A summary of the different kinds of proposed classification schemes presented in this article is

summarized in the table below.

Chatton Copeland Woese et Cavalier-Smith Cavalier-Smith Ruggiero
naeus Haeckel Whittaker Woese et al.
1925[29] 1938[31] al. 1993[37][38] 1998[40][41] et al.
35[27] 1866[28] 1969[33] 1977[34][35]
[30] [32] 1990[36] [39] [42] 2015[43
3 4 5 3 7
ngdoms 2 empires 6 kingdoms 8 kingdoms 6 kingdoms
kingdoms kingdoms kingdoms domains kingdom
Eubacteria Bacteria Eubacteria Bacteria
Prokaryota Monera Monera Bacteria
Archaebacteria Archaea Archaebacteria Archaea
Protista Archezoa
ed) Protozoa Protozoa
Protista Protista Protista Protozoa
Chromista Chromista Chromist
Eukaryota Eucarya
Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae
tabilia Plantae Plantae
Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi
malia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
The kingdom-level classification of life is still widely employed as a useful way of grouping
organisms, notwithstanding some problems with this approach:
• Kingdoms such as Bacteria represent grades rather than clades, and so are rejected by
phylogenetic classification systems.
• The most recent research does not support the classification of the eukaryotes into any of the
standard systems. As of April 2010, no set of kingdoms is sufficiently supported by research to
attain widespread acceptance. In 2009, Andrew Roger and Alastair Simpson emphasized the
need for diligence in analyzing new discoveries: "With the current pace of change in our
understanding of the eukaryote tree of life, we should proceed with caution."
History of Wheat Production in India
The production and productivity of Wheat crop were quite low, when India became
independent in 1947. The production of Wheat was only 6.46 million tonnes and productivity
was merely 663 kg per hectare during 1950-51, which was not sufficient to feed the Indian
population. The Country used to import Wheat in large quantities for fulfilling the needs of our
people from many countries like USA under PL-480. The reasons of low production and
productivity of Wheat at that time was (a) the tall growing plant habit resulting in lodging,
when grown under fertile soils, (b) the poor tillering and low sink capacity of the varieties used,
(c) higher susceptibility to diseases, (d) the higher sensitivity to thermo & photo variations,
etc., resulting in poor adaptability, and (e) longer crop duration resulting in a long exposure of
plants to the climatic variations and insect pest / disease attacks.

The Government of India appointed a commission in 1961 to assess the feasibility of increasing
the crop productivity under prevailing Indian ecological conditions. The Commission consisted
of Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, Dr. N.E. Borlaug and many others and concluded that production
level of Wheat could be increased, if suitable and superior germ-plasm / varieties were
available in the country. The discovery of genes responsible for dwarfing and non-lodging
habits in 'Norin' Wheat varieties of Japan opened the doors to evolve high yielding varieties of
Wheat. The dwarf Wheats, besides having stiffer and shorter straw, were relatively photo-
insensitive and were capable of giving high yields at high doses of fertilisers, irrigation and
other inputs. The Harvest Index (i.e. grain : straw ratio) was also more favourable in terms of
grain production.

After assessing the possibility of increasing the Wheat production in India, Wheat scientists
introduced five dwarf Wheat varieties, viz, Lerma Rojo 64-A, Sonora 63, Sonora 64, Mayo 64
and S 227 along-with around 200 other breeding lines of dwarf Wheat through the courtesy of
Rockefeller Foundation and Mexican Ministry of Agriculture in 1963. These varieties were
extensively tested in all the Wheat growing states of the country and it was concluded that the
varieties such as 'Lerma Rojo 64-A', 'Sonora 64' and 'PV 18' developed in Mexico and carrying
the genes for dwarfism having a high potential for yield in our country too. These findings lead
the Government of India to undertake massive import of 18,000 tonnes seeds of 'Lerma Rojo
64-A' and to the some extent of ' Sonora 64' in 1966 for planting nearly 4 lakh hectares area in
the country. As a result of this, a major breakthrough in Wheat productivity and production
started to be visualized. These dwarf varieties were high yielding and disease and lodging
resistant. But some how the farmers and consumers were not very much satisfied with the deep
red colour of grains of these varieties and were reluctant to accept them. Then this lead to
selection of many promising lines such as S 227, S 308, S 307, etc. from the advance breeding
material received from Mexico and these selected varieties/lines were found to have amber
grain colour with a very high yield potential and good degree of lodging and disease resistance.
With the identification / development of amber or white seeded genotypes like Kalyan Sona,
Sonalika, Safed Lerma and Chhoti Lerma in 1967, the 'Wheat Revolution' in India got a real
momentum. Out of these, Kalyan Sona and Sonalika varieties became very much popular
among the farmers because of their high yield, rust resistance, amber grains and adaptability to
different soil and climatic conditions of the country and occupied nearly 10 million hectare area
in the country and made the 'Wheat Revolution' to happen.

Subsequently, a number of dwarf Wheat varieties like Sarbati Sonara, Pusa Lerma, Arjun,
Pratap, Janak, Mukta, Shera, etc. were evolved and released for general cultivation in the
country. For popularizing these varieties, the Government of India had started High Yielding
Varieties Programme (HYVP) in Wheat during 1966-67 with a humble coverage of 0.54
million hectares (4.2 %) of the total area of 12.8 million hectare. It has slowly and steadily
gained the strength over next 10 years and the area under HYVs reached to 12.5 million hectare
(62%) of area under Wheat. Thereafter, large number of high yielding, input responsive and
disease resistance varieties of Wheat were released for various ecological and growing
conditions of the country. The important Wheat varieties, which have become very popular
include C-306, UP-262, HD-2009, WL-711, HP-1102, HUW-206, HUW-234, HD- 2189, HD-
2204, HD-2285, VL-616, VL-421, HS--42, WH-147, WH-157, WH- 542, HD- 2329, UP-2003,
UP-2338, LOK-1, RAJ-1555, RAJ- 3765, RAJ- 3077, UP- 2425, PBW-154, PBW- 343, PBW-
443, PBW- 373, HI- 8381, HI-8498, HD-2687, KRL-19, HUW- 468, GW-273, etc.

Several policy decisions and actions were taken by Government of India from time to time to
increase production and productivity in the country. The Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India
launched and implemented various Centrally Sponsored/ Central Sector Schemes, namely,
IADP (1960-61), IAAP (1964-65), High Yielding Varieties Programme (1966-67), Wheat
Minikit Demonstration Programme (1974-75), SFPP-Wheat (1988-89) and ICDP-Wheat (1994-
95). Prior declaration of Minimum Support Price, construction of large grain handling facilities
to procure the surplus grain and several other market promotional steps, establishment of seed
production chains, fertilizer factories and farm machinery units, increased public investments in
irrigation and agricultural research by Govt. of India created an environment for an all round
production increase of Wheat crop in the country.

As result of these steps taken by Govt. of India, the Wheat scenario in our country has
completely changed. In the post Independence era, country used to import Wheat for our needs
but due to bumper increase in the production and productivity of Wheat in the 'Green
Revolution' period in late sixties, our country became self dependent in Wheat production. At
present, country is producing much more excess Wheat than the requirement and Godowns are
over-flooded with Wheat. Currently, India is second largest producer of Wheat in the world
after China with about 12% share in total world Wheat production. Now, India is surplus and in
a position to export Wheat in the International Market and can earn foreign exchange. India has
exported about 30 lakh tonnes of Wheat worth Rs.1,490 crore during 2001-02.
Ether lipids in biomembranes.
Plasmalogens (1-O-1'-alkenyl-2-acylglycerophospholipids) and to a lesser extent the 1-O-alkyl analogs
are ubiquitous and in some cases major constituents of mammalian cellular membranes and of
anaerobic bacteria. In archaebacteria polar lipids of the cell envelope are either
diphytanylglycerolipids or bipolar macrocyclic tetraether lipids capable of forming covalently
linked 'bilayers'. Information on the possible role of ether lipids as membrane constituents has been
obtained from studies on the biophysical properties of model membranes consisting of these lipids. In
addition, effects of modified ether lipid content on properties of biological membranes have been
investigated using microorganisms or mammalian cells which carry genetic defects in ether lipid
biosynthesis. Differential utilization of ether glycerophospholipids by specific phospholipases might
play a role in the generation of lipid mediators that are involved in signal transduction. A possible
function of plasmalogens as antioxidants has been demonstrated with cultured cells and might play a
role in serum lipoproteins. Synthetic ether lipid analogs exert cytostatic effects, most likely by
interfering with membrane structure and by specific interaction with components of signal transmission
pathways, such as phospholipase C and protein kinase C.

Archaeal Lipids

Archaea inhabit some of the most inhospitable environments on the Earth. Extremophile archaea hold
several biological records: for living in the hottest places (121 degrees C), most acidic environments
(pH 0), and saltiest water (about 30%). Other archaea, however, live in more mundane homes, for
instance, living alongside bacteria in the oceans and in our gut. The widespread success of archaea is
due in part to their unique membranes, which form the primary boundary between them and their often
hostile surroundings.

Archaeal Advances
Like other living organisms, archaea are surrounded by a membrane composed of lipids. Biological
membranes need to have a few functional properties. They need to be fluid, to allow proteins to move
around and to respond to external deformations and damage. At the same time, they need to be
impermeable to protons and other charged ions, to allow formation of the electrochemical gradients
that power life. The lipids used in our cells have these properties, but only in a narrow range of
comfortable temperatures. Archaeal lipids, on the other hand, form membranes with these properties
over a wide range of temperatures, from freezing cold to boiling hot.
Super Lipids

Like other lipids, archaeal lipids are build around a molecule of glycerol, with a phosphate attached at
one point and two long hydrocarbons attached at the other two points. Archaeal lipids, however, have
several differences that provide their enhanced functional properties. The hydrocarbons are attached
through an ether linkage, which is more chemically stable in extreme conditions than the ester linkage
used in our lipids. In particularly extreme cases, longer hydrocarbons are used and glycerol is attached
at both ends, forming a super-lipid that spans the entire membrane. The hydrocarbons are also
composed of branched carbon chains, instead of the straight chains used in our lipids. These pack more
tightly inside the membrane, making the membrane less permeable to small molecules.

Ether Links

Archaeal lipids also have an additional difference: the phosphate and hydrocarbons are attached in
different places on the glycerol, leading to a different stereochemistry of the central carbon atom. This
doesn't have a huge effect on the function of the lipid, but it is a distinguishing feature of archaeal
lipids--this stereochemistry isn't found in any other organisms. The enzyme shown here, from PDB
entry 2f6x, performs the reaction of adding the first lipid, then a second membrane-bound enzyme adds
the second hydrocarbon.

Making Chains
The unusual branched hydrocarbon chains are created in several steps. First, a long isoprenoid chain is
created, using enzymes similar to ones that create the precursors for cholesterol in animal cells. Then,
the enzyme shown here (PDB entry 3oz2) removes all the double bonds in the isoprenoid chain,
creating the long branched chain used for the lipid. PSI researchers at JCSG have solved the structure
of this enzyme, revealing a large active site that positions the lipid (yellow) next to an FAD cofactor
(pink), which performs the reaction.

Digeranylgeranylphospholipid Reductase (PDB entry 3oz2)

This enzyme performs the last steps in the synthesis of archaeal lipids, removing double bonds from
the hydrocarbons to form long, flexible, branched chains. Analysis of amino acid sequences revealed a
sequence motif that is unique to this class of enzymes. This includes three bulky amino acids (tyrosine
209, tryptophan 211 and phenylalanine 213) shown here in bright green. These amino acids are
important for positioning the lipid bond that will be desaturated. The motif is flanked by two conser