FLOUR CONFECTIONERIES

FLOUR
Flour used in bakeries, is obtained by milling wheat grains. Flour is the most important single ingredient,
without which production of white bread, as is known in present times, would be impossible. It will,
therefore, be well to know something about wheat which is ideally suited for a multitude of uses.
Wheat is a classified according to the hardness and color of the kernel. Wheat, therefore, vary widely in
properties depending on the variety and area where grown. They may be loosely grouped into two general
headings as hard and soft. The hard wheat includes hard spring, hard winter and durum. The hard spring
and hard winter wheat are the types most desirable for bread production.
Durum wheat is produced principally in two varieties, amber durum, which is used chiefly in making
elementary pastes such as macaroni, spaghetti, noodles, etc, and red durum which has very little value for
milling and is used principally as feed.
The quality of wheat is determined by several factors including climate, variety of wheat sown, and the
soil.
The physical structure of wheat consists approximately of:
Bran
Outer skin or epidermis
Second skin or epicarp
Third skin or endocarp 15%
Fourth skin or testa
Fifth skin or aleurone layer
Germ 2.5%
Endosperm 82.5%
In the production of flour for baking both bran and germ are removed during the milling process.
Removal of bran is necessary because sharp edges of bran will tend to cut the cell structure of the loaf
during proofing thereby affecting volume of bread. Fermentation and proofing are the processes which
take place after mixing when the dough is kept under controlled conditions. Bran is high in nutritive
value, and is mostly used for animal feed. The germ is removed from the wheat during milling, because
the germ which is high in oil will affect the keeping quality of flour.
From 100kg of wheat, 72% extraction is known as 100 percent straight flour consisting of all the streams.
The word ‘stream’ is used in milling technology which means flow of flour in continued succession from
different stages in the flour milling process.
The remaining 28 percent consists of bran and shorts, which is akin to resultant atta. This is mostly used
for feed and industrial purposes in the United States.
During milling the endosperm particles must themselves be classified according to their size. The manner
in which these particles are separated is called ‘separation’. Extraction refers to the percentage of flour
which had been extracted from wheat kernel.
Therefore, average flour, depending upon extraction and separation, will consist of the following: Mineral
(ash):0.4%, Sugar: 1% Fat (liquid): 1% , Others: 2.1%, starch 70%, moisture 14% protein 11.5%
All flours are not of the same composition percentage-wise. The variation noticeable through analysis,
when dough is made, are due to the effects of climate, breed of seed, the type of seed, the type of wheat
blended and proportions of the wheat used during blending. The storage period of wheat will also affect
the quality of flour.

Types of flour
Different types of flour are used for different types of end products.
Flours are identified as: First Patent, Short Patent, Medium Patent and long Patent. Characteristics of
these flours are determined by percentage of separation obtained from a 72% extraction.
First Patent constitutes 70% separation from 72% extraction. Short Patent constitutes 80%, Medium
Patent 90% and Long Patent 95% separation from 72% extraction.
First Patent is used as cake flour and is obtained from soft wheat mmmmmmm.
Short Patent is used for premium brands of breads
Medium Patent is used for featured brands of breads.
Long Patent is used for competitive brands of breads.
Cake flours should contain less than 10% protein and 0.4% ash, and should have low absorption. Ash
content of flour is considered as a measure of the degree of separation of the flour from a particular wheat
blend but is not a reliable index of baking industry.
The value of wheat over other cereals lies in its gluten forming properties. It is believed that the proteins
contained in the outer portion of the wheat berry (aleurone portion) are stronger and harder than those
contained in the inner portion (endosperm). However the quality of the proteins may vary depending upon
the varieties of wheat, which make up the mill mix, and the condition under which the crop was grown.
Quality of proteins is a more important factor in determining baking properties of flour than the protein
quantity. Therefore, because of variations in protein quality, the protein quantity cannot be considered as
a reliable index of baking quality. Loaf potentialities are determined by gluten quality and quantity
Flour Enzymes, Characteristics and pH value
Enzymes
Flour contains two enzymes which are essential to bread production. These enzymes are Beta-amylase
and Alpha amylase. These enzymes develop in the wheat berry during the initial stages of sprouting.
Beta-amylase converts dextrins and a portion of soluble starch to maltose which is essential for active
yeast fermentation.
Characteristics
It is wish of every baker to use flour having the following characteristics for the production of quality
bread:
1. Colour
2. Strength
3. Tolerance
4. High absorption
5. Uniformity

Color: Flour should have a trace of creamish color; otherwise, the bread will have a dead white crumb.
Bleaching of flour contributes towards the control of degree of creaminess. In the case of bread it can be
controlled by modification in baking formula, mechanical treatment of the dough, and by addition of
ingredients which will affect the color of flour.
Strength: It is often said that the flour is strong or the flour is weak. Such statements refer to strength of
flour which is capable of producing a bold, large volumed, well risen loaf. For the production of quality
bread, strong flours need a longer fermentation period than weak flours. The quality of flour is decided by
the amount of fermentation it will stand. Bread flour should be such that the dough made from it will
retain its shape after being moulded.
Tolerance: The ability of flour to withstand the fermentation process and to produce a satisfactory loaf
over a period of time, in excess of what normally is required to bring about the correct degree of ripeness
for that practical process means tolerance.
High absorption: This refers to the ability of flour to take on and hold the maximum amount of moisture
without additional mixing for full development of dough. It the dough is not given the required mixing
time because of limited mixing capacity, or for other reasons, the baked product will lack volume and
have a dry crumb and inferior eating and keeping qualities.
Uniformity: This is also an important aspect which should not be overlooked. If the flour lacks uniformity
it will require constant checks and modification which are mostly considered as unproductive chores.
pH value
The pH value of water solution is a number between 0 and 14 and represents the acidity or alkalinity of
the solution. When the pH is 7, the water is said to be neutral. When the pH, is below 7, the solution is
said to be acid. The lower the pH, the more acid is the solution. Conversely, when the pH is above 7, the
solution is alkaline, the higher the pH, the higher is the alkalinity.
Flours with pH value below 5 are generally too acidic and give poor result in bread baking; the range for
satisfactory flours is usually between pH 5.5 and pH 6.5.
Acidity plays a part in maturing gluten during fermentation and increase gas production by increasing
enzymic activity. The acidity produced in fermentation improves flavor and palatability; flour acidity can
be increased, if desired, by controlled chemical treatment.
If the pH value is lower than 6.1 to 6.2, it is customarily taken as an indication of chlorine treatment in the
bleaching process. This treatment is of extreme importance in the control of quality in high ratio cakes
where pH value would be expected to fall in the range of 4.6 to 5.0 depending on the characteristics of the
wheat being milled.
The measurement of pH value is normally performed either colorimetrically by means of standardized
indicator solutions, or more accurately by means of a pH meter.
Flour Testing
There are several methods of testing flour. Some of these tests are grouped into four categories, namely
(a) chemical analysis (b) Physical methods (c) Physical Examination and (d) baking test
Chemical Analysis includes following tests:
i). Moisture: Normally flour should have 14% moisture. Excessive moisture adversely affects the keeping
quality of flour and is undesirable from an economic standpoint also.
ii). Ash: It determines mineral matter in flour and therefore is considered as a measure of the degree of
separation of the flour from a particular wheat blend but cannot be considered a reliable index of baking
quality.
iii). Proteins: This will give the quantity of proteins but for baking purpose both quantity and quality are
required.
iv). Maltose and gassing power: This will indicate activities of Beta and Alpha amylase
Physical Methods are those where sophisticated equipment is used for determining quality of flour. These
include:
i). Amylograph which measures alpha-amylase activity.
ii). Farinograph measures strength of flour for commercial mixing operation.
iii). Extensograph indicates the loaf volume potentialities.
iv). MacMicheal Viscosimeter indicates the amount of bleaching that flour has undergone. Bleaching
incidentally weakens proteins.
v). PH value indicates the acidity or alkalinity.

Baking test: A standard lab-scale baking test will indicate in a general way the baking qualities of given
flour, although slight difference may be noted when large commercial batches are made up in the
machine-equipped bakery. Some bakers, in spite of the shortcomings in this method, are of the opinion
that actual baking test gives the best overall evaluation of the flour quality.

BREAD FORMULATION
Many different types of bread formulations have been developed so far. These formulations are developed
in different regions based on the traditional food habits of the people. The main bread types can be
classified as under.
1. Pan bread: This type of bread is popular in the economically developed countries including USA,
Canada, United Kingdom and European nations.
2. Hearth bread or sour bread: This category of bread is produced with or without lactic acid fermentation.
Hearth breads are baked in an open hearth. These breads are becoming popular in France.
3. Flat bread or roti/chappati: This category of bread is popular in Asian countries. The product is
unfermented and flat. This baked on a flat hot pan.
4. Rolls and other small fermented breads: These products generally have higher levels of sugar and fat in
the formulation and thus typically have sweeter taste and softer bite characteristics.

The basic recipes for bread making include wheat flour, yeast, salt and water. If any one of these basic
ingredients is missing, the acceptable product cannot be prepared. Other ingredients are known as
optional, for example, fat, sugar, milk and milk product, malt and malt product, oxidants (such as ascorbic
acid and potassium bromate), surfactants and anti-microbial agents. Each of these ingredients has specific
role to play in bread making. The wheat flour is the main ingredient in bread production. It is primarily
responsible for bread structure and bite characteristics. Water transforms flour into visco-elsatic dough
that retains gas produced during fermentation and water also provides medium of all chemical reaction to
occur. Yeast ferment sugars and produces carbon dioxide gas and ethanol. It, thus, gives us porous and
leavened bread. Sugar is the source of fermentable carbohydrate for yeast and it also provides sweet taste.
Salt enhances flavor of all other ingredients and adds taste to the bread. It also strengthens the gluten
network in the dough. Fat makes the bread texture softer and improves its freshness and shelf life. The
oxidizing agents such a ascorbic acid, potassium bromate, potassium iodate and azodicarbonamide are
used at parts per million levels to enhance dough strength loaf volume and softness. Surfactants are used
as antistaling agents. Calcium propionate is used as prevent mold growth
Procedure for making pan bread
Ingredients percentage
Flour 100
yeast 2-4
Salt 2
Sugar 6
Fat 2
Water 60

The following steps are generally considered essential for the production of good quality bread.

SIEVING
The flour is generally sieved before using in bread primarily for following reasons:
1. To aerate the flour
2. To remove coarse particles and other impurities
3. To make flour more homogeneous
WEIGHING
The next step is weighing of different ingredients as per formulation. Minor ingredients have to be
weighed more precisely. Salt, sugar, oxidizing agents and yeast are added in solution form. Yeast is added
as a suspension, which is mixed well each time before dispensing. Sequence of addition of ingredients
also affects the dough characteristics. Generally shortening and salt are added after the clean up stage.
MIXING
Mixing of flour and ingredients involves i.e. hydration & blending, dough development and dough
breakdown. The process of mixing begins with hydration of the formula ingredients. The mixing, whilst
the flour is hydrating, brings about development of the gluten network in dough, which is evidenced as an
ascending part of the mixing curve. The dough system subsequently becomes more coherent, losing its
wet and lumpy appearance, and it achieves a point of maximum consistency or minimum mobility. This is
the point to which dough should be mixed for producing bread of superior loaf quality. At this stage the
dough is converted into a viscoelastic mass from thick and viscous slurry. At this stage the gluten forms a
continuous film or sheet suitable for processing into bakery applications. If mixing is continued beyond
this point, mechanical degradation of the dough occurs resulting in the breaking down of the dough
network. Eventually the dough becomes wet, sticky and extremely extensible, and is capable of being
drawn out into long strands. This is generally referred to as the dough being ‘broken down’. Such dough
will create problem in dough handling and frequent break down in the plants and ultimately results into
processing losses. Various stages of mixing are explained below:
1. Initial hydration stage
At this stage ingredients are blended and homogenized. The dough begins to wet and sticky.
2. Pick up stage
At this stage the hydration of ingredients is advanced and they are aggregated into wet mass. The wet
mass is uneven and wet. The gluten begins to develop in the dough system.
3. Clean up stage
Further mixing develops the gluten network in the dough. Dough becomes extensible and elastic. Dough
forms a cohesive mass and ceases to stick to mixing blades and walls of mixer.
4. Development stage
The dough becomes more visco-elastic in nature. It gives silky and shine character.
5. Optimum stage
This is the optimum mixing stage. Dough at this stage is elastic, silky and smooth. Forms thin membrane
of uniform thickness when stretched without breaking. It is the right stage to process dough for bread
making.
6. Break down stage
Beyond optimum stage the dough becomes increasingly soft, smooth and highly extensive. Dough also
becomes sticky and demonstrates poor machinability

FERMENTATION
Optimally mixed dough is subjected to fermentation for a suitable length of time to obtain light aerated
porous structure of fermented product. Fermentation is achieved by yeast (Saccaromyces cerevisiae). The
yeast in dough breaks down the sugars to carbon dioxide and ethanol. The gas produced during
fermentation leavens the dough into foam. The foam structure of dough is discrete and has stability during
fermentation. When fermented dough is baked, the foam structure gets converted into sponge structure
that is responsible for aerated structure of breadcrumb. The conditions under which fermentation occurs
affect the rate of carbon dioxide production and flavor development in the dough. The temperature and
relative humidity conditions are particularly important for yeast activity and gas production.
In the temperature range of 20 to 40ºC, the yeast fermentation rate is doubled for each 10ºC rise in
temperature. Above 40ºC yeast cells are started to get killed. The yeast performs well at 30-35ºC and
relative humidity of 85 % and above. The optimum pH range for yeast is 4 to 6. Below pH 4 the yeast
activity begins to diminish and it is inactivated below pH 3. Osmotic pressure also affects the activity of
yeast.
KNOCK BACK
Punching of dough in between the fermentation periods increases gas retaining capacity of the dough. The
knock back has the objectives of equalizing dough temperature throughout the mass, reducing the effect
of excessive accumulation of carbon dioxide within the dough mass and introduces atmospheric oxygen
for the stimulation of yeast activity. The knock back also aids in the mechanical development of gluten by
the stretching and folding action. Usually knock back is done when 2/3 of the normal fermentation time is
over.
DOUGH MAKE-UP
The function of dough make-up is to transform the fermented bulk dough into properly sealed and
moulded dough piece, when baked after proofing it yields the desired finished product Dough make-up
includes (a) scaling; (b) rounding c) inter-mediary proof and d) moulding.
Scaling or dividing
The dough is divided into individual pieces of predetermined uniform weight and size. The weight of the
dough to be taken depends on the final weight of the bread required. Generally, 12% extra dough weight
is taken to compensate for the loss. Dividing should be done within the shortest time in order to ensure
the uniform weight. If there is a delay in dividing, corrective steps should be taken either by degassing the
dough or increasing the size of the dough. The degassers are essentially dough pumps which feed the
dough into the hopper and in the process remove most of the gas. The advantages of using degassers are:
(i) more uniform scaling, (ii) uniform pan flows and (iii) uniform grain and texture of bread.
Rounding
When the dough piece leaves the divider, it is irregular in shape with sticky cut surfaces from which the
gas can readily diffuse. The function of the rounder is to impart a new continuous surface skin that will
retain the gas as well as reduce the stickiness thereby increasing its handling. Rounder are of two types
i.e. umbrella and bowl type.
Intermediate proofing
When the dough piece leaves the rounder, it is rather well degassed as a result of the mechanical it
received in that machine and in the divider. The dough lacks extensibility and tears easily. It is rubbery
and will not mould easily. To restore more flexible, pliable structure which will respond well to the
manipulation of moulder, it is necessary to let the dough piece rest while fermentation proceeds.
Intermediate proofer contains a number of trays that are chain driven. The dough piece is deposited in the
tray with completed number of laps at predetermined rate. Average time at this stage ranges from 5 to 20
min.
Moulding
The moulder receives pieces of dough from the inter-mediate proofer and shapes them into cylinders
ready to be placed in the pans. Moulding involves three separate steps; (i) sheeting; (ii) curling; and (iii)
scaling.
Sheeter degasses the dough and sheeted dough can be easily manipulated in the later stages of moulding.
Sheeting is accomplished by passing the dough through2 or 3 sets of closely spaced rolls that
progressively flatten and degas the dough. The first pair of rolls is spaced about 0.25" apart where the
degassing takes place. The successive two rollers are spaced 0.125" and 0.06" apart for optimum grain
and texture development in the finished products.
The sheeted dough piece next enters the curling section. A belt conveyor under a flexible woven mash
chain that rolls into a cylindrical form carries the sheeted dough. The rolling operation should produce a
relatively tight curl that will avoid air entrapment. The curled dough piece finally passes under a pressure
board to eliminate any gas pockets within and to seal the same.
Panning
The moulded dough pieces are immediately placed in the baking pans. Panning should be carried out so
that the seam of the dough is placed on the bottom of the pan. This will prevent subsequent opening of the
seam during proofing and baking. Optimum pan temperature is 90°F.
PROVING OR PROOFING PROCESS
Proving or proofing refers to the dough resting period during fermentation after moulding has been
accomplished and moulded dough pieces are placed in bread pans or tins. During this resting period the
fermentation of dough continues. The dough finally proofed or fermented in baking pan for desired dough
height. It is generally carried out at 30-35ºC and at 85% relative humidity. Proofing takes about
55-65 minutes. During proofing the dough increases remarkably in volume. The dough expands by a
factor of 3-4 during proofing. During proofing care has to be taken that the skin of dough remains wet and
flexible so that it does not tear as it expands. A high humid condition is also required to minimize weight
loss during proving. Temperature, humidity and time influence proofing. Proof temperature depends on
the variety of factors such as flour strength, dough formulation with respect to oxidants, dough
conditioners, type of shortening, degree of fermentation and type of product desired. During proofing
lower humidity gives rise to dry crust in the dough. Excessive humidity leads to condensation of
moisture. Dough is generally proved to a constant time or constant height.
THE BAKING PROCESS
After proofing the dough is subjected to heat in a baking oven. Baking temperature generally varies
depending up on oven and product type but it is generally kept in the range of 220-250ºC. During baking
the temperature of dough centre reaches to about 95ºC in order to ensure that the product structure is fully
set. When the dough is placed in the oven, heat is transferred through dough by several mechanisms such
as convection, radiation, conduction, and condensation of steam and evaporation of water. Heat transfer
inside dough is said to occur through the mechanism of heat conduction and evaporation/condensation.
The baking time of bread may range from 25 to 30 minutes depending up on size of bread loaf. After
baking, bread is cooled prior to packaging to facilitate slicing and to prevent condensation of moisture in
the wrapper. Desirable temperature of bread during slicing is 95-105°F.
FUNCTIONS OF MIXING
There is some difference between mixing and kneading of a flour to dough. Mixing refers to
homogenization of formula ingredients, whereas kneading is the development of the dough or gluten
network by mechanical means. Mixing of flour and other formula ingredients is carried out to serve
following functions:
1. To disperse the formula ingredients uniformly.
2. To blend and hydrate the dough ingredients.
3. To develop the gluten structure or network in the dough in order to enable the dough to retain gas
without rupture.
4. To aerate the dough to serve two purposes:
a) to provide gas nuclei for carbon dioxide produced during fermentation and
b) to provide atmospheric oxygen for oxidation of dough and yeast activity.
FUNCTIONS OF MOULDING AND DIVIDING
Important functions of dividing and moulding are:
1. To divide the bulk dough in desired shape and size.
2. To divide the dough into individual pieces of uniform weight.
3. To improve grain and texture of bread.
4. To improve appearance and acceptability of bread
FUNCTIONS OF PROVING
Final proof has the following functions:
1. To relax the dough from the stress received during previous operations.
2. To facilitate production of gas in order to give desired volume to the dough.
3. To mellow gluten to extensible character for oven rise
PASTRIES

The major use of pastry in New Zealand is for the manufacture of pies. The standard method for pie
pastry production is the Scotch method, also known as the Blitz method. In this short process method,
small lumps of fat are mixed into the dough to produce a paste, which is then sheeted to build up a layered
structure. Pies, turnovers, strudel and cream puffs, are just a few of the pastries loved in the world. The
same basic ingredients, flour, fat and water, are used to make all of them. When combined in different
proportions and by varying mixing methods, these basic ingredients make flexible dough’s that can be
shaped into practical or decorative shapes to hold a variety of sweet or savory fillings.
 Strudel and phyllo: Strong, elastic dough’s are rolled and stretched so thin you can read a newspaper
through it, then layered with butter. Popular and versatile, they can be wrapped, folded, or shaped around
various fillings, from fruit to meat. They are usually baked, as in fruit filled strudels, but similar dough’s
can also be deep-fried.
Chou paste (also called cream puff paste): This is a unique cooked dough that, when baked, forms a
high shell around an inner cavity. The cavity can be filled with whipped or vanilla cream, cheeses, and
other sweet or savory fillings.
Puff pastry: Pastry dough and fat are laminated together to produce many thin layers of pastry. During
baking, water is driven off from gluten in the paste as steam and trapped in the fat layers, blowing the
paste layers apart. These inflated layers are set by heat of oven to create a light, puffy, flaky and tender
pastry.

ingredients Roles and specifications

Flour 10–12% protein content with low water absorption. Medium strength; weaker than
bread flour but stronger than cake or biscuit fl our. Flour needs to be strong enough
to form thin layers of pastry, but extensible so that it can
be rolled out. Flour must contain enough gluten to hold the crust together to avoid
breakage and leaking of the contents.
Fat Ideally pastry fat is pliable at processing temperatures (20–23°C) but melts in the
mouth (37°C) when the final product is consumed, so it requires a slip melting point
at 44oC. Fat can be pre-tempered to the same conditions
as the pastry dough before machining to assist with mixing.
Water Amount added is dependent on the water absorption of the fl our. Adjusting the
amount of water added is the primary method of controlling dough consistency so
that the same amount of force is required to roll out the dough as for the fat. Water
is chilled to assist with final pastry temperatures.
Salt Adds flavor and strengthens gluten. Most pastry margarines contain salt so extra salt
addition not usually required.
Gluten If the fl our is so weak that the dough tears, then weak acids such as ascorbic or
strengthening citric acid can be added to strengthen the dough, although these decrease the dough
extensibility. Or extra gluten can be added, which should be mixed in with the flour
to ensure it is evenly dispersed.
Gluten weakening If dough is not elastic or short resting times are needed then reducing agents such as
L-cysteine and sodium metabisulfite can be added to make the dough more
extensible. This makes it weaker, which needs to be monitored as if it becomes too
weak it tears easily and damages the layers

Processing details
mixing Pie tops: A flaky pastry with partially developed gluten and mixed in large pieces of
fat. In single staged mixing all the ingredients are added to a bowl and mixed until
the dough comes together but the fat is still in large pieces. Mixing time is critical.
The dough should be mixed enough to partially develop the gluten in the dough so
the dough levels stay together but not to the extent that dough is tough. Minimal
water is used as gluten develops as fat is mixed in. In multistage mixing, 6–7% fat is
added to the dough, and the dough is partially developed before the fat nuggets are
 added. This allows for greater development without breaking up fat.
sheeting Pie bottoms: Traditionally a semi-flaky pastry was used but now replaced with short
pastry base with no lamination. A homogenous paste using pie fat shortenings that
inhibit gluten development is mixed and paste is sheeted to required dimensions.
These pie bottoms are very stable, short and more suitable for holding pie
shape through prolonged warming.
Resting time Pie tops: The aim is to build up layers of fat and dough which on baking produce a
layered structure of puff pastry. The pastry dough, with paste and fat of the same
consistency, is sheeted to gradually reduce the thickness and increase the length of
the pastry by a series of gradual reductions. It is then folded using the book fold and
reduced again. This is usually done three times, with a rest in between each fold. A
book fold is when the pastry is folded to give four layers of pastry, achieved by
folding each end of the pastry into the middle of the sheet and then folding the
dough in half again.
Forming Pie bottoms: Pastry is simply reduced to correct dimensions for forming
filling Is required to minimize pastry shrinkage and give the pastry time to hold its new
shape. The stronger the flour the longer the rest time, although this can be decreased
with the use of reducing agents although these can affect the end quality of the
dough. The pastry is stored covered overnight in a retarder or chiller. In the morning
the pastry must be left to warm up to processing temperature before a final sheeting
and production of pies begins.
baking The bottom pastry sheet is pressed into tray of tins, the scrap is removed and the
filling added before the docked pie top sheet is pressed over, cut and additional
scrap removed. The pastry should not be stretched as this causes shrinkage and
streaking on the surface. Any spillage of filling may prevent the top and bottom
pastries sealing. The top pastry is docked to prevent excessive lift. Ideally the filling
should be cold to avoid the fat melting out of the pastry, and the right volume to
avoid the top pastry sinking too far. The water activity should be similar to that of
the pastry to avoid moisture transfer. Temperatures are 215–220°C, although baking
times are partly dependent on the moisture content of the dough. Use a hot oven to
achieve rapid generation of steam to produce a good lift and avoid overheating the
filling. The heat balance of the oven should be set in favor of bottom heat as the
filling conducts some of the heat away from the pastry. Browning of the pie can be
encouraged by reducing agents in the dough or by applying a glaze over the pastry

Short pastry: Pastry dough and fat are laminated together to produce many thin layers of pastry. During
baking, water is driven off from gluten in the paste as steam and trapped in the fat layers, blowing the
paste layers apart. These inflated layers are set by heat of oven to create a light, puffy, flaky and tender
pastry.
ingredients roles
Flour Low protein soft fl our makes the most tender pastry. As the amount and strength
of protein present in the flour increases so too does the toughness. Soft flour has
less starch damage, so it absorbs less water which is an advantage when water has
to be baked off.
Fat Needs to be soft to mix with and coat the fl our particles at processing
temperatures. It should not be oily and a bland taste is preferred. Margarine is
frequently used with allowances made for its water content
sugar Helps to shorten the pastry. It also adds color and extends the shelf life. Castor
sugar is preferred due to its ability to readily dissolve in the small amounts of
 liquids used in pastry manufacture. High sugar pastry will have
a firmer, crisper texture with dark surface, but too much sugar produces a sticky
and difficult to machine pastry.
Glucose or lactose can be used; they are both sweeter than sucrose and offer more
browning
Salt Added at 1.5–2%*, although addition levels are adjusted based on the salt content
of margarine
Baking powder To increase shortness or tenderness of lower fat pastry. The leavening effect of
baking powder produces a more
open structure pastry.

Process

Process
mixing Incorporate all the ingredients with minimal development of gluten. The fat is
mixed into the fl our to form a fine crumble. The sugar and liquids are then added
and mixed until distributed and a paste is formed. The fat acts as
a protective layer, preventing water from coming into contact with flour protein
and forming gluten which would ultimately toughen the dough. The rate of mixing
and mixing speed should be low so as not to disrupt the fat
layer from the flour
sheeting Reduction steps to produce a dough sheet of the correct thickness. The paste needs
to be carefully handled to avoid tearing and dusting fl our should be kept to a
minimum to avoid it hydrating and developing
Filling Short pastry is commonly used with sweet fillings, such as fruit. The filling needs
to be of the correct consistency to avoid boiling out during baking and excessive
moisture migration in the finished product
baking Short pastry with a high proportion of sugar will brown at a lower temperature than
pastry with lower proportion of sugar. Actual baking temperature is dependent on
the size of pie but pastry needs to brown before the filling boils out

PACKAGING OF SUGAR CONFECTIONERY AND CHOCOLATES

Product Characteristics and Packaging Requirements
The key raw materials for sugar confectionery are sugar (60 - 65%), glucose, citric acid and flavored
essences. Confectionery is hygroscopic in nature and requires protection against the ingress of moisture,
and exposure to high temperature (as far as possible). A candy or confectionery product may be adversely
affected by many things. Hard candy, brittles and crunch products are most sensitive to moisture and
absorb water vapor fairly rapidly from the atmosphere. Various gums are less sensitive while some
creams tend to lose moisture considerably. The factors that lead to spoilage of confectionery are
highlighted as below.
Crystallization
The sugar component of most types of confection is in a soluble form and it is essential that this form be
maintained, since crystallization of the sugar alters the taste and texture giving impression of an old
product. Moisture interchanges play a major decisive role in deciding the shelf-life of confectionery
items. The Equilibrium Relative Humidity (ERH) of a confection during its life determines its sensitivity
towards all physico-chemical changes that occur due to environmental conditions. Data on moisture
sorption characteristics of a confectionery item are very important in understanding the storage stability as
regards its chemical and physical changes, growth of microorganisms and also drying characteristics and
product formulation and package selection
Oxidation
If the confectionery contains fat, then rancidity can occur as a result of oxidation. Fat containing
confectionery will also react with moisture to produce fatty acids and their degradation products.
Oxidation of fats in chocolates is a minor problem as cocoa butter contains natural antioxidants. Being
high in fat, however, chocolate is likely to absorb odors from the surrounding atmosphere.
Fat Bloom
It is a surface defect in chocolate, which occurs during storage, whereby the initial gloss of the chocolate
is first lost and then replaced by a white or grayish haze. This defect, occurring more frequently in
summer, is deleterious to the aesthetic appearance of many chocolate products. The defect, however, does
no harm to the eating quality of the chocolate; unless it brings along with it other defects such as staleness
or mould growth.
Sugar Bloom
Chocolates can be affected by condensation giving sugar bloom, in which a fine layer of sugar crystals
form on the surface of the product. This renders it unsaleable and if left unchecked can lead to mould
growth.
Odor Absorption
Odor absorption by oils and fats can also be a problem. Odorous compounds are often very soluble in oils
and fats and can be readily absorbed from materials such as paints, printing inks, petroleum oils and
disinfectants. When the product is eaten, the odors are released in the mouth producing objectionable
flavors. Confectionery can also deteriorate in other ways including exposure to heat, light, moulds, yeast,
foreign odors and mechanical damage.
Selection of Packaging Material
In selection of packaging materials for confectionery the following need to be considered:
Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR)
Knowledge of WVTR of packaging materials and the effect of folding, creasing, crumpling of materials
on papers and aluminum foil show considerable effect. However, thermoplastic materials are not much
affected.
Gas Transmission Rate
Permeability to gases like oxygen decides the shelf-life of oxygen sensitive confectionery items. Besides
OTR, permeability to volatiles and flavors is important in confectionery packaging. Polyolefins have high
values, whereas plastics such as polyester, nylons, ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) have good barrier
properties for transmission of volatiles

Grease Resistance
Grease Resistance of the packaging material is important to avoid seepage of oils and fats and smudging
of the print.
Tensile Strength & Elongation
Tensile Strength and Elongation properties of materials need to be studied as their running on
high-speed machines should be suitable.
Tear Strength
For a confectionery film, tear strength is of importance as low tear values are necessary and
useful for opening packages by hands

Heat Seal Strength

The performance of a finished package is determined by the effectiveness of the package seal i.e. the
permeabilities to water vapor, gases and volatiles increase if the seal is not perfect. Thermoplastic films
such as polyethylene give excellent heat seals
Performance Properties
Apart from the above mentioned important properties, a material has to perform well on machines;
therefore knowledge of physical properties like slip, stiffness, blocking resistance is also necessary. Twist
retention for twist wrap is also of importance.
The initial function of packaging is to protect. However, the emotional role played by packaging
is also of importance, especially when the confection is a gift. A sophisticated packaging using
deluxe materials are often used as a way of expressing feelings.
Confectionery packaging must also be specialized for specific target groups. Children’s sweets are to be
packed differently from adult sweets and chocolate bars for adolescents should look different from
expensive chocolates for discerning consumers. A different pack size is required for quick impulse buys
at petrol stations and roadside shops than for the super markets selling predominantly family sized packs
Packaging Materials used for Confectionery Items
A very high quantum of polymeric materials, besides cellulosics and aluminium foil are used for
confectionery items. Paper board and metal containers are also used for certain applications. Although a
variety of packaging materials are available, the ultimate choice of the wrapper depends upon the required
shelf-life, performance on the wrapping machine and the cost which is purely based on the segment o the
market targeted by the manufacturer.
The most common choice of packaging medium is plastic (generally flexible) as it provides the required
protection and preservation, grease resistance, physical strength, machinability and printability. Plastics
being lighter in weight are, therefore, the most preferred material for packaging of confectionery.
There are many changing trends in the packaging of confectionery. Plastic films and their laminates are
increasingly replacing waxed papers due to better properties and aluminium foil laminates due to price
and better flex crack property.
Depending on the type of package i.e. twist wrap, pillow pack and vertical flow pack or roll pack, the
plastic based packaging films used for confectionery are listed below.
Polyethylene (PE)
It is considered to be the backbone of packaging films. Since one of the greatest threats to the integrity of
confectionery products comes from moisture, polyethylene with its low water vapor transmission is of
definite interest. Polyethylene films are fairly free of plasticizers and other additives and are quite
extensively used as a part of lamination. Its ability to heat seal increases its value.
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) is an economical material with low WVTR, however, it has high
permeabilities to flavors/volatiles, poor grease resistance and are limp. High-density polyethylene
(HDPE) is stiffer, more translucent and has better barrier properties but needs higher temperature for
sealing.
Later additions include high molecular weight high-density polyethylene (HM HDPE) and linear low-
density polyethylene (LLDPE). HM HDPE is a paper like film with high physical strength and barrier
properties, but is less transparent than ordinary polyethylenes. HM HDPE is available in twist-wrap
grades. Polyethylene films are also suitable for making bags and pouches. A copolymer of polyethylene
and poly vinyl alcohol, and EVOH has outstanding gas barrier properties especially when dry.
Polypropylene (PP)
Polypropylene films are undergoing a growth trend in the confectionery industry. They have better clarity
than polyethylenes and enjoy superior machineability due to stiffness. Lack of good sealability has been a
problem; however, PVDC and vinyl coating have been used to overcome this problem. Some varieties of
PP have been specially developed for twist-wrap applications as they have the ability to lock in position
after twisting. Pearlised polypropylene with an opal finish and attractive gloss is also used. Both as
laminates and overwraps, PP film is now widely used for all types of confectionery packaging
applications.
Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)
PVC is a stiff and clear film having low gas transmission rate. PVC can be used as small wraps, bags and
pouches. PVC when co-polymerised with polyvinylidene chloride is known as Saran. Since it is a costly
material, it is only used as a coating to obtain barrier properties and heat sealability. PVC film is also used
for twist wraps, as it has twist retention properties and is excellent on high-speed machines.
Polyesters (PET) and Polyamide (PA)
Polyethylene terephthalate film has high tensile strength, gloss and stiffness as well as puncture
resistance. It has moderate WVTR, but is a good barrier to volatiles and gases. To provide heat seal
property, PET is normally laminated to other substrates. Nylons or polyamides are similar to PET, but
have high WVTR.
Metallised Films
When polymeric films are metalized there is an improvement in their barrier properties. Metallisation is
also used for decorative purposes and aesthetics. The films, which are used for metallization are PVC,
PET, PP and polyamides. Hard-boiled sweets are generally twist wrapped individually in twist retaining
plastics such as Poly Vinyl Chloride, Polypropylene and High Density Polyethylene. To provide greater
protection against water vapor ingress, a secondary pouch made of LDPE or PP containing 100 grams to 1
kg of the product may be used.
Hard-boiled candies are also packed in tuck-fold heat sealable films. Medium hard sweets and
chewy candies such as caramels and toffees are either twist wrapped or packed in heat sealable tuck-fold
wraps. Special grades of HMHDPE, PP and PVC are used for this purpose. For gums, moderate moisture
barrier is required, “sweating” is to be avoided and a slight liberation of moisture is necessary. The
possibility of condensation is avoided by polyethylene.
The traditional wrapping for the chocolate slab is aluminium foil for the inner layer (0.012 mm) with the
dull side inside, a glassine layer over the foil to protect it and a printed coated bleached kraft sleeve.
A modification of this style of chocolate bar wrap is to use a heat seal coated foil inside the paper sleeve.
Securing of the paper sleeve is by hot melt adhesive. Another popular method of wrapping chocolate
slabs is on the horizontal form-fill-seal (HFFS) machines, when the reel of laminate is wrapped around
the slab, cut and heat sealed at both the ends and along a fin-style back seam. Typical constructions are:
• 12μ Polyester / 9μ Al foil / heat seal lacquer
• 40 gsm coated bleached kraft / 9μ Al foil / LDPE plus cold seal coating
Chocolate bar lines are mostly individually wrapped on the horizontal form-fill-seal (HFFS) machine. The
typical wrapping materials are Polyester, OPP - pearlised or metallised.
PACKAGING OF FLOUR CONFECTIONERIES
A wide variety of bakery products are available including bread, biscuits, cookies, cakes, buns, rusk, etc.
Bakery industry is one of the largest foods processing industries in Kenya and is rapidly growing because
of increased demand for baked goods as a result of industrialization and urbanization. Packaging of baked
goods constitutes 10-30% of the entire cost of the pack.
The main functions of a package are to (i) containing the product (ii) to protect the product and (iii) to
help in selling of the product. To perform these functions satisfactorily, the packaging materials should
have:
1. Necessary strength properties to withstand conditions of processing, storage and transport.
2. Should protect from environmental factors such as humidity, oxygen, light and heat.
3. Should have desired machinability, heat sealability and printability
4. It should preferably be economic and easily available.
NB: Baked goods are very susceptible to physico-chemical changes under adverse climatic conditions
e.g. desiccation in bread, loss of crispness and rancidity in biscuits and microbiological spoilage. So a
package designed for these products must take these factors also into consideration
Packaging requirements for bread
Packaging of bread must ensure hygiene, conserves moisture and prevents staling to keep it in as fresh a
condition as possible. The bread crust is dry and the breadcrumb contains moisture up to 40 per cent. The
bread crust has to be protected from moisture pick-up and breadcrumb should be protected from
evaporation of moisture. A good moisture barrier promotes mold growth and makes the crust soft while in
a poor barrier the bread dries out and stales. Staling occurs in 4-7 days after manufacture and is a property
of flour, method of baking and storage conditions.
The ideal bread packaging material must have following properties:
1. A barrier against contaminating agents and ensure a hygienic wrap free from dust etc.
2. To have optimum water vapor transmission rates (WVTR). It should conserve the moisture loss,
prevent rapid desiccation and staling. However, preventing condensation of water inside package may
cause growth of microbes and softening of the crust.
3. To have requisite physical strength property to provide some physical protection against bruising of the
product during transportation and storage.
4. The packaging material should possess good stiffness, tensile strength and tear resistance which is
required during bag forming, filling and sealing operation.
5. It should also resist the effect of creasing and folding.
6. It should have good printing surface and appearance.
7. Should be economical in keeping with the cost of the product.
8. It should provide user facilities such as easy opening and re closure.

Bread coming from the oven at temperatures slightly below 100 ° C will have moisture of about 40% at
the centre. The crust will be hotter, but much drier (12% moisture) and cools rapidly. During cooling,
moisture moves from the centre of the loaf outward towards the crust and then into the ambient
atmosphere. If the moisture content of the crust rises greatly, the result is the formation of leathery and
tough texture resulting in loss of crispness and attractive appearance. On aging, the breadcrumb becomes
more firm and opaque and the water absorbing capacity is reduced (due to changes in amylopectin of the
starch). The maximum staling rate occurs at 4 ° C, and reheating reverses this process.
Conventional packages
In the organized sector bakeries, bread is sliced and wrapped on automatic machines while in unorganized
sector, it is sold in relatively cheaper wraps such as poster paper, newspaper, etc. which result in
excessive moisture loss, stickiness, and even contamination of the product by surface printing ink and
tainting.
The standards of weight and measures act (SWMA) stipulate that bread should be sold in weights of 100,
200, 400, 500 and 1200 grams and hence generally bread is sold in waxed sulphite paper which carries
printed information regarding the brand, type and weight etc. Waxed papers used for bread and bun
packaging is generally made of a base paper made of bleached sulphite pulp with coating of wax blend
comprising paraffin wax, microcrystalline wax and hot melts.
Loose wrap: Loosely wrapped unsealed packs generally obtained by using one side waxed paper.
Primary pack (Regular): Individual pack made by using both sides waxed, printed paper having play
value and to be dispensed as a unit.
Secondary pack: A pack in which a product is pre-packed in a carton and subsequently over wrapped with
protective waxed wrappers.
Types of waxed papers:

Type 1: Both sides waxed, bleached TiO2 loaded paper, generally used for packaging bread.
Type 2: One side waxed, bleached TiO2 loaded paper, generally used for loose wraps of biscuits.
Type 3: Both sides waxed, bleached, TiO2 loaded paper, generally used for primary packs (regular) of
biscuits.
Type 4: Both sides waxed, bleached, greaseproof paper, generally used as inner wrapped in secondary
packs.
Type 5: Both sides waxed, bleached paper, and generally used as outer wrapper in secondary packs.
NB: Fixed paper: The material shall be uniformly coated with paraffin wax or its blends. They shall be
uniform in thickness and should not rupture on folding or twisting. The burst factor, i.e., bursting strength
to basis weight ratio shall be 13 (minimum) for all types. The tear factor shall be minimum of 33 in
machine direction and 40 in cross direction. The wax used shall have minimum melting point of 60° C.
Newer packages
Apart from waxed paper, cellophane was the next widely used packaging material for bakery industry.
Cellophanes are a range of materials with good clarity, printability, stiffness and ability to run well on
machines, with varying protective properties. They can provide optimum WVTR and have good odor and
gas barrier properties. The search for lower cost, packaging materials resulted in selection of polyolefin
plastics, LDPF, HDPE, HMHDPE, CPP and BOPP.
Low-density polyethylene film is soft, mostly transparent and has low WVTR and can provide good heat
seal. Its limp nature which makes it difficult to machine on over wrap equipments has hampered its
widespread use, but preformed bags, though costlier are used successfully as convenient consumer bags
for bread and buns. One advantage of such bags is the reclosure facility with thread, tip-top closures and
plastic clips. Bread bags are mostly made from 25 micron films which have a WVTR of 14-15 g/m2 24 hr
at 38°C condition and in thickness they are quite economical.
HDPE films having greater mechanical strength than LDPE and also having better barrier properties can
be formed into bags on thinner gauges. This can offset to some extent the higher cost of plastic packages.
Polypropylene, due to its greater clarity, rigidity and good machinability is being increasing used. PP is
found to be structurally adequate at thin gauges and hence more economical.
Newer developments in the field of bread packaging include certain process modifications in the product
to provide longer shelf life and modified and controlled atmospheric packaging using carbon dioxide. For
these applications, better barrier materials comprising coated PP, polyamide, polyester (plain and
metallised) and coextruded films have to be used.

QUALITY CONTROL

The better the quality, the greater the cost. For years, this supposition was thought to be valid, and indeed,
where the quality control emphasis is on finished product inspection, then it will apply.
Designer quality
The basic principles of quality control apply to all manufacturers; regardless of the products produced,
therefore parameters critical to the quality of its products will differ from those of other companies, even
within the same industry, depending on the products manufactured, the processes employed and the
market sector within which the company operates.
Quality control procedures therefore need to be tailored to fit the requirements of each individual
company, and indeed each manufacturing operation within the company. Hence the concept of ‘designer
quality’.
Control of raw materials and packaging
‘Know your supplier’ is a very important maxim in ensuring the consistent quality of materials supplied.
A good working relationship needs to be built up with suppliers; visits should be made to suppliers’
promises to gain knowledge of their process capabilities and assurance that they will be able to supply to
the required specification.

1. Receipt of materials
On arrival at the factory, the first task is to ensure that the material is in a satisfactory condition to be
unloaded from the delivery vehicle. In the case of bulk tanker deliveries, a sample should be taken and
tested immediately before allowing the material to be pumped into the factory‘s bulk storage tanks. Sacks
and cardboard cartons of dry goods should be free of staples and metal fastenings, and containers which
are damaged, heavily soiled or leaking should not be accepted. Deliveries of fruit and nuts require careful
inspection and rejection of the consignment at the slightest evidence of infestation. Materials carrying any
microbiological risk, such as skimmed-milk powder or cocoa powder, should be held in a separate
isolation store, until shown to be uncontaminated

2. Sampling
Correct technique is crucial to obtaining a representative sample of a delivery, and to ensuring that
samples for microbiological testing are taken aseptically. Different lot numbers present in a delivery
should be sampled and tested separately.
3. Testing
Responsibility for ensuring that a material complies with specification rests squarely with the supplier,
and the customer‘s laboratory should not find it necessary to perform a comprehensive range of quality
control checks on a delivery. Critical parameters should, however, be tested routinely, together with
checks which have commercial implications, e.g., solids content of glucose syrups or yield values on
flexible packaging.
1. Flexible packaging- yield, dimensions and coefficient of friction, with seal strength where appropriate.
2. Foil laminates- yield and sealing temperature routinely, with a complete breakdown on a random basis.
3. Waxed paper- yield, surface wax and total wax.
4. Cartons, tins, etc., - fit of lid to base.
5. All items- weight of a unit of wrap or pack, for tare purposes and corrections of print and color, and
odor and taint, where appropriate.

4. Process control
The primary requirements for adequate control of the manufacturing process are clearly defined recipes,
manufacturing procedures and specifications. To control the process thoroughly, the principle of hazard
analysis and critical control points (HACCP) should be utilized. In applying this, the process is analyzed
in detail, all operations which are critical to product quality identified, and appropriate controls
introduced, e.g., weights, mixing times, temperatures, vacuum levels, steam pressures, etc.,
5. Finished packs
Important attributes are general appearance, closures, correct data or batch coding and pack weights:
inefficiency in this last-mentioned area can be extremely costly to a company. When packing to a set
weight with an indeterminate number of pieces per pack, adjustments can, of course be made during
packing. This does not, however, detract from the importance of controlling individual piece weights
during manufacture, since this has a bearing on the achievable pack weight. With a pack containing a
fixed number of units, e.g., a presentation pack of pectin jellies, then weight control during manufacture
becomes crucial.

6. Sensory evaluation
As the confectionery industry is selling taste, texture and appearance, great importance must be attached
to the control of organoleptic quality. There are however, a number of constraints to placing a major
effort behind product testing:
1. Finished product is being tested, rather than control being applied to the process.
2. The number of samples the human palate can taste in one session is very limited.
3. Palate sensitivity varies during the day.
4. Most products require 24h from manufacture for the flavor and texture to mature.

Having said this, it is generally very useful to have information on organoleptic quality from the
following sources:
1. Routine daily evaluation by a panel of trained tasters
2. On-line tasting by operators-this gives a more rapid feedback of any problems arising.
3. Regular tasting by marketing management, to maintain their awareness of the standard quality levels of
manufactured product, and provide an opportunity for comment against their perception of the product.

Sensory evaluation is very subjective, but becomes less so with correct training of the panel, a carefully
considered questionnaire and the proper use of statistics.
7. Hygiene
The majority of sugar confectionery products are boiled to a temperature sufficient to kill any harmful
bacteria present. However, surface contamination can always occur in the subsequent handling of
products after they have cooled down, and thus products with lower solids levels, or which have not been
boiled, can be subject to microbiological contamination. Good hygiene practices are therefore of
paramount importance.

Microbiological testing
The number of incidents of microbiological contamination of foodstuff is increasing rapidly, foods which
were previously thought to be safe are increasingly found to be not so, and today‘s consumer is far more
aware of the problem. New, rapid testing methods, e.g, Bactometer, are being introduced, which are more
reliable and sensitive than traditional methods. Some testing is therefore considered necessary, and the
extent to which this is required will be identified by the HACCP analysis. The following are
recommended:
1) The testing before use of any raw materials which may be considered a risk, or alternatively the receipt
of microbiological certificate of analysis with the delivery.
2) Routine swabbing of the factory to confirm the effectiveness of cleaning.
3) Random swabbing of operators’ hands, to ensure compliance with the hand-washing procedures.
4) Testing of any finished products identified as being susceptible to contamination.
5) Monitoring of cooling water systems for Legionella

If testing is performed on site, then the microbiology laboratory should be physically separated from the
factory, to prevent any risk of cross-contamination

Foreign matter

At the very least, it is extremely unpleasant for a consumer to find foreign matter in a foodstuff. At worst,
it can cause injury and be very costly to the manufacturing company in terms of compensation, lost
reputation and consequent lost sales. Every precaution must therefore be taken to prevent this sort of
contamination, and the following action is recommended:
1) Sort fruit and nuts, and pass them through a metal detector, before use.
2) Pass materials and mixes through sieves or in-line filters at appropriate stages in the process.
3) Keep wooden pallets out of processing areas.
4) Debox raw materials before they enter processing areas.
5) Prevent glass from entering the factory: protect all lights and ensure all internal windows are of
Perspex.
6) Keep paperclips, staples, drawing pins, etc, out of the factory.
7) Ban smoking on site, with the possible exception of designated areas within the canteen.
8) Provide maintenance engineers with containers in which to place nuts, bolts, washers, etc., when
working on-line.
9) Do not permit ‘tape engineering’ i.e, repairs effected with adhesive tape, string etc.,
10) Regularly inspect conveyor belts for fraying edges and trim or replace as soon as necessary.
11) Pass product through metal detectors as late as possible in the process, ideally as finished packs.
12) Employ a reputable firm of specialists to provide a comprehensive pest control service.
13) Keep doors shut and screen any windows which need to be opened.

NB: This list is not exhaustive, but covers the main points.
8. Legislation
Compliance with food legislation, with regard to composition and labeling, must be built in at the
development stage, taking due account of any export requirements. With the increasing complexity of
legislation relating to foodstuffs, it is frequently necessary to seek advice on the matter, either from a
specialist consultant, or from a trade or research association; the authors have found local trading
standards officers very willing to advice on the legality of labeling.