Benha University

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Technology Dept.

Report about

Water Desalination

By
Ahmed Mohammed Salman Salem
5th year -Traditional Power section

Supervised By

Dr.Mohammed El-Sharnoby

2011-2012
 Acknowledgment

First and praise and great thanks for ALLAH which gave me the
power to complete this report.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Mohammed

El-Sharnoby, for his continuous trustful help, support and guidance.

Last and not least, I want to thank my family, my mother, my fa-

ther, my brothers and my sisters, for their great and continuous support.

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 PREFACE

The report taking about desalination in general and focus shortly on nuclear desalination me-
thods by used waste heat rejected from Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR).

Chapter one discuses the introduction to desalination by taking about resources and need for wa-
ter desalination, composition of sea water, historical back ground, definition and classification of
industrial desalination processes and desalination market.

Chapter two discuses the desalination technologies by taking about characteristics of desalination
processes and explain different types of desalination technologies and principle operation of it
such as multiple effect (MED),multi-stage flash (MSF),vapor compression (VC),electro-dialysis
(ED) and reverse osmosis (RO).

Chapter three discuses the nuclear desalination by taking about definition of nuclear desalination
and in introduction and explain ways to used nuclear reactors in desalination such as small reac-
tor and use waste heat from nuclear power plant in desalination.

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 Table of Contents

Page

Acknowledgment 2

Preface 3

Chapter 1: Introduction 6-18

1.1 Resources and Need for Water Desalination 6

1.2 Composition of Sea Water 11

1.3 Historical Background 13

1.4 Definition of Desalination Processes 14

1.5 Classification of Industrial Desalination Processes 15

1.6 Desalination Market 18

Chapter 2: Desalination Technologies 19-28

2.1 Characteristics of Distillation Processes 19

2.1.1 Temperature in Distillation Processes 19

2.1.2 Scaling in Distillation Processes 19

2.1.2.1 Effects of Scaling 19

2.1.2.2 Calcium Sulfate Scale 19

2.1.3 Corrosion and Erosion in Distillation Processes 20

2.1.4 Heat Transfer in Distillation Processes 20

2.1.5 Post-Treatment in Distillation Processes 21

2.1.6 Energy Requirements for Distillation Processes 21

2.2 Desalination Technologies 22

2.2.1 Multiple Effect (MED) Distillation 22

2.2.1.1 MED Operating Principle 22

2.2.2 Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Distillation 23

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 2.2.2.1 MSF Operating Principle 23

2.2.3 Vapor Compression (VC) Distillation 25

2.2.3.1 VC Operating Principle 25

2.2.4 Electro-dialysis (ED) 26

2.2.4.1 ED/EDR Process Fundamentals 26

2.2.5 Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Nano-Filtration (NF) 27

2.2.5.1 RO and NF Process Fundamental 27

Chapter 3:Nuclear Desalination 29-33

3.1 Introduction 29

3.1.1 Nuclear Experience for Desalination 29

3.2 Nuclear desalination 31

3.2.1 Small Nuclear Reactors 31

3.2.2 Desalination process coupled to Nuclear power plants 32

Conclusions 34

References 35

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Resources and Need for Water Desalination

The earth contains about 1.4x109 km3 of water, which covers approximately 70% of the
planet surface area; the percentage of salt water in this large amount is 97.5%. The remaining
2.5% is fresh water with 80% of this amount frozen in the icecaps or combined as soil moisture.
Both forms are not easily accessible for human use. The remaining quantity, about 0.5%, is be-
lieved to be adequate to support all life on Earth. Unfortunately, this water is not distributed
evenly throughout the plant and it is not available in sufficient quantities either when or where it
is needed. Table (1) gives a summary for distribution of various water resources across the globe.
The global daily average of rainfall is 2xl011 m3. This amount is poorly distributed across the
globe.

The solar energy is the main driver for formation of fresh water from oceans. The thermal energy
absorbed by the earth surface generates sufficient temperature gradients that drive water evapo-
ration from the large surfaces of ocean water. The water vapor rises through the ambient air and
forms a cloud cover at various elevations. The clouds are formed of fine water droplets with an
average diameter of 10 µm. The clouds are transported over land, where precipitation takes
place. The form of precipitation depends on the surrounding air temperature. Figure (1) Shows
Hydrologic cycle describes recycling of water near Earth’s surface. Snow is formed in clod cli-
mates and higher elevations; while, rain is formed in warmer climates and lower elevations. On
the other hand, mixtures of ice, snow, and rain are formed during spring time of clod climates.
Precipitation depends on the wind direction and speed, which have fixed patterns that varies sub-
ject to location and seasonal temperature variations. Also, precipitation is affected by geographi-
cal conditions, i.e., presence of mountains, flat land, as well as local ambient conditions, i.e.,
temperature, and humidity. The wind pattern, geographical forms, and ambient conditions gener-
ate zones of constant water precipitation, monsoon seasons, and areas of very low precipitation.

Precipitated water forms lakes, rivers, underground surface water, deep aquifers, or massive
flood areas. These forms could be seasonal or permanent. For example, rapid increase in the am-
bient temperature during the spring season could result in the melting of large amounts of winter
snow over a short period of time. Such events are experience in several regions in Europe, Rus-

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sia, and the US. Also, the monsoon rain in the Indian content results in precipitation of large
amounts of water over a very short period of time. Both forms of water precipitation give rise to
destruction of property and loss of life. Permanent rivers form the life line to several regions
around the globe, where it transports water from high precipitant area to dessert land. The best
example for this situation is the river Nile, which originates in the high mountains of Ethiopia
and Kenya and travels more than 2000 km. Through the ages the river Nile gave life to the Nile
valley and supported the development of Egyptian civilization.

Figure (1) Hydrologic cycle describes recycling of water near Earth’s surface

A major part of water precipitation ends up as ground moisture in the form of sub-surface water
or deep aquifers. Deep aquifers proved to be viable source for bottled drinking water. This is be-
cause of regulated and limited rates of water use from these sources insure sufficient natural rep-
lenishment of the source. Also, the natural process through various rock formations provides the
water with natural minerals and keeps its pH at acceptable levels.

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Table (1)
Distribution of water resources across the globe

Volume Percent of Percent of

Resource
Km3 total water Fresh Water

Atmospheric Water 12900 0.001 0.01

Glaciers 24064000 1.72 68.7
Ground Ice 300000 0.021 0.86
Rivers 2120 0.0002 0.006
Lakes 176400 0.013 0.26
Marshes 11470 0.0008 0.03
Soil Moisture 16500 0.0012 0.05
Aquifers 10530000 0.75 30.1
Lithosphere 23400000 1.68
Oceans 1338000000 95.81
Total 1396513390

Classification of various types of water is based on the purpose for which the water is used. The
first water grade is set for safe drinking, household purposes, and a number of industrial applica-
tions. This water category has a salinity range of 5 to 1000 ppm. This type of water is found in
rivers and lakes and can be generated by industrial desalination processes. In large cities, various
levels of water salinity are used, where water with salinity below 150 ppm is used for drinking
while higher salinity water of up 1000 ppm is used for various household applications. This
proved to be more effective, because the average per capita consumption of the low salinity
drinking water (150 ppm) is limited to 2 liters/day. On the other hand, the per capita consump-
tion rate for other household purposes is 200-400 liters/day, which is used for cooking, washing,
cleaning, gardening, and other purposes. On industrial scale, the most stringent water quality is
set by the makeup water for boilers and applications related to the electronic industry and phar-
maceuticals. The water quality for this application is limited to a maximum salinity of 5 ppm.
This high degree of purity is achieved through the use of ion exchangers, which operates on low
salinity river water or industrially desalinated water. Other industrial applications call for less
stringent water quality than those used for boilers. Applications include chemical reactions, dairy
and food, washing and cleaning, and cooling.

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The second water category has a salinity range of 1000-3000 ppm. This type of water is suitable
for irrigation purposes and industrial cooling. This applies for higher salinity water, which in-
cludes brackish and seawater. The salinity range for brackish water is 3000-10000 ppm. As for
the seawater its average salinity is 34,000 ppm. Water with salinity above 10000 ppm is termed
as high salinity water. The salinity of seawater varies subject to local conditions, where it is af-
fected by ambient and topographical conditions. For example, enclosed seas have higher salinity
than open seas and oceans. Also, seas, which are found in areas of high temperatures or that re-
ceive high drainage rates of saline water, would certainly have higher degree of salinity. For ex-
ample, the salinity of the Gulf water near the shores lines of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the Unit-
ed Arab Emirates may reach maximum values close to 50,000 ppm. On the other hand, the sa-
linity of the Gulf water near the Western shores of Florida, USA, may reach low values of
30,000 ppm. This is because of the large amount of fresh water received from rivers and springs
in that area.

The amount of fresh water resources is nearly constant since the start of life on earth. On the oth-
er hand, the world population has increased more rapidly over a period of less than 200 years.
Figure (2) shows a bar chart for the population development over the past 200 years and forecast
for the next 50 years. The figure shows the following:
 In 1804 the world population was 1 billion.
 It took 123 years to reach 2 billion in 1927.
 In 1960 or after 33 years the population increased to 3 billion.
 After 13 years and in 1987, the population increased to 5 billion.
 In 1999, the population has reached 6 billion.
 It is expected that a population of 7.5 billion will be reached in 2020 and about
 9 billion in 2050.

At present, about 40% of the world's population is suffering from serious water shortages. By the
year 2025, this percentage is expected to increase to more than 60%. This is because of the rapid
increase of population, changes in the life-style, increased economic activities, and pollution that
limit the use of fresh water resources. Moreover, common use of unhealthy water in developing
countries causes 80-90% of all diseases and 30% of all deaths. Even in industrial countries, long
spells of dry seasons and limited rainfall forces governments, states, and municipalities to adopt
severe water restriction programs that affect the population at large. Such situations are reported
on frequent basis in several countries around the globe. The water shortage extends to include
underground water supplies, previously considered to be an unlimited resource in many coun-

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tries. In this regard, several cases are reported for well failure, decline of the water table, and
seawater intrusion into the fresh water aquifers. This situation has forced many countries, indus-
trial and developing, to adopt active and efficient programs for reclamation of industrial and mu-
nicipal wastewater.

10
9
8
Population in billion

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1823 1927 1960 1974 1987 1999 2020 2050
1 2 3 4 5 6 7.5 9

Year

Figure (2) Change in the world population since 1823 and until 2050

The combined effect of the continuous increase in the world population, changes in life style,
and the limited natural resources of fresh water makes industrial desalination of seawater a major
contender for providing sustainable source of fresh water for arid zones and during drought pe-
riods. This solution is also supported by the fact that more than 70% of the world population live
within 70 km of seas or oceans. During the second half of the twentieth century, desalination of
seawater proved to be the most practical and many cases the only possible solution for many
countries around the globe, i.e., the Gulf States, Mediterranean and Caribbean Islands. At the
turn of century, desalination is being considered by a larger number of countries as the most via-
ble and economical solution for providing fresh water.

Consumption for industrial and municipal use is shown in figure (3) for the period 1900 to 2000
to further illustrate our increasing global water demand.

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 Figure (3) Growth of global industrial and municipal water consumption (Gleick, 1993)

1.2 Composition of Seawater

The main ions found in seawater include Na-, Ca++, K+, Mg++, (S04)--, and Cl-. Of course,
all other ions found in nature are present in the seawater, but at a much smaller concentrations.
The chemical composition of open sea is constant; however, the total dissolved amount of dis-
solved solids changes subject to local conditions. This is because the diffusion time for salts or
the time required to obtain complete mixing of all seas and oceans is much smaller than the time
required for complete filling or replenishment. Table (2) shows typical composition of seawater,
which has a total salinity of 36000 ppm. In addition, to the dissolved ions found in seawater the
seawater includes a wide variety of fine suspended. The size of compounds (sand, clay, microor-
ganisms, viruses, and colloidal matter) varies over a range of 5xl0 -2 to 0.15 µm.

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Table (2)
Typical composition of seawater with salinity of 36,000 ppm.

Compound Composition Mass Percent ppm

Chloride cl- 55.03 19810.8
Sodium Na+ 0.61 11019.6
--
sulfate (SO4) 7.68 2764.8
Magnesium Mg++ 3.69 1328.4
Calcium Ca++ 1.16 417.6
Potassium K+ 1.16 417.6
Carbonic Acid (CO3)- 0.41 147.6
-
Bromine Br 0.19 68.4
Boric Acid H3BO3 0.07 25.2
Strontium Sr++ 0.04 14.4
Total 100 3600

Figure (4) shows salinity composition of 1kg of sea water. The Salinity of Sea Water has the fol-
lowing descriptions:

 Total amount of solid material dissolved in water…not just NaCl

 Typical salinity is 3.5% (220 times more salt than in freshwater)

 Six elements make up 99% of dissolved solids in seawater

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 Figure (4) Salinity composition of 1 kg of sea water

1.3 Historical Background

Up to the 1800 desalination was practiced on ship boards. The process involved using
single stage stills operated in the batch mode. Energy is supplied from cock stoves or furnaces
without recovering the heat of condensation. The equipment and product quality varied consider-
ably and were dependent on the manufacturer and operator. Mist carryover was always a prob-
lem. The sugar industry established in the early 1800 resulted in considerable progress of evapo-
ration processes. This involved development of more efficient and larger scale stills for produc-
tion of syrup and sugar. The start of the desalination industry dates back to the early of part of
the twentieth century. In 1912, a six effect desalination plant with a capacity of 75 m3/d is in-
stalled in Egypt. The total production capacity of the desalination increased during the period
1929- 1937 due to the start of the oil industry. However, exponential growth occurred during the
period from 1935 to 1960 at an annual rate of 17%.

Use of membranes for desalination is thought to mimic functions of biological membranes, i.e.,
cell membranes, lungs, kidneys, skin, etc. The most simple separation form is the household
sieves being used over many centuries for separation of fine grain ground from coarse particles
and grain shells.

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1.4 Definition of Desalination Processes
The industrial desalination processes involve the separation of nearly salt free fresh water
from sea or brackish water, where the salts are concentrated in the rejected brine stream, Figure
(5). It is worth mentioning that in electro-dialysis the positive and negative ions are separated
from the salt water. The desalination processes can be based on thermal or membrane separation
methods – see – Figure (6).

The thermal separation techniques include two main categories; the first is evaporation followed
by condensation of the formed water vapor and the second involves freezing followed by melting
of the formed water ice crystals. The former process is the most common in desalination and
nearly at all cases it is coupled with power generation units, which may be based on steam or gas
turbine systems. The evaporation process may take place over a heat transfer area and is termed
as boiling or within the liquid bulk and is defined as flashing.

Figure (5) Definition of desalination processes.

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1.5 Classification of Industrial Desalination Processes
The evaporation processes include the multistage flash desalination (MSF), the multiple effect
evaporation (MEE), the single effect vapor compression (SEE), humidification-dehumidification
(HDH), and solar stills. The HDH and solar stills are different from other evaporation processes
by the following:

 Water is evaporated at temperatures lower than the boiling temperature.

 The main driving force for evaporation is the concentration difference of water va-
por in the air stream.

The single effect vapor compression includes mechanical vapor compression (MVC), thermal
vapor compression (TVC), absorption vapor compression (ABVC), adsorption vapor compres-
sion (ADVC), and chemical vapor compression (CVC). Vapor compression is combined with the
single or multiple effect desalination units to improve the process thermal efficiency. In this
technique, the low temperature vapor formed in the same effect or the last evaporation effect is
compressed (upgraded) to a higher temperature and is then used to derive or initiate the evapora-
tion process in the first or the same evaporation effect. The vapor compression devices include
mechanical compressors, steam jet ejectors (which is known as thermal vapor compression), ad-
sorption/desorption beds, and absorption/desorption columns. Solar energy can be used to desa-
linate water directly in solar stills or used as an energy source for other thermal processes. The
main membrane desalination process is reverse osmosis (RO), where fresh water permeates un-
der high pressure through semi-permeable membranes leaving behind highly concentrated brine
solution. The other membrane process is electro-dialysis (ED) with very limited industrial appli-
cations. In this process the electrically charged salt ions are separated through selective ion ex-
change membranes leaving behind low salinity product water. Accordingly, a highly concen-
trated brine stream is formed on the other side of the membrane. The desalination processes can
also be classified according to the type of main energy form of energy used to drive the process.
This classification is shown in Figure (7). As is shown the thermal energy processes is divided
into two categories, where energy is either added or removed. In the processes, where the energy
is added, includes the MSF, MEE, HDH, and the processes combined with thermal, chemical,
adsorption, or absorption heat pumps. The heating steam in these processes can be obtained from
a co-generation power plant, a dedicated boiler unit, or from solar energy. Desalination through
energy removal includes the freezing process. The RO and MVC systems are classified as me-
chanical energy desalination. In the RO process the mechanical energy (or the pressure differ-

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ence across the membrane) drives water through the membrane and retains the salt in the brine
stream. As for the MVC process, the mechanical energy of the vapor compressor increases the
pressure and temperature of the distillate vapor, which is used to heat the feed seawater. The last
category shown in Figure (7) employs the electrical energy to separate water and salt. This is the
electro-dialysis process, where the electric energy drives the electrically charged ions through
selective membranes.

Figure (6) Thermal and membrane desalination processes.

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Figure (7) Energy classifications of desalination processes.

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1.6 Desalination Market
Thermal and membrane installed capacity contracted through the end of 1999 was ap-
proximately 25.74 million cubic meters per day (6.8 billion gallons per day), with 50 percent in
distillation capacity and 50 percent in membrane capacity. This capacity has been installed over
the history of modern desalination, beginning in the 1950s, and not all of this capacity is present-
ly in operation. Figure (8) shows the regional distribution of installed capacity worldwide.

Figure (8) Regional percentages of contracted desalination capacity through the end
of 1999 (Wangnick, May 2000)

On a global basis, the growth rate of desalination capacity from 1972 through 1999 for all desalt-
ing technologies averaged just fewer than 12 percent per year, with an average of slightly more
than 1.4 million cubic meters per day (370 million gallons per day) additional capacity installed
each year. There have been over 8,600 desalination plants installed through 1999, with approx-
imately 20 percent of these in the U.S., 16.6 percent in Saudi Arabia, and 11.2 percent in Japan.

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 CHAPTER 2
DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES

2.1 Characteristics of Distillation Processes

2.1.1 Temperature in Distillation Processes
Distillation at high temperatures is generally more economical. The main advantage of
raising the process temperature is to increase the temperature difference between the highest op-
erating temperature and the feed water temperature. This temperature difference is the driving
force for evaporation. That is, the higher the difference, the greater the amount of water that can
be produced for a given size of evaporator. This difference could also allow for the use of a
higher number of flashing stages or effects, used in MSF. Using these temperature differences
results in an increase in performance ratio and, thus, produces more water for each unit of energy
input. While more stages increase the capital cost of the process, they reduce the heat require-
ments.

2.1.2 Scaling in Distillation Processes

2.1.2.1 Effects of Scaling
Scale forms when solid materials are deposited on solid surfaces. There are three main
culprits in distillation plants: calcium sulfate, CaSO4; magnesium hydroxide, Mg (OH)2; and cal-
cium carbonate, CaCO3. Scale is particularly undesirable when it forms on a surface through
which heat must be transferred, like a metal tube in a distillation unit. As scale has a much lower
thermal conductance than the metal of the heat transfer tubes, scale can greatly reduce the overall
heat transfer.
2.1.2.2 Calcium Sulfate Scale
Formation of calcium sulfate, CaSO4, scale cannot be limited by pretreatment. Therefore,
calcium sulfate must be controlled by limiting the operating temperature or by limiting the con-
centrate of the calcium and/or sulfate ions in the concentrate. Generally, as the temperature of the
solution is increased, the solubility of dissolved salts increases. However, certain salts, such as
calcium sulfate, have an inverse solubility. This means that the solubility of these salts decreases
with increasing temperature. Calcium sulfate must be controlled by limiting temperature or by
limiting the concentrate of the calcium and/or sulfate ions in the concentrate.

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2.1.3 Corrosion and Erosion in Distillation Processes

Distillation plants are subject to corrosion. Seawater and concentrate stream factors that
influence corrosion include:
 pH
 Temperature
 High chloride concentration
 Dissolved oxygen

Product waters are very aggressive to metal and concrete. Factors that influence corrosion in-
clude:
 pH
 Temperature
 Lack of minerals

Corrosion can be minimized by the use of corrosion-resistant materials (e.g., high-performance

steel) throughout the feed and concentrate streams, and with proper pretreatment through the
flash chambers, along with the proper choice of materials.

2.1.4 Heat Transfer in Distillation Processes

Heat transfer surfaces—surfaces that either put heat into or take heat out of the system—
represent a major expense, typically listed below (table 3):

Process Expense for heat transfer (PR = 5.17 kg/MJ)

MSF Up to 40 percent of the evaporator costs
MED Up to 40 percent of the evaporator costs
VC Up to 35 percent of the evaporator costs

The plant design will, therefore, have to balance the cost of the heat exchanger surface against
the cost of energy (mostly the heat energy to the heat input section). In the MSF design, the bulk
of the heat transfer surface is in the heat recovery section and effect bundles. In the VC design,
the bulk is in the vessel. The design of the venting system for removing non-condensable gases is
essential to maintain the heat transfer rates at their design point. If these non-condensable gases
are not removed, they will blanket the tube surfaces, which will result in a loss of water produc-
tion.

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2.1.5 Post-Treatment in Distillation Processes
Product water from distillate plants can be as low as 0.5 milligrams per liter (mg/l) of to-
tal dissolved solids (TDS) and, generally, does not exceed 5 mg/l. This lack of minerals makes
the supply very unstable and corrosive. Therefore, before this supply is delivered to the distribu-
tion system, the water must be stabilized by increasing the mineral content. The following gener-
al guidelines are used for stabilization (table 4:

Measurement Goal
pH 8 to 9
Alkalinity 40 mg/l as calcium carbonate, CaCO3, or greater

Total hardness 40 mg/l as CaCO3, or greater

Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) Positive

These goals can be reached by adding chemicals or blending with a brackish water source. In
some cases, blending and adding chemicals may be needed.

2.1.6 Energy Requirements for Distillation Processes

The quantity of steam required will depend upon the performance ratio of the process.
MSF and MED are primarily steam-driven processes, where as VC requires more electricity in
the compression process. Distillation processes use thermal energy at relatively low temperatures
and pressures. For example, the MSF process requires steam at pressures between atmospheric
and about 1.76 kilograms per centimeter squared (kg/cm2) (25 pounds per square inch gauge
[psig]). MED can use steam at less than atmospheric to 1.76 kg/cm2 (25 psig), and thermo-vapor
compression (TVC) requires steam at about 5.27 kg/cm2 (75 psig) (minimum).

It is economical to co-locate a desalting plant with a power plant. In these cases, steam can be
taken from the power plant at low pressure, after the steam has generated electricity. The ar-
rangement, known as a ―dual purpose‖ plant, results in lowering the primary fuel cost of the de-
salting plant by 60 to 70 percent, thus reducing the cost of the produced water.

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2.2 Desalination Technologies
2.2.1 Multiple Effects (MED) Distillation
MED plants currently produce anywhere from 1.7 to 6.4 kg/MJ (4 to 15 lb/1,000 Btu).
Vertical tube arrangements are designed for a higher performance ratio—9.9 kg/MJ (23 lb/1,000
Btu).

2.2.1.1 MED Operating Principle

In MED, a series of evaporator effects produces water at progressively slightly lower
pressures. Because water boils at lower temperatures as pressure decreases, the water vapor of
the first evaporator effect serves as the heating medium for the second evaporator effect, and so
on. The more effects, the higher the performance ratio. Thus, theoretically (assuming no losses),
if a single effect evaporator produces 2.2 kg per 1.055 MJ (1 lb/1,000 Btu), then three evaporator
effects will produce about 1.8 kg (4 lbs) of distillate with the same amount of heat. Figure (9)
shows three effects of a multiple effect evaporator. Effect 1 is at higher pressure than effect 2,
and similarly, the pressure in this effect is higher than in effect 3. The heat source in effect 1 is
enough to boil a portion of the feed water entering at the top of the unit. The vapor formed in this
effect heats the next lower pressure effect. The process of producing vapor in each effect, and
using it to heat the next lower effect, continues throughout all the effects until the vapor for the
last effect is condensed in the main condenser. Concentrate from each effect can be directed to
the next lower effect or it can be taken out at specific points in the process. Distillate, product
water, is obtained from the condensate of the vapor in each effect and from the main condenser.

Figure (9) Multiple Effect schematic

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2.2.2 Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Distillation
Multi-stage flash distillation is another method commonly used for desalting drinking
water supplies. The practical maximum performance ratio for an MSF plant is 5.17 kg/MJ (12
lbs/1,000 Btu).

2.2.2.1 MSF Operating Principle

Each stage of an MSF plant operates at progressively lower pressures, as water boils at
lower temperatures (figure 10). For this technique, the feed water is heated under sufficiently
high pressure to prevent boiling, until it reaches the first ―flash chamber.‖ In the first flash
chamber (stage), the pressure is released and sudden evaporation or ―flashing‖ takes place. This
flashing of a small portion of the feed continues in each successive stage, because the pressure in
each is lower. Unlike the multiple effect process, this process generates and condenses its vapor
in the same effect (stage). Thus, this design offers the benefit of heat recovery. That is, the feed
water passing through the heat exchanger in the upper section of the flash chamber gains heat as
it condenses the vapor to distillate. Two distinct sections of each stage are the flashing chamber
(where the vapors are produced) and the condensing section (where the vapors are condensed).
The amount of water that flashes will be in proportion to the temperature difference between
stages. Thus, the greater the temperature difference, the greater the amount of flashed vapor.
Once the vapor has flashed, the concentrate temperature will decrease until it is in thermodynam-
ic equilibrium with the pressure in that stage. As the vapor is generated, the concentrate stream
becomes more concentrated. The condensing section contains the heat exchanger tubing where
the vapors are condensed by cooler seawater feed water. Treating water begins with the feed wa-
ter entering the recovery section tubing. Here, the feed water gains heat as it passes through each
stage, by condensing the vapors generated. Feed water then exits the recovery section and enters
the concentration heater, which serves as the heat source for the thermodynamic process. This
unit raises the feed water temperature to its design point. For this discussion, a final temperature
of 90.6 o C (195 °F) is used. Once the feed exits the concentration heater, the feed enters the first
stage of the MSF evaporator. Figure (11) depicts the flashing that will occur in a stage. The feed
water entering the first stage is hotter (90.6 o C [195 °F]) than the temperature in the second stage
(78.1 o C [172.5 °F]). As the feed water cannot exist at 90.6 o C (195 °F) in the second stage, it
immediately flashes to the stage temperature of 78.1 o C (172.5 °F). The amount of flashing will
depend upon the temperature difference (in this example, 12.5 o C [22.5 °F]). As the feed water
enters the next stage, it is again hotter than the temperature existing in the stage, so once again it

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flashes. However, the amount of flashing will be less because the new stage has a lower tempera-
ture difference. The concentrate continues to flow from stage to stage only by the pressure dif-
ference. The distillate produced in each stage is sent to the next lower pressure stage. It will exit
the evaporator at the last stage and be pumped to the post-treatment system. Non-condensable
gases are removed, as discussed above, for this MED process.

Figure (10) MSF arrangement

Figure (11) MSF stage

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2.2.3 Vapor Compression (VC) Distillation
Vapor compression offers higher recovery ratios. Values of up to 50 percent are possible
when treating seawater. Process performance ratio is moderately high, at up to 7.7 kg/MJ (18
pounds distillate per 1,000 Btu) of heat input.

2.2.3.1 VC Operating Principle

The vapor compression process compresses the vapor generated within the unit itself.
Two methods of compression are employed:
 Mechanical (mechanical vapor compression [MVC])
 Steam (thermo-vapor compression [TVC])
In MVC, the compressor is operated by an electric motor or diesel engine. In the steam type,
high-pressure steam is used to compress the vapor generated in the vessel. The compressed
steam is then used as the heat source for further vaporization of the feed water. In TVC, vapor is
generated in the evaporator by the transfer of heat from the compressed vapor, as figure (12)
shows. Hot vapor lies on the inside of the tubes, while the feed water is sprayed on the outside
surfaces. The vapor thus generated is then compressed to be used for heat in the evaporator. The
vapor can be compressed by either a mechanical compressor or by the use of a steam jet thermo-
compressor. In most cases, a mechanical compressor is used.

Figure (12) Vapor Compression Process

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2.2.4 Electro-dialysis (ED)
Electro-dialysis is one of the two common membrane processes in desalination. ED is
based on selective movement of ions in solutions. ED uses a direct electric current to transfer
ions through a membrane that possesses fixed ionic groups chemically bound to the membrane
structure. ED is primarily used in desalting brackish waters. Electric energy is consumed in pro-
portion to the quantity of salts to be removed. Economics usually limit its application to feed wa-
ters of less than 10,000 mg/l TDS. However, in certain applications, ED’s special characteristics
may promote the technology over RO. The electro-dialysis reversal process is based on the same
principles of electrochemistry as ED. The fundamental difference in operation is the periodic au-
tomated reversal of polarity and cell function. This change is typically done three to four times
per hour to reverse the flow of ions across the membrane. This action improves the tolerance of
the technology to operations treating scaling-prone or turbid feed waters. EDR has largely re-
placed ED in the U.S. and in some overseas markets.

2.2.4.1 ED/EDR Process Fundamentals

Electro-dialysis is a membrane process governed by the ASTM standards listed in Ap-
pendix C. The ED/EDR process is based on the ability of semi permeable membranes to pass
select ions in a solution of ionized salts, while blocking others. Salts are in solution as ionized
particles with positive or negative charges (for example, sodium chloride as Na+ and C1-). When
a direct current is imposed on the solution, the positive ions migrate to the negative electrode, or
cathode. The negative ions migrate to the positive electrode, or anode.
A cation permeable membrane allows positive ions to pass, but blocks negative ions. An anion
permeable membrane does the opposite—allows negative ions to pass, but blocks positive ions.
ED does not remove colloidal matter, matter that is not ionized, or bacteria. Figure (13) shows an
electro-dialysis schematic. The two types of membranes create alternately salt-depleted and salt-
enriched solution streams. Multiple cell pairs between an anode and a cathode comprise a
―stack.‖ An anion membrane, a diluting spacer, a cation membrane, and a concentrating spacer
comprise a repeating unit called a ―cell pair.‖

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 Figure (13) ED schematic

2.2.5 Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Nano-Filtration (NF)

The RO and nano-filtration (NF) processes use hydraulic pressure to force pure water
from saline feed water through a semi permeable membrane. Current RO technology governed
by the ASTM standards can be used for desalinating both seawater and brackish water. The
membranes used in the RO process are generally either made from polyamides or from cellulose
sources.

2.2.5.1 RO and NF Process Fundamentals

Osmosis is a natural process in which water passes through a semi permeable membrane
from a solution with low salt concentration to a more concentrated salt solution. Plants use this
phenomenon to draw in water from the soil. The driving force for this passage of water is known
as the osmotic pressure. Osmotic pressure depends on the difference in salt concentrations of the
two solutions, as shown in figure (14). The pressure head is equal to the osmotic pressure at the
point at which there is no net pressure of water through the membrane. If pressure greater than
the osmotic pressure of the solution is applied to the concentrated solution, pure water passes
through the selectively permeable membrane from the concentrated solution but not the dis-
solved salts. Figure (15) shows reverse osmosis Process.

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Figure (14) Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis

Figure (15) Reverse Osmosis Process

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 CHAPTER 3
NUCLEAR DESALINATION

3.1 Introduction
Potable water is in short supply in many parts of the world. Lack of it is set to become a con-
straint on development in some areas. Nuclear energy is already being used for desalination, and
has the potential for much greater use. Nuclear desalination is generally very cost-competitive
with using fossil fuels.

It is estimated that one fifth of the world's population does not have access to safe drinking wa-
ter, and that this proportion will increase due to population growth relative to water resources.
The worst-affected areas are the arid and semiarid regions of Asia and North Africa. A UNESCO
report in 2002 said that the freshwater shortfall worldwide was then running at some 230 billion
m3/yr and would rise to 2000 billion m3/yr by 2025. Wars over access to water, not simply ener-
gy and mineral resources, are conceivable. Fresh water is a major priority in sustainable devel-
opment. Where it cannot be obtained from streams and aquifers, desalination of seawater or mi-
neralized groundwater is required. An IAEA study in 2006 showed that 2.3 billion people live in
water-stressed areas, 1.7 billion of them having access to less than 1000 m3 of potable water per
year. With population growth, these figures will increase substantially. Further demand in the
longer term will come from the need to make hydrogen from water.

3.1.1 Nuclear Experience for Desalination

The feasibility of integrated nuclear desalination plants has been proven with over 150
reactor-years of experience, chiefly in Kazakhstan, India and Japan. Large-scale deployment of
nuclear desalination on a commercial basis will depend primarily on economic factors. Indicative
costs are US$ 70-90 cents per cubic metre, much the same as fossil-fuelled plants in the same
areas. One obvious strategy is to use power reactors which run at full capacity, but with all the
electricity applied to meeting grid load when that is high and part of it to drive pumps for RO
desalination when the grid demand is low. The BN-350 fast reactor at Aktau, in Kazakhstan,
successfully supplied up to 135 MWe of electric power while producing 80,000 m³/day of pota-
ble water over some 27 years, about 60% of its power being used for heat and desalination. The
plant was designed as 1000 MWt but never operated at more than 750 MWt, but it established

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the feasibility and reliability of such cogeneration plants. (In fact, oil/gas boilers were used in
conjunction with it, and total desalination capacity through ten MED units was 120,000 m³/day.)
In Japan, some ten desalination facilities linked to pressurised water reactors operating for elec-
tricity production yield some 14,000 m³/day of potable water, and over 100 reactor-years of ex-
perience have accrued. MSF was initially employed, but MED and RO have been found more
efficient there. The water is used for the reactors' own cooling systems. India has been engaged
in desalination research since the 1970s. In 2002 a demonstration plant coupled to twin 170
MWe nuclear power reactors (PHWR) was set up at the Madras Atomic Power Station, Kalpak-
kam, in southeast India. This hybrid Nuclear Desalination Demonstration Project (NDDP) com-
prises a reverse osmosis (RO) unit with 1800 m3/day capacity and a multi-stage flash (MSF)
plant unit of 4500 m³/day costing about 25% more, plus a recently-added barge-mounted RO
unit. This is the largest nuclear desalination plant based on hybrid MSF-RO technology using
low-pressure steam and seawater from a nuclear power station. They incur a 4 MWe loss in
power from the plant. In 2009 a 10,200 m3/day MVC plant was set up at Kudankulam to supply
fresh water for the new plant. It has four stages in each of four streams. An RO plant there sup-
plies the plant's township. A low temperature (LTE) nuclear desalination plant uses waste heat
from the nuclear research reactor at Trombay has operated since about 2004 to supply make-up
water in the reactor. Pakistan in 2010 commissioned a 4800 m3/day MED desalination plant,
coupled to the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP, a 125 MWe PHWR) near Karachi. It has
been operating a 454 m3/day RO plant for its own use. China Guangdong Nuclear Power has
commissioned a 10,080 m3/day desalination plant at its new Hongyanhe project at Dalian in the
northeast. Much relevant experience comes from nuclear plants in Russia, Eastern Europe and
Canada where district heating is a by-product. Large-scale deployment of nuclear desalination on
a commercial basis will depend primarily on economic factors. The UN's International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) is fostering research and collaboration on the issue.

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Table (5) Current activities on nuclear desalination in IAEA member state

3.2 Nuclear desalination

There are many way to used the nuclear energy in desalination e.g. Small Nuclear Reac-
tors to provide the energy used in desalination or used waste heat from nuclear power plants
where function cogeneration technology to bound the desalination processes to nuclear power
plants e.g. MSF-RO coupled to Nuclear Reactor power plants.

3.2.1 Small Nuclear Reactors

Small nuclear power plants can provide reliable economical power to produce fresh water
in remote or developing regions of the world where that may have:
 A poor developed infrastructure.
 Limited access to other source of energy e.g. coal, Oil, etc.
 And/or required only small amounts of power.

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 Figure (16) international Reactor Innovative and Secure (IRIS)
335 MWe

3.2.2 Desalination process coupled to Nuclear power plants

Waste heat provide by nuclear power plants can be used for desalination by many ways such
as:
 Use cogeneration technology with coupled MSF-RO desalination plant to Pressurized
Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) figure (17) shows that.
 Use moderator waste heat from nuclear reactor for desalination figure (17) shows
that.

In figure shown (17) the nuclear reactor (PHWR) release the power by two ways, one way works
as a source of heat to boiling the water where converted into steam, this steam will come to high
pressure (HP) and low pressure (LP) turbine and expansion into mechanical power delivered on
shaft to drive the electric generator can produced the electrical power. Some electrical power for
use in MSF (0.6MWe) and RO (0.5Mwe) plants and reminder for sale (~176MWe). A part of
exhaust of HP turbine use as brine heater for MSD plant which product 4500 m3/d. Exhaust of
LP turbine is reject heat into power plant condenser which coolant by sea water. Another way
release the waste heat from reactor by using waste heat rejected from cooling circuit of reactor
which existing in sea water used in cooling circuit of reactor. Sea water of cooling circuit leaves
at 32 oC and mixing by reject sea water from MSF plant (40 oC) to use as a feed for RO plant
which product 1800 m3/d. The total water desalination by two plants (MSF&RO) is 6300 m3/d,

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product storage tank receive 5400 m3/d for public water supply, reminder (900 m3/d) used for
makeup feed to the PHWR.

Figure (17) 6,300 m3/d MSF–RO desalination plant coupled to 170 MWe PHWR

The hybrid plant has a number of advantages:

 Part of high purity desalted water produced from the MSF plant will be used for the ma-
keup demine realized water requirement (after necessary polishing) for the power station.
 Blending of the product water from RO and MSF plants would provide requisite quality
drinking water.
 The RO plant will continue to be operated to provide water for drinking purposes during
the shutdown of the power station.

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 CONCLUSIONS

The design of the hybrid MSF–RO plant to be set up at an existing nuclear power station
has been presented. The effect on performance of the MSF plant due to higher seawater intake
temperature is marginal. The preheat RO system part of the hybrid plant uses reject cooling sea-
water from the MSF plant. This allows a lower pressure operation, resulting in energy saving.
The two qualities of water produced are usable for the power station as well as for drinking pur-
poses with appropriate blending. The post-treatment is also simplified due to blending of the
products from MSF and RO plants. The LTE desalination plant can be operated using the mod-
erator waste heat from a research reactor. The product water from this plant can meet the makeup
water requirement of the reactor after minor polishing.

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 REFERENCES

1. H.T. El-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Fundamentals of Salt Water Desalination, Department of
Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering and Petroleum, Kuwait University, ELSEVIER 2002.
2. RosTek Associates, Inc., Tampa, Florida, DESALTING HANDBOOK FOR PLANNERS, Third
Edition, July 2003.
3. Braj Mohan Misra, Int. J. of Nuclear Desalination, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2003.
4. http://google.com
5. http://www.youtube.com
6. http://www.swcc.gov.sa
7. http://www.sciencedaily.com
8. http://www .Wikipedia.org
9. http://www.inderscience.com
10 . http://www.desalination.biz/news/news_story.asp?id=5931&channel=0
11. http://world-nuclear.org/info/inf71.html

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