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A Review Material on 6. Examination of fake products for unfair trade

competition
Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
7. Arson investigation
MRS. GEPIL MAE BACUD-MARINO
8. Macro etching
9. Bullet trajectory
10.Ultraviolet examination of ultraviolet power
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY is the branch of
11.Tools and other marks
chemistry which deals with the application of
chemical principles in the solution of problems that
ROLE OF FORENSIC CHEMIST IN THE
arise in connection with the administration of
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
justice.
A Forensic Chemist is responsible for
Forensic Chemistry is the use of Chemistry to
applying the physical sciences to the investigation
support litigation in Civil and Criminal Cases.
of crimes by performing laboratory examinations of
physical evidence submitted to the crime laboratory.
This Science has an advantage over extracted
This is done through extensive training under direct
confessions, eyewitnesses and other circumstantial
supervision in learning how to examine, identify
evidence. It is regarded as the highest form of
and evaluate physical evidence.
incontestable and conclusive piece of evidence with
utmost legal significance.
a. Performs analytical examination of different
controlled substances such as dangerous drugs and
The value of the findings of a Chemist in convicting
explosive ingredients.
the guilty, as well as in clearing the innocent
b. Conduct gunshot residue examinations.
suspect, is widely recognized. The forensic Chemist
c. Identifies different peculiarities from trace
is often called to render testimony in court.
evidence.
d. Examines body fluids for any degree of
Scope of FC: Forensic chemistry embraces a large
intoxication of alcohol drugs and poisons.
and diversified filed. It includes not only the
e. Analyzes fake products for unfair competition.
chemical side of criminal investigation with which
f. Prepares technical reports, prepares finding for
it is generally associated with the public mind but
court presentation and testifies concerning scientific
also the analysis of any material the quality of
facts. Duties also include meeting with officers, city
which may give rise to legal proceedings. Forensic
prosecutors, attorneys and court office to discuss
chemistry is not limited to purely chemical
laboratory test results.
questions involved in legal proceedings. It has
invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably
The Investigator is a fact-finder, it is basic
legal medicine, ballistics, QD, dactyloscopy, and
that he must know the laws concerning the nature of
photography.
his investigation. He should procure evidence in
such a way that the findings can be admitted in
BRANCHES OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
court and remain impregnable to any attack by the
opposing counsel. He should be in constant contact
1. Dangerous Drugs
with various investigative and enforcement
2. Explosives examination and principles
agencies.
3. Gunshot residues (paraffin casting, distance
determination and firearms examination)
Evidence is a proof of allegation, it is a
4. Forensic Toxicology (human internal organ, food
means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a
sample and water and gastric contents)
5. Blood Alcohol and drug test

judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of
fact (Sec. 1 Rule 128, Revised Rules on Evidence).
Corollary thereto, Scientific evidence, may
be defined as the means sanctioned by law, of
ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth
respecting a matter of fact, wherein scientific
knowledge is necessary. Such scientific evidence
must have such a relation to the fact in issue as to
induce belief in its existence or non-existence.
Evidence on collateral matters shall not be
allowed except when it tends in any reasonable
degree to establish the probability or improbability
of the fact in issue.
Evidence may be (a) direct; (b) indirect,
which includes circumstantial evidence; and (c)
hearsay.
(a) Direct evidence is that which senses
perceive. Any fact to which a witness testifies based
on what he saw, heard, smelled, touch or tasted, is
direct.
In most cases, no witness is present at the
scene of the crime, or even if there is/are witnesses,
he/they are not willing to testify. The necessity of
resorting to other means of proof is essential.
Crimes are done secretly. Usually the perpetrator
seeks darkness and remoteness in order to cover his
misdeeds. Hence, it is necessary to use all other
available modes of procuring evidence in order to
establish and prove a case in court.
(b) Circumstantial evidence is a kind of
evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by
inferences from the facts proven.
Illustrative Case:
While a policeman was patrolling, he heard
a scream from the house. He immediately ran to the
house and then and there, he saw a man coming out
of the house carrying a bloody knife. The policeman
arrested the man and subsequently entered the
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house. There he saw a female cadaver lying on the
floor with a stab wound on the breast.
In this case, the only direct evidence to
which the policeman can testify would be to the fact
that he saw the man coming out of the house with a
bloody knife where the scream came from. The
prosecutor may establish a conclusion that the man
with the bloody knife is the criminal by inference
form the facts testified to by the policeman.
Under the present law, Circumstantial evidence is
sufficient for conviction if:
(a) there is more than one circumstance;
(b) the facts from which the inferences are
divided are proven; and
(c) the combination of all circumstances is
such as to produce conviction beyond reasonable
doubt.
(c) Hearsay evidence is a statement made by a
witness or the authority of another and not from his
own personal knowledge or observation. Hearsay
evidence is inadmissible except on the following:
1. dying declaration
2. res gestae
3. declaration against interest,
4. family reputation or tradition regarding pedigree
5. common reputaion
6. part of res gestae
7. entries in the course of business
8. entries in official records
9. testimopny or deposition at a former proceeding.
FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
(a) Real or Autopic Evidence – is that evidence
which addressed to the senses of the court. It is not
limited to that which can be known by the sense of
vision but extends to those which are perceived by
the senses of hearing, taste, smell or touch.
(b) Testimonial Evidence – An expert may be
called on the witness stand to answer all questions
propounded by both parties in the case.
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(c) Documentary Evidence – Any written evidence CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORENSIC

presented by an expert in court which is relevant tot CHEMIST
eth subject matter in dispute and nor excluded by The practice of forensic chemistry must be covered
the Rules of Court. Formal written report, expert by:
opinion, certificates and dispositions are included in  RA 754 also known as The Chemistry Law
this group.  Be able to spend hours rigorously applying
analytical techniques to evidence
WITNESS  Clearly and concisely answers challenges to
his findings
A witness in court may be an ordinary or  Possess moral integrity
expert witness. As ordinary witness, the Rules of
Court requires that the person must have the THE FORENSIC CHEMIST AS AN EXPERT
following qualifications: WITNESS IN COURT QUALIFICATIONS
1. Education
1. He must have the organ and power to perceive. 2. Training
2. The perception gathered by his organ of sense 3. experiences
can be imparted to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided FUNCTIONS OF FORENSIC CHEMIST
for by law. 1. Conduct quali and quanti examinations on
suspected dangerous drugs (RA 9165)
2. Conduct examination on explosives and
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORDINARY AND explosive ingredients (PD 1619)
EXPERT WITNESS 3. Conduct firearm examination, paraffin cast
and GPR
1. An ordinary witness can only state which his 4. Conduct chemico-toxicological
senses have perceived while an expert witness may examination
state what he has perceived while an expert witness 5. Examines on blood, semen and other body
may state what he has perceived and also give his fluids
opinion, deduction or conclusion to his perception.
2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the FORENSIC LABORATORIES IN THE
line he is testifying while an expert witness must be PHILIPPINES
skilled in the art, science or trade he is testifying. 1. PNP crime lab (city, provincial and
3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or regional)
facts he has not perceived except those provided for 2. University of the Philippines-Philippine
by law while expert witness may testify on things General hospital (UP-PGH)
which he has not perceived or seen by giving his 3. PDEA
opinions, deductions or conclusions on the 4. NBI crime lab (regional and provincial)
statement of facts. PRACTICE OF FC: four stages
1. Collection or reception of specimen to be
FORENSIC CHEMIST is a professional chemist examined.
who analysis evidence from the crime scene and Factors that must be considered when collecting
derives a conclusion based on the tests undertaken. specimen for examination
a. Sufficiency of samples
b. Standard for comparison
c. Maintenance of individuality
d. Labeling and sealing

2. The actual examination
3. The communication of results of
examination
SIX GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF FC
1. Go slowly
2. Be thorough
3. Take notes
4. Consult others
5. Use imagination
6. Avoid complicated theories
BLOOD AND BLOODSTAIN
The significance of blood and blood stains, as
evidence in crime of violence is obvious enough to
need no emphasis. The laboratory performs
examination of physical evidence for the presence
of blood and body fluids in connection with violent
crimes such as murder, rape, robbery and assault
and battery.
These are also requested in other cases like
burglary and hit-and-run. Result of laboratory
analysis will enable the investigators to prove or
disprove alibis of suspects. For example, a suspect
in a murder case may allege that he bloodstain
found on his clothing came from animal he
butchered. The analyst will be able to determine not
only whether the stain is blood or not, but also if it’s
of human origin or not. The blood type may also be
known.
In sex crimes, particularly in rape cases, the
laboratory examines stains usually found on the
victim's clothing for the presence of human semen.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD
1. The circumstantial or corroborative
evidence against or in favor of the
perpetrator.
Example: (Against the suspect) “A”
was seen coming out of a house with a
bloody knife on hand. Inside the house a
woman “B” was found dead with a stab
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wound at the back. Examination of the knife
showed that the stain is human blood and
the same group of “B”. With the foregoing
result, there is a strong presumption that
“A” stabbed “B”.
(In favor of the suspect) “A” was accused
for serious physical injuries. The evidence
presented by the complainant is a blood stained
cloth allegedly worn by him when he was stabbed.
Examination of the stain showed that it is not
human blood. The evidence was planted.
2. For disputed parentage
For example: Spouses “A” and “B” filed a
habeas corpus proceedings to seek custody of child
“C” who was claimed as legitimate child of spouses
“D” and “E”. Examination of the blood of the
parties showed the following results
Blood Group
A O
B O
C B
D O
E B
.
From the forgoing results, it is very clear that
“C” cannot be the child of spouses “A” and “B”
since group “O” parents cannot have a group “B”
child. It is possible, however for spouses “D” and
“E” to be the parents.
3. Determination of the cause of death the
length of time the victim survive the attack
4. Determination of the direction of escape of
the victim or the assailant
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of
blood
6. Determination of the approximate time the
crime was committed
BLOOD- has been called the circulating tissue of
the body. It is referred to as highly complex mixture

of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic
substances.
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOOD
1. The circulating tissue of the body
2. 45% formed elements consisting chiefly of:
a. RBC (erythrocytes) – contains
hemoglobin and carry oxygen to various
cells in the body. Appearance: Circular,
biconcave discs or rounded edges.
b. WBC ( leucocytes) – defends the body
from invading microorganisms and helps
fight infection.
c. PLATELETS (thrombocytes)}- helps for
the proper blood clotting and
d. PLASMA- (liquid portion of blood;
composing about 55% of the total blood
volume). It is principally composed of :
 90% water
 10% solid
3. Serum-a straw-yellowish liquid that can be
seen when blood is allowed to clot.
PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD
A. Where blood has to be searched for.
B. Collection, preservation and transportation
of specimen suspected to contain blood.
C. Does the stain contain blood or another
substance?
CHRONOLOGICAL TEST FOR BLOOD
a. PRELIMINARY TEST (a.k.a
presumptive test or color test)- a
positive result is not conclusive that the
stain is blood but a negative result is
conclusive that the stain is not a blood.
REASON: other substance may yields
the same reaction as blood which
includes: sputum, nasal secretion, plant
juices, formalin etc.
1. Benzidine test: benzidine solution
and hydrogen peroxide (agua
oxigenada). A positive reaction is
indicated by blue color.
2. Guaiacum test (van deen’s, day’s or
schonbein’s test) – guaiac and
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hydrogen peroxide. A positive
reaction is indicated by blue color
3. Phenolphthalein test ( kastle-meyer-
test)- phenolphthalein reagent and
hydro peroxide. A positive reaction
is indicated by RED.PINK color.
4. Leucomalachite green test-
leucomalachite green reagent and
hydro peroxide. A positive reaction
is indicated by MALACHITE
GREEN WITH A BLUISH-
GREEN OR PEACOCK BLUE
COLOR.
5. Hemastix test- designed as a urine
dipstick test for blood, the strip can
be moistened with distilled water
and placed in contact with a suspect
bloodstain. S positive reaction is
indicated by GREEN COLOR
6. Luminal Test – its reaction with
blood results in the production of
light rather than color. By spraying
luminal reagent onto a suspect item,
large areas can be quickly screened
for the presence of bloodstain
b. CONFIRMATORY TEST – the actual
proof that a stain is blood consist in
establishing the presence of
characteristics blood pigment,
hemoglobin or one of its derivatives.
The 3 confirmatory test commonly
employed are teichmann, takayama and
wagenhaar test. They are designed to
show the presence of hemoglobin in a
suspected bloodstain by the appearance
of specific crystal observed under a
microscope.
1. Teicmann or haemen crystal test-
dark brown rhobic crystal arranged
singly or clusters
2. Takayama or haemochromagen
crystal test- large rhombic crystals
of salmon-pink color arranged in
clusters, sheaves and other forms

3. Wagenhaar test or acetone-
haematin- small dark, circular
crystals
D. Is the stain of blood, is it human or animal?
PRECIPITIN TEST– the formation of
gray precipitation ring at the interface
of the two layers within 20 minutes
indicates that the stain is human blood.
After it has been established that blood
is present, the next step is to show that
it is of human origin. Anti-bodies
specific for blood of animals may be
prepared in similar manner and can be
used to determine the animal from
which a suspected bloodstain came.
E. If the stain is of human blood, did it come
from the victim, the accused or from other
persons?
GROUPING TEST/BLOOD TYPING- To
determine to which major human blood group a
confirmed human blood belongs, grouping tests are
conducted. These are based on the ability of the
blood serum of one person to clump or bring
together the red cells of certain individual. If a
suspension of human red cells is mixed wiht its own
serum, or the serum of a similar group, the cells
remain even. But if they are process is called
agglutination first observed by Landsteiner in 1900.
This was explained on the basis that the red blood
cells (RBC) contain an antigen or agglutinogen and
that the serum contains anti-bodies or agglutinins.
SUMMARY OF THE COMMON BLOOD
GROUP SYSTEM
AGGLUTININ
BLOOD AGGLUTINOGEN
IN SERUM
GROUP IN RBC
A A ANTI B
B B ANTI A
AB A and B NONE
ANTI-A and
O
ANTI-B
Rh System discovered by Landsteiner and Weiner
in 1940. The red blood cells are either classified as
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Rh negative or Rh positive depending on the
absence or presence of Rh antigen
OTHER BODILY FLUID
It has been found that some individuals secret in
their fluids- such as : semen, saliva, urine and
vaginal fluids, corresponding to their blood groups.
Therefore, it is possible to determine the ABO
blood group of suspected stain of body fluids from
the secretors.
SEMINAL STAINS AND OTHER
STAINS
The examination of semen and seminal
stains is important part in the routine investigation
of sexual offenses like cases of rape, adultery,
sodomy, and bestiality. Semen may be found fresh
in vaginal or rectal contents of the victims in such
cases r it may be noted as dried secretion on the hair
and skin around the genital or sometimes present as
dry stains on underclothing, bed clothing, and other
objects.
THE COMPOSITION OF SEMEN
The semen refers to the fluids produced by the male
sex organ. It is usually white to yellowish in color,
consisting of 2 parts:
 the seminal plasma or fluids – has
characteristics of alkaline odor, it is viscid,
gelatinous and sticky.
 the spermatozoa or sperm cells – in 1.5 ml
to 3.5ml is the normal quantity of seminal
fluid in single ejaculation usually has a total
number of 400 to 500 million sperm cells
from a healthy young man.
The sperm cells, as seen under microscope, consist
of head, a neck and tail approx. 10X as long as the
head. During deterioration, the bacteria attacks first
the tail, making identification difficult.
The seminal fluids contains certain substances
called flavins which help give a yellowish color to

semen and caused it to fluoresce under VIOLET
LIGHTS
EXAMINATION FOR SEMEN
A. Wet specimen
- Normally, suspected semen may be
found undried having the alkaline odor
characteristics for seminal fluid. In this
condition, examination is relatively
simple. A drop of fluid (of semen) is
paced on a glass slide, and then drop of
distilled water is added. A cover slip is
place over the preparation. The
specimen is examined under a high
power microscope to determine the
presence of sperm cells.
B. Dried Specimen
1. Physical examination
A general visual examination for
grayish-white or yellowish stain is first
made. When dry, semen imparts a
starchy stiffness to cloth. When
inspected under UV light, seminal stain
fluorescence is not specific for semen
only but may observed from other
materials.
2. Chemical examination
There are 3 chemical test that can be
used for seminal stains. They are the
following:
 Florence test- dark brown
crystal, rhombic or needle
shaped.
 Barberio’s test- slender yellow-
tinted rhomboid needles with
obtuse angles
 Acid phosphate test- orange red
pigment
The first 2 are based on the
formation of characteristic crystal that
can observe under the microscope. Acid
phosphate is an enzyme found in both
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animal and plant cells, but in large
concentrations in human semen.
REAGENT: sodium
alphanaphthylphosphate and fast blue
dye.
3. Microscopic examination
The only specific test for semen is
the identification of a sperm cell under
a microscope. There are many factors
which may affect the detection of sperm
cells, making this method difficult.
Some of these are nature of cloth in
which the suspected stain is found, age
of stain, condition to which the stain
was exposed and handling of the
specimen.
The presence of sperm cells proves that the
stain is of semen. However, with the absence of
sperm cells it cannot be concluded that the stain is
not of seminal origin. These are some conditions
which may lead to non-detection of semen, like
ASPERMIA, disorder produced by male organ
which produces semen without sperm cell and
OLIGOSPERMIA, a semen with a very few sperm
cell.
Factors affecting the occurrence of the preceding
diseases:
a. Excessive sexual intercourse
b. Testicular disease
WHERE SEMEN CAN BE FOUND
1. As fresh
a. Vaginal content of the victim
b. Rectal contents of the victim
2. As wet or dried condition
a. Hair
b. Skin around the genitals
3. As dry stains
a. Underclothing
b. Bed clothing

COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, PACKAGING
AND TRANSMIT SEMEN STAINED
SPECIMENS
1. Seizure of wearing apparel must be done as
soon as possible.
2. In packing wearing apparels there should be
no friction between the apparel and the
stain. Semen in dried condition is very
brittle and is capable of breaking into small
particles which can be lost. FRICTION nay
cause the breaking of the spermatozoa.
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transmit.
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in
a test tube covered with corked.
5. Specimen must be thoroughly dried before
packing. Presence of moisture contains
certain bacterium which acts on the protein
constituents of semen, digest the dried
protein and thus destroy its stiffness.
6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube.
It may be preserved by a few drops of 10%
solution of formalin during hot weather
there is danger of putrefaction.
OTHER STAINS OF MIDICO LEGAL
INTEREST
1. Obsterical and Gynecological Stains
2. Encrements
3. Paint Stains
4. Rust Stains
5. Synthetic Dye Stains
6. Mineral Stains
7. Stains of Vegetable Origin
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
Document- refers to any material which contains
marks, symbols, letter, numerals whether visible,
partially visible or invisible which conveys meaning
or message to someone.
 an original or official written or printed
paper furnishing information or used as a
proof of something else.
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 Is any object that contains handwritten or
typewritten markings whose source or
authenticity is doubt.
Questioned document- any document about which
some issue has been raised or under scrutiny.
Disputed document- suggest that there is an
argument over the document.
CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
1. Document with questioned signatures
2. Document with alleged fraudulent
alterations
Alteration: fraudulent changes made after the
documents original preparation. Methods of
alteration:
 By erasure- takes in a form of:
a. Mechanical means, example: rubber
eraser, blade
b. Chemical means, liquid eraser
 By obliteration- obscuring the writing by a
serried of x-types, lines, and smears
 By addition- insertion of an extra matter on
a document after original preparation.
 By substitution- replacing original entries
with another
 \by interlineations/ insertions- insertion
between line or paragraphs
CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
EXAMINATION
1. CRIMINALISTICS EXAMINATION
2. HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
PURPOSES OF QDE:
1. Detection of alterations
2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writings
4. Determination of the age of the document
5. identification of authenticating devices
6. Verification of signatures
PURPOSES OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN QDE
1. It serves as a record of the initial condition
of a document
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2. It makes clear what otherwise maybe HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

hidden
3. Can be accurately reproduce Writing- is the result of a very complicated series of
4. Can be cut apart and be subjected to various acts, being as a whole combination of certain forms
comparison are the very visible results of mental and muscular
5. Useful in showing delicate discoloration habit acquired by long, continued and painstaking
due to chemical erasures or fraudulent effort.
changes.
KINDS OF WRITING CHARACTERISTICS
Paper- are made of millions of fiber mixed with 1. Class or common characteristics
water matted into sheets and dried. Chemicals 2. Personal, individual or peculiar
maybe added to make paper appear smoother and characteristics
firm.
CAUSES OF VARIATION OF WRITINGS
Types of Paper  Physical illness
1. Newsprint- made from ground wood pulp  Emotional disturbance
2. Groundwood paper- made from  Alcohol consumption
groundwood pulp used for catalogs and  Drug addiction
similar publication  Old age
3. Coarse paper- are heavy duty papers  Poor wring instrument
4. Absorber paper  Uneven surface for writing
5. Paper board- the heaviest and most durable.
Signature- serves as a sign of acknowledgement.
PACKING , PRESERVATION AND
TRANSPORTATION OF DOCUMENT CLASSES OF SIGNATURE
1. Documents should be handled, folded and a. Formal signature
marked as little as possible b. Informal signature
2. If folding is necessary to send to the c. Scribble signature
laboratory, the fold should be made along
old lines. Place it in a brown envelop or DISTINCTION BETWEEN GENUINE
placed it in a transparent plastic envelope SIGNATURES FROM SIMULATED FORGERY
3. Documents should not be touched with Genuine signature- written within the speed of few
pencil, pen or anything that could be seconds.
possibly marked the document. Simulated forgery- takes time to make reproduce

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN PAPER KINDS OF FORGERY

ANALYSIS a. Simple forgery
1. Determination of whether two pieces of b. Simulated forgery
paper originated from the same source c. Traced forgery
2. Determination of the probable age of the
paper Standards- are documents whose sources are
3. Determination of the composition of the known.
paper
CLASSES OF STANDARDS
1. Requested standards
2. Procured or collected standards

ARSON
Arson is one of the most heinous crimes committed
by a human being.
Arson, as defined by the law is the intentional act of
setting fires to buildings and properties. It covers all
kinds of:
 buildings and structures,
 crops and forest
 Personal property of another and own
property
If burned with intent to defraud an insurer of
such property. Intention to commit arson
implies that the act was done intentionally.
CORPUS DELICTI OF ARSON
1. That there was fire
2. That the fire was of human origin and
occurred by incendiary means
3. That the fire was caused willfully and
maliciously
ROLE OF MOTIVES IN ARSON CASES
Motive is not an element of arson, thus,
conviction can be obtained even the prosecution is
unable to show any motive that may influenced the
acts of the accused.
TYPES OF MOTIVES
 Tax fraud
 Crime cover up
 Pyromania
 Intimidation
 Destroy records
 Elimination of competitors
 Revenge
Fire is heat and light from rapid combination of
oxygen and other materials. For fire to exist
combustible material must be present, the
temperature must be high enough to cause
combustion, and oxygen must be present to sustain
rapid combustion.
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Flame
is an exothermic, self sustaining , oxidizing
chemical reaction producing energy and glowing
hot matter.
The flame gives the light which is
composed of glowing particles of burning material
and luminous gases
Exothermic reaction- is produced when oxidation
(Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in
oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion) is
combine chemically to oxygen that releases heat
energy. It simply means that the active principle of
burning is characterized by FUEL, HEAT and
OXYGEN
MATTER is anything that has mass and occupies
space.
FLAME itself is a mixture of gasses----vaporize
fuel, oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
water vapour and many other things. Which makes
FLAME a MATTER.
However, the light produced by the flame is
energy, not MATTER. The heat produced is also
energy not MATTER.
THEORIES OF FIRE
1. Theory of fire triangle- elements of fire:
a. Fuel
b. Oxygen
c. Heat
2. Fire tetrahedron theory- elements of fire:
a. Fuel
b. Oxygen
c. Heat
d. Self sustaining chemical reaction or
Chemical reactivity
COMBUSTION- refers to the burning of fire.
CAUSES OF FIRE
a. Natural cause, without human intervention
b. Accidental cause, with or without human
intervention
c. Intentional or arson, with human
intervention

Heat- is the amount of energy flowing from one
body of matter to another spontaneously due to their
temperature difference, or by any means other than
through work or the transfer of matter
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
1. Conductive/conduction heat transfer -
heat is transferred by direct contact and the
rate of transfer is dependent on factors such
as the thermal conductivity of the material
and the temperature difference between the
cooler and warmer areas.
2. Convective/convection heat transfer -
transfer of heat through physical movement
of materials and occurs only in liquids and
gases. Hot gases rise and spread heat to
nearby ceilings and walls.
3. Radiative/radiation heat transfer - heat is
transferred if the form of electromagnetic
energy directly from one object to another.
FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION
FINGERPRINT
- Is the reproduction of the impression
formed by the ridges on the inside end joint
of a finger or thumb through the medium of
ink, sweat, or any ingredient capable of
producing visibility.
- It is the positive and absolute means of
identification. The use of fingerprints as an
infallible means of identification.
3 DOGMATIC PRINCIPLES
1. PRINCIPLE OF
CONSTANCY/PERMANENCY
- The fingerprint of a man has been noted by
the scientist to appear the beginning of the
3rd embryonic stage while child is still in the
mother’s womb and it never change until
decomposition sets in after death.
- EXEMPTION: fingerprint change if a
person obtains a wound which is 1.5 to 2
millimetres and beyond.
11
- THERE ARE 3 POINTS TO REMEMBER
WHEN DAMAGE OR INJURY TO
PAPILLARY SKIN CAUSE A
PERMANENT SCAR:
o A penetration of a depth of more
than 1.5 millimetres is necessary
where the organs or processes
responsible for the growth of ridge
element are damaged or interrupted
in their activities.
o Due to the destruction of these
organs and deprivation of the power
to produce new ridge elements, the
process of fission( cell
multiplication in growth) is affected
and so the flattened cells cannot
reach the surface where they
change to a horny covering.
o Because of the extensive damage,
the ridge on the surface of the skin
are rendered incapable of fusing
(blending); though there is natural
tendency for the broken ends of the
ridges to close together but fail,
thus terminating just short complete
closure.
2. PRINCIPLES OF
VARIATIONS/INDIVIDUALITY
- No two fingerprints of different person or
the neighboring fingers of the same person
have ever been found to be identical or
exactly alike in all respects. According to
Sir Francis Galton, the chance of two
people to possess identical fingerprints is 1
in 64 billion persons.
3. PRINCIPLES OF
INFALLIBILITY/RELIABILITY
- Man’s fingerprint cannot be forged
ALLIED SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINT
1. PODOSCOPY
- Is a science of footprints identification.
2. POROSCOPY
- Is the science of identification by means of
pores.
3. CHIROSCOPY
- Is the science of palm prints identification.

THE PAPILLARY STRUCTURE
The fundamental layers of the skin frictions are:
1. Epidermis – is the outer layer of the skin
- The 2 main layers of epidermis consist of:
o Stratum corneum – is the covering
surface of the ridges
o Stratum mucosum – is just beneath
the covering surface of the ridges
2. Dermis – is the inner layer of the skin
FRICTION SKIN
- Is the epidermis hairless skin found on the
central lower surface of the hands and feet
covered with minute ridges and furrows and
without pigment or colouring matter,
friction skin has 2 components:
a. Ridges
- Are the tiny elevation or hill like structure
found on the skin containing sweat pores.
b. Furrows
- Are the tiny depressions or canals between
ridges and which appears as white lines in
an inked impression.
PURPOSES OF FRICTION SKIN:
A. For the personal protection
B. For prevention of slipping
C. For sense of touch
FINGERPRINTS ARE PERMANENT AND
INDIVIDUALLY UNIQUE
 Fingerprints begin forming during the 12th
week of gestation, and barring surgical
or accidental removal of the finger
itself will remain permanent for the life of
the individual until the body decomposes
after death.
 Fingerprint Identification has been used as a
means of positive identification for over
one hundred years.
 No two fingerprints have ever been found to
be the same. No two fingerprints on the
same hand have ever been found to be the
same. Identical, mono zygotic twins will
have the same DNA, but will have
twenty different fingerprints,
between the two twins. Each fingerprint is
unique and can only belong to one person.
 Everyday, millions of new fingerprints are
entered into a nationwide automated
12
computer system, and searched against
hundreds of millions of fingerprints that are
already contained in that system. During all
of these searches, no two
fingerprints have ever been found to be the
same
 The standing scientific theory or principle, is
that no two separate fingerprint's have ever
been found to be the same...
This theory is tested every day, and has never
been disproved.
 Each fingerprint contains minutiae, or ridge
characteristics. Fingerprints are identified
to individuals by examining and
comparing the ridge characteristics of two
different fingerprint impressions to determine
if these characteristics occupy
the same relative area and position, and if
their unit relationship to each other is in
agreement.
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS generally refer
to the individual formation of the ridge. Ridges
may appear in the friction skin in the different
shape or form.
COMMON TYPES OF RIDGE
CHARACTERISTICS
BIFURCATION one single ridge that split into
two or more branches or forking or the splitting
of one ridge into two branches.
RIDGE ENCLOSURE a ridge formed by
bifurcation but which does not remain open,
after running alongside by side for a short
distance, the splitting ridge meet again to form a
single ridge.
RIDGE ENDING a point where ridge
terminate or ends.
RIDGE BRIDGE a ridge that connects one
ridge to the other, it is sometimes called as
RAILWAY TIE
DIVERGING RIDGE is the splitting apart of
two ridges after running parallel.
CONVERGING RIDGE the meeting of two
ridges after running parallel.
RIDGE HOOK OR SPUR is the bifurcation in
which one branch is remarkably short, ending
near the original split or fork.
DOT a very short island of basically equal
length and width.
 13

TWO FOCAL POINTS OF FINGERPRINT
a. DELTA (outer terminus)
b. CORE (inner terminus)
TYPE LINE are the two innermost ridges that start
parallel, diverge, surround or tend to surround the
pattern area.
PATERN AREA the area surrounded by the type
lines where the core; delta and ridges are located.
DELTA is defined as the first obstruction at or in
front of and nearest the center of h point of
divergence of the type lines.
Delta may appear in the pattern area in any of the
following ridge characteristics:
 Bifurcation
 Short ridge
 Ending ridge
 Convergence
 Dot
RULES IN SELECTING A DELTA
RULE 1 the delta may not be located at the
bifurcation which does not open towards the core.
RULE 2 when there is a choice between a
bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation
is selected.
RULE 3 if there are series of bifurcation opening
towards the core equally close to the point of
divergence of the type lines, the delta nearest to the
core shall be selected.
RULE 4 when there are two or more deltas which
conform to the definitions, the one nearest the core
is chosen.
RULE 5 the delta may not be located in the middle
of a ridge running between the type lines toward the
core, but at the near end only.
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the
farther one of the two center rods, the two center
rods being treated as though they were connected by
a recurving ridge.
Fingerprint pattern divisions
1. Arches 5%
2. Loops 65%
3. Whorls 30%
Arches- a pattern in which the ridge flows from one
side to the other side without recurving. It has no
delta and core.
Elements of an arch:
 The ridges flow without recurving
 No delta and core
 No ridges count
Loops- a pattern in which the ridges start at one side
of the pattern goes towards the upper corner of the
opposite side, then recurve and start back toward the
side from which they came originally, forming loop
with core at the center and a delta at the edge of the
pattern area.
Elements of loop:
 There must be a sufficient recurve
 There must be a delta and core
 There must be a ridge count of at least one
Whorls- a pattern in which the formation of the
ridges are usually circular or spiral. It has two or
more deltas.

CORE it is the approximate center of the pattern. Elements of a whorl:

RULES IN SELECTING A CORE  There must be a core
RULE 1 the core is placed upon or within the  Two or more delta
innermost sufficient recurve.
RULE 2 when the innermost sufficient recurve
Sub-groups of the pattern
contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the
shoulders of the loop, the core is placed on the 1. Arches
shoulder of the loop farther from the delta a. Plain arch
RULE 3 when the innermost sufficient recurve b. Tented arch
contains an uneven number of rods rising as high as 2. Loops
the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the a. Radial loop
center rode whether it touché the looping ridge or b. Ulnar loop
not.
3. Whorls
RULE 4 when the innermost sufficient recurve
contain even numbers of rising rod as high as the a. Plain whorl

b. Central pocket whorl
c. Accidental whorl
RIDGE COUNTING
Usually applied to a loop type of pattern. It can be
done by drawing an imaginary line between the
delta and core. The number of ridges intervening
between the delta and core is the ridge count.
WHORL TRACING
Is done by locating the or identifying the ridge trace
and examining its direction. The patterns are further
classifies according to its whorl tracing either inner,
outer and meeting.
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION
The formula derives for a complete set of ten
fingers. The arrangement of the fingerprint record
into groups and sub-groups for filling purposes.
PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
It is obtained by summing up or adding all the
numerical value of the whorl type pattern and its
composites that appears in all ten fingers. The sum
total of which will be added by 1.
SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
Is placed just to the right of the primary
classification. Finger that appear in the right hand
will become the numerator while the other is the
denominator.
TWO DIVISIONS OF THE SECONDARY
CLASSIFICATION:
1. Capital letter group (ATRU-W)
2. Small letter group (rat)
SUB-SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
Is placed just to the right of the secondary
classification. Concerned only with the index,
middle and ring finger both hands. Only the loops
and whorls will be considered are considered.
14
FINAL CLASSIFICATION\
Is obtained from the ridge count of the little fingers.
Only one little finger is necessary. Always give the
priority to the no. 5 finger.
MAJOR CLASSIFICATION
Concerns only with the thumb of both fingers (no.
1&6). Whorl patterns are traced and the symbol of
the tracing (IMO) will be brought in the
classification. Loop type patterns will be
represented by SML (small, medium, large)
KEY CLASSIFICATION
Is place at the extreme left of the classification
formula or to the left of the major divisions. Is
obtain by determining the ridge count of the first
loop appearing on the fingerprint card from all the
fingers except the little fingers.
GUNPOWDER AND EXPLOSIVES
Investigation of crime involving the use of firearms
may produce three main problems:
 First, law enforcement officers need to
know whether a suspect has fired a gun or
not and
 Second, the gunshot range or the approx.
distance of the firearm is discharged
unburned particles of the gunpowder may
escape thru the breech of the gun and
deposit on the hands of the firers, on the
clothing of the victim and some may
remain on the barrel. These gunpowder
residues can be detected by chemical
examination.
 Third, when the time of firing of the gun
becomes an issue.
DESCRIPTION OF GUNPOWDER AND OTHER
EXPLOSIVES
A. Kinds of Gunpowder
1. Black powder- first invented; consist of
a mixture of carbon 15% (charcoal),
10% sulfur and 75% sodium or
potassium nitrates; and

2. Smokeless- which can be either single
based; consisting of nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine (glycerol nitrate). Certain
inorganic and organic compounds are
added as stabilizers.
B. Types of explosives
1. Mechanical – such as those caused by
expansion of gas producing high
pressure beyond capacity of the
container.
2. Atomic- resulting from atomic
transformations.
3. Chemical- produced thru the extremely
rapid transformations of the unstable
substances accompanied by the
formation of the heat.
C. Classifications of explosives
The speed of the chemical reaction or
detonation of the explosives determines
then classification of explosives as low,
initiating or high explosives.
1. Low explosives are low burning and are
used mainly as propellants, like black
powder and smokeless powder.
2. Primary or initiating explosives are
extremely sensitive to detonation by
heat, shock friction and impact. They
detonate without burning, like lead
oxide and mercury fulminate.
3. High explosives have very fast or high
detonating rate, like dynamite TNT and
RDX
METHOD EXAMINATIONS
A. Paraffin-diphenylamine test
To determine whether a person has
fired a gun, the paraffin-
diphenylamine test is used. The
basis of this test is the presence of
nitrates in the gunpowder residue.
The basis of this test is the presence
of nitrates in the gunpowder
residue. Warm melted-paraffin wax
applied on the hands of the firer
will cause the pores of the skin to
15
open and exude the particles of the
gunpowder residue. These particles
are collected by the paraffin cast
and will appear as blue specks,
when the diphenylamine reagent on
the cast. The specks are generally
located on the area of the thumb
and forefingers
.
The blue colors that appear indicate
the reaction of the nitrates with
diphenylamine reagent. Thus nitrate
from other sources like fertilizers,
will give the same reaction. Other
substances similar to nitrate known
as oxidizers will also react with the
reagent in the same way. Thus, the
location, distribution and character
of the specks are considered to
eliminate the other possible sources
of oxidizers.
The FBI employed neutron-
activation analysis which is a more
specific test. This requires access to
a nuclear reactor and facilities for
detecting the radiation.
B. Gunpowder residue test
The diphenylamine reagent is also
applied in cotton swabbing at the
barrel and chambers of the gun
determine if the firearm was fired.
Again a deep blue color resulting
from the reaction nitrates with
reagent indicates presence of
gunpowder residue.
C. Gunshot range determination
When gun is discharge, gunpowder
residue may also be deposited on
the cloth or clothing of the victim.
The size and density of the pattern
of gunpowder residue found on the
clothing are the main factors
considered in determining the
approximate distance of the firer to
the victim. As the distance to the

victim increases, the size of the
pattern increases while density
decreases and vice-versa.
If the estimates are to be reliable ,
the actual gun used and similar type
of ammunition must be test fired on
the same target under the same
conditions as possible as during the
commission of the crime.
D. Explosives analysis
There are specific test for each kind
of explosives. In addition to
techniques using chemical reagents,
thin layer chromatography (TLC)
and infra red (IR)
spectrophotometer are resorted to.
These methods are found to be
more specific and faster.
HAIR
There are certain limitations when dealing with hair
as evidence, unlike the individuality of fingerprints,
which is beyond question. Blood and hair are
certain more individual and direct than a fingerprint
left on the scene, but to date science are unable to
demonstrate totally individual characterization. We
cannot say this drop of blood or the strand of hair
could have come from the suspects . those in
forensic science who deal with hair samples have no
doubt that hair itself is totally individual in nature.
The problem lies in technology and research, which
are not yet capable of defining the individual
characteristics. We can say that hair found at a
scene is not similar to that of a suspect. Or, we can
say it is possible that the hair on the scene came
from this suspect because it is similar. However,
there are no absolutes.
Examination of hair found at a crime scene with that
of the suspect can have one of three results:
1. Inconclusive
2. Exclusive
3. Similarity
16
DEFINITION OF HAIR ACCORDING TO ITS
ORIGIN
Most mammals have a substantial amount of hair.
Hair originates within the skin from a hair follicle,
which is found in the lower layers of skin below the
epidermis.
The hair root starts at the follicle base and the hair
shafts grows outward thru epidermis.
The hair will continue to grow until it reaches a
mature stage, and then it will drop out of the follicle
as a result of root shrinkage. It has been estimated
that hair on the scalp grows at the rate of 0.3 to 0.5
mm per day.
Hair structure or morphology is one method for
determining class and individual characteristics.
The outside layer of hair is cuticle, cortex is the
intermediate layer, and the core or center is the
medulla. The cuticle consists of scales that point
toward the end of the hair opposite the root.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAIR
There are different characteristics to be found when
comparing human hair to animal hair and human
hair from one individual to another. There are also
significant differences in hair found on various parts
of the body on the same individual.
There are many types of hair: scalp hair, pubis hair,
auxiliary hair, and hair from the beard, etc. the first
step in a successful laboratory examination is to
select hair from the proper region of the body to
compare with the questions specimen. Even within
the scalp hair we find varies from top of head to the
back of the neck. Some literature has suggested that
the variations in specific body regions preclude
comparison from one individual to another for
individual characteristics. However, the difference
in the scalp hair of one individual are very slight
when comparing it with the scalp hair of another
individual.
HAIR AT CRIME SCENE
It is tragic to think that many times valuable
evidence such as the victim’s or perpetrator’s hair is
overlooked or ignores, because when we compare a

hair to a size of room we may consider looking for
hair to be looking for a needle in a haystack.
Frequently, hair is an important piece of evidence in
cases involving rape. In this instance the assailant’s
pubic hair can be found with the victim’s and
possibly on the victim’s clothing. A thorough search
of a crime scene will include the use of vacuum. If
vacuum is not available a rounded lens may be used
and flashlight to a dim part of the crime scene. If
hairs are found , they should be placed individually
in clean vials or match box type containers. They
should never be placed more than one per container
and they should never be taped to a surface.
COLLECTION OF HAIR FROM THE SUSPECT
FOR COMPARISON
Hair should be collected from a suspect by a series
of strokes with a fine clean comb and places in a
sealed container. Several dozen hairs should be
taken from various body regions of the suspect. If it
is necessary to cut hair with scissors, it should be
cut as near as the skin as possible. The investigator
should attempt to gain approximately one hundred
hairs to allow for optimum comparison study.
LABORATORY EXAMINATION
1. Is it hair?
To the untrained observer, hair can easily b
confused with threads or countless other
fivers found at the crime scene, but to the
lab analyst “NOTHING LOOKS LIKE
HAIR EXCEPT HAIR”
Microscopic examination will reveal the
cuticle, cortex and medulla in a hair
specimen that are absent in fibers and
threads.
2. Is it hair of animal or human origin?
The most important indicator as to the
human or animal hair question is the
medulla index. The medulla index is the
ratio of the size of the medulla to the
diameter of a shaft. In addition to the
medullary index, the diameter of the hair
itself is important. Very fine and very thick
hair is not human origin, because human
hair falls only between 50 to 150 microns in
diameter.
When determining whether hair is
animal or human, the laboratory
investigator examines the hair to
a. Ascertain its diameter
b. Observe its medulla pattern
17
c. Calculate the medullary index
(proportionate size)
d. Record its scale size and shape
If the hair is considered to be animal origin,
the kind of animal can be determines by
comparing the hair to be established
standards. If the hair is considered human, a
comparison with the suspect’s hair may be
made, based on individual characteristics.
Is a hair is found at the crime scene with a
root adhering to it, it can be determined
whether the hair was pulled out or fell out
naturally. If the root is dry and somewhat
shrunken, the hair was not forcibly ripped
off from the follicle. A distinct, round fresh
root implies the hair was pulled.
FIBERS
As earlier mentioned, it is simple in
the lab to differentiate between a fiber and a
human hair. Human and animal hairs have
characteristics which is lacking in the
various fibers. In addition fibers lack the
medulla, the cortex, and so forth that are
special constituents of hair. The analyst can
compare fibers with a set standard and
determine if they came from garments.
Cross section of the fiber reveals
characteristics that aid in their
identification.
Comparison of fibers
The most significant form of fiber evidence is that f
torn cloth. These are actually fracture pattern
comparison. The first comparison is of the actual
gross fracture pattern. Second, the weave pattern
can be compared. Third, the material itself can be
analyzed so that fibers can be compared with other
fibers for similarities. Consideration should be
given to the color of the fiber, the amount of wear,
and many contaminates that might be present.
Much work needs to be done on fiber comparisons.
In addition to the type of fiber and the color, the
laboratory analyst must estimate probabilities of the
occurrence of the same characteristics from some
other fiber source. Some work in field can narrow a
blue wool fiber, for instance, to the probabilities of
1:8000 of accidental duplication by other sources.
Value of fibers as evidence
The clothing of persons involved in crimes of
personal violence is a source of valuable clues. The

fibers form the clothing may adhere to the person of
the victim. In hit and run cases fibers from the
victim’s clothing may be found on the radiator ,
grille or tires of the vehicle. Since fibers very
widely in composition as mentioned earlier, the
following examples illustrate the value of these
clues.
a. Rape- the victim of a homicide had been
trussed with a three-strand rope. The
probable manufacturer of the rope was
located. It was possible to identify the rope
by marks of the machine that had been used
in a certain period and by means of the
characteristics and physical property of the
substance that had been used for
impregnation.
b. Cloth and string- parts of the dismembered
body of a woman were discovered in
different location. Each part was found in a
package, wrapped in the same type of cloth
and tied with the string made from twisted
paper. It was found after diligent search that
the cloth and string had been obtained at a
small store devoted to the manufacture of
window shades. Further investigation
revealed that the suspect lived in a room on
the nearby store/shop and could have
obtained the cloth and string from the piles
of crap in the rear of the building.
Types of fibers
a. Animal- a number of fibers are derived
from animal product, the most
important being wool, silk, camel’s hair
and fur.
b. Vegetable- this class includes most of
the inexpensive clothing fibers, like
cotton, linen, jute, hemp, ramie and
sisal.
c. Mineral and synthetics- first provide
useful fibers like glass wool and
asbestos which is used for safe
insulation, while the latter is applies
chemistry which produced a number of
fibers like rayon, nylon and Dacron.
GLASS FRACTURES
Glass Defined
Glass is an inorganic substance which is a
continuous with and analogous to the liquid state of
that substance, but which, as the result of reversible
18
change in viscosity as to be, for all practical
purposes, rigid.
Theoretically
1. Glass is somewhat flexible; it tends to bend
upon application of force.
2. Glass bends on the direction where force is
applied causing the opposite side to stretch.
3. Glass can withstand more bending rather
than stretching causing the opposite side to
start breaking.
Types of Glass Fracture
1. Radial Fractures- primary fracture
resembles the spokes of a wheel where the
radiating rod originates at a common point.
2. Concentric fractures- secondary fracture
having the appearance of circles around the
point of impact connecting one radiating
crack to the other, thus forming triangular
pieces of glass.
Significance of Determining the Types of glass
Fracture
From the study of the types of a glass
fractures, one may arrive on the following
conclusions:
1. Point of Impact- the front of the glass can
be determined due to the accumulation of
dust and dirt on the glass.
2. Direction of Impact- a bullet will make a
clear-cut hole in the side of the entrance
rather than on the exit side. If a shot is fired
perpendicularly, it will give a crater of
uniform flaking. If the shot is fired at an
angle from the right, the left exit side of the
glass will give more flaking and vice versa.
Depression will be produced on the exit
side of the glass due to the rebound of the
glass. Radial fracture can be seen on the
exit side and the concentric fracture on the
entrance side.
3. Cause of Fracture- Glass Fractures may be
due to the following:
a. Due to Natural Means- exhibits a plain
wavy lines.
b. Due to Mechanical Means- exhibits a
regular pattern of radial/concentric
fracture.

Factors to be Determined in Glass Fracture
A. Point of Impact
B. Position of the Shooter
1. Perpendicular Shot- Exhibits an even
distribution of chippings on the exit side of
the glass
2. Angle from the Right- Heavy flakings or
chippings on the left side of the glass.
3. Angle from the Left- heavy flakings on the
right side of the glass.
Age of Fracture
1. Fresh Fracture- Exhibits a regular pattern of
radial/concentric fracture.
2. Old Fracture- presence of a short extension
lines at the end of the radial fracture.
TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology- is a scientific study of poisons that
treat of their nature, properties, effects and detection and
the treatment in case of poisoning.
Toxicology deals with poisons- their origin,
physical and chemical properties, effects and treatment;
and methods of detection. Frequently, toxicology
examinations are requested in cases of sudden and
unexplained deaths. The internal organs and contents
obtained during the medico-legal autopsy are the
unusual specimen submitted, as well as the suspected
source of the poison such as food, drinks or medicine. If
not fatal, the vomits, blood and urine of the victims are
examined. In case of mass food poisoning, identification
of the poison by the laboratory is important not only in
investigation but more in the treatment of the victims.
Internal organs and other parts of animals (chicken, dog,
cat, etc.) too, are received frequently in connection with
complaints of mischief.
Importance of Toxicology
1. To verify if the cause of death is poisoning
2. To be able to treat as the occasion demands
3. To forward justice
Objective
To determine the presence of volatile, non –
volatile and metallic poisons.
Poison- It is a substance that when introduced into or
absorbed by a living organism, causes death or injury.
Poison is a substance capable of producing adverse
effects on an individual under appropriate conditions.
19
Adverse effects refer to the injury (structural damage of
tissues) and an appropriate condition means the dosage
of the substance that is sufficient to cause this adverse
effect.
Types of Poisons
1. True Poisons- is one that is still poisons no
matter how diluted it is. Example, Hydrogen
Cyanide (HCN).
2. Corrosive Poison- is one which contact with it
chemically produces local destruction of tissues.
Example ,Nitric acid (HNO3), mercuric
chloride-acid poison use as herbicides.
3. Cumulative Poison- is one that increases
suddenly in its intensity of action after gradual
additions of it. Examples, digitals: arsenic.
Types of Poisoning
A. Acute Poisoning- one in which there is prompt
and marked disturbance of function or death
within a shorter period of time and is due to:
1. Taking a short poison
2. Excessive single dose
3. Several doses, small but frequent
B. Chronic Poisoning- a kind of poisoning in
which there is gradual deterioration of functions
of tissues and may or may not result in death. It
may be produced by:
1. Taking several doses at long intervals
2. Taking only toxic doses of the drug.
Methods of Examination
The examination may be divided in two (2)
stages, namely, isolation and identification.
1. Isolation- when the submitted specimen is in
pure form, the poison must first be isolated. This
procedure does not only limit the search to a
manageable class of poisons but also reduces the
interference from other substances that may
occur during the identification stage. Thus,
poison may be classified according to their
method of isolation as volatile poisons, non-
volatile poisons, and metallic poisons:
a. Volatile poisons- isolated by extraction with
alcohol and chloroform.
b. Non-volatile poisons- isolated by extraction
with organic solvents such as strychnine and
other alkaloids.
c. Metallic poisons- these are poison such as
arsenic, mercury and lead.
d. Other substances requiring special methods
of isolation like corrosive acids.

2. Identification- the method employed for the
identification of poison is specific. Preliminary
tests should be conducted. Such tests include
microscopic examination and flame test. Then
confirmatory tests should be performed to
establish the presence of poison. As in the other
analysis mentioned earlier, modern instruments
like the infrared (FT-IR) spectrophotometer and
gas chromatograph (GC) can be used in the
confirmatory test.
History of Modern Toxicology
Paracelsus (16th century) German-Swiss
physician/alchemist. First stressed the chemical nature of
poison and its action by experimentation and the one
who introduced dose concept.
Prof. Mattieu Orfila (19th century) attending
physician to Louis XVII correlated chemistry of toxins
with the biological effects it produces in a poison
individual.
Four (4) Elements of Poisoning
1. Poison
2. The poison Organism
3. The Injury to the Cells
4. The Symptoms and the signs of Death
Classification of Poisons
A. Classification Based o Origin
1. Animal/ Toxin- a poison produced by living
organism stimulating antibodies. Usually
transferred through bites and stings of
venomous terrestrial or marine animal.
2. Vegetable- poison Ivy and Jimsonweed
plants.
3. Mineral-Hydrochloric Acid, Caustic Alkali.
4. Microbial- produced by microscopic
organism. Example, bacteria, fungi.
5. Synthetic- manufactured by Chemists such
as drugs, pesticides as well as chemical
purified from natural sources such as metals
from ores and solvents from gasoline.
B. According to Chemical Properties
1. Volatile Poisons- poisonous compounds that
can be isolated using steam distillation and
analyzed using Gas Chromatography with
thermal head attached on it. Example: (acid
medium) cyanide, ethanol, methanol,
nitrobenzene.
2. Non-Volatile Poisons- most drugs is non-
volatile
3. Anions
4. Metallic
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5. Miscellaneous (ex. Pesticides)
Classification Based on Physical Form of Property
1. Solid- not well absorbed into the blood, they
must be dissolved in aqueous liquid lining the
intestinal tract if ingested or respiratory tract if
inhaled.
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Vapour
5. Aerosol
According to Action (Physiological)
1. Irritants- by direct contact, this poison inflames
the mucous membrane or the parts it comes in
contact resulting nausea, vomiting, pain and
diarrhea. Example Bromine
2. Corrosives- by direct, chemically produces local
destruction of tissues.
Example: Phenol, HCL, HNO3, caustic Soda
(NaOH)
3. Neurotics- those that effect the central nervous
system such as:
a. Cerebral Neurotics: Narcotics- inducing
drowsiness, sleep stupor, complete or
incomplete insensibility or loss of feeling.
Example: Alcohol, Opium, tobacco
b. Spinal Neurotics: Tetanics- a poison that act
on the spinal cord producing spasmodic or
continuous contractions of muscles resulting
in stiffness of the parts to which they are
attached. Example: Strychnine, Picrotoxin
c. Cerebrospinal Neurotics
1. Deliriants- are poison that act on the
brain causing disorder of mental
functions resulting to confusion of will.
Example: Cannabis Indica, Cocaine
2. Depressants- a substance that depress or
retard the physiological action of an
organ. Example: Antipyrine, lobella
3. Aesthethics/Exhaustive- poisons that
cause marked loss of vital or muscular
power or general weakness. Example:
Aconite, KCN, Digitalis
DNA or Deoxyribunucleic Acid- is a chemical
substance found in all cells whose composition has been
passed on from parent to their children. All cells in the
body have the same DNA composition except individual
egg and sperm cells.
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Biological Evidence that can be submitted for DNA

Analysis
1. Blood and bloodstains
2. Semen and seminal stains
3. Hairs with follicle or root
4. Saliva or buccal swab
5. Bones and organs
6. Tissue and cells

Cases Where DNA Analysis can be of Help

1. Sexual assault
2. Murder
3. Homicide
4. Robbery
5. Hit-and-run
6. Extortion
7. Paternity case
8. Identification of remains from mass disaster
cases and missing persons