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Usul-e-Shashi Assignment

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1pLLnK6yH4ilPYsI7If7IAp6vTg_HXIM8Rl6m
j8_Sb24/edit

Evelyn Singgatama
Advanced Program Year 3
Maryam Institute

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‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻼت‬
Opposites

Words that are clear in terms of meaning, in order of increasing strength in clarity

Term Definition Examples

Zahir A word or sentence whose QS Baqara, ayah 275: “Allah has permitted bay’ and forbidden riba.”
meaning is clear and apparent
‫ﻇﺎﻫﺮ‬ without any need for the listener Zahir​: that bay’ is halal and riba Nass​: to differentiate between
(opposite of khafi) to ponder over. is haram. bay and riba.

QS Nisa, ayah 3: “And if you fear that you will not deal justly with the
orphan girls, then marry those that please of you of women, two or
three or four. But if you fear that you will not be just then one.”

Nass The reason behind why a Zahir​: a man is allowed to marry Nass​: to explain the number of
sentence is expressed. up to 4 women. wives that a man can marry.
‫ﻧﺺ‬
ّ
(opposite of mushkil)

Hukm of zahir and nass: wajib to act upon them, whether they are QS Baqara, ayah 236:
aam or khass, even with the possibility of another meaning. “There is no blame upon you if you divorce women you have not
touched nor specified for them an obligation.”

Zahir​: possible for husband to Nass​: to explain the ruling of


issue talaq in this condition, nikah whose mahr has not been
nikah is valid without stipulated stipulated.
mahr.

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Hadith:
“Whosoever becomes the owner of a close relative,he becomes
freed straight away.”

Zahir​: ownership of close Nass​: to explain the hukm of


relatives can be established for a ownership of close relatives.
momentary moment.

If there is a conflict between zahir and nass, preference is given over If a husband said to his wife, “Divorce yourself,” and she replied, “I
nass. have separated myself.”

Zahir​: the wife said words of Nass​: The husband told her to
separation, which is kinayat and give herself a divorce, which is
thus talaq-e-bain. talaq-e-raji.

Conclusion: talaq-e-raji would take place because of nass.

Hadith (Sahih Bukhari):


“The climate of Madina did not suit some people so the Prophet SAW
ordered them to follow his shepherd, i.e. his camels, and drink their
milk and urine (as a medicine)...”

Zahir​: drinking the urine of Nass​: the urine of camels has


camels is permissible. shifa (cure) in it.

However, many other Ahadith say that one should refrain from all
sorts of filth, and the people of the grave were punish because of
their unhygienic practice. The nass of these Ahadith is to explain that
one should keep themselves clean from impurity. Thus, nass is given
preference over zahir.

Hadith: Contradicting Hadith:


“Ushr (a tenth) is obligatory upon “There is no sadaqat due for

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crops on which the heavens rain greeneries.”
on.” Muawwal​: Sadaqat is interpreted
Nass​: to explain the hukm of as ushr here. Sadaqat can have
ushr. many meanings (sadaqa, fitr,
ushr, zakat).

Conclusion: Nass is taken here. Thus, a tenth must be given.

Term Definition Examples

Mufassar Words whose meaning are QS Hijr, ayah 30:


‫ﻣﻔﺴﺮ‬
ّ obscured, but the speaker ‫ﻓَ َﺴ َﺠَﺪ اﻟْ َﻤَﻼﺋ َِﻜ ُﺔ ُﻛﻠﱡ ُﻬ ْﻢ أَ ْﺟ َﻤ ُﻌ ْﻮ َن‬
(opposite of mujmal)
explains what he has said, such
● َ ‫ ”اﻟْ َﻤَﻼﺋ‬is zahir, that the angels in general were
The word “‫ِﻜ ُﺔ‬
that there is no possibility of
prostrating.
interpretation (ta’weel) or
specification (takhsees) ● The door of takhsees is closed by the word “‫” ُﻛﻠﱡ ُﻬ ْﻢ‬, that all of
remaining. the angels did sajdah.
● ْ َ‫”أ‬, that all of
The door of ta’weel is closed by the word “‫ﺟ َﻤ ُﻌ ْﻮ َن‬
the angels did sajdah altogether.
● These words are mufassar.

A man says, “I married so-and-so for a month.”


● It is zahir that he got married.
● Possibility of mut’ah is clarified by the speaker with the
mufassar statement “for a month”.

A man says, “Upon me is a thousand, for the value of this slave or


these goods.”
● The nass is that he owes a thousand.
● He explains further that he owes the money because he
purchased the slave or the goods. Thus, his statement is
mufassar.
● Consequently, the debt will be due on him once the slave or

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the goods come into his possession, not because of other
reasons.

If there is a conflict between nass and mufassar, preference is given A man says, “For so-and-so upon me is a thousand.”
over mufassar. ● Zahir in the confession of the debt.
● Nass in the currency of the town.
Further on he says, “From the currency of a particular town.”
● Mufassar in the particular currency mentioned by the speaker.
● Thus, the currency of the town is not taken, rather the
currency mentioned by the speaker is due.

Term Definition Examples

Muhkam A word or sentence which is In the Quran, Allah SWT says:


‫ﻣﺤﻜﻢ‬ even stronger than mufassar, ‫ﷲ ِﺑ ُﻜ ﱢﻞ َﺷ ْﻲ ٍء َﻋِﻠﯿٌْﻢ‬
َ ‫إ ﱠن ا‬
ِ
such that the opposite to it is not Verily Allah is aware over everything
(opposite of mutashabih) permissible at all.
َ ‫ﷲ َﻻ َﯾ ْﻈﻠُِﻢ اﻟﻨﱠ‬
‫ﺎس َﺷﯿْﺌًﺎ‬ َ ‫إ ﱠن ا‬
ِ
Verily Allah does not oppress the people at all.

Hukm of mufassar and muhkam: wajib to act upon both of them A person confesses, “I owe so-and-so a thousand from the price of
without any doubt. this slave.”
● Muhkam in the incumbency of the exchange of a thousand
with the slave.

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Words that are unclear in terms of meaning, in order of increasing strength in obscurity

Term Definition Examples

Khafi The meaning is hidden because QS Ma’ida, ayah 38: “As for the thief, the male and the female, cut off
of an external reason, and not their hands in recompense for what they committed…”
‫ﺧﻔﻲ‬ because of the actual word itself
(opposite of zahir) or its structure. Zahir​: with regards to thieves. Khafi​: with regards to
pickpockets (tarrar) and grave
thieves (nabbash).

Explanation and conclusion:


● The stolen item must be at least 10 dirhams and located in a
secure place for the crime to be considered theft.
● Because pickpocketing and stealing from graves entails a
less degree of theft, the hadd punishment will not take place.

Hukm of khafi: wajib to investigate it until the ambiguity is removed. QS Noor, ayah 2: “The unmarried woman and the unmarried man
found guilty of adultery - lash each one of them with a hundred
lashes.”

Zahir​: with regards to adultery Khafi​: with regards to


(zina). homosexuality.

Explanation and conclusion:


● Imam Shafi’i is in the opinion that homosexuality is included in
zina.
● Imam Abu Hanifa is in the opinion that zina is an act between
a man and a woman. Thus, it is khafi regarding
homosexuality.

A person takes an oath that he will not eat fruits.

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Zahir​: in fruits that are taken as a Khafi​: in pomegranates and
snack or side dish. dates. Some cultures take these
fruits as a meal.

Term Definition Examples

Mushkil Something that is more unclear A person takes an oath that “he will not eat ittidam”.
and ambiguous in meaning than
‫ﻣﺸﻜﻞ‬ khafi, such that one requires to Zahir​: in vinegar and juice. Mushkil​: in meat, egg and
(opposite of nass) search for its meaning (talb), cheese.
then ponder upon it (ta’ammul)
and separate it from something Conclusion: One has to first find the meaning of ittidam, then ponder
similar (amthaal) to it. upon it, then find out whether the meaning is present or not in meat,
egg and cheese.

Mujmal A word or sentence that has In the Quran, Allah SWT says, “Allah SWT has made riba
many possible meanings. Its impermissible.”
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻞ‬ meaning will not be understood ● The word “riba” is mujmal.
(opposite of mufassar) unless the speaker himself ● In general, the word riba means increase.
clarifies it. ● However, the Prophet SAW clarified that the intended
meaning of riba in this ayah is a specific increase which is
free from any substitute in transactions which are muqaddara
(measured) and mutajaanisa (of the same category).

Mutashabih A word or sentence that is very Huroof-e-muqatta’at in the Quran, such as ‫ ﺣﻢ‬،‫اﻟﻢ‬.
ambiguous such that nobody
‫ﻣﺘﺸﺎﺑﻪ‬ understands what it means.
(opposite of muhkam)

Hukm of mujmal and mutashabih: wajib to believe in the truthfulness Some verses of the Quran mention the attributes of Allah SWT, such
of what Allah SWT has said, as His Hand, His Face, His Eye, the Arsh.

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‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ُﯾﺘﺮك ﺑﻪ ﺣﻘﺎﺋﻖ اﻷﻟﻔﺎظ‬
The reasons why the literal (haqiqi) meaning of a word is abandoned

Term Definition Examples

Dalalat-ul-urf ● When the haqiqi meaning A person takes an oath that “he will not buy heads”.
is dropped due to custom ● Commonly it is understood by the society that the head refers
‫دﻻﻟﺔ اﻟﻌﺮف‬ or common to the head of cattles, such as cows, sheep and goats.
understanding between ● If he buys the head of a sparrow or a pigeon, he does not
the people. break his oath.
● It is not necessary that
the majazi meaning be A person takes an oath that “he will not eat eggs”.
taken in this case. Rather, ● Commonly it is understood by the society that the egg refers
partial meaning of the to chicken eggs.
haqiqat ● If he eats the egg of a sparrow or a pigeon, he does not break
(haqiqat-e-qaseera) is his oath.
allowed to be taken.
A person makes a vow for “Hajj”, or “walking towards the House of
Allah SWT”, or “touching the Hateem of the Ka’bah”.
● It is understood that these are the actions of Hajj.
● Thus, Hajj will be incumbent upon him.

Dalalat fee nafsil-kalaam When the actual word itself drops A person says, “Everything in my ownership (mamlook) is free.”
the literal meaning. ● His mukatab slaves and slaves whom he owns partially will
‫دﻻﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻜﻼم‬ not be freed.
● This is because the word mamlook itself refers to complete
ownership.
● Mukatab slaves are not fully-owned. Thus, tasarruf of
mukatab slaves is not jaiz. Having relations with mukatab

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slavegirls is also not jaiz.
● If a slave marries his master’s daughter and the master dies,
the daughter will inherit her husband (the slave) and the nikah
remains valid.
● Umm-e-walad and mudabbar are fully-owned. It is jaiz to
have relations with umm-e-walad and mudabbar slavegirls.

A person breaks his oath or does zihar and needs to free a slave as
kaffara.
● Jaiz to free mukatabs because they are in full slavery.
● Not jaiz to free umm-e-walad and mudabbar because their
slavery is deficient (they will definitely be free upon the
master’s death).

Dalalat siaqil-kalaam When the literal meaning is In a war, if a Muslim says to an enemy, “Come down!”
dropped because of the ● This indicates that the enemy is given safety.
‫دﻻﻟﺔ ﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﻜﻼم‬ prevailing situation. If he says, “Come down, if you are a man!”
● This does not refer to his gender. Rather, it indicates bravery.

In a war, if the enemy says, “Peace, peace!”


● If the Muslim replies, “Peace, peace!” → amnesty is given.
● If the Muslim replies, “Peace, peace! Soon you will know what
you meet tomorrow”, or “Do not be hasty until you see!” →
amnesty is not intended; this is a sarcastic statement.

A man says to someone else, “Buy for me a slavegirl for service!”


● Not jaiz to buy a blind or crippled slavegirl.

A man says to someone else, “Buy for me a slavegirl to engage in


relations!”
● Not jaiz to buy a slavegirl who suckled from the same mother
as him.

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Hadith: “When a fly falls in your food, press the fly down and remove
it, because in one of its wings is a disease and in the other is a cure.
And the disease preceeds the cure”
● The haqiqi meaning of this Hadith is not a legal ruling in
Sharia.
● It is health advice given by the Prophet SAW, thus not doing
so does not make one sinful.

QS Tawbah, ayah 60: “Zakah are only for the poor and for the needy
and for those employed to collect and for softening hearts and for
freeing slaves and for those in debt and for the cause of Allah and for
the traveller - an obligation by Allah. And Allah is All-Knowing and
All-Wise.
● Imam Shafi’i took the haqiqi meaning of this ayah. He said
that zakah must be given to every category of the recipients
mentioned. Also, it has to be given to at least 3 people in
each category because of the plural wording.
● Imam Abu Hanifa said that this ayah is revealed to refute the
hypocrites who would like to keep the zakah for themselves.
Thus, we do not take the haqiqi meaning of this ayah.

Dalalat min qibalil-mutakallim If the speaker himself is QS Kahf, ayah 29: “Whoever wishes may believe and whoever
indicating that the literal meaning wishes may disbelieve.”
‫دﻻﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﺘﻜﻠﻢ‬ is not what is intended, because ● The haqiqi meaning of this statement can be used to legalise
of who he is. kufr.
● However, as this statement comes from Allah SWT, who is
The Most-Wise, and kufr is detested, thus Allah SWT intends
to say that everyone is responsible for his own actions.

If a person appoints a wakeel to buy him meat.


● If the person is a traveller, it refers to cooked or roasted meat.
● If the person is a resident, it refers to raw meat.

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Yameen-al-faur (immediate oath) is included in this dalalat.
● A man says to another man, “Come and have breakfast with
me!” The second man replies, “By Allah, I will not have
breakfast.”
○ The oath refers to that particular breakfast that he is
invited to by the first man.
○ If later on during the day he eats breakfast with him or
with another person, he does not break his oath.
● A man says to his wife who is about to go out, “If you go out,
you will be …”
○ The oath refers to that particular moment.
○ If she goes out afterwards, he will not be considered
having broken his oath.

Dalalat mahallil-kalam When the haqiqi meaning is not The contracting of nikah to a free woman with the words of trade
ّ ‫دﻻﻟﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﻜﻼم‬ taken because the situation does (‫)ﺑﯿﻊ‬, gifting (‫)ﻫﺒﺔ‬, ownership (‫ )ﺗﻤﻠﯿﻚ‬and charity (‫)ﺻﺪﻗﺔ‬.
not accept the literal meaning of
the word. The concept of majaz being When a person says to his slave
subservient to haqiqat. whose lineage is known to be
● In terms of speech: different from his, “This is my
opinion of Imam Abu son”
Hanifa.
● In terms of legal ruling: When a person says to his slave
opinion of Sahibayn. who is older than him, “This is my
son”

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‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺘﻌﻠﱠﻘﺎت اﻟﻨﺼﻮص‬
Rules of interpretation from texts

Term Definition Examples

Ibarat-un-nass Direct meaning taken from the QS Hashr, ayah 8: “For the poor (fuqara) emigrants who were
sentence. expelled from their homes and their properties, seeking bounty from
‫اﻟﻨﺺ‬
ّ ‫ﻋﺒﺎرة‬ ● This explains why a Allah and (His) approval and supporting Allah and His Messenger.
particular sentence has Those are the truthful.”
been brought. ● The property of Banu Nadhir who had been expelled from
● It denotes the reason why Madina should go to the poor from the muhajireen whose
that particular sentence properties were seized by the kuffar when they left Makkah.
has been brought ● Ibarat-un-nass​: To explain who is worthy of the booty.
forward. ● Isharat-un-nass​: That the muhajireen being poor (fuqara)
means their wealth in Makkah who was seized by the kuffar
Isharat-un-nass Indirect meaning taken from the once they migrated immediately belonged to the kuffar, and
sentence.
‫اﻟﻨﺺ‬
ّ ‫إﺷﺎرة‬ ● Hidden meaning from a
no longer did they possess it anymore.
● Rulings derived from isharat-un-nass:
particular sentence and ○ A Muslim can buy this property from the kafir as the
cannot be understood property belongs to the kafir now, not the original
from the actual sentence Muslim.
itself. ○ All other transactions (buying, gifting, freeing, etc) are
● The particular sentence also permissible.
has not been brought ○ If the land is to be re-conquered by Muslims, the
forward by this reason. property will be part of war booty which will be
distributed among the Muslims. Thus, the original
owner cannot lay claim to wealth that was previously
owned.

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QS Baqara, ayah 187: “It has been made permissible for you the
night preceding fasting to go to your wives. They are clothing for you
and you are clothing for them. Allah knows that you used to deceive
yourselves, so He accepted your repentance and forgave you. So
now, have relations with them and seek that which Allah has decreed
for you. And eat and drink until the white thread of dawn becomes
distinct to you from the black thread. Then complete the fast until the
sunset.”
● Ibarat-un-nass: Having relations with wife is permissible in
nights of Ramadan.
● Isharat-un-nass: If intimacy finishes just before subah sadiq, it
is permissible to start the fast in janaba because intimacy
necessitates ghusl which will take time to perform.
● Further on, to gargle and clean one’s mouth is permissible, as
long as it does not go in. Therefore, tasting also does not
break the fast.
● Definition of fasting: to refrain from food, drink and relations.
Thus, anything other than these three will not break the fast.
○ To have wet dream does not break the fast.
○ Cupping is allowed while fasting.
○ Permissible to oil one’s hair.
● Regarding intention of fasting done the night before.
○ IAH’s opinion: As one is allowed to have relations until
just before fajr, there may not be enough time to make
intention at night. Thus, niyyat can be made within the
fast itself, as long as it is done before dahwatul kubra
(halfway between fajr and maghrib).
■ Similarly, mahr is wajib. However, nikah is still
valid without stipulation of mahr.
○ IS’s opinion: Using the Hadith “Every action is by
intention”, it is necessary to make niyyat of fasting the
night before.

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QS Nisaa, ayah 3: “And if you fear that you shall not be able to deal
justly with the orphan-girls then marry (other) women of your choice,
two or three or four; but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal
justly, then marry only one or (the slaves) that your right hands
possess. That is nearer to prevent you from doing injustice.”
● Ibarat-un-nass:
○ Limiting polygamy to the maximum of four.
○ Remaining monogamous for fear of injustice.
● Subsidiary and incidental meanings from this ayah:
○ Legality of nikah.
○ Requirement of fair treatment of orphan-girls.

QS Baqara, ayah 233: “It is father’s duty to provide them with


maintenance and clothing according to custom.”
● Ibarat-un-nass: Sole responsibility of father to support his
child.
● Isharat-un-nass:
○ The child’s descent is solely attributed to father.
○ In dire need, father may take what he needs from the
property of his offspring. This is understood together
with the Hadith, “You and your property both belong to
your father.”

QS Baqara, ayah 236: “There should be no blame on you if you


divorce your wives, with whom you have had no sexual relation, nor
have you assigned for them dower.”
● Ibarat-un-nass: Divorce is permissible prior to consummation
and assignment of mahr.
● Isharat-un-nass: Legality of concluding a marriage contract
without the assignment of mahr.

QS Ali Imran, ayah 159: “So pardon them and ask for Allah’s
forgiveness for them and consult them in affairs.”

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● Ibarat-un-nass: Community affairs must be conducted
through consultation.
● Isharat-un-nass: Requirement of the creation of a consultative
body in the community to facilitate consultation, which is
required in the text.

Dalalat-un-nass A meaning which is derived from QS Isra, ayah 23: “And do not say uff to them.”
the spirit and rationale of a legal ● Illat: Honoring the parents and avoiding offence to them.
‫اﻟﻨﺺ‬
ّ ‫دﻻﻟﺔ‬ text even if it is not indicated in ● Dalalat-un-nass: All forms of abusive words and acts which
its words and sentences. offend parents are impermissible, even if they are not
● Derived through analogy specifically mentioned in the text.
and the identification of ● Thus, beating, swearing, hiring one’s father for money,
an effective cause (illat). imprisoning father for debt, killing him in qisas are all haram.
● Ruling of dalalat-un-nass: ● Imam Qadhi Abu Zaid said: if saying uff were a form of
Whenever illat is honoring someone within a particular community, it would not
identified, the original be haram to do so in front of parents.
ruling is analogically
extended to all similar QS Nisaa, ayah 10: “Verily, those who unjustly eat up the property of
cases. orphans, they eat up only a fire into their bellies, and they will be
burnt in the blazing Fire!”
● Ibarat-un-nass: Impermissible for guardians and executors to
devour property of orphans for their personal gain.
● Dalalat-un-nass: Other forms of waste are also impermissible,
such as financial mismanagement that does not involve
personal gain.

QS Jumua, ayah 9: “O you who believe, when the adhan is called for
the prayer on the day of Jumua, then proceed to the remembrance of
Allah and leave bay’.”
● Illat: If you do not stop bay’, you will miss the Jumua.
● If two people were on board a ship going towards Jumua and
they were transacting, it would be permissible to do so, as the
illat is not present in this case.

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Permissible to execute punishments and penalties by
dalalat-un-nass.
● Kaffara is wajib when one breaks fast by having relations
through ibarat-un-nass.
● Kaffara is wajib when one breaks fast by eating and drinking
through dalalat-un-nass.

A person takes an oath that he will not hit X.


● He does not break his oath if he hits X after his death.
● Illat: to cause pain. After death, illat is not present.
Similarly, a person takes an oath that he will not speak to X.
● He does not break his oath if he speaks to X after his death.
● Illat: to understand. After death, illat is not present.

A person takes an oath that he will not his wife.


● Illat: to cause pain to the wife.
● If he pulls her hair with the intention to cause pain, his oath
will break.
● If he pulls her hair without the intention to cause pain, his oath
will not break.

A person takes an oath that he will not eat meat.


● Illat: Lahm is defined as that meat which has a circulation of
blood within it.
● If he eats the meat of fish or locust, his oath will not break.
● If he eats the meat of a pig or a human, despite being haram,
his oath will break.

Iqtidha-un-nass A meaning on which the text QS Nisaa, ayah 23: “Unlawful to you are your mothers and your
itself is silent and yet must be daughters.”
‫اﻟﻨﺺ‬
ّ ‫اﻗﺘﻀﺎء‬ read into it, if it is to fulfill its ● Iqtidha-un-nass: unlawful for marriage.
proper objective.
● It is in addition to the text, QS Maida, ayah 3: “Unlawful for you are the dead carcass and

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but is required for the blood.”
speech to be correct. ● Iqtidha-un-nass: unlawful for consumption.
● It is established out of
necessity and will A husband wishes to divorce his wife and says, “Anti taaliqun.”
therefore be restricted to ● Taaliqun is a descriptive word, which means divorcee.
its necessity. ● His statement merely describes his wife as a divorcee.
● However, for his statement to be true, talaq has to take place.
This is through iqtidha-un-nass.
● Only one talaq will take place, because the dharura
(necessity) for this statement to be true is only one talaq.
Even if the husband intends three talaqs, only one will occur.

Person A says to person B, “Free your slave on behalf of me, in


exchange for 1000 dirhams.” Person B replies, “I have freed him.”
● The statement means: “Sell this slave to me for 1000 dirhams
then become my wakeel in setting him free.”
○ Iqtidha-un-nass: the transaction.
○ Dalalat-un-nass: acceptance of sale.
● Freeing of slaves will be on behalf of A.
● It is therefore wajib for A to pay one thousand dirhams to B.
● Difference of opinion:
○ Imam Abu Yusuf: not necessary for qabd
(possession).
○ Other Hanfis: necessary for qabd because it is a rukn
of bay’.

A person says to another, “Free this slave on my behalf, without any


payment.”
● The statement means: “Gift him to me and then become my
wakeel in setting him free.”
● The other person replies, “I have freed him.”
○ This statement is a hidden approval for agency.
○ Thus, freeing will be on behalf of first person.

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● Qabd is not necessary in this case because it is not a rukn in
hiba.

A man says to his wife, “If I eat (akaltu), you are divorced”, while
making an intention of particular foods only.
● Iqtidha-un-nass: akaltu ta’am (if I eat food).
● Thus, if he eats a little bit of food, the wife will be divorced as
the minimum necessity has been fulfilled.
● If he had said, “If I eat food”, then it would be understood as
takhsees.

A man says to his wife, “Observe iddat.”


● By the rule of dharurat of iqtidha-un-nass, talaq-e-raj’i will
take place, instead of talaq-e-ba’in.

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‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻷﻣﺮ‬
Commands

Terms Definition

Amr Verbal demand to do P


something issued
from a position of
superiority over who
is inferior.

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