An Experimental Analysis of Cycling in An Automotive Air Conditioning System

Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 1039±1058
www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng
An experimental analysis of cycling in an automotive air

conditioning system
Eric B. Ratts a,*, J. Steven Brown b
a
The University of Michigan-Dearborn, 4901 Evergreen Road, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA
b
The Catholic University of America, 620 Michigan Avenue, N.E. Washington, DC 20064, USA
Received 11 May 1999; accepted 20 September 1999
Abstract
In the majority of automotive air conditioning systems, the compressor continuously cycles on and o
to meet the steady-state cooling requirements of the passenger compartment. Since the compressor is a
belt-driven accessory device coupled to the engine, its cycling rate is directly related to the vehicle speed.
The refrigeration system's losses increase with increasing vehicle speed and thus with increasing
compressor cycling. This paper identi®es and quanti®es individual losses in an automotive vapor-
compression refrigeration system during compressor cycling. The second law of thermodynamics, in
particular, nondimensional entropy generation, is used to quantify the thermodynamic losses of the
refrigeration system's individual components under steady driving conditions at idle, 48.3 kph (30 mph),
and 96.6 kph (60 mph). A passenger vehicle containing a cycling-clutch ori®ce-tube vapor±compression
refrigeration system was instrumented to measure refrigerant temperature and pressure, and air
temperature and relative humidity. Data were collected under steady driving conditions at idle, 48.3 kph
(30 mph), and 96.6 kph (60 mph). A thermodynamic analysis is presented to determine the refrigeration
system's performance. This analysis shows that the performance of the system degrades with increasing
vehicle speed. Thermodynamic losses increase 18% as the vehicle speed changes from idle to 48.3 kph
(30 mph) and increase 5% as the vehicle speed changes from 48.3 kph (30 mph) to 96.6 kph (60 mph).
The compressor cycling rate increases with increasing vehicle speed, thus increasing the refrigeration
system's losses. The component with the greatest increase in thermodynamic losses as a result of
compressor cycling is the compressor itself. Compressor cycling reduces the compressor's isentropic
eciency, and thus the system's thermodynamic performance. The individual component losses of the
refrigeration system are quanti®ed. The redistribution of these losses is also given as a function of
increasing vehicle speed (i.e. increasing compressor cycling). At 96.6 kph (60 mph), the thermodynamic
losses, based on the ratio of entropy generation to entropic load, are 0.22, 0.10, 0.07, and 0.02 in the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-313-593-4969; fax: +1-313-593-3851.

E-mail address: ratts@umich.edu (E.B. Ratts).
1359-4311/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 5 9 - 4 3 1 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 8 0 - 0
1040 E.B. Ratts, J.S. Brown / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 1039±1058
Nomenclature
A ori®ce tube cross-sectional area, (m2)

C ori®ce tube discharge coecient
COP coecient of performance
cp speci®c heat at constant pressure, (kJ/kg K)
h speci®c enthalpy, (kJ/kg)
m mass transfer, (kg)
m_ mass ¯owrate, (kg/s)
P pressure, (N/m2)
Q heat transfer, (kJ)
Q_ heat transfer rate, (kW)
R gas constant, (kJ/kg K)
S entropy transfer, (kJ/K)
s speci®c entropy, (kJ/kg K)
S_ entropy transfer rate, (kW/K)
T temperature, (K)
t time, (s)
V_ volumetric ¯owrate, (m3/s)
W work, (kJ)
f relative humidity
Z eciency
r density, (kg/m3)
o humidity ratio, (kg(v)/kg(a))
Subscript
a dry air
actual actual cycle
air moist air
c compressor
Carnot Carnot cycle
cond condenser
evap evaporator
f ¯ux over one cycle
g saturated water vapor
gen generation
H high
L low
ot ori®ce tube
th cycle thermal eciency
tot total
V volumetric eciency
v water vapor
1,2,. . . reference to location on Fig. 1
E.B. Ratts, J.S. Brown / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 1039±1058 1041
compressor, the condenser, the evaporator-accumulator, and the ori®ce tube, respectively. The
compressor losses dominated the overall system performance. The overall system eciency could be
signi®cantly improved by increasing the compressor's eciency. The compressor's eciency could be
improved by reducing or eliminating cycling, such as could be accomplished by using a variable capacity
compressor or by not directly coupling the compressor to the engine. Another way to increase the
compressor's volumetric eciency during cycling would be to reduce the compressor operating range.
This could be accomplished by using two compressors such as is done in two-stage cascade refrigeration
systems. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Air conditioning; Automotive; Cycling; Entropy generation; Thermodynamic losses
1. Introduction
In the majority of automotive air conditioning systems, the compressor continuously cycles
on and o to meet the cooling load of the evaporator. It also does so to avoid condensate
from freezing on the airside of the evaporator. Many other refrigeration systems, for example
normal household refrigerators, cycle the compressor on and o in order to match the system
capacity to the thermal load. Unfortunately, compressor cycling creates additional
thermodynamic losses, that is, mechanical and thermal dissipation, above and beyond the
losses generated during steady-state operation.
Rubas and Bullard [1] presented a detailed experimental analysis of the refrigerant migration
and its general eect on system coecient of performance (COP). During the o-cycle in a
capillary tube system, refrigerant ¯ows from the high-pressure side to the low-pressure side and
provides a thermal load to the evaporator, ultimately reducing the performance. In addition,
the COP is degraded because of the ®nite time it takes, at the beginning of the on-cycle, to
redistribute the migrated mass back to the high-pressure side. Quanti®cation of the losses was
not given. Krause and Bullard [2] and Coulter and Bullard [3] quanti®ed the losses of a cycling
refrigerator with those that occur during steady state operation. A steady state model was
developed and was used to compare an actual cycling refrigerator. The comparison was based
on a time-averaged COP. Park et al. [4] performed experiments on a stationary refrigeration
system using compact car components and simulating driving conditions. They conducted tests
over a wide range of operating conditions and presented the eects of humidity, compression
ratio, and air inlet temperatures on the COP.
To improve a refrigeration system's performance, the thermodynamic losses must be
identi®ed, quanti®ed, and ultimately reduced. In this paper, we follow an approach similar to
that of Meunier [5] and Franconi [6] and use the second law of thermodynamics, in particular,
we use entropy generation, as a way of identifying and quantifying the signi®cant losses in an
automotive vapor-compression refrigeration system. Our aim is to provide a framework for
vehicle climate control design engineers to use in order to improve a refrigeration system's
performance.
First, we describe the vehicle refrigeration system used in this study and explain its
operation. This is followed by a development of the thermodynamic equations needed to
evaluate the refrigeration system's performance. We then describe actual vehicle experiments
and present their associated data. Finally, we present some conclusions.
2. Background
Fig. 1 shows a simpli®ed ¯ow schematic of the vehicle air conditioning system used in this
study. The refrigeration system is a mechanically-driven vapor-compression system consisting
of a compressor, a condenser, an ori®ce tube, an evaporator, and a charge reservoir/dehydrator
(otherwise known as an accumulator). The vehicle air conditioning system used in this study
was a HFC-134a a/c unit for a Lincoln Mark VIII. Vapor refrigerant (state 1) is compressed
from a low-pressure vapor to a superheated, high-pressure vapor (state 2) by the compressor.
Fig. 1. Flow schematic of air conditoning system.

The superheated refrigerant enters the condenser where it rejects energy to the ram air (state
12) which ¯ows across the cross-¯ow heat exchanger. The refrigerant condenses to a high
pressure liquid (state 3). The refrigerant is then throttled via an ori®ce tube to a low-pressure
two-phase mixture (state 4). The mixture passes through the evaporator where it absorbs
energy from the air which ¯ows across the cross-¯ow heat exchanger. The refrigerant exits the
evaporator (state 5) as a two-phase mixture or as a vapor depending on the amount of energy
absorbed in the evaporator, and then ¯ows into the accumulator. The compressor draws vapor
from the accumulator to begin the cycle all over again. The air¯ow across the evaporator is
either recirculated air (state 10) from the passenger compartment (state 9) or fresh air drawn
from the outside (state 11), or some combination of the two. If the temperature of the air
exiting the evaporator (state 7) is too low to achieve passenger thermal comfort, then a portion
of the air can be diverted across a cross-¯ow heat exchanger (heater core) in order to reheat it.
This hot air is then mixed with the cold air that was allowed to bypass the heater core. Finally,
the mixed air (state 8) is directed into the passenger compartment.
The refrigerant system reaches a steady-state operating condition when the mass ¯owrate
through the compressor is equal to the amount of vapor generated in the evaporator. The
system is designed to operate under a wide range of heat load conditions, and as such the
capacity of the ®xed volume compressor is larger than needed under most operating
conditions. To allow the system to function across a wide range of environmental conditions,
the compressor is cycled on and o based on the low-side refrigerant pressure. The compressor
is shut o when the pressure in the accumulator falls below a preset value (chosen to assure
that condensate does not freeze on the evaporator). Even after the compressor shuts o, there
will still persist a pressure imbalance across the ori®ce tube that will force refrigerant to ¯ow
from the condenser to the evaporator. As the evaporator ®lls with refrigerant, its pressure will
increase. Once the low-side refrigerant pressure reaches the preset level, the compressor will
restart. The compressor is continuously turned on and o in this manner; hence, the name
cycling-clutch, ori®ce-tube (CCOT) refrigeration system.
During compressor cycling, the system attempts to achieve a cyclical steady state. This,
however, is dicult to obtain because of changing engine speeds that occur during typical
driving conditions. When the engine speed changes so does the compressor speed, which results
in a ¯uctuation of the refrigerant mass ¯owrate. As the compressor cycles on and o more
frequently, the cycling losses increase, reducing the overall system performance. It is the
purpose of this paper to identify and quantify the individual refrigerant system component
losses during compressor cycling.
Steady-state losses are losses that occur when the compressor operates at a single continuous
speed. The compressor never shuts o since the refrigeration capacity matches the evaporator
load, and as such the work transfer rates and the heat transfer rates are constant with time. An
actual CCOT system, however, can only approach steady-state operation when it is operating
in extreme environmental conditions (high ambient temperature and/or high ambient
humidity). Under steady-state operating conditions, each of the refrigerant components
contribute a steady-state loss to the overall refrigeration system loss. These losses can be
grouped into two primary categories: (i) frictional losses referred to as DP-losses and (ii) heat
transfer losses referred to as DT-losses. The loss within the compressor primarily involves the
previously mentioned losses and mixing losses. Because of these losses, the actual compressor
mass ¯owrate is reduced below the ideal condition. The reduction of mass ¯owrate is de®ned
by a single parameter, the volumetric eciency, ZV , which is de®ned as the actual mass
¯owrate divided by the ideal mass ¯owrate based on the inlet density, compressor speed, and
compressor working volume.
Cyclical steady-state losses occur when the refrigeration system is cycling but the refrigerant
passes through the same states between cycles, that is the property-time plots are identical from
cycle to cycle. Compressor cycling increases the losses in each of the individual refrigeration
system components. For example, the peak temperature dierence between the air and the
refrigerant in the condenser is larger than it is during steady-state operation to eectively
provide a given amount of heat transfer per cycle. This is likewise the case for the evaporator.
Both of these situations lead to increased DT-losses. The DP-losses that occur during cycling
are also larger than they are during steady-state operation. This is because the refrigerant mass
¯owrate through the compressor is larger than the rate at which vapor is generated in the
evaporator. The larger than expected refrigerant mass ¯owrate leads to increased DP-losses.
3. Eciency based on the second law of thermodynamics
In this section, an eciency parameter, based on the second law of thermodynamics, is

developed with the aim of providing a means to compare refrigeration systems that operate
between dierent thermal reservoirs. The most common approach in determining a system's
performance is to use a ®rst law eciency, or a coecient of performance (COP) de®ned as
QL
COP 1
QH ÿ QL
where QL is the refrigeration capacity and QH is the heat rejection to the high-temperature
thermal reservoir. When comparing the performance of two dierent systems, or even the same
system, operating between dierent thermal reservoirs, one can not directly compare the COPs.
One way to overcome this shortcoming is to compare the system's actual performance to that
of a reversed Carnot cycle operating between the same thermal reservoirs. The COP of a
reversed Carnot cycle is given by
TL
COPCarnot 2
TH ÿ TL
where TL and TH are the temperatures of the low-temperature and high-temperature thermal
reservoirs, respectively. In this way, two dierent systems, or even the same system, operating
between dierent thermal reservoirs can be evaluated by comparing the system's actual
performance to the ideal performance. Thus, the ratio
COPactual
Zth 3
COPCarnot
can be de®ned and used to compare the performances of systems operating between dierent
thermal reservoirs.
Another, and better way, to compare systems operating between dierent thermal reservoirs
is to make use of entropy generation. The total entropy generation for a system operating
between thermal reservoirs TL and TH is given by
QH QL
Sgen, tot ÿ 4
TH TL
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) into Eq. (4) results in the nondimensional entropy generation ratio

1
1
Sgen, tot COP
ÿ1 5
SL 1
1
COPCarnot
where SL QL =TL is the entropic capacity. Eqs. (3) and (5) both yield overall system eciencies
that can be used to compare two systems that operate between dierent thermal reservoirs.
After it has been identi®ed that one system is thermodynamically better than the other, it is
insightful to identify, to quantify, and more importantly to compare the sources of these losses.
An energy analysis alone cannot give this information. It is dicult to compare thermal and
mechanical dissipation using an energy analysis; however, an entropy generation analysis gives
one the means to compare thermal and mechanical dissipation on an even footing.
Eq. (5) gives the basis for comparing individual component losses among systems that
operate between dierent thermal reservoirs. Note that the total entropy generation is additive,
that is, the total entropy generated is the sum of the entropy generated by each of the
individual components. Therefore, since the ratio of the total entropy generated to the entropic
load can be compared between systems operating between dierent thermal reservoirs using
Eq. (5), then also the ratio of component entropy generation to the entropic load can be
compared between systems operating between dierent thermal reservoirs using Eq. (5). This is
the fundamental and thermodynamic basis for our analysis.
4. System analysis
In this section, equations are developed which allow us to analyze the performance of a
refrigeration system. The ®rst step in the analysis is to ensure conservation of mass. During
cyclical steady-state operation the cyclic-integrated refrigerant mass ¯ux at any point in the
system is constant, that is, over a cycle, there is no net accumulation of mass at any point in
the system. During the cycle, however, the instantaneous refrigerant mass ¯owrate may not be
uniform throughout the entire system. For example, after the compressor clutch has been
disengaged, the instantaneous mass ¯owrate through the ori®ce tube may be nonzero even
though the instantaneous mass ¯owrate through the compressor is zero. In mathematical
terms, the mass balance at any point in the system can be expressed as

m_ dt mf 6
where m_ is the instantaneous mass ¯owrate, dt is a dierential amount of time, and mf is the
mass ¯ux integrated over one cycle.
The instantaneous mass ¯owrate through the compressor, m_ c , is given by
m_ c r1 V_ c ZV 7
where r1 is the refrigerant density at the compressor inlet (state 1 in Fig. 1), V_ c is the ideal
volumetric ¯owrate (compressor displacement volume multiplied by the compressor speed)
through the compressor, and ZV is the volumetric eciency of the compressor. Recall that the
volumetric eciency is the ratio of the actual amount of mass that enters the compression
volume to the ideal amount of mass that would enter the compression volume at the inlet
density. The actual mass that is drawn into the compression volume is less than the ideal
amount due to such eects as residual ¯uid left in the compression volume and the volume
walls being at a higher temperature than the incoming refrigerant. Therefore, irreversible
mixing of the incoming refrigerant with the residual gas and the irreversible heat transfer
between the hot walls and the cooler incoming refrigerant causes the density of the incoming
refrigerant to decrease, thus not allowing the ideal amount of mass to enter the compression
volume.
The instantaneous mass ¯owrate through the ori®ce tube, m_ ot , can be written as
p
m_ ot CA r3 P3 ÿ P4 8
where C is the ori®ce tube discharge coecient, A is the minimum cross-sectional area of the
ori®ce tube, r3 is the refrigerant density at the inlet of the ori®ce tube, and P3 and P4 are the
pressures at the inlet and outlet of the ori®ce tube, respectively. Substituting Eqs. (7) and (8)
into Eq. (6), we obtain a relationship between the eective ori®ce tube discharge coecient and
the eective volumetric ¯owrate through the compressor:
p
ZV r1 V_ c dt CA r3 P3 ÿ P4 dt 9
The second step in the analysis is to ensure conservation of energy, that is, energy must be
conserved over a cycle. The energy absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator is equal to
the energy removed from the air, which can be expressed as

_
Qevap Qevap dt r6 V_ a h6 ÿ h7 dt 10
where Q_ evap is the instantaneous heat transfer rate from the air to the refrigerant in the
evaporator, r6 is the density of the air at the evaporator inlet, V_ a is the steady volumetric
¯owrate of the air, and h6 and h7 are the enthalpies of the moist air at the inlet and the outlet
of the evaporator, respectively. The enthalpy of the moist air, hair (kJ/kg(a)), can be expressed
as
hair ha T ohv T 11

where ha T is the dry air enthalpy, T is the air temperature, o is the humidity ratio, and
hv T is the water vapor enthalpy.
The energy absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator is

Qevap m_ c h1 dt ÿ m_ ot h4 dt 12
where h1 and h4 are the refrigerant enthalpies at the outlet of the accumulator and the inlet to
the evaporator, respectively. The accumulator is assumed to be adiabatic. Substituting Eqs.
(7)±(9) into Eq. (12), we obtain the expression for the energy absorbed by the refrigerant in the
evaporator:
8 9
>
> _
r1 Vc dt >
>
< p =
Qevap ZV r1 V_ c h1 dt ÿ p r3 P3 ÿ P4 h4 dt 13
>
> >
>
: r3 P3 ÿ P4 dt ;
Eqs. (10) and (13) can be set equal to one another to determine the volumetric eciency of the
compressor. Once the volumetric eciency of the compressor is known, the instantaneous mass
¯owrate through the compressor, the instantaneous mass ¯owrate through the ori®ce tube, and
the ori®ce tube discharge coecient can be calculated from Eqs. (7), (8) and (9), respectively.
The other energy transfers that occur during the cycle can also be determined. The heat
transfer from the refrigerant in the condenser to the air ¯owing across the condenser is

Qcond m_ c h2 dt ÿ m_ ot h3 dt 14
where h2 and h3 are the refrigerant enthalpies at the inlet and outlet of the condenser,
respectively. The work transfer to the refrigerant in the compressor is
Wc Qcond ÿ Qevap 15
The refrigeration system can be thought of as an entropy pump whose task is to remove
entropy from the low-temperature thermal reservoir (the passenger compartment) and transfer
it to the high-temperature thermal reservoir (the ambient). The ideal performance of the
entropy pump is for it to transfer the entropy load from the low-temperature thermal reservoir
to the high-temperature thermal reservoir without generating entropy as a result of dissipative
eects. For a given temperature lift, the system has a higher eciency if it generates a smaller
amount of entropy during the transfer of the entropic load. The entropy generated by the
system is simply the dierence between the entropic load and the entropy transferred to the
high-temperature thermal reservoir. Mathematically this can be expressed as
Sgen, tot SH
ÿ1 16
SL SL
where Sgen, tot is the total amount of entropy generated, SL is the entropy transfer from the low-
temperature thermal reservoir to the evaporator, and SH is the entropy transfer from the
condenser to the high-temperature thermal reservoir. The ratio Sgen, tot =SL is a measure of the
actual system performance compared to the ideal (reversible) case. The derivation of this ratio
is given in Eq. (5).
To calculate the ratio Sgen, tot =SL , the entropy transfers SL and SH must ®rst be determined.
The entropy transfer from the low-temperature thermal reservoir to the evaporator is

SL r6 V_ a s6 ÿ s7 dt 17
where s6 and s7 are the speci®c entropies of the moist air at the inlet and outlet of the
evaporator, respectively. The speci®c entropy of the moist air, sair (kJ/kg K) can be determined
by

sair cP, a lnT o sg T ÿ Rv lnf 18
where cP, a is the speci®c heat at constant pressure of the dry air, T is the moist air
temperature, sg T is the saturated water vapor speci®c entropy, Rv is the water vapor gas
constant, and f is the moist air relative humidity. The entropy transfer from the condenser to
the high-temperature thermal reservoir is
_
Qcond Qcond
SH dt 19
T13 T13
where T13 is the ambient air temperature. The heat transfer from the condenser, Qcond , is given
by Eq. (14).
The entropy generation ratio Sgen =SL can also be used to compare losses in the individual
refrigerant components. It may be of interest, under given operating conditions, to identify the
amount of entropy generated by the individual components as compared to the overall entropy
generated. This information can indicate where resources should be spent in order to improve
the overall system performance.
The entropy generated in the evaporator is

Sgen, evap m_ c s1 ÿ m_ ot s4 dt ÿ SL 20
The entropy ¯ux due to the condensate is neglected since it is of the order of only 0.2% of the
entropic load. In all the studied cases in this paper, the blower speed (i.e. volumetric ¯owrate
of the air) is held constant and thus the losses are constant. The entropy generated in the
compressor is

Sgen, c m_ c s2 ÿ s1 dt 21
The entropy generated in the ori®ce tube is

Sgen, ot m_ ot s4 ÿ s3 dt 22
The entropy generated in the condenser is

Sgen, cond m_ c s2 ÿ m_ ot s3 dt ÿ SH 23
5. Experimental method
The air conditioning system of a passenger vehicle was instrumented to measure the
refrigerant temperature and pressure at several locations and the air temperature and relative
humidity at several locations. The refrigerant temperature and pressure were measured at
locations 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 as de®ned in Fig. 1. The accuracy of the pressure measurements was
20.034 bar (20.5 psi) with temperature compensation over the range ÿ1±858C (30±1858F).
The refrigerant temperatures were measured with T-type thermocouples in stainless steel
thermowells. The thermocouples were calibrated to provide an accuracy of 20.58C (20.98F).
The engine speed was monitored using a tachometer with an accuracy of 25 rpm. The air
temperatures were measured at locations 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 as de®ned in Fig. 1. They
were measured with exposed soldered-joint, T-type thermocouples. The thermocouples were
calibrated to provide an accuracy of 21.08C (21.88F). The relative humidity (rh) of the air was
measured at locations 6, 8, and 13 as de®ned in Fig. 1. The accuracy of the relative humidity
measurements was 22% rh over the range 5%±95% rh. The volumetric ¯owrate of the air was
determined by averaging velocity measurements taken downstream of the evaporator using a
hot-wire anemometer.
The vehicle was tested at steady driving conditions of idle, 48.3 kph (30 mph), and 96.6 kph
(60 mph). The air conditioning system was operated in recirculation mode, that is, no fresh air
was introduced into the passenger compartment. Measurements were made only after the
refrigeration system had reached a cyclical steady-state operating condition.
6. Results and discussion
Experimental data were recorded at steady vehicle driving speeds of idle, 48.3 kph (30 mph),
and 96.6 kph (60 mph). These experimental data, along with the equations developed in the
System Analysis section, were used to quantify the losses in the refrigeration system. The
thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant were determined using the software CATT [7].
Before the processed results are presented, we will brie¯y discuss some of the raw
temperature data. Fig. 2 is a plot of some of the instantaneous temperatures recorded at idle.
As can be seen from the ®gure, no cycling was occurring, that is, the system was running
continuously. The ambient air temperature was approximately 258C (778F) and the bulk air
temperature in the passenger compartment was approximately 208C (688F) for an overall
temperature dierence of about 58C (98F). The bulk air temperature in the passenger
compartment was determined by averaging several thermocouples placed throughout the
passenger compartment. The refrigerant temperature at the condenser exit was 508C (1228F).
The heat transfer from the condenser is ultimately rejected to the ambient. Thus, the thermal
dissipation from the two-phase refrigerant mixture in the condenser occurred over a ®nite
temperature dierence of 258C (458F). The two-phase refrigerant mixture in the evaporator
was at 08C (328F). The temperature of the air downstream of the evaporator and just before
entering the passenger compartment was approximately 158C (598F). Thus, the thermal
dissipation due to the evaporator and the associated ductwork occurred over a ®nite
temperature dierence of 158C (278F). There was an additional thermal dissipation of 58C
(98F) that occurred from the inlet to the passenger compartment (i.e. the register exit) to the
bulk air of the passenger compartment. The total thermal dissipation due to the evaporator
thus occurred over a ®nite temperature dierence of 208C (368F).
Fig. 3 is a plot of the same types of instantaneous temperatures discussed in Fig. 2. The data
were recorded at a steady driving speed of 48.3 kph (30 mph). The ®rst obvious dierence
regarding Fig. 3 is that compressor cycling was occurring at this condition (48.3 kph (30
mph)). The ambient air temperature was approximately 308C (868F) and the bulk air
temperature in the passenger compartment was approximately 228C (71.68F) for an overall
temperature dierence of about 88C (14.48F). The temperature of the two-phase refrigerant
mixture in the condenser dropped to approximately 368C (96.88F). Since the vehicle was driven
Fig. 2. Measured temperatures for idle.

at a steady speed, the temperature of the air entering the condenser was lower than it was at
idle. This ultimately reduced the temperature of the refrigerant mixture in the condenser. Note:
at idle hot air from the engine compartment recirculates through the condenser. The
temperature dierence between the two-phase refrigerant mixture in the condenser and the
ambient air was approximately 68C (10.88F), which reduced the thermal dissipation as
compared to the idle condition. The temperature dierence between the two-phase refrigerant
mixture in the evaporator and the air entering the passenger compartment (i.e. register exit)
varied because of the compressor cycling between approximately 08C and 108C (328F and
508F). The temperature dierence between the register air and bulk air in the passenger
compartment was approximately 128C (21.68F). The maximum overall temperature dierence
was approximately 228C (39.68F).
Fig. 4 is a plot of the same types of instantaneous temperatures already discussed in Figs. 2
and 3. The data were recorded at a steady driving speed of 96.6 kph (60 mph). The ambient air
temperature was approximately 298C (84.28F) and the bulk air temperature in the passenger
compartment was approximately 228C (71.68F) for an overall temperature dierence of about
78C (12.68F). The temperature of the two-phase refrigerant mixture in the condenser dropped
Fig. 3. Measured temperatures for 48.3 kph.

to approximately 338C (91.48F). The temperature of the refrigerant mixture in the condenser
dropped approximately 38C (5.48F) from the 48.3 kph (30 mph) case. This dierence can be
attributed to the increased vehicle speed. However, it can be concluded that a vehicle speed of
48.3 kph (30 mph) is enough to cool the engine compartment and to provide the necessary air
¯owrate to the condenser. The additional vehicle speed provided only marginal improvement.
The temperature dierence between the two-phase refrigerant mixture in the condenser and the
ambient air was approximately 48C (7.28F), which reduced the thermal dissipation with respect
to both the idle condition and the 48.3 kph (30 mph) case. The temperature dierence between
the two-phase refrigerant mixture in the evaporator and the air entering the passenger
compartment (i.e. register exit) varied because of the compressor cycling between 08C and 108C
(328F and 508F) just as it did in the 48.3 kph (30 mph) case. The total thermal dissipation due
to the evaporator thus occurred over a maximum temperature dierence of approximately
228C (39.68F) just as it did in the 48.3 kph (30 mph) case.
Fig. 5 shows that the total entropy generated, based on the assumptions discussed in the
previous sections, increased as the vehicle speed increased (i.e. with increased compressor
cycling). The total entropy generated per entropic capacity for idle, 48.3 kph (30 mph), and
Fig. 4. Measured temperature for 98.6 kph.

96.6 kph (60 mph) were 0.33, 0.39, and 0.41, respectively. The increase from idle to 48.3 kph
(30 mph) was 18%, and from 48.3 kph (30 mph) to 96.6 kph (60 mph) was 5%. Thus, the
system performance dropped as the compressor cycling increased. This is not immediately
obvious from the raw temperature data presented in Figs. 2±4 since the maximum temperature
dierences for both the evaporator and the condenser decreased with increasing vehicle speed.
To help explain the trend seen in Fig. 5, we will take a closer look at the individual component
irreversibilities.
Fig. 6 is a plot of the entropy generation distribution within the individual refrigeration
system components. The entropy generated by the evaporator-accumulator, the compressor,
the ori®ce tube, and the condenser are all shown in the ®gure with respect to the entropic load.
The evaporator loss did not change signi®cantly as the compressor cycling increased, in
comparison to the other losses. It increased only 25% from idle to the highest speed. The
temperature dierence between the two-phase refrigerant mixture in the evaporator and the
bulk air in the passenger compartment for all three cases were similar. As expected, the
condenser suered its biggest loss at idle. This is because of the large temperature dierence
between the two-phase refrigerant mixture in the condenser and the ambient air. Also at idle,
the condenser loss of 0.13 was larger than the compressor loss of 0.087. This was not expected
since in most vapor-compression refrigeration systems, the compressor is typically responsible
for the largest percentage of the loss. The condenser loss decreased 25% from a value of 0.13
Fig. 5. Entropy generatiion versus vehicle speed.

at idle to a value of 0.098 at 48.3 kph (30 mph). At this condition, the condenser loss is 44%
higher than the evaporator loss of 0.068. As cycling further increased, the 96.6 kph (60 mph)
case, the distribution of the losses in the condenser and the evaporator remained nearly the
same as the 48.3 kph (30 mph) case.
As can also be seen in Fig. 6, the entropy generation associated with the ori®ce tube
throttling process decreased as the vehicle speed increased. At idle, 48.3 kph (30 mph), and
96.6 kph (60 mph), the ori®ce tube losses were 0.056, 0.027, and 0.019, respectively. The
decrease in the throttling losses can be attributed to the same eect that led to a decrease in
the condenser losses.
The compressor loss increased from 0.087 at idle, to 0.20 at 48.3 kph (30 mph), and ®nally
to 0.22 at 96.6 kph (60 mph). This is an increase of 130% from idle to 48.3 kph (30 mph) and
10% from 48.3 kph (30 mph) to 96.6 kph (60 mph). Therefore, the increase in overall entropy
generated that was seen in Fig. 5 as the vehicle speed increased can be attributed to an increase
in compressor losses. The compressor cycling leads to an increase in overall system entropy
generation and thus to a decrease in overall system performance. We will now take a closer
look at the compressor irreversibilities.
Fig. 6. Eect of vehicle speed on component entropy generation.

It is interesting to compare the compression pressure ratio with the compression temperature
ratio. As the pressure ratio drops, it is expected that the temperature ratio must also drop for
an isentropic compression or for a constant compressor isentropic eciency. In fact the
temperature ratio increased with decreasing pressure ratio. Fig. 7 shows the instantaneous
compression temperature ratio. It shows that the average compression temperature ratio
increases with cycling. Table 1 shows the time-averaged compression temperature ratio. It
increased from 1.275 at idle, to 1.302 at 48.3 kph (30 mph), and ®nally to 1.311 at 96.6 (60
mph). The isentropic eciency decreased as compressor cycling increased. The irreversible
mixing of the incoming refrigerant with the residual gas, the irreversible heat transfer between
the hot walls and the cooler incoming refrigerant, and the pressure drop losses through the
valves lead to an overall increase in losses as the compressor cycling increased.
Table 1 also shows some other important information for the cycle. Column four lists the
average reservoir temperature ratio between the ambient air and the bulk air in the passenger
compartment. In all three cases they are almost the same. Column ®ve in the table is the time-
averaged compression pressure ratio. As the vehicle speed increased, the pressure ratio
decreased. The reduction in pressure ratio is directly related to the increased condenser air¯ow.
Fig. 8 shows the instantaneous pressure ratio for the three vehicle speeds. The maximum
instantaneous pressure ratios are higher during cycling; however, it can be seen that the
Fig. 7. Transient compression temperature ratio.

Table 1
System parameters
Vehicle Discharge Volumetric Reservoir Compression Compression Cycling Heat Mass ¯ow,
speed, coecient, eciency, temperature pressure ratio, temperature rate, transfer, m
V (kph) C Zv ratio, T13 =T9 P2 =P1 ratio, T2 =T1 o (rad/s) QL (kW) (kg/s)
0 0.45 0.56 1.018 4.685 1.275 0 3.31 0.048

48.3 0.48 0.62 1.025 3.673 1.302 0.14 2.17 0.036
96.6 0.47 0.52 1.021 3.335 1.311 0.18 2.04 0.040
average values are still below those that occurred at idle. Column seven provides the actual
compressor cycling rate, which increased signi®cantly from idle to 48.3 kph (30 mph). The
increase in the cycling rate is much less as the vehicle speed increased from 48.3 kph (30 mph)
to 96.6 kph (60 mph). This may help to explain the larger changes that occurred between idle
and 48.3 kph (30 mph) than the changes that occurred between 48.3 kph (30 mph) and 96.6
(60 mph).
7. Conclusions
Thermodynamic losses in a cycling-clutch ori®ce-tube vapor-compression refrigeration

system have been quanti®ed. We have shown that the eciency can be based on
nondimensional entropy generation as given by Eq. (16). Our analysis, based on the second
law of thermodynamics, has been used to identify the location of the largest losses and the
trends seen in the redistribution of these losses with increased vehicle speed (i.e. increased
compressor cycling). The experimental results show that compressor cycling and thermal
dissipation in the condenser were the biggest sources of losses. The smallest loss can be
attributed to the ori®ce tube.
The compressor losses dominated the overall system performance. The isentropic eciency
of the compressor degraded as the compressor cycling increased. This was because the average
operating compression temperature ratio increased and the average operating pressure ratio
decreased with increased compressor cycling. The overall system eciency could be
signi®cantly improved by increasing the compressor's eciency. The compressor's eciency
could be improved by reducing or eliminating cycling by using a variable capacity compressor,
as is being done by several vehicle manufacturers, or by not directly coupling the compressor
to the engine, as is being done with electrically-driven compressors in electric vehicle
applications. Another way to increase the compressor's volumetric eciency during cycling
would be to reduce the compressor operating range. This could be accomplished by using two
compressors such as is done in two-stage cascade refrigeration systems. However, the obvious
drawbacks to such a con®guration are the added costs, weight, complexity, and package space.
In addition, the reliability of the overall system would decrease due to the additional
components and the increased system complexity.
The next largest loss occurs in the condenser, followed by the loss in the evaporator. Note
that these losses are not cycling losses. However, an interesting outcome of the results from
Fig. 8. Transient compression pressure ratio.
this study is the tradeo seen between the condenser losses and the compressor losses. At idle,
the condenser is ineectively cooled because of hot recirculated air and because of reduced
air¯ow. At idle, the condenser had the largest loss. As the vehicle speed increased, the
condenser was cooled more eectively and the compressor loss dominated. The thermodynamic
losses in the heat exchangers could be reduced by such methods as, for example, (i) redesigning
the refrigerant circuitry, (ii) changing the heat exchanger from a cross-¯ow con®guration to a
parallel-¯ow con®guration, (iii) changing the heat transfer ¯uids, or (iv) by utilizing a
refrigerant mixture with a temperature glide that closely matches the temperature glide on the
external side of the heat exchanger.
References
[1] P.J. Rubas, C.W. Bullard, Factors contributing to refrigerator cycling losses, International Journal of
Refrigeration 18 (3) (1995) 168±176.
[2] P.E. Krause, C.W. Bullard, Cycling and quasi-steady behavior of a refrigerator, ASHRAE Transactions 102 (1)
(1996) 1061±1070.
[3] W.H. Coulter, C.W. Bullard, An experimental analysis of cycling losses in domestic refrigerator-freezers,
ASHRAE Transactions 103 (1) (1997) 587±596.
[4] Y.C. Park, R. McEnaney, D. Boewe, J.M. Yin, P.S. Hrnjak, Steady state and cycling performance of a typical
R134a mobile A/C system, SAE Tech. Paper 1999-01-1190, SAE Congress Proceeding, 1999.
[5] F. Meunier, Second-law analysis of refrigeration cyclic open systems, ASHRAE Transactions 105 (1) (1999)
1267±1273.
[6] E.M. Franconi, M.J. Brandemuehl, Second law study of HVAC distribution system performance, ASHRAE
Transactions 105 (1) (1999) 1237±1246.
[7] G.J. Van Wylen, R.E. Sonntag, C. Borgnakke, CATT: Computer-Aided Thermodynamic Tables, in:
Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, 4th ed, Intellipro, Inc, 1994.

An Experimental Analysis of Cycling in An Automotive Air Conditioning System

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An Experimental Analysis of Cycling in An Automotive Air Conditioning System

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Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 1039±1058