platinum – 3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part
nitric acid
Principle Involved in the Restoration and Tampered Serial Number
When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline
structure of the metal in the neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed. This
disturbance penetrates to an appreciable distance into the substance of the
metal, but not visible to the naked eye once the actual indentations caused by
the punch have been removed. When etching fluid are applied to this surface,
the disturbed or strained particles of the metal differ in the rate of solubility
than those of the undisturbed particles and this difference in solubility makes
it possible in many cases, to restore the number to such an extent that they can
be read and photographed.
Trace Metal Detection Techniques (TMDT)
A difficult problem in law enforcement is that of linking weapons (
particularly undischarged firearms), tools, and like object to specific
individuals. The essential need for such identification in cases involving
homicide, suicide, assault, burglary, robbery, and civil disorders has resulted
in the development of a specific technique which shows whether an individual
has been in contact with a particular metallic object. The technique can be
conducted by police officers using simple equipment and the procedures
described in this publication. Research has determined that metal object leave
traces on skin and clothing surfaces in characteristic patterns with intensities
proportional to the interaction of weight, friction, or duration of contact with
metal objects. The Trace Metal Detection Technique (TMDT) makes such
metal trace patterns visible when skin or clothing is treated with a test solution
and then is illuminated by ultra violet light. Examination by ultraviolet light of
the metal trace patterns which appear as fluorescent colors on the hands or
clothing of the suspect allows a police officer to determine whether a suspect
has been in contact with certain metal objects, the type of metal or metals in
the objects, and also to infer what type of weapon or metal object was
probably involved. The patterns fluorescent colors can be analyzed with
refference to the circumstances requiring the use of TMDT and with other
related information to provide an initial source of evidence. Physical evidence
obtained by the use of TMDT, however, should be use as an adjunct to
complete investigation.
Selection of Test Areas
The areas to be examined are selected in relation to the
circumstances, the suspect item (handgun, rifle, tools, bludgeon, etc.), and to
the normal handling, use, possession, or concealment of the suspect item. For
example, if the suspect item is a handgun, in addition to the hands those areas
of clothing which may have been contact with the weapon and the skin areas
directly beneath should be examined. In the latter case, metal traces and
patterns are sometimes found to have penetrated clothing to the skin area
beneath.
Application of TMDT Test Solution
The area to be examined is completely coated with the TMDT test
solution. a spray container is generally the most suitable for this purpose.
Whenever possible, the surface should be in a vertical position while being
sprayed to prevent the formation of puddles. Although the TMDT test solution
is nontoxic to skin surfaces, it should not be taken internally. Care should be
taken to avoid spraying the solution into the subject’s eyes. If spray does get
into the eyes, the subject should immediately flush his eyes with water for at
least ten minutes and obtain medical acid.
Drying the Test Area
The test area is allowed to dry for a period of two or three minutes.
The drying time of hands can be shortened by swinging the arms. Sunlight,
breeze, and hot air also shorten the drying process. The areas on clothing and
other materials should be allowed to dry thoroughly before examination.
Examination of Test Area by Ultraviolet Light
The TMDT solution produces a light yellow fluorescent on those
parts of the test are that have not been in contact with metal object. This pale
yellow fluorescence provides a background for metal trace patterns seen on
parts of the test area that have been in contact with metal objects. The metal
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trace patterns will give off fluorescent colors that are unique to types of metal
and appear as silhouettes against the light yellow fluorescent background of
the test area. Examples of fluorescent colors produced by various metals are:
steel/iron (blackish purple),. Brass/copper (purple), galvanized iron (bright
yellow), aluminum (mottled dull yellow), and lead (buff, flesh tone, or
tannish). The officer first should identify the types of metal that have been in
contact with the test area by the fluorescent color that appear under the
illumination of the ultraviolet light. Essential to the officer’s ability to make
this identification is his knowledge and experience of what fluorescent colors
are produced by metals such as steel, brass, copper, lead, aluminum, tin
chromium, iron nickel, silver and certain alloys that can be contained in metal
objects. After determining the presence of metal traces in the test area and
identifying the metals, the officer can next determine the pattern of the metal
traces revealed by the fluorescent colors. The location, size, and shape of
metal traces on the hand from patterns that are characteristic of the size and
shape and the normal way in which weapons, tools and other metal objects
handled and used. The recognition of these patterns in conjunction with the
determination of what metals left traces on the skin are the basis for
identification of metal objects. In this way the officer can ascertain if the
pattern is pertinent to a suspect item to its having been in the possession of a
suspect.
Detection and Identification of Metal Objects on the Hands
The shape, size and weight of the metals object, the duration of
contact, and the use of the metal object all combine to produce the location
and intensity of metal traces and their patterns on the hands.
On holding a metal object, metal traces depend on the object’s
shape and the size (more or less) of the hand that comes in contact with the
metal surface. The intensity is also proportional tot he actions and forces
involved in using a tool, striking blows with weapons, and the recoil from the
discharge of firearms. In addition, the intensity is increased when the suspect
resists action to disarm him.
Detection of Metal Objects on Clothing
As noted earlier, metals leave characteristic traces on clothing
surfaces. Therefore, the suspect’s clothing should be examined by TMDT. In
particular, the areas to be examined are: gloves, hats, pocket, lining of coats,
shirts, areas used for concealment, and other areas of clothing where the
suspect item may have been carried, concealed, or otherwise been in contact.
The spray is applied to the test areas placed in a vertical p[position whenever
possible. Clothing and other materials vary in their absorbency, therefore
some of these test areas may require a heavier application of spray or two or
more spraying to produce the maximum fluorescence and appearance of metal
traces and patterns. The maximum appearance is obtained when a repeated
spraying does not produce a brighter fluorescence that the previous spraying
and drying of the test area. Metal traces sometimes penetrate clothing to the
skin areas beneath. For example, metal traces may be found on the hands even
though gloves have been worn while metal objects have been handled. Skin
areas directly beneath clothing areas where metal traces have been found
should be examined by TMDT. However, it should be noted the plastic,
leather and rubber materials are impervious to penetration of metal traces.
Procedures for Detection and Identification of Handguns by TMDT
Because of their unique shape and use, handguns leave
characteristic pattern and distinct signatures on the hands that are specific to
types, makes, models, and calibres of these weapons. The police officers, with
knowledge and experience in identifying the characteristic patterns and
signatures on handguns by TMDT, can determine if a suspect has had a
handgun in his possession and the signature of the handgun by the following
procedures.
Spraying the Hands
The suspect’s hands are extended from the sides of the body with
the palms in a vertical position and the fingers and thumb separated and
extended. The officer should make certain that the entire surface of the front
and back of the hands are covered by the spray.
Examination of Hands
The officer can next examine the suspect’s dry hands under
ultraviolet light. He should make a written record of the following
observations and analysis of the suspect’s hand:
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1. First, note and record the fluorescent colors of the metal traces that
make up the pattern for the purpose of identifying the metallic
content of the gun.
2. Look for the appearance of metal traces (fluorescent colors
differing from the light yellow fluorescent color produced by
TMDT test solution) on those parts of the hand that come in
contact with the gun: the index finger which rested on the trigger,
the remaining fingers and thumb which enclosed the gun, the palm,
and the degree of protrusion of the gun into the area between and
beyond the junction of the thumb and index finger. (Extensive
protrusion of metal traces beyond this area are made by the
overhang at the top of the back edge of the handles of automatics,
which is common to the design of this type of handgun.)
3. Look for any irregularities or distinguishing marks in the pattern
which may have been made by screws, protrusions,
ornamentation’s, and other markings of the gun.
4. Look for interruptions in the pattern which may be due to nonmetal
parts of the gun. Compare these observations with the suspect
handgun or, if it has not been recovered, with a Catalog of
Handgun “Signatures.” This comparison serves to identify the
signatures of the handgun or possession thereof by the suspect.
5. Take a photograph of the pattern produced on the suspect’s hand
under illumination by ultraviolet light.
6. If the suspect handgun has been recovered before the apprehension
of the suspect or shortly after his arrest (it has been found that
detectable metal traces may be found up to 38 – 48 hours after
contact with metal objects), the pattern of the handgun should be
produced on a subject who has not recently handled a gun. The
patterns on the subject’s hands should be examined side-by-side
under ultraviolet light to determine whether or not the handgun has
been in the possession of the suspect. Photographs should be taken
as evidence.
7. If the suspect handgun has not been recovered, the pattern on the
suspect’s hand should be compared with the photographs of
handgun patterns entered in a Catalog of Handgun “Signatures”. A
photograph of the pattern on the subject’s hand should also be
taken and compared with those in the catalog to aid in the possible
identification of the type of gun the suspect has had in his position.
Catalog of Handgun Signatures
It has been noted earlier that handguns leave distinct pattern or
“signatures” which are specific to types, makes, models, and calibres of these
weapons. It is important that police officers develop a thorough knowledge
and permanent record of these signatures. For this purpose a catalog of
signatures should be prepared of as many types, models, makes, and calibres
of specimen handgun that can possibly be obtained. The signatures of these
handguns can be produced on the hands of subjects and examined under
ultraviolet light as described above. A photograph of each signature is then
entered ultraviolet light and the type, make and model of the specimen
handgun.
Detection of Tools and Metal Objects
Some tools and other metal objects leave patterns that are
characteristics of their shape, normal handling and use (for example: pliers,
wrenches, shears, scissors, etc.) while other tools and metal objects may leave
patterns that are similar because they are alike in shape and diameter (for
example: crowbars, pipes, metal bars, etc.). Accurate analysis and
determination of patterns on suspect’s hands depend upon relating the above
factors to circumstances, information, and evidence of the case upon the
technician’s experience and skill in using TMDT. Again, as an aid in
obtaining such experience and skill, the technician should prepare a catalog of
patterns and metal traces produced by tools and other metal objects.
Contact with Non-Significant Metal Objects
The hands of individual may have metal traces from contact with
metal objects such as handles, doorknobs, keys, etc. The intensities of the
traces will be proportional to the force and duration of contact with these
metal objects. In some cases, the metal traces will be faint because of
momentary and light contact with the objects, but in other cases the traces
from no significant metal traces and distort the patterns of significant metal
objects.
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Disassembly or Assembly of Handgun
If the suspect has handled a handgun for these purposes, metal
traces will be left on the hands which do not form the pattern ordinarily
produced by the weapon. However, if the suspect held the weapon in the usual
way for a period of time, the technician may be able to detect the specific
pattern left by the handgun. ( It should be noted that gun oils give off a
mother-of-pearl appearance under ultraviolet light.)
Similar Patterns of Metal Objects
Some metal objects may leave metal traces and patterns that are
similar but not identical to the metal traces and patterns of the significant
object. The officer should be mindful of such potential “false positives” and
learn to discriminate accordingly.
Exposure of Hand to Soap and Water
Exposure to water after contact with metal objects does not affect
an examination of the hands. Repeated hand washing with abrasive soap or
rubbing with dirt after contact with metals will reduce the amount of traces
deposited on the skin in a deliberate attempt to remove metal traces. However,
it has been found that metal trace patterns may be found on the hands up to
36-48 hours after when the suspect has followed a normal routine of daily
hand washings.
Fluorescence Brightness of Metal Traces and Patterns
The maximum fluorescence brightness of metal m traces and
patterns that can be obtained in a TMDT examination depends not only upon
the amount of metal that has been deposited on a skin or clothing surface but
also upon the following factors: (1) adequate application and coverage of the
TMDT test solution, (2) a strong source of ultraviolet illumination, (3)
exclusion of all other illumination from the test area, and (4) the proximity of
the ultraviolet light to the test area.
Use of TMDT in the Field and or Group Screening
The successful use of TMDT in the field for checking on a suspect
or screening a group of individuals for previous possession of weapons or
other significant metal objects depends on whether the circumstances and
conditions are suitable for such examination. The acquiescence or subjugation
of the subject must be obtained to perform the examination. Sources of
environmental light must be greatly reduced or eliminated in order to produce
adequate fluorescence by ultraviolet light. And, finally, field personnel must
have sufficient experience and skill to ascertain whether an individual has
been contact with a weapon or significant metal object and whether an
individual should be held for further detailed examination by TMDT. Studies
should be carried out by police officers to determine the conditions and
circumstances that prevent or are conductive to valid use and result of TMDT
in the field.
Additional Use of TMDT
Another possible use of TMDT is the determination that a metal
object has rested on another, non-metal object. For example, a research
experiment involving the successful application of this use determined that (1)
a pair of scissors no longer present had rested on the paper lining in a drawer
and (2) coins no longer present had rested on a paper document in the bottom
of a storage container. In the latter case, the duration of contact of the
undisturbed coins was sufficient to show which side of each coin had rested
on the document. Since friction is not involved, results depend of the weight
and duration of the contact of the metal object with the surface on which it
rests. When consideration is given ot the use of TMDT for this type of
detection, the officer should conduct a test to determine if trace metal deposit
can be produced on the surface in question.
Precautions
Shortwave ultraviolet light in injurious to the eyes. Do not look
directly into the light or shine the light into individual eyes. Protective goggles
are commercially available that prevent passage of shortwave ultraviolet but
transmit visible fluorescent light which is not injurious to the eyes.
Fluorescence Photography
It is commonly believed that ultraviolet photography is also
fluorescence photography. Actually two types of photography are involved.
105
The main purpose of ultraviolet photography is to record information about
the objects that have the property of either absorbing or reflecting ultraviolet
light or about objects in which two or more of its elements will absorb or
reflect ultraviolet light to different degrees. These effects can be recorded
photographically to show differences between objects or between areas of the
same object. Whether or not the objects emit fluorescence does not enter into
the purposes of ultraviolet photography. If a source of ultraviolet light is used
to excite fluorescence in an object, photographing the fluorescent object is
known as fluorescence photography. This type of photography is used for
recording fluorescent metal trace patterns produced by TMDT.
Photography Techniques
1. Illumination. Efficient sources of ultraviolet light, placed as close
to the subject as practical, should be used to excite the maximum
fluorescence brightness of the object. The incidence of
illumination of the object should be at an angle of about 45
degrees. Two sources (one on each side of the object) will provide
twice as much light and prove more practical in photographing
three dimensional objects.
2. Barrier Filter. This filter is placed in front of the camera lens to
absorb the ultraviolet light radiation transmitted by the exciter
filter and to transmit only the fluorescent given off by the object.
An efficient barrier filter is the Kodak Wratten Filter No. 2A if the
exciter filter transmits ultraviolet light only.
3. Exposure Determination. Because of the very low brightness of
fluorescence, the proper exposures for photographing fluorescent
metal trace pattern will have to be determined by tests. The
beginner should take a number of photographs of subjects at
various exposures. At fixed lens aperture, exposure time should be
increased by a factor of two in successive steps over a wide range
of increasing shutter speeds. A record of all exposure conditions
should be made including: subject, ultraviolet source and its
distance from the subject, filter, shutter speed, and lens opening.
With a record of such officer can develop the know-how and skill
in estimating the exposures for photographing subjects.
An extremely sensitive exposure meter can be used for
determining exposures. However, its cell should be covered with a barrier
filter to absorb ultraviolet light reflected from the subject which, if higher in
brightness that the fluorescence of the subject, will give erroneous exposure
settings on the camera. If the use of an exposure meter is feasible, the tests
described above may not be needed to determine exposures.
PETROGRAPHY AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION
PETROGRAPHY – branch of geology that deals with the
systematic classification and identification of rocks, rock forming minerals
and soil. Also includes study of dust, dirt, safe insulation, ceramics and other
such materials, both natural and artificial.
Types of Soil
1. Alluvial Soil – formed from soil particles that were washed, blown,
or moved by gravity to the lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc.
deposited by moving water.
2. Colluvial Soil – formed from decomposition of igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, the decomposed particles
moved by gravity.
3. Sedentary Soil – inactive, not migratory soil.
Collection and Submission of Evidence
Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes,
slippers, clothes, tires, tools and furniture. If found on the above the soil
should remain in place and the whole submitted to the laboratory. Should be
wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box. Known soil
samples should be taken at different places around the point of reference.
Constituent of Soil
1. Primary Minerals
2. Clay Mineral
3. Organic Constituents
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 PRIMARY MINERALS – includes under composed rock
fragments ranging from stone down thru pebbles, sand and silt. Important
minerals include quartz (silica), calcite (limestone, CaCO3), feldspar (silicate
of A1, Na, Ba, Ca, K) dolomite, mica.
CLAY MINERAL – a product of decomposition of primary
minerals found in nearly all soils and is the major constituents of most heavy
soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and becomes hard and
adherent on heating.
ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS – one of the most variable of all
soil constituents and is of peculiar importance in the identification of soil.
4. Occupation Dust - some of the finely powdered material maybe
found on the clotting and foot wears of employees engaged in such
industries. Aside from this for example, coal miner will have coal
dust on his clothes, bricklayer will yield brick duct, sand and lime
on his clothes.
From the forensic chemical point of view, the identification of
occupational dust is of great importance. In criminal investigation, the
identification of the person through the articles of clotting left in the scene of
crime or in a vehicle may place him in an identifiable class and thus to
distinguish from the great majority of other persons. Such observation does
not serve to distinguish the wearer of the cloth from all other persons.

ANALYSIS OF SOIL – there are several methods of petrography
analysis that are being use in the laboratories to establish the identify of two or
more samples of soil. There is no procedure that is specially recommended.
It all depends on the availability of the apparatus. The DENSITY
GRADIENT APPARATUS is a simple apparatus utilizing simple procedure
in determining the identity or non-identity of soil samples based on the density
distribution. The procedure is rapid, requiring a few hours of completion. It
is sensitive to small changes in composition.
Other Methods of Soil Analysis
X-ray diffraction, spectrographic analysis and thermal analysis are
methods extensively used in commercial and private laboratories as general
procedure.
Collection and Submission of Dust and Dirt Specimen
Dust and dirt present in clotting or objects that can be readily
transported should be left in site. The whole article is packed in a clean box
with proper protection and hipped to the laboratory.
If the object is immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like
sofa, piano, dresses, the specimen maybe removed by mechanical means if
present in large quantity.
Dust on clotting maybe removed by the used of vacuum cleaner
with paper bags used in the dust sack to collect the dirt.
Analysis of Dust and Dirt

Application of Soil Analysis to Scientific Crime Detection 1. If the sample is very small, micro-chemical test or spectrographic
analysis maybe employed. If the amount of specimen is sufficient
The value of soil as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that the following is employed.
soils differ in various characteristics over the surface of the earth. This 2. Examine the sample under the ultraviolet light
difference makes it possible to establish the identity or non-identity of two soil 3. Treat a small quantity with a drop of water on a spot plate.
samples. 4. Observe of aqueous drop with hand lens
5. Note the proportion of the solid matters that remains in suspension
DUST AND DIRT and proportion that settles rapidly.
6. Reaction with litmus paper (aqueous drop)
DUST AND DIRT – has been described as “matter in the wrong 7. Treat a small quantity with a drop of 0.1 NHCl.
place”. The study of such piece of evidence may often provide the 8. Note evolution of gas
investigator with clues as to the occupation or previous whereabouts of a 9. Note formation of precipitate
person under investigation. 10. Note changes in color
11. Note materials dissolved by acid
DUST – matter which is dry and in finely divided form 12. Treat a small quantity with ethanol
13. Note color of alcohol drop
MUD – dust mixed with water 14. Note difference between color of an aqueous solution in procedure
2 and that in alcohol solution.
CRIME (heavy dirt) – when dust is mixed with the sweat and 15. Note other changes
grease of the human body this is formed.

Composition of Dust FORENSIC / LEGAL MEDICINE

Whatever is the origin of dust and wherever it is found it always
contain substances of plant and animal origin and substances of mineral
origin.
Classification of Dust
For purpose of criminal investigation, dust may well be classified
from their source.
1. Dust Deposited from the Air - extremely fine dust particles
present in the air everywhere. More in thickly populated and
industrial region. Settle very slowly and ultimately deposited on
any exposed surface. Its value in crime detection is significant.
General Considerations in Forensic/Legal Medicine
Evidence – is the means, sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a
judicial preceding the truth respecting a matter of fact.
Forensic Medicine – is a branch of medical science which deals
with application of medical knowledge to elucidate legal problems.
Legal Medicine – is a branch of medicine which deals with
application of medical knowledge to the purposes of law and justice.
Medical Jurisprudence – is a branch of law which deals with the
organization and regulation of the medical profession.

2. Road and Footpath Dust - produced by the wear and tear of the Forms of Medical Evidence
road surface be vehicular and pedestrian traffic together with a. Real
particles of soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining regions. b. Testimonial
c. Experimental
3. Industrial Dust - industries ;like cement, button, powdered d. Documentary
gypsum and plaster of Paris factories, flour milling, paint pigment,
involves industrial processes like grinding, milling or beating for Methods of Processing Evidence
the purpose of producing finely powdered ultimate products which a. Photography and sound recording
in the process impart a pronounced local character to the dust on b. Sketching
the neighboring roads and buildings. c. Description
d. Testimony of witnesses

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Evidence Necessary for Conviction
a. Direct Evidence
b. Circumstantial evidence
Kind of Witnesses
a. Expert witnesses - opinion of a witness regarding a question of
science, art or trade, when he is skilled therein, may be received in
evidence.
b. Ordinary Witnesses - all persons who, having organs of sense, can
perceives, and perceiving, can make their perception to others, may
be witnesses.
Historical Development of Legal Medicine in the Philippines
 1858 – The first textbook in Legal Medicine and its practice by Dr.
Rafael Genard Y Mas, who is a Spanish chief army physician was
published and is entitled “Manual de Medecina Domestica.”
 1871 – Legal medicine was included in the curriculum of the
college of medicine in the University of Santo Thomas.
 March 31, 1876 – The “medico titulares” which took charge of the
public sanitation and medico-legal aid for the purpose of justice
was created by the King of Spain in his Royal Decree No. 188.
 1894 – The “Medico Titulares of Forensic” which is about the
regulation and its practice was published.
 1895 – A medico-legal laboratory was established in Manila to
handle medico-legal cases.
 1898 – During the American regime, the Spanish Forensic
Medicine System was preserved.
 1901 – The provincial, insular and municipal board of health (Acts
157, 307, 308) was created by the Philippine Commission which is
about the medico-legal duties of “medico titulares” of the Spanish
regime and its assignment to the health officers of the respective
areas.
 1908 – Legal Medicine was taught in all medical schools in the
Philippines.
 1919 – The Department of Legal Medicine and Ethics of the
University of the Philippines was created under Dr. Sixto de Los
Angeles as chief.
 January 10, 1922 – The Department of Legal Medicine and Ethics
of the University of the Philippines with its Department head was
incorporated to the Philippine General Hospital.
 March 10, 1922 – The Philippine Legislature enacted Act No. 1043
which became incorporated in the administrative code as Section
2465 and provides that the Department of Legal Medicine and
Ethics of the University of the Philippines became a branch of the
Department of Justice.
 December 10, 1937 – The creation of the Division of Investigation
under the Department of Justice was done by the Commonwealth
Act 181 in which a medico-legal section was under the division
with Dr. Gregorio T. Lantin as the head.
 March 3, 1939 – The Department of Legal Medicine and Ethics of
he University of the Philippines was abolished and its functions
were transferred to the medico-legal section of the Division of
Investigation.
 July 4, 1942 – A medico-legal section of the Manila Police
Department was created under Dr. Pablo Anzures.
 1945 – The Provost Marshall of the United States Army created
the criminal investigation laboratory with the Medical Examiner as
an integral part under Dr. Mariano Lara as the Chief Medical
Examiner.
107
 June 28, 1945 – the Division of Investigation was reactivated
under the Department of Justice.
 June 19, 1947 – The Bureau of Investigation was created by the
Republic Act 157. then, the Bureau of investigation was made the
National Bureau of Investigation by the Executive Order from the
President of the Philippines. The medico-legal section was created
under the National Bureau of Investigation with its head Dr.
Enrique V. de Los Santos.
 The existence of the medico-legal division in the criminal
laboratory of the G-2 of the Philippine Constabulary also occurred.
At that time, all provincial, municipal and city health officers,
physicians of hospitals, health centers, asylums, penitentiaries and
colonies became the ex-officio medico-legal officers. In remote
places, the service of a “Cirujano Ministrante” or the Sanitary
Inspector may perform the medico-legal work if a registered
physician is not available.
The Medico-Legal System
The medico-legal system adopted in a particular country depends
upon the laws of such country. The ones commonly used are the Medico-
legal Office System, Medical Examiner System and the Coroner System.
Some countries employed the three systems at the same time but other
countries preferred two or a certain system.
Medico-legal Office System
This is the medico-legal system used in the Philippines at present
which is handled by a Medical Jurist or Medico-legal Officer who is a
registered physician duly qualified to practice medicine in the Philippines.
The National bureau of Investigation, Manila Police Department and the
Philippine Constabulary had their own medico-legal offices with their own
respective Medico-legal Officers. The Medico-Legal Officer is the one who
investigates medico-legal cases of death, physical injuries, rape and other
sexual crimes. His duty is to examine the victim of assistant, to make a report
and to appear in court as expert witness when summoned by the proper
authorities.
In spite of several medico-legal cases in the Philippines, the
medico-legal investigation is still insufficient because of the following
reasons:
a. Look of proficiency by the physician in medico-legal work
b. Inadequate facilities
c. inadequate means of transportation and communication
d. Lack of sufficient training in medico-legal work by the police
investigator and other law enforcement agent
e. Insufficient physician and personnel to handle medico-legal cases
Medical Examiner System
In some parts of the United States, the Medical Examiner System
is the preferred, although the Coroner System is still used in some states. The
Medical Examiner System is handled by the Chief Medical Examiner who is a
Doctor of Medicine and appointed by the Mayor from the classified lists
compiled by the Civil Medical Examiner is on a 24-hour work with clerical
staff always present.
The duty of the Medical Examiner is to investigate the cause of
death especially violent death or other circumstances leading to the death of
the victim. The Medical Examiner on duty after being informed by the police
officer of a certain crime that needs to be investigated will go to the place of
the crime, interview witnesses, examine the victim and then take specimens if
any, for examination.
During trial, the Medical Examiner will then present his medical
report to the court.
Coroner System
The Coroner System probably originated in England, although
there are no records of its actual origin. In common law, the office of the
Coroner is a very ancient one. The name “Coroner” is probably derived from
the title “Custodes Placitorum Coronne” or “Keeper of he King’s Pleas” as
mentioned in Articles of Eyre of 1194. Magna Charta (1215) refers to the
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coroner as “Coronator”. A report although there is evidence that coroner
existed in Australia, United States and other colonies of England. a. Livid discoloration due to the gravitation of blood
b. Loss of elasticity of the skin:
Medico-legal Aspect of Identification c. Post –mortem Contact Flattening – body becomes flattened
on areas which are in contact with the surface it rests.
A. When an unknown body is found, the following should be noted by the d. Opacity of the skin
investigator to facilitate identification e. Effect of application of heat

1. Place where body is found Changes in and about the eye

2. Time when found
3. Cause of Death a. Loss of corneal reflex.
4. Time when death occurred b. Clouding of the cornea.
5. Approximate age c. Flaccidity of the eyeball.
6. Supposed profession d. Pupil is in the position of rest, (non-reactive)
7. Description of the body e. Ophthalmoscopic Findings

B. Points of Identification applicable to both living and dead before onset of Note: “Tache Noir de la Sclerotique - a spot which maybe oval or round
decomposition triangular with the base towards the cornea and may appear in the selera a few
hours after death. (yellowish-black ) due to thin.
1. Occupational marks
2. Race – Color of skin, shape of skull Changes in the Body following death
3. Stature
4. Teeth a. Stage of Primary flaccidity
5. Tattoo Marks b. Stage of Rigor Mortis (post-mortem rigidity cadaveric or death
6. Weight struggle of muscles
7. Deformities c. stage of secondary flaccidity
8. Birth Marks d. Putrefaction or decay
9. Injuries leaving permanent result e. Cadaveric
10. Moles
11. Scars Changes in the Blood
12. Tribal marks
13. Sexual organ a. Coagulation of blood
14. Blood Group b. Post mortem lividity
15. Fingerprint  Hypostatic lividity- inside blood vessels
 Diffusion lividity - outside the blood vessels in the tissue of
Medico-legal Aspects of Death the body

DEATH – is the termination of life. It is the complete cessation of all the vital Causes of Death
functions without possibility of resuscitation.
1. Natural Death
Types of Death 2. Violent Death - Accident, Negligent, Infanticidal, Parricidal ,
Murder, Homicidal
1. Brain death – death occurs when there is irreversible coma 3. Judicial Death
absence of electrical brain activity and complete cessation of all
the vital functions without possibility of resuscitation. Medico-Legal Aspect of Physical Injuries

2. Cardio-Respiratory Death – death occurs when there is continues Physical Injuries - effects of the application of stimulus to the body
and persistent cessation of hearth action and respiration.
Causes of Physical Injuries
Kinds of Death
1. Physical Violence
1. Somatic or Clinical Death – state of the body in which there is 2. Heat or cold
complete, persistent and continues cessation of the vital functions 3. Electrical energy
of there brain, hearth and lungs which maintain life and health. 4. Chemical energy
5. Radiation
2. Molecular or Cellular Death – 3-5 hours later death of individual 6. Change in the atmospheric pressure
cells.
Note: Injuries brought about by physical violence - lead to production
3. Apparent Death or State of Suspended Animation – not really of wound
death but merely a transient loss of consciousness or temporary
cessation of the vital functions of the body on account of disease, Wound - the solution of the natural continuity of tissue of the living
external stimulus, it may arise especially in hysteria, uremia, body
catalepsy and electric shock. Vital reaction - sum total of all reactions of tissue and organs for which
activities of living cells are necessary.
Signs of Death Defense wounds - result of instinctive reaction of self-protection

1. Cessation of heart action and circulation. Classification of Wounds

2. Cessation of respiration.
3. Cooling of the body (Algor Mortis) 1. As to Severity
4. Post-mortem caloricity – is the rise of temperature of the body due a. Mortal wounds
to rapid and early putrefactive changes or some internal changes. b. Non-mortal wounds
(Observed in the first two or some internal changes. (Observed in
the first two (2) hours after death) 2. As to Kinds of Instruments Used
5. Insensibility of the body and loss of power to move. a. Brought about by blunt instrument
b. Brought about by sharp instruments: Sharp-edge,
Changes in the skin Sharp-pointed, Sharp-edge and pointed
c. Brought about by tearing force
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 d. Brought about by change of atmospheric pressure  Dislocation – displacement from each other of the
e. brought about by heat and cold articular surfaces of bones entering into the formation
f. brought about by infection of a joint.
3. As to manners of Inflection  Cerebral or brain concussion – the jarring or of the
brain leading to some commotion of the cerebral
a. Hit by means o9f bolo, blunt instrument, etc. substance.
b. thrust stab  Internal Hemorrhage – Intracranial, Rupture of organs,
c. Tearing or stretching Laceration of organs
d. Gunpowder explosion
e. Sliding or rubbing Open Wounds – when there is communication with the outside or
break in the skin or mucous membrane.
4. As regards the Depth
1. Abrasion – characterize by the removal of the superficial
a. Superficial layer of the skin brought about by friction against a hard
b. Deep – penetrating or perforating rough surface.

5. As regards the relation of the site of the application of force Forms of Abrasion
and location of injury  Linear
 Multi-linear
a. Coup injury - injury found at site of the application of  Confluent – almost indistinguishable due to
force severity of friction and roughness of the
b. Contre Coup - injury found opposite the site of the object.
application of force.  Multiple - several abrasion noted on the
c. Coup Contre Coup - injury found at the site and also body surface of a person.
opposite the application of force
d. Locus minoris resistancia - injury found both at the site Types of Abrasion
or opposite the site of the application of the force but in  Scratches
some areas offering least resistance to the force applied.  Impact or imprint abrasion
e. Extensive Injury - injury involving a greater area  Grazes
beyond the site of the application of force.  Pressure or friction abrasion

6. As to Regions of Organs (Legal Classification) 2. Incised wound - produced by forcible contact

3. Lacerated Wound - produced by forcible contact of the
a. Mutilation - intentional act of lapping or cutting of any body with a blunt instrument.
part of the living body 4. Stab Wound - produced by a sharp-pointed and sharp edge
b. Serious Physical Injury - injury that will incapacitate instrument.
the subject for more than 90 days 5. Punctured Wound - produced by a sharp-pointed
c. Less Serious Physical Injury - Injury that will require instruments
medical attendance for 10 days or more but not more 6. Wound produced by powder explosion - Firearm, Grenade,
than 30 days dynamite, etc.
d. Slight Physical Injury & Maltreatment - Injury that 7. Mutilation
will incapacitate subject and require medical attendance 8. Avulsion
from 1 to 9 days
Medico-Legal Aspect of Wounds:
7. As to the Types of Wounds
The following rules must be always observed:
Closed Wounds - when there is no breach of continuity of skin or
mucous membrane. 1. All injuries must always be described however small for it may be
important later.
Superficial Closed Wounds The description of wounds must be comprehensive.

 Epithelia - extraversion of blood in the subcutaneous 2. General Investigation of Surroundings

tissue or mucous membrane
 Contusion or bruise - wound not on the surface of the a. Place where crime was committed
skin but in the substance of the true skin and the b. Examination of clothing, stains, cuts, hairs and other foreign
substance of cellular tissue-color is red and sometimes bodies that may be found in the scene of the crime.
purple soon after the injury. c. Investigation of those persons who may be witnesses to the
incident or which could give light to the case.
Change in the Color of Contusion d. Examination of the wounding instrument.
e. Photography, sketching, or accurate description of the scene
 4-5 days color changed to green of the crime for purposes of preservation.
 7-10 days it becomes yellow & gradually disappear on
the 3. Examination of the Wounded Body - examination applicable to the
 14th or 15th day - Note: The ultimate disappearance of living and dead victim:
color varies from 1 to 4 weeks depending upon the
severity and constitution of the body. a. Age of the wound from the degree of healing
 Hecatomb (blood tumor) - extravasations of blood in a b. Determination of the weapon used in the commission of the
newly formed cavity offense.
 Ecchymosis - a form of hematoma only that the extent c. Determination whether the injury is accidental, suicidal or
of extravasations of blood is wider but thinner. homicidal.
d. Reason for the multiplicity of wounds in cases where there
Deep Closed Wounds are more than one wound.
 Simple fracture
 Sprain - subcutaneous separation or tearing of the 4. Examination of the Wound
articular tendons, ligaments or muscles.
 Strained – tearing or rupture of muscle fibers a. Characteristic of the wound
b. Location of the wound
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 c. Direction of the wound
d. Number of the Wound a. Location of the wound in the body of the victim
e. Extent of the Wound b. Direction of the wound
f. Condition of the surrounding of the wounds c. Nature of the instrument used in inflicting the injury
g. Condition of the locality d. Testimony of witnesses
h. Degree of hemorrhage
i. Evidence of struggle Death or Physical Injuries Brought About by Powder Propelled
j. Information as to the position of the body Substances:
k. Presence of letter or suicide note
l. Condition of the weapon 1. Production of Combustions

5. Determination whether the wounds were inflicted during life or a. Bullet - Gunshot wound
after death b. Flame - Singeing
c. Smoke -smudging
a. Hemorrhage - more profuse when wound was inflicted d. Gun powder residue - tattooing
during lifetime of the victim e. Grime - tattooing
b. Signs of inflammation - there may be swelling of the area
surrounding the wound. Other vital reaction maybe present 2. Firearm Wounds
whenever the wound was inflicted during life.
c. Signs of repair - fibrin formation, scab or scar formation a. Gunshot Wound
conclusively show that wound was inflicted during life.
d. Retraction of the edge of the wound - Owing to the vital Difference between Entrance and Exit of gunshot wound
reaction of the skin and contractility of the muscular fibers,
the edges of the wound inflicted during life retract and cause ENTRANCE EXIT
gaping. 1. Appears to be smaller than 1. Always bigger
missile owing to elasticity of than missile
6. Points to consider in the determination whether the wound is tissue except contact fire.
homicidal, suicidal or accidental 2. Edges inverted 2. Edges averted
3. Usually ovaloid or rounded 3. Variable shape
a. External signs and circumstances related to the position and 4. Contusion collar present 4. Contusion collar
attitude of the body when found. absent
b. Location of the weapon or the manner in which it is held. 5. Other product of combustions 5. Always absent
c. The motive underlying the commission of the crime or the when firing is near
like. 6. Paraffin test may be positive 6. Always negative
d. The personal character of the deceased.
e. The possibility of the offender to have purposely changed the 3. Determination of Relative Position of Victim & Assailant
truth of the condition and other information such as a) Signs
of struggle b) Number and directions of wounds c) Nature
a. Contusion Collar - the wider side points to the source of the
and extent of the wound d) State of the clothing missile.
b. Smudging & Tattooing - the side with more or intense
7. Length of time of survival of the victim after infliction of wound
deposit points to the source of the missile.
a. Degree of healing 4. Determination of the probable caliber of the firearm used in the
b. Changes in the body in relation to the time of death
infliction - measure in centimeter of the cross diameter of the
c. Age of the blood stain gunshot wound fro collar to collar - the shortest is the probable
d. Testimony of witnesses when the wound was inflicted. caliber.
8. Possible instrument used by the assailant in inflicting the injuries 5. Determination of the distance of fire
a. Contusion - by blunt instrument
a. Contact fire - intense laceration & undermining of the point
b. Incised wound - by sharp-edged instrument entrance. Normal bigger than exit.
c. Lacerated wound - produced by blunt instrument b. Distance of six (6) inches presence of smudging, singeing
d. Punctuated wound - by sharp pointed instrument
and tattooing.
e. Stab - by sharp-edged and pointed instrument c. Beyond six (6(inches but within thirty six (36) inches -
f. Gunshot wound - the diameter of the wound entrance may presence of the tattooing.
approximate the caliber of the wounding firearm.
d. Beyond thirty six(36) inches only the gunshot wound will be
present
9. Which of the injuries sustained by the victim caused death?
Shotgun Wound
This can be ascertained by examining by examining individually 1. Unchoked bore or Straight bore
the wounds and noting which of them involved injury to some vital organs or 2. Choked bore
large vessels or led to secondary result causing death.
a. Improved cylinder - narrowing of the bore from rear to
the muzzle is 3-5 thousandth of an inch.
10. Which of the wounds was inflicted first? b. Half Chock - narrowing of the barrel is 15-20
thousandth of an inch.
a. Relative position of the assailant and the victim when the c. Full Chock - narrowing of the barrel is 35-50
first injury was inflicted on the latter thousandth of an inch.
b. Trajectory or course of the wound inside the body of the
victim.
Characteristics of Shotgun Wounds
c. Organs involved degree of injury sustained by victim.
d. Testimony of witness.
Contact fire - entrance of wound is irregular with severe
e. Presence of defense wounds on the body of the victim if the destruction of the underlying tissue. There is singeing and smudging.
victim tried to make defense act during the initial attack, then
the defense wounds must have been inflicted first.
1. Near shot up to six (6) inches.
2. Mark laceration of skin.
11. Relative Position of Victim and Assailant when Injury was 3. Gunpowder maybe driven into the deeper area of the wound.
inflicted
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 4. Mark smudging of the skin & deeper portion of the wound of
entrance. Kinds
5. Mark tattooing. 1. Moral virginity
6. Hair is singe. 2. Demi-virginity
7. Wad may be found inside the wound of entrance. 3. Virgo-Inacta
4. Physical virginity - True physical virginity, False physical virginity
Distance of about one (1) yard
a. Pellets enter as one mass thus making entrance wound with Determination of the condition of virginity
irregular edges. 1. Breast
b. Surrounding skin may be blackened with light burning & tattooing. 2. Vaginal canal
3. Labia majora minora
Distance of 2 to 3 yards 4. Fourshette & perineum
a. The wound of entrance has big central hole with rugged edges with 5. Hymen
few stray wound of entrance wound. 6. Rougosites
b. Smudging & tattooing – no longer evident
What is Defloration? It is the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a result of
Distance of 4 yards – pellets may enter skin area of about 6 to 8 inches sexual intercourse.
diameter although there may be a central care where a group might have
entered. Classification

Death by Asphyxia 1. Incomplete Laceration – Superficial or Deep

2. Complete
All forms of violent death which results primarily from the 3. Complicated
interference with the process of respiration or to condition in which the supply
of oxygen to the blood or tissue or both has been reduced below normal level. Healing Time of Hymenal Laceration

1. Hanging 1. superficial – 2 to 3 days

2. Strangulation 2. extensive tear – 7 to 10 days
a. by ligature 3. complicated – if with intervening infection will require longer to
b. manual or throttling heal
c. special forms of strangulation
c.1. palmer Duration of Laceration of the Hymen
c.2. garroting
c.3. mugging or yoking 1. fresh bleeding laceration – rupture quite recent
c.4. compression of neck with stick 2. healing – after 24 to 7 days
3. recently healed – 7 days to 3 months
3. Suffocation 4. old healed – 3 mos to years
a. smothering – closing mouth and nostrils by solid objects
b. choking Medical Evidence to Consider in Sexual Crimes

4. Asphyxia by submersion in water (drowning) 1. Evidence from the victim

5. Asphyxia by pressure on the chest 2. Alleged time and place of the commission of the crime.
6. Asphyxia by irrespirable gases 3. Date, time and place of the examination.
4. Condition of clothing.
5. Physical and mental development of victim.
Death or Physical Injuries Due to Vehicular Accidents 6. Gait, facial expression etc.
7. Examination of body for sign of violence
1. Kinds of injuries in vehicular accident cases 8. Examination of genetalia
a. hymen
Sustained by the pedestrian b. hymental orifice
c. vaginal canal
Impact injuries - primary impact injuries, subsequent impact d. rougosites
injuries, Secondary injuries, Run over injuries e. fourshette
f. pubic hair
Sustained by driver & passengers - Impact injuries and turn-turtle g. labias
injuries h. presence of spermatozoa

2. Medical Evidence in Vehicular Accident Cases Medico—Legal Aspects of Pregnancy

Evidence from the victim Pregnancy – is a state of a woman who has within her body the
 Crash injury going product of conception.
 Tire thread marks
 Abrasion prints Legal importance of the study of pregnancy
 Blood, hair or clothing of victim may be found sticking on
the part of the vehicle which hit the victim. 1. Pregnancy ground for the suspension of the execution of the death
 Physical defects of the victim like poor eyesight sentence in women
 Inebriation of the victim – like under the influence of alcohol 2. A conceived child is capable of receiving donation.
3. Duration of pregnancy – 270-280 days from onset of last
Evidence from the driver menstruation.
 Physical defect like poor eyesight 4. Abnormally prolonged gestation – beyond 300 days.
 Under the influence of alcohol or drugs by drive 5. Minimum period of gestation – compatible with viability of the
 History of grudge between the driver and the victim. child born at 180 days may live.
6. Super fecundation – fertilization made by separate intercourse of
Medico-Legal Aspects of Sexual Crimes two ova which have escaped at the same act of ovulation.
7. Pseudocysis or spurious pregnancy – imaginary pregnancy
What is Virginity? It is a condition of a female who not experienced sexual
intercourse.
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Medico-Legal Aspects of Delivery 1.Birth determines personality
2.Appearance of a child is ground for the revocation of donation.
1. Delivery is the process by which in a woman gives birth to her 3.Proof of live birth must first be shown before of the child by the
offspring. prosecution in the case of infanticide
2. Puerperium – is the interval between the termination of labor Medico-Legal Aspects of Infanticide
(delivery) to the complete return of the reproductive organ its
normal pregnant state-last from 6 to 8 weeks. INFANTICIDE – is the killing of a child less than three (3) days
3. The study of delivery is important because proof delivery is old.
necessary in judicial action on the following:
a. Legitimacy How the crime committed?
b. Abortion
c. Infanticide 1. By omission or neglect
d. Concealment of birth a. Failure to litigate the umbilical cord
e. In slander or libel b. Failure to protect the child from heat and cold
c. Omission to take the necessary help of a midwife or skilled
physician.
d. Omission to supply the child with proper proof food.
4. Methods of delivery e. Omission to remove the child from the mother’s discharge
with resulted to suffocation
a. Natural Route – the normal passages- Spontaneous, Surgical
intervention, Instrumentation 2. By Commission
b. Surgical Route – Abdominal caesarian section, vaginal caesarian a. By inflicting physical injuries
section, Post-mortem caesarian section b. By suffocation
c. By strangulation
Medico-Legal Aspect of Abortion d. By drawing
e. By poisoning
Willful killing of the fetus in the uterus, or violent expulsion of the f. By burning
fetus from the natural womb and which results to the death of the fetus g. By deliberate exposure to heat and cold

Principal elements of crime 3. Other allied causes

a. Abandoning a minor
1. That the expulsion of the product of conception is induced. b. Abandoning a minor by person entrusted with custody
2. That the fetus dies either as an effect of the violence used, drug indifference of parents.
administered or fetus was excelled before the term of its viability.
Medico-Legal Aspects of Paternity and Filiation
Provision of the Revised Penal Code on Abortion
PATERNITY – is the civil of the father with respect to the child
Intentional Abortion begotten him.
1. That the woman is pregnant
2. Violence was applied on such pregnant woman without the FILIATION – is the civil status of the child in relation to its
intention of abortioning her. mother or father.
3. The woman aborted as result of the violence.
Legal importance of determining Paternity & Filiations
Unintentional Abortion
1. The woman must be pregnant 1. For succession
2. Violence was applied on such pregnant woman without the 2. For enforcement of the naturalization and immigration laws.
intention of abortioning:
3. The woman aborted as aborted as result of the violence. Kinds of children

Abortion Practiced by the woman herself or by her parents 1. Legitimate children (proper) – born in lawful wedlock or within
300 days after the dissolution of marriage.
1. The woman is pregnant
2. Abortion is intended to be committed Presumption of Legitimacy – children born after 180 days
3. Abortion is induced by following the celebration of marriage, and before 300 days following its
4. The pregnant woman dissolutions or the separation of the spouses shall be presumed to be
5. Other person with consent of the pregnant woman legitimate.
6. The presents of the woman, or either of them for the purpose of
concealing her dishonor and with the consent of the woman herself Against their presumption no evidence shall be admitted other than
that of the physical impossibility of the husband’s having access to his wife
Abortion practiced by a physician or midwife and dispensing of abortions within the 180 days of the 300 which preceded the birth of the child.
1. The woman is pregnant
2. The physician induced or assisted in causing the abortion This physical impossibility may be caused by:
3. The acts done by the physician or midwife intended to cause an
abortion a. The impotence of the husband; the fact that the husband and
4. There must be intention of the physician to produce abortion and wife were living separately in such a ay that access was not
the absence of intention will not make the physician criminally possible.
liable. b. By the serious illness of the husband.

Kinds of Abortion Requisites of the presumption

1. Spontaneous or natural
2. Induced – therapeutic or criminal a. There is a valid marriage
b. the birth of the child took place after 180 days following the
Medico-Legal Aspects of Birth celebration of marriage or within 300 days following its
dissolution or separation of spouse;
Legal importance of the study of birth c. There is no physical impossibility of the husband having
access to the wife during the first 120 days of the 300
proceeding the birth of the child.
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2. Legitimated Children
Legitimation – is defined as a remedy or process by which a child
born out of lawful wedlock and are therefore considered illegitimate are by
fiction of law considered by subsequent valid marriage of the parents.
Children that can be legitimated:
a. Natural children (proper) - Natural children are those born
outside lawful of parents who, at the time of the conception
of the former were not disqualified by any impediment to
marry each other.
3. Adopted Children
Adoption – is defined the act or proceeding by which of paternity
and filiation are recognized as legally existing between persons not so related
by nature.
Persons who may be adopted:
a. The natural child by the natural father or mother;
b. Other illegitimate children, by the father or mother;
c. A step-child, by the step-father or step-mother;
d. Any person, even if age provided adopter is sixteen years older
4. Illegitimate Children
a. Natural Children
 Natural Children (proper)
 Natural children by legal fiction – natural children by
legal fiction are those born of void degree of
annulment.
 Natural children by presumption - are those natural
children acknowledge the father or the mother
separately if the acknowledging parent was legally
competent to contact marriage at the time of
conception.
b. Spurious Children - Illegitimate who are not natural are
considered spurious children may be:
 Adulterous Children – conceived in an act of adultery
or concubinage.
 Sacrilegious Children – children born of parents who
have been ordained in sacris.
 Incestuous Children – children born by parents who are
legally incapable of contracting valid marriage because
of their blood relations as marriage between brothers
and sisters, father and daughter, etc.
 Manceres – children conceived by prostitute. It is very
difficult to determine the father because of the nature of
the work.
Artificial Insemination
It is the introduction of seminal fluid with spermatozoa in the
generative of a woman by any means of springe, pipette, irrigator, etc.
Status of Children born by artificial Insemination
a. If the donor is the husband, the child must be unquestionable
legitimate.
b. If the semen came from a donor than the husband, with the
consent of the later, the child may also consider legitimate in
as much as it born lawful wedlock and there is consent of the
husband.
c. If the semen came from a third party and introduced to the
wife without consent or against the will of the husband, the
child is illegitimate (adulterous).
Evidence of Paternity and Filleting
1. Medical Evidences
a. Parental likeness
b. Blood grouping
113
c. Evidence from the mother - Proof of previous delivery, Proof
of physical potency & fertility, Proof of capacity to have
access with the husband
d. Evidence from the father - Proof of physical potency and
fertility, Proof of access
2. Non-Medical Evidences
a. Record of birth in the civil registrar, or by an authentic
document or a final judgment.
b. Continuous possession of the status of a legitimate child.
c. Any other allowed by the Rules of Court and Special Laws.
Medico-legal Aspect of Impotency and Sterility
Impotency – is the physical incapacity of either sex to allow or
grant to the other legitimate sexual gratification.
Legal importance of impotency
a. Impotency, if proven, will overthrow the presumption of
legitimacy.
b. Impotency maybe ground for the annulment of marriage
Cause of impotency
a. General or functional, unconnected directly with the sexual
organs: age, Illness, Emotion, Hormonal dysfunction
b. Local or organic, in direct connection with the sexual organs:
Congenital defects in males like non-development of the
penis, mal development of the penis, penis adherent to the
scrotum, duplex organ; or in females like absence of vagina,
vagina ill-developed, vagina occluded by intra-uterine
disease.
c. Disease or Accident - In males: acute disease of the penis as
gonorrhea, chronic disease of the penis as epithelioma,
complete amputation of the penis, removal of the testes,
sexual abuse; In the females: vaginal laceration, disease of
the vulvae, obstruction of the vaginal canal due to tumor cyst
or fibroid.
Sterility – is the loss of power procreation and is absolutely
independent of whether or not impotency is present.
Local cause of Sterility
1. Congenital
a. In the male: Absence of testicle, Absence of penis, Mal-
development of the testicle, Misplacement of the testes, Mal-
formation of the penis, as epipadias or hypospadias
b. In the female: Absence or mal-development of the ovary,
Absence or mal-development of the uterus, Absence of the
vagina
2. Acquired conditions
a. In the male: Complete amputation of the penis, Excision of
the testicle, Diseases of the testicle, Atrophy of the testicle
b. In the female: Excision of the ovary, Diseases of the ovary,
Occlusion of the vagina from the diseases, Diseases of the
vagina, Occlusion of the fallopian tubes.
…oΩo…
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