Electrical Machines

and power Systems

2. BASICS OF ELECTRIC
POWER SYSTEM
THEORY

1
1
 This Section lays the groundwork for the study of electric Power systems. We
develop some basic tools involving fundamental concepts, definitions, and procedures. The
section can be considered as simply a review of major topics used in the study of Power
systems.

2
 A sinusoidal current is usually referred to us as alternating current (ac). Such a
current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately positive and negative values.
Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called ac circuits.
Consider the sinusoidal voltage:

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
Where
𝑉𝑚 the amplitude of the sinusoid.
𝜔 the angular frequency in radians/s
𝜔𝑡 the argument of the sinusoid.
𝜙 is the phase rad.

3
 Let us examine the two sinusoids

𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cso(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
These two vectors are shown in Figure.
The starting point of 𝑣2 in Figure occurs
first in time. Therefore, we say that 𝑣2 leads 𝑣1
by φ or that 𝑣1 lags 𝑣2 by 𝜙. If 𝜙 ≠ 0, we also
say that 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are out of phase.
If 𝜙 = 0, then 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are said to be
in phase; they reach their minima and maxima
at exactly the same time.
We can compare 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 in this
manner because they operate at the same
frequency; they do not need to have the same
amplitude. 4
 Mean or Average Value
For a continuous periodic waveform such as a sinusoid, the mean value can be found by
averaging all the instantaneous values during one cycle. This is given by

𝑇
1
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

Clearly, the average value of a complete sine wave is 0 because of equal positive and
negative half cycles. This is regardless of the peak amplitude.

5
 Effective or RMS Value
The effective or root mean square (RMS) value of a periodic signal is equal to the
magnitude of a DC signal which produces the same heating effect as the periodic signal when
applied across a load resistance.
Consider a periodic signal, 𝑣(𝑡), then

𝑇
1
Mean = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

𝑇
1
Mean Square = 𝑣 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

𝑇
1
Root Mean Square 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑣 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

All the above expressions are independent of the phase angle 𝜙.

6
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with
than sine and cosine functions. A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and
phase of a sinusoid.

A complex number can be written as

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦

Where 𝑗 = −1, x is the real part of z and y is the imaginary par of z.

The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential form as

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 Rectangular form

𝑧=𝑟 𝜙 Polar from

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜙 Exponential form
𝑦
Where 𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is the magnitude of z, and 𝜙 = tan−1 𝑥 is the phase of z.
7
 To get the phasor corresponding to a sinusoid, we first express the sinusoid in the cosine
form so that the sinusoid can be written as the real part of a complex number.

Then we take out the time factor 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 , and whatever is left is the phasor corresponding
to the sinusoid.
By suppressing the time factor, we transform the sinusoid from the time domain to the
phasor domain.
This transformation is summarized as follows:
Time domain representation Phasor domain representation
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 ⟹ 𝐕 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙

8
 we see that to get the phasor representation of a sinusoid, we express it in cosine
form and take the magnitude and phase.
Given a phasor, we obtain the time-domain representation as the cosine function
with the same magnitude as the phasor and the argument as 𝜔𝑡 plus the phase of the
phasor.
The idea of expressing information in alternate domains is fundamental to all areas
of engineering.

Time domain representation Phasor domain representation

𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓 ⟹ 𝐕 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙

𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓 ⟹ 𝐕 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙 − 90

𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓 ⟹ 𝐈 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙

𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓 ⟹ 𝐈 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙 − 90

9
 We can write some useful relation between time representation and phasor
representation
Time domain representation Phasor domain representation
𝑑𝑣 𝑗𝜔𝐕
𝑑𝑡
𝐕
𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑗𝜔

10
 Now that we know how to represent a voltage or current in the phasor or frequency
domain, one may legitimately ask how we apply this to circuits involving the passive elements R,
L, and C.
What we need to do is to transform the voltage-current relationship from the time
domain to the frequency domain for each element.
Again, we will assume the passive sign convention.

11
 Resistor
If the current through a resistor R is 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙), the voltage across it is given
by Ohm’s law as
𝐕 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑅𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
The phasor form of this voltage is
𝐕 = 𝑅𝐼𝑚 ∠ − 𝜙
But the phasor representation of the current is

𝐈 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠ − 𝜙
Hence,
𝐕 = 𝑅𝐈
Figure: Voltage-current relations for a resistor in
the: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain

Figure: Phasor diagram for the resistor 12

 Inductor
For the inductor L, assume the current through it is 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙). The voltage
across the inductor is
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿 = −𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
We know that

− sin 𝐴 = cos 𝐴 + 90°

We can write the voltage as
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 + 90°)
𝑑𝑡

Which transforms to the phasor Figure: Voltage-current relations for an inductor in

the: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain
𝑉 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 −𝑗 𝜙−90°
= 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 −𝑗𝜙 𝑒 𝑗 90° = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 ∠ − 𝜙 𝑒 𝑗 90°
But the phasor representation of the current is

𝐈 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠ − 𝜙
And

𝑒 𝑗 90° = 𝑗
Thus
Figure: Phasor diagram for the inductor; I lags V
𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈
The voltage and current are 90° out of phase. Specifically, the current lags the voltage by 90°. 13
 Capacitor
For the capacitor C, assume the voltage across it is 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙). The current through
the capacitor is
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶 = −𝜔𝐿𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
By following the same steps as we took for the inductor we obtain:
𝐈
𝐈 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐕 ⟹ 𝐕=
𝑗𝜔𝐶
Showing that the current and voltage are 90° out of phase. To be specific, the current leads the
voltage by 90°.

Figure: Voltage-current relations for a capacitor Figure: Phasor diagram for the capacitor; I leads V
in the: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain
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 Following is the summary of the time-domain and phasor-domain representations of the
circuit elements.

Element Time Domain Frequency Domain

R 𝐕 = 𝑅𝑖 𝐕 = 𝑅𝐈
L 𝑑𝑖 𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
C 𝑑𝑣 𝐈
𝑖=𝐶 𝐕=
𝑑𝑡 𝑗𝜔𝐶

15
we have already obtained the voltage-current relations for the three passive elements as
𝐈
𝐕 = 𝑅𝐈 𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈 𝐕=
𝑗𝜔𝐶
These equations may be written in terms of the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current as
𝐕 𝐕 𝐕 1
=𝑅 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 =
𝐈 𝐈 𝐈 𝑗𝜔𝐶
From these three expressions, we obtain Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of element as
𝐕
𝐙= or 𝐕 = 𝐙𝐈
𝐈
where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in ohms.
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with than
sine and cosine functions.

16
 The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I,
measured in ohms ().
The impedance represents the opposition which the circuit exhibits to the flow of
sinusoidal current.
Although the impedance is the ratio of two phasors, it is not a phasor, because it does
not correspond to a sinusoidally varying quantity.
The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S). The
admittance Y of an element (or a circuit) is the ratio of the phasor current through it to the
phasor voltage across it, or
𝐈 1
𝐘= or 𝐘 =
𝐕 𝐙

17
 As a complex quantity, the impedance and admittance may be expressed in rectangular
form as
𝐙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝐘 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵
Where
R: is the resistance.
X: is the reactance.
G: is the conductance.
B: is the susceptance.

18
 The concept of power is a central importance in electrical power systems and it is the
topic of this section.

19
 The electric power systems specialist is in many instances more concerned with electric
power in the circuit rather than the currents. As the power into an element is basically the
product of voltage across and current through it, it seems reasonable to swap the current for
power without losing any information in describing the phenomenon. In treating sinusoidal
steady-state behavior of circuits, some further definitions are necessary.
To illustrate the concepts of power , we will use a cosine representation of the
waveforms. Consider the impedance element 𝑍 = 𝑍∠𝜙. For a sinusoidal voltage,𝑣(𝑡) given by:
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡
(𝜔𝑡)
The instantaneous current in the circuit is
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 cos⁡
(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
Where
Vm
𝐼𝑚 =
Z
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 The instantaneous power 𝑝(𝑡) absorbed by an element is the product of the
instantaneous voltage 𝑣(𝑡) across the element and the instantaneous current 𝑖(𝑡) through it.

𝑝 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡
Thus,
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
Using the trigonometric identity
1
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 + 𝐵
2
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
1
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 – 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
2
1
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜙 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
2
Thus
1 1
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜙 + 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
2 2
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 This shows us that the instantaneous power has two parts. The first part is constant or
time independent. Its value depends on the phase difference between the voltage and the
current. The second part is a sinusoidal function whose frequency is 2ω, which is twice the
angular frequency of the voltage or current. The instantaneous power is sketched in Figure.

Figure: The instantaneous power p(t) entering a circuit

22
 The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure. The
average power is more convenient to measure. In fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for
measuring power, responds to average power.
Thus, the average power is given by
𝑇
1
𝑃= 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

Since the average of cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 is zero, through 1 cycle, this term therefore
contributes nothing to the average of p, and the average power 𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑔 is given by:
1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜙
2
Using the effective (root mean square  rms) values of voltage and current and
substituting 𝑉𝑚 = 2(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )and 𝐼𝑚 = 2(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) we get

𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

23
 The power entering any network is the product of the effective values of terminal
voltage and current and the cosine of the phase angle 𝜙, which is, called the power factor (PF).
This applies to sinusoidal voltages and currents only.
When reactance and resistance are present, a component of the current in the circuit is
engaged in conveying the energy that is periodically stored in and discharged from the
reactance.
This stored energy, being shuttled to and from the magnetic field of an inductance or
the electric field of a capacitance, adds to the current in the circuit but does not add to the
average power.
This equation is true for any kind of load.
In the special case where there is only resistance and no phase shift, we have 𝜙 = 0
and cos 𝜙 = 1, so there is no need to write down the cos 𝜙.
In another special case where the load is purely reactive (having no resistance at all), the
phase shift would be 𝜙 = 90° and cos 𝜙 = 0, meaning that power only oscillates back and
forth, but is not dissipated (the average power is zero).
24
 The average power corresponds to the power actually transmitted or consumed by the
load. It is also called real power, active power or true power, and is measured in watts and the
power that supplies the stored energy in reactive elements is called reactive power. Active
power is P, and the reactive power, designated Q, are thus

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜙
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜙
In both equations, V and I are rms values of terminal voltage and current, and 𝜙 is the
phase angle by which the current lags the voltage.
To emphasize that the Q represents the nonactive power, it is measured in reactive
voltampere units (VAr).

25
 We now define a quantity called the complex or apparent power, designated S, of which
P and Q are components. By definition,
𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼(cos 𝜙 + 𝑗 sin 𝜙)
We can represent power as a vector in the complex plane: namely, an arrow of length S
(apparent power) that makes an angle 𝜙 with the real axis. This is shown in Figure. The angle 𝜙
is the same as the phase difference between voltage and current.

Figure: The complex power S, with real power P in the real and reactive power Q in the imaginary direction.
26
 The projection of the apparent power vector onto the real axis has length P and
corresponds to the real power; the projection of apparent power onto the imaginary axis has
length Q and corresponds to reactive power.
Using Euler’s identity, we thus have

𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼𝑒 𝑗𝜙
Or
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼∠𝜙
It is clear that an equivalent definition of complex or apparent power is

𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗
We can write the complex power in two alternative forms by using the relationships
𝑉 = 𝑍𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = 𝑌𝑉
This leads to

𝑆 = 𝑍𝐼𝐼 ∗ = 𝑍 𝐼 2

Or

𝑆 = 𝑉𝑌 ∗ 𝑉 ∗ = 𝑌 ∗ 𝑉 2

27
 Consider a vacuum cleaner that draws 750 W of real power, at a voltage of 120 V a.c.
and a power factor of 0.75 lagging. How much current does it draw?

28
 Since the real power is given by the apparent power times the power factor, the
apparent power equals:
750
𝑆= = 1000 𝑉𝐴 = 1 kVA
0.75
The rms current is the apparent power divided by the rms voltage:
1000 𝑉𝐴
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 8.33 𝐴
120 𝑉

29
 When we say that a load “draws power,” we mean that as a result of its internal
characteristics (the impedance), when presented with a given voltage, a certain amount of
current will flow through this device, and accordingly a certain amount of power will be
dissipated or exchanged.
Just as a load draws real power in relation to its resistance, it draws reactive power in
relation to its reactance. In fact, the ratio of resistance to reactance determines the ratio of real
to reactive power drawn by a load.
In other words, the angle 𝜙 in Z is the same as the angle 𝜙 in S.

30
 Specifically, inductive loads are said to “consume” reactive power, whereas capacitive
loads are said to “supply” reactive power.
This is merely a terminological convention, and a rather misleading one. Recall that
inductors and capacitors produce opposite phase shifts.
Either type of shift causes reactive power to oscillate through the circuit. But because of
the difference in timing, the contributions of inductance and capacitance to reactive power are
opposite: at the instant that the inductor magnetic field absorbs energy, the capacitor electric
field in the same circuit releases energy.
Conversely, at the instant that the magnetic field releases energy, the electric field
absorbs it. Although on average neither inductor nor capacitor gains or losses energy, their
effects are complementary.

31
For the preceding example, how much reactive power does the vacuum cleaner draw?
What is the impedance of the vacuum cleaner?

32
 With 𝑝. 𝑓. = cos 𝜙 = 0.75 lagging, the phase shift is
𝜙 = 41.48
and
sin 𝜙 = 0.661
Thus, the reactive power is
𝑄 = 1000 × 0.661 = 661 𝑉𝐴𝑅
Because the power factor is lagging, the vacuum cleaner is said to “consume” reactive
power.
The magnitude of the impedance is given by the voltage divided by the current (rms
values) according to Ohm’s law:
120 𝑉
𝑍= = 14.4 Ω
8.33 𝐴

33
 The power factor, being the ratio of real to apparent power, corresponds to the ratio of
resistance to impedance. Therefore, the magnitude of the resistive component is
𝑅 = 0.75 × 14.4 𝑉 = 10.8 Ω
The reactive component is proportional to the reactive power, or sin 𝜙, and is given by
𝑋 = 0.661 × 14.4 𝑉 = 9.51 Ω
We can express the impedance as the complex sum of its components:

𝑍 = 10.8 + 𝑗9.51 Ω
Alternatively, we can express it in terms of its magnitude and angle:
𝑍 = 14.4 ∠ 41.48
Because 𝜙 and X are positive, the reactance is inductive (rather than capacitive). The
vast majority of loads are inductive rather than capacitive. Motors of all kinds (pumps,
refrigerators, air conditioners, power tools) are the most common inductive load; ballasts for
fluorescent lighting are another example.

34
 When working with complex apparent power we often use the Theorem of the
conservation of apparent power.
This indicates that the sum of apparent power delivery of all sources is equal to the sum
of the apparent power consumption by all loads or sinks.
This is valid in a network consisting of multiple sources and consumers, each of them
independent of each other. Thereby one assumes all currents and voltages to be purely
sinusoidal and having the same frequency. Mathematically we can write:

𝑆𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠

35
 Consider the circuit composed of a series R-L branch in parallel with capacitance with
the following parameters:
𝑅 = 0.5 Ω
𝑋 = 0.8 Ω
𝐵 = 0.6 𝑆
Assume that:
𝑉 = 200∠0 𝑉
Calculate the input current and the active, reactive, and apparent power into the circuit.

36
The current into the R-L branch is given by
200
𝐼𝑍 = = 212∠ − 57.99° A
0.5 + 𝑗0.8
The power factor (PF) of the R-L branch is
𝑃𝐹𝑍 = cos 𝜙 = cos 57.99° = 0.53
The current into the capacitance is
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑗 0.6 200 = 120∠90° 𝐴
The input current 𝐼𝑇 is
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑍 + 𝐼𝐶
= 212∠ − 57.99° + 120∠90°
= 127.28∠ − 28.01°
The power factor (PF) of the overall circuit is
𝑃𝐹𝑇 = cos 𝜙 𝑇 = cos 28.01° = 0.88
37
 Note that the magnitude of 𝐼𝑇 is less than that 𝐼𝑍 , and that cos 𝜙 𝑇 is higher than cos 𝜙𝑍 .
This is the effect of the capacitor, and its action is called power factor correction in power
system terminology.
The apparent power into the circuit is
𝑆𝑇 = 𝑉𝐼𝑇∗
= 200∠0 127.28∠28.01
= 2545600∠28.01°
In rectangular coordinates we get
𝑆𝑇 = 22471.92 + 𝑗11955.04
Thus, the active and rective power are
𝑃𝑇 = 22471.92 𝑊
𝑄𝑇 = 11955.04 𝑉𝐴𝑟

38
 Consider a single phase AC circuit where, the supply voltage is given by:
𝑣 𝑡 = 100 cos 𝜔𝑡
And the load is inductive with impedance
𝑍 = 1.25∠60° Ω
Determine the expression for the instantaneous power 𝑝(𝑡).
Use MATLAB to plot as a function of 𝜔𝑡 : 𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑣 𝑡 , 𝑝 𝑡 , 𝑝𝑅 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑋 𝑡 over an
interval of 0 to 2𝜋.

39
 𝟏𝟎𝟎∠𝟎°
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = 𝟖𝟎∠ − 𝟔𝟎° 𝑨
𝟏. 𝟐𝟓∠𝟔𝟎°
Therefore
𝑣 𝑡 = 100 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑉
𝑖 𝑡 = 80 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 60°) 𝐴
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = 800 cos 𝜔𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 60°) 𝑊
The following statements are used to plot 𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑣 𝑡 , 𝑝 𝑡 , 𝑝𝑅 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑋 𝑡 over an
interval of 0 to 2𝜋.

40
In the circuit shown in figure
𝑉 = 1200∠0° 𝑉 rms
𝑍1 = 60 Ω
Z2 = 6 + j12 Ω
Z3 = 30 − j30 Ω
Find the complex power absorbed by each load and the total complex power.

41
 1200∠𝟎°
𝐼1 = = 20 𝐴
60∠𝟎°
1200∠𝟎°
𝐼2 = = 40 − 𝑗80 𝐴
6 + 𝑗12
1200∠𝟎°
𝐼3 = = 20 + 𝑗20 𝐴
30 − 𝑗30
Figure: Current phasor diagram and power diagram
𝑆1 = 𝑉𝐼1∗ = 1200∠𝟎° 20 = 24000 𝑉𝐴
𝑆2 = 𝑉𝐼2∗ = 1200∠𝟎° 40 + 𝑗80 = 48000 + 𝑗96000 𝑉𝐴
𝑆3 = 𝑉𝐼3∗ = 1200∠𝟎° 20 − 𝑗20 = 24000 + 𝑗24000 𝑉𝐴
The total load complex power adds up to
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 = 96000 + 𝑗72000 𝑉𝐴

42
 A low power factor is undesirable for utilities in terms of operating efficiency and
economics.
Most customers, especially small customers, are only charged for the real power they
consume.
At the same time, the presence of reactive power oscillating through the lines and
equipment is associated with additional current.
While reactive power as such is not consumed, it nonetheless causes the utility to incur
costs, both in the form of additional losses and in the form of greater capacity requirements.
Owing to its property of occupying lines and equipment while doing no useful work,
reactive power has been referred to jokingly as “the cholesterol of power lines.”

43
 To illustrate the effect of the power factor on line losses, consider a load of 100 kW at
the end of a several-mile-long 12 kV distribution line. Suppose the line’s resistance is 10 Ω.

44
 If the power factor is 0.8 lagging, the apparent power drawn by the load is
𝑆 = 125 𝑘𝑉𝐴
and the reactive power is
𝑄 = 75 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
The current to this load is
𝐼 = 125 𝑘𝑉𝐴 / 12 𝑘𝑉 = 10.4 𝐴
The distribution line losses due to this load are given by
𝐼 2 𝑅 = 10.4 𝐴 2
× 10 Ω = 1.08 𝑘𝑊
This is significantly more than we might have estimated just on the basis of real power
demand: using only 100 kW as the power, we would have obtained a current of 8.33 A and
losses of only 0.69 kW.

45
 For the preceding example, how much of a reduction in line losses could be achieved by
improving the power factor to 0.9, assuming that real power remains unchanged?

46
 The apparent power is now:
100 𝑘𝑊
𝑆= = 111 𝑘𝑉𝐴
0.9
The reactive power is:
𝑄 = 54.5 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
The current is:
111 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐼= = 9.25 𝐴
12 𝑘𝑉
2
and line losses are 9.25 𝐴 × 10 𝑉 = 0.856 kW.
Losses on this distribution line have been reduced by 226 W as a result of increasing the
power factor from 0.8 to 0.9. Over the course of a year, 226 W × 8766 h = 1981 kWh would
be saved.

47
From the expression of the active power 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜙; it can be seen that the apparent power
will be larger than P if the power factor is less than 1. Thus the current I that must be supplied will
be larger for PF<1 than it would be for PF=1, even though the average power supplied is the same
in either case.
A larger current cannot be supplied without additional cost to the utility company. Thus, it is in
the power company’s (and it’s customer’s) best interest that major loads on the system have
power factor as close to 1 as possible.
In order to maintain the power factor close unity, power companies install bank of capacitors
thought the network as needed.
They also impose an additional charge to industrial consumers who operate at low power factors.
Since industrial loads are inductive and have low lagging power factors, it is beneficial to install
capacitors to improve the power factor.
Preferably, this compensation is placed near the load, so as to minimize the distance that reactive
power must travel through the lines.

This consideration is not important for residential and small commercial customers because their
power factors are close to unity. 48
 Two loads 𝑍1 = 100 + 𝑗 Ω and 𝑍2 = 10 + 𝑗20 Ω are connected across at a 200V rms,
60Hz source as shown in Figure.
1. Find the real and relative power, the power factor at the source and the total
current.
2. Find the capacitance connected across the loads to improve the overall power factor
to 0.8 lagging.

Figure: Circuit for this example and the power triangle.

49
1)
200∠𝟎°
𝐼1 = = 2∠𝟎° 𝐴
100
200∠𝟎°
𝐼2 = = 4 − 𝑗8 𝐴
10 + 𝑗20
𝑆1 = 𝑉𝐼1∗ = 200∠𝟎° 2 − 𝑗0 = 400 𝑉𝐴
𝑆2 = 𝑉𝐼2∗ = 200∠𝟎° 4 + 𝑗8 = 800 + 𝑗1600 𝑉𝐴
Total apparent power and current are
𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 1200 + 𝑗1600 = 2000∠53.13° 𝑉𝐴
𝑆 ∗ 2000∠ − 53.13°
𝐼= ∗= = 10∠ − 53.13° A
𝑉 200∠𝟎°
Power factor at the source is
𝑃𝐹 = cos(53.13°) = 0.6 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔

50
2)
Total real power 𝑃 = 1200 𝑊 at the new factor 0.8 lagging. Therefore
𝜃 ′ = cos−1 0.8 = 36.87°
𝑄 ′ = 𝐼 ′ tan 𝜃 ′ = 1200 tan(36.87°) = 900 VAr
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑄 − 𝑄 ′ = 1600 − 900 = 700 VAr
𝑉2 200 2
𝑍𝑐 = ∗ = = −𝑗57.14 Ω
𝑆𝐶 𝑗700
106
𝐶= = 46.42 𝜇F
2𝜋 60 (57.14)
The total power and the new current are
𝑆 ′ = 1200 + 𝑗900 = 1500∠36.87°

′
𝑆 ′ 1500∠ − 36.87°
𝐼 = ∗= = 7.5∠ − 36.87°
𝑉 200∠0°
Note the reduction in the supply current from 10A to 7.5 A.

51
 Three loads are connected in parallel across a 1400 V rms, 60 Hz single phase supply as
shown in Figure.
Load 1: Inductive load, 125 kVA at 0.28 power factor.
Load 2: capacitive load, 10 kW and 40 kVAr.
Load 3: Resistive load of 15 kW.
1. Find the total kW, kVar, KVa, and the supply power factor.
2. A capacitor of negligible resistance is connected in parallel with the above loads to
improve the power factor to 0.8 lagging. Determine the kVar rating of this capacitor
and the capacitance in 𝜇𝐹.
3. Comment the reduction of the supply current.

52
1) 𝑆 = 60 kW + 𝑗80 kVar = 100∠53.13 kVA , PF=0.6 lagging.
2) 𝑄𝐶 = 35 kVar , 𝐶 = 47.37 𝜇F.
3) the reduction in the supply current is from 71.43 A to 53.57 A

53
 The major portion of all electric power presently used in generation, transmission, and
distribution uses balanced three-phase systems.
Three-phase operation makes more efficient use of generator copper and iron. Power
flow in single-phase circuits was shown in the previous section to be pulsating. This drawback is
not present in a three-phase system.
Also, three-phase motors start more conveniently and, having constant torque, run
more satisfactorily than single-phase motors.
However, the complications of additional phases are not compensated for by the slight
increase of operating efficiency when polyphase systems other than three-phase are used.

54
A symmetric three-phase system is supplied by three voltages with equal amplitudes, having equal
frequency, but each phase shifted by ±120° (2𝜋/3) with respect to the others.
Figure (a) shows a schematic representation where the three single-phase voltage sources appear in a Y
connection; a Δ configuration is also possible.
A phasor diagram showing each of the phase voltages is also given in figure (b).

(a) (b)
Figure: A Y-Connected Three-Phase System and the Corresponding Phasor Diagram 55
Figure 1: Time related devolution of the voltages of the phases A, B and C

56
 Mathematically we can write the three voltages

𝑣𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡

2𝜋
𝑣𝑏 𝑡 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 120° 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝐵 𝑡 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 −
3
4𝜋
𝑣𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 240° 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 −
3
2𝜋
𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 120° 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 +
3
As we said before a power system has Y-connected generators and usually includes both
Δ and Y connected loads.
Generators are nearly Δ connected, because if the voltages are not perfectly balanced,
there will be a net voltage, and consequently a circulating current, around the Δ.
Also, the phase voltages are lower in the Y connected generator, and thus less
insulation is required.
57
 If the generated voltages reach their peak values in the sequential order abc, the
generator is said to have a positive phase sequence, shown in Figure 1(a). If the order phase is
acb, the generator is said to have a negative phase sequence as shown in Figure 1(b).

Figure 1: (a) positive or abc phase sequence. (b) negative or acb sequence

58
Two different voltages occur in an alternating three
phase system: the phase voltage and the phase to
phase voltage:
1) Phase voltage: This voltage is measured (a)
between one phase and the neutral. It
corresponds to the voltage at an element
occurring in wye or Y-connection (see Figure)
The phase voltages are described by 𝑉𝑎 ,
𝑉𝑏 and 𝑉𝑐 .
2) Phase to phase voltage: This voltage is
(b)
measured between two phases. In the three-
phase system three different phase to phase
voltages occur between the phases ab
(𝑉𝑎𝑏 ), bc (𝑉𝑏𝑐 ) and ca (𝑉𝑐𝑎 ). These three Figure 1: Line voltages (currents) and phase voltages (currents) for Y and ∆
connections
voltages are phase shifted by 120°, analogous
to the phase voltages.
59
 Y connection
To find the relationship between the line voltages (line to line voltages) and the phase
voltages (line to neutral voltages; the common terminal n is called the neutral or star Y point),
we assume a positive sequence. We arbitrary choose the line to neutral voltages of the ‘a’ phase
as the reference thus

𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0°
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 120°
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 240°
Where 𝑉𝑝 represents the magnitude of the phase voltage.

60
 The line voltages at in terms of the phase voltages are found by the application of
Kirchhoff’s law

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑝 1∠0° − 1∠ − 120 = 3 𝑉𝑝 ∠30°

𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑝 1∠ − 120° − 1∠ − 240 = 3 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 90°
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑝 1∠ − 240° − 1∠ − 0° = 3 𝑉𝑝 ∠150°
The voltage phasor diagram of the Y connection is shown in figure. The relationship
between the line voltages and phase voltages is demonstrated graphically.

Figure 1: phasor diagram showing phase and line voltages

61
If the rms value of any of the line voltages is donated by 𝑉𝐿 , then one of the important
characteristics of the Y connected three phase systems may be expressed as

𝑉𝐿 = 3 𝑉𝑝 ∠30°

𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑝 = ∠ − 30°
3
We can state that in a Y connected system, the line voltage is higher than the phase voltage by a
factor of the square root of 3.
We can easily state that, in a y connected system, phase current and line current are the same.
Thus

𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑝
Here 𝐼𝐿 , denotes the effective value of the line current and 𝐼𝑝 denotes the effective value for the
phase current.

62
 𝚫 connection
In a manner similar to that adopted for the Y-connected source, let us consider the
phasor diagram shown in Figure 1. Assume the phase currents to be

𝐼𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼𝑝 ∠0°
𝐼𝑏𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝 ∠ − 120°
𝐼𝑐𝑎 = 𝐼𝑝 ∠ − 240°
Where 𝐼𝑝 represents the magnitude of the phase current.

Figure 1: phasor diagram showing phase and line currents

The relationship between phase and line currents can be obtained by applying
Kirchhoff’s current law at the corners of Δ 63
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑎𝑏 − 𝐼𝑐𝑎 = 𝐼𝑝 1∠0° − 1∠ − 240 = 3 𝐼𝑝 ∠ − 30°
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑏𝑐 − 𝐼𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼𝑝 1∠ − 120° − 1∠0 = 3 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 150°
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑐𝑎 − 𝐼𝑏𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝 1∠ − 240° − 1∠ − 120° = 3 𝑉𝑝 ∠90°
The relationship between the line currents and phase currents is demonstrated graphically in figure.
If the rms value of any of the line currents is donated by 𝐼𝐿 , then one of the important characteristics of the Δ
connected three phase systems may be expressed as

𝐼𝐿 = 3 𝐼𝑝 ∠ − 30°

𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝑝 = ∠30°
3
We can state that the line current of a delta connection is higher than the phase current by a factor of the
square root of 3.
we can easily state that, In a delta connection, line voltage and phase voltage are the same. Thus

𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑝
Here 𝑉𝐿 , denotes the effective value of the line voltage and 𝑉𝑝 denotes the effective value for the phase voltage.
64
 𝚫 - Y transformation
For analyzing network problems, it is convenient to replace the Δ connection circuit with
an equivalent Y-connected circuit. Consider the fractious Y-connected circuit of 𝑍𝑌 Ω/phase
which is equivalent to a balanced Δ connected circuit of 𝑍Δ Ω/phase, as shown in Figure 1.
Mathematically the transformation between Δ and Y connection is given by

𝑍Δ
𝑍𝑌 = ( 1)
3

Figure 1: 𝚫 and Y connections

65
 Assume that the three-phase generator is supplying a balanced load with the three
sinusoidal phase voltages

𝑣𝑎 𝑡 = 2 𝑉𝑝 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑣𝑏 𝑡 = 2 𝑉𝑝 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 120°
𝑣𝑐 𝑡 = 2 𝑉𝑝 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 240°
With the currents given by

𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = 2 𝐼𝑝 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙

𝑖𝑏 𝑡 = 2 𝐼𝑝 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 120° − 𝜙
𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 2 𝐼𝑝 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 240° − 𝜙
where 𝜙 is the phase angle between the current and voltage in each phase. The total
power flowing into the load is

𝑝3𝜙 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑎 𝑡 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑏 𝑡 𝑖𝑏 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 𝑖𝑐 𝑡

66
 This turns out to be

𝑝3𝜙 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 3 cos 𝜙 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) + cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 240 − 𝜙) + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 240 − 𝜙)

Note that the last three terms in the above equation are the reactive power terms and
they add up to zero (cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 + cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 240 − 𝜙) + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 240 − 𝜙)) = 0. Thus
we obtain

𝑝3𝜙 𝑡 = 3𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 cos 𝜙

The value of the total instantaneous power is constant, having a magnitude of three
times the real power per phase.
We may be tempted to assume that the reactive power is of no importance in a three-
phase system since the Q terms cancel out. However, this situation is analogous to the
summation of balanced three-phase currents and voltages that also cancel out. Although the
sum cancels out, these quantities are still very much in evidence in each phase.

67
We thus extend the concept of complex or apparent power (S) to three-phase systems by defining

𝑆3𝜙 = 3𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝∗

where the active power and reactive power are obtained from

𝑆3𝜙 = 𝑃3𝜙 + 𝑗𝑄3𝜙

As

𝑃3𝜙 = 3 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 cos 𝜙 ( 1)

𝑄3𝜙 = 3 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 sin 𝜙 ( 2)

Equations ( 1) and ( 2) are sometimes expressed in terms of the rms magnitude of the line voltage and
the rms magnitude of the line current. In a Y connection the phase voltage 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝐿 / 3 and the phase
current 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝐿 . In a Δ connection 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝐿 and 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝐿 / 3. Substituting for the phase voltage and
phase currents in ( 1) and ( 2), the real and reactive powers for either connection are given by

𝑃3𝜙 = 3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 𝜙

𝑄3𝜙 = 3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜙

68
 In specifying rated values for power system apparatus and equipment such as
generators, transformers, circuit breakers, etc., we use the magnitude of the apparent power
𝑆3𝜙 as well as line voltage for specification values.

In specifying three-phase motor loads, we use the horsepower output rating and
voltage.

69
 A Y-connected, balanced three-phase load consisting of three impedances of 20∠30° Ω
each as shown in Figure 1 is supplied with the balanced line-to-neutral voltages:

𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0°
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠240°
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠120°

1) Calculate the phase currents in each line.

2) Calculate the line-to-line phasor voltages.
3) Calculate the total active and reactive power supplied to the load.

Figure 1: Circuit for this example 70

1) The phase currents are obtained as
220
𝐼𝑎 = = 11∠ − 30° 𝐴
20∠30
220∠240
𝐼𝑏 = = 11∠210° 𝐴
20∠30
220∠120
𝐼𝑐 = = 11∠90° 𝐴
20∠30
2) The line-to-line voltages are obtained as
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
= 220∠0 − 220∠240°
= 220 3∠30°
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 220 3∠ − 90°
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 220 3∠ − 210°

71
1) The apparent power into phase a is given by
𝑆𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎∗
= 220 11 ∠30°
= 2420∠30° VA
The total apparent power is three times the phase value:
𝑆𝑡 = 3 × 2420∠30°
= 7260∠30° VA
= 6287.35 + j3630.00
Thus
𝑃𝑡 = 6287.35 𝑊
𝑄𝑡 = 3630.00 𝑉𝑎𝑟

72
Repeat Example 11 as if the same three impedances were connected in a Δ connection.

73
 Normally, physical quantities are described as a product of a number and a unit, e.g, U =
400 kV. These units are normally SI units and are uniquely and globally defined. This has
normally significant advantages, but sometimes other methods of describing quantities can be
practical.
On the other hand, one can choose a description where the base is not defined by an
independent base system, e.g. by the SI system, but the base units are selected so that certain
other advantages are achieved. This is done when one uses the so called per unit or p.u. system,
which will be elaborated in the following.
Thereby, the value of a quantity is given as a multiple of a predefined base value, i.e. the
size is related to this base value.
This value is dimensionless and is referred to as the per unit (p.u.) value of this quantity.
In this system, the various quantities are given as

actual value
quantity in p. u. =
base value

76
 Choosing the base value appropriately, the p.u. values turn out to be of great practical
value.
If, for example, the voltage in a node is related to the nominal voltage of the grid, e.g.
400 kV the value 𝑢 = 0.93 𝑝. 𝑢. is more useful at first glance than 𝑈 = 372.03 𝑘𝑉. One
notices instantly that the voltage lies 7% below nominal value.
Systems with pieces of equipment with different ratings, e.g, transformers with different
nominal currents, are often more manageable and easy to compare when describing different
values in p.u. rather than by specifying their absolute values. Describing, for example, the
current values of two transformers in each case related to the maximal allowed operating
current with 𝑖1 = 0.98 𝑝. 𝑢. and 𝑖2 = 0.35 𝑝. 𝑢., one recognizes instantly that the first
transformer is operating close to its loading limit whereas the seconde one is far off its limit.

77
 A further advantage of using the p.u. system occurs in power system calculations with
computers. By choosing the base values appropriately, a description of the p.u. values within the
same range can be achieved although the original systems were of different ratings (e.g. choose
100 MVA = 1 p.u. for the calculation of large grids and 1 MVA = 1 p.u. for smaller grids). This
aspect can be advantageous when using numerical calculation methods.
Another advantage of these systems is essential for the description of electric machines
and transformers. For example, the leakage reactance of a transformer in p.u., with the
transformer ratings as base units, see below, corresponds to its relative short circuit voltage,
which usually is in the order of 0.05 - 0.20 p.u., whereas its value in ohm can vary over a very
wide range depending on size and voltage level.

78
 Five quantities are involved in the calculations. These are the current 𝐼,the voltage 𝑉,
the complex power 𝑆, the impedance 𝑍, and the phase angles. The angles are dimensionless;
the other four quantities are completely described by knowledge of only two of them. An
arbitrary choice of two base quantities will fix the other base quantities. Let 𝐼𝑏 and 𝑉𝑏
represent the base current and base voltage expressed in kiloamperes and kilovolts,
respectively. The product of the two yields the base complex power in megavoltamperes (MVA)

𝑆𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏 𝐼𝑏 MVA
The base impedance will also be given by

𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏 2
𝑍𝑏 = = Ω
𝐼𝑏 𝑆𝑏
The base admittance will naturally be the inverse of the base impedance. Thus,

1 𝐼𝑏 𝑆𝑏
𝑌𝑏 = = = 2
siemens
𝑍𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏

79
 The nominal voltage of lines and equipment is almost always known as well as the
apparent (complex) power in megavoltamperes, so these two quantities are usually chosen for
base value calculation. The same megavoltampere base is used in all parts of a given system.
Once base voltage is chosen; all other base voltages must then be related to the one chosen by
the turns ratios of the connecting transformers.
From the definition of per unit impedance, we can express the ohmic impedance Z, in
the per unit value Z. p. u. As

𝑍Ω 𝑆𝑏
𝑍𝑝.𝑢. = p. u.
𝑉𝑏 2
As for admittance, we have

1 𝑉𝑏 2 𝑉𝑏 2
𝑌𝑝.𝑢. = = = 𝑌𝑆 p. u.
𝑍𝑝.𝑢. 𝑍Ω 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏
Note that 𝑍𝑝.𝑢. can be interpreted as the ratio of the voltage drop across 𝑍 with base
current injected to the base voltage.

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Consider a transmission line with 𝑍 = 3.346 + 𝑗77.299 Ω. Assume that
𝑆𝑏 = 100 MVA
𝑉𝑏 = 735 kV
Calculate 𝑍𝑝.𝑢. and 𝑌𝑝.𝑢.

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 1) Solve for Z, I, and S at Port ab in Figure.
2) Repeat question (1) in per-unit on bases of 𝑉𝑏 = 100 𝑉 and 𝑆𝑏 = 1000 VA. Draw the
corresponding per-unit circuit.

Figure: (a) Circuit with elements in SI units. (b) Circuit with elements in per-unit.

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1)
𝑍𝑎𝑏 = 8 + 𝑗12 − 𝑗6 = 8 + 𝑗6 = 10∠36.9° Ω
𝑉𝑎𝑏 100∠0
𝐼= = = 10∠ − 36.9 A
𝑍𝑎𝑏 100∠36.9°
𝑆 = 𝑉 𝐼 ∗ = 100∠0° 10∠ − 36.9° ∗ = 1000∠36.9°
= 800 + 𝑗600 VA
𝑃 = 800 W
𝑄 = 600 VAr

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2) on base 𝑉𝑏 and 𝑆𝑏 = 1000 𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝑏 2 100 2
𝑍𝑏 = = = 10 Ω
𝑆𝑏 1000
𝑆𝑏 1000
𝐼𝑏 = = = 10 A
𝑉𝑏 100
100∠0°
𝑉𝑝.𝑢. = = 1∠0° p. u.
100
8 + 𝑗12 − 𝑗6
𝑍𝑝.𝑢. = = 0.8 + 𝑗0.6 p. u. = 1∠36.9° p. u.
10
𝑉𝑝.𝑢. 1∠0°
𝐼𝑝.𝑢. = = = 1∠ − 36.9° p. u.
𝑍𝑝.𝑢. 1∠36.9°
∗ ∗
𝑆𝑝𝑢 = 𝑉𝑝𝑢 𝐼𝑝𝑢 = 1∠0° 1∠ − 36.9° = 1∠36.9° pu
= 0.8 + j0.6 pu
Converting results in (2) to SI units:

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑝𝑢 𝐼𝑏 = 1∠ − 36.9° 10 = 1∠ − 36.9° A

𝑍 = 𝑍𝑝𝑢 𝑍𝑏 = 0.8 + 𝑗0.6 10 = 8 + 𝑗6 Ω

𝑆 = 𝑆𝑝𝑢 𝑆𝑏 = 0.8 + 𝑗0.6 1000 = 800 + 𝑗600 VA

The results of (1) and (2) are identical 85