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AP English Literature & Composition

AP English Language & Composition

Mrs. Tammy L. Daugherty


Dear AP English Student:

Welcome to AP English at Munster High School! As a junior or senior taking AP English, you will find this
year both challenging and rewarding. Because you will be reading and writing at a college level, you
should expect the course to be rigorous. This rigor prepares you for the AP English exam in the spring
and, more importantly, develops the skills you will need in your post-secondary endeavors.

Both AP English courses require extensive writing. AP English assumes you come to the class after having
mastered the basic skills of grammar and revision. This writing handbook is called a “toolbox” because it
provides both guidelines for the writing process and tools that writers can use to improve their style.
Therefore, don’t lose this toolbox; keep it handy, as you will refer to it often.

Materials in this handbook have been carefully screened and collected from some of the nation’s top
college and university writing programs, as well college writing textbooks. I hope you will find them as
invaluable as I have in my own journey as a writer.

Best wishes for a great school year,

Mrs. Daugherty
Mrs. Daugherty
tldaugherty@munster.us
(219) 836-3200, ext. 3264

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Topic Page

Modern Language Association (MLA) ………………………………………………………… 3


Formatting
Essays………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3
Formatting the First Page …………………………………………………………………………………… 3
Homework/ Classroom Assignments ……………………………………………………………......... 3
Sample First Page ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4
Miscellaneous Formatting Q & A …………………………………………………………………………. 5-6

When Do You Have to Cite? ……………………………………………………………………………………… 7

Citing Your Sources Parenthetically (In-Text) ……………………………………………………………. 8


General and Specific Guidelines ……………………………………………………………………......... 8-13
When a Citation Is Not Needed …………………………………………………………………………… 14
Short Quotations ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 14
Long Quotations [Block Quotations] …………………………………………………………………… 14-15
Adding or Omitting Words in a Quotation …………………………………………………………… 15
Achieving Variety When Introducing Quotations ………………………………………………… 16
Words to Signal a Citation ……………………………………………………………………………......... 16
Incorporating Quotations into Sentences ……………………………………………………………. 17-20

The Works Cited Page ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 21


General and Specific Guidelines ………………………………………………………………………….. 21-37
Sample MLA Works Cited Page …………………………………………………………………………… 38

MLA Tables, Figures, and Appendices ………………………………………………………………………… 39


General Guidelines…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 39-40
MLA Documentation/Formatting for Tables, Figures, and Appendices………………… 40-42

Common Abbreviations in Academic Writing …………………………………. 43-50

Writing Numbers…………………………………………………………………………….. 51-52

Assessing Student Writing………………………………………………………………. 53

Six +1 Traits of Writing ……………………………………………………………………. 54


General Description and Rubrics …………………………………………………………………………........ 54-57
Common Editors’ Marks …………………………………………………………………………………………... 58
Individual Traits and Revision Codes ………………………………………………………………………… 59-60
General Holistic AP English Essay Rubric ………………………………………………………………….. 61

Introduction Strategies ……………………………………………………………………. 62


Strategies for Writing an Effective Introduction …………………………………………………………. 62-63
Five Kinds of Less Effective Introductions …………………………………………………………………. 64

Creating the Perfect Thesis & Idea Development ……………………………… 65


Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement ……………………………………………………………….......... 65-66
Argumentation Basics ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 66

The Rhetorical Modes ……………………………………………………………………… 67


Organizational Patterns and Tips for the Position Paper …………………………………………….. 68-72
Organizational Patterns for the Comparison/Contrast Essay……………………………………….. 73-74

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Outlining to Organize Your Ideas ……………………………………………………… 75
Four Main Components for Effective Outlines …………………………………………………………….. 75-76
Sample Topic Outline ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 77
Transitional Words and Phrases ………………………………………………………………………………… 78-79

Tone Words ……………………………………………………………………………………… 80-81


Mapping Tone …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 82

Wording …………………………………………………………………………………………… 83
Frequently Confused Words ……………………………………………………………………………………… 83-84
Words That Replace Said …………………………………………………………………………………………... 85

Writing Great Sentences ………………………………………………………………….. 86


Conciseness in Writing …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 86-87
Active v. Passive Voice ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 88
Avoid Using Vague Nouns ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 89
Eliminate Wordiness by Combining Sentences …………………………………………………………… 89
Sentence-Level Errors ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 89-90
Sentence Fragments, Run-On Sentences, & Comma Splices ………………………………………… 90
Sentence Types ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 91
Sentence Starters ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 92
Sentence Patterns …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 93-96

Conventions Fixer-Uppers ……………………………………………………………….. 97


Commas-Are-Needed List …………………………………………………………………………………………. 97
Apostrophe Rules …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 98
Capitalization Rules …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 98
Semicolon and Colon Rules ………………………………………………………………………………………. 98-99
Titles: Italicize or Quotation Marks? …………………………………………………………………………. 99
Other Rules for Using Italics …………………………………………………………………………………….. 99
Using Hyphens and Dashes ………………………………………………………………………………………. 100
Agreement Errors ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 101-03
Gender Fair-Use of Language …………………………………………………………………………………… 106-13
Who-Which-That Errors …………………………………………………………………………………………... 114-17
Dangling Modifiers …………………………………………………………………………………………………... 118-19
Using Numbers in Writing ………………………………………………………………………………………... 119

About Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………… 120


Strategies for Writing an Effective Conclusion ……………………………………………….................. 120-21
Strategies to Avoid ……………………………………………………………………………………….................. 121
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………….. 121-22

Essay Exams …………………………………………………………………………………….. 123-25

Recommetiquette ……………………………………………………………………………. 126-27

Online Resources ………………………………………………………………………………. 128


Writing Aids ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 128
Documentation Help ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 128
Databases ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 128
Glossaries and Dictionaries ………………………………………………………………………………………… 128
Miscellaneous ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 128

Sample MLA Research Papers…………………………………………………………….. 129-37

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Modern Language Association (MLA)
Taken from The Purdue Online Writing Lab (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/)

Formatting Your Essay


 Type your paper on a computer and print it out on standard white 8.5 x 11-inch paper.
 Double-space the text of your paper and use a legible font (e.g., Times New Roman). Whichever
font you choose, MLA recommends that the regular and italic type styles contrast enough
that they are recognizable from one another. The font size should be 12 pt. unless your
instructor requires otherwise.
 Leave only one space after periods or other punctuation marks (unless otherwise instructed by
your instructor).
 Set the margins of your document to 1 inch on all sides.
 Indent the first line of paragraphs one half-inch from the left margin. MLA recommends that you use the Tab key
as opposed to pushing the space bar five times.
 Create a header that numbers all pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner, one-half inch from the top
and flush with the right margin. Do NOT tab to the right margin and manually type page numbers. Use
“Insert”> “Page Numbers” in Microsoft Word, for example. Once you insert page numbers, type your last
name in front of one of the page numbers and hit space bar once. (Note: Your instructor may ask that you
omit the number on your first page. Always follow your instructor's guidelines.)
 Use italics throughout your essay for the titles of longer works and only when absolutely necessary, to provide
emphasis.
 If you have any endnotes, include them on a separate page before your Works Cited page. Entitle the section Notes
(centered, unformatted).
 If you have any footnotes, place your cursor right after the word that necessitates the footnote and go to “Insert”>
“Footnote.” A program like Microsoft Word will automatically format the footnotes.

Formatting the First Page of Your Essay


• Do not make a title page for your paper unless specifically requested.
• In the upper left-hand corner of the first page, list your name, your instructor's name, the course, and the date.
Again, be sure to use double-spaced text.
• Double space again and center the title. Do not underline, italicize, or place your title in quotation marks; write the
title in Title Case (standard capitalization), not in all capital letters.
• Use quotation marks and/or italics when referring to other works in your title, just as you would in your text:
Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas as Morality Play; Human Weariness in "After Apple Picking"
• Double space between the title and the first line of the text.
• Create a header in the upper right-hand corner that includes your last name, followed by a space with a page
number; number all pages consecutively with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.), one-half inch from the top
and flush with the right margin. (Note: Your instructor or other readers may ask that you omit last
name/page number header on your first page. Always follow instructor guidelines.)

Formatting the First Page of Homework/Classroom Assignments


 In order to practice MLA, your homework/classroom assignments will be formatted in the same fashion as essays.
 Do not make title page for any homework or classroom assignment unless otherwise instructed.
 In the upper left-hand corner of the first page, list your name, your instructor’s name, the class title, and the date
the assignment is DUE.
 Add a title (usually the assignment title, page number, etc.) at the top center of the page.
 For each additional page, add your last name and page number in the upper right-hand corner of the page. If you
write back-and-front on a sheet of paper, page 2 would still require this on the backside of the page.
 If you type out an assignment, use a recommended font (Times New Roman, Arial, etc.) in size 12.
 If you type out an assignment, use double spacing (or at least 1.5 spacing) for clarity and commenting.
 If you use notebook paper, use paper that does NOT have the messy torn-off edges. Use perforated paper or,
better yet, use loose-leaf paper. I prefer wide ruled for assignments as it provides the same effect as double
spacing.

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Here is a sample of the first page of a paper in MLA style:

The heading Pagination is optional


appears on on the first page.
the first Pagination should
page ONLY. include last name, a
single space, and page
number.

Indent new
paragraph by The title should be
hitting TAB center-spaced.
once. Excellent titles offer
two parts: (1) a
hook and (2) an
explanation.

The THESIS
appears at the
end of the
introduction.

All quotations are cited


according to MLA
formatting. Sources
with no known author
offer the first word
that appears in the
works cited entry.
One-inch
margins

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Miscellaneous MLA Formatting Suggestions: Q & A
Q: If my instructor requires a title page, how do I format one?
MLA does not require a title page; however, you may have a professor/instructor who wants one. If that is the
case, follow these general guidelines:
 Center the title of your essay about one-third down on the paper.
 Center the writer(s) name(s) about half way down the paper.
 Center the following near the bottom of the paper:
o Course title
o Instructor’s name
o Date due
Note: Even though MLA does not restrict an author’s creativity on the title page, remember the title page is
someone’s first impression of the paper. Unnecessary or garish graphics may mar your first impression.

Q: How do I create section headings for long essays?


Writers sometimes use section headings to improve a document’s readability. These sections may include
individual chapters or other named parts of a book or essay. The MLA Handbook has no formal requirements
for using headings or subheadings in a research paper other than for the title and works cited. However, the
MLA's own journal, PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association), publishes about half its articles
with headings in one of two style.). MLA recommends that when you divide an essay into sections that you
number those sections with an Arabic number and a period followed by a space and the section name. If you
have subheadings, after each period, however, do NOT place an extra space after the period: 1.0, 1.1, 1.1.1. See
below for an example:

1.0 Introduction Notice one space after the last


1.1 Brief history of Liz Claiborne numeral (before a word) but no
1.2 Corporate environment spaces after a period when a
2.0 Career opportunities numeral follows.
2.1 Operations management
2.1.1 Traffic
2.1.2 International trade and corporate customs
2.1.3 Distribution
2.2 Product development

If you do not use seriation, your headings should indent at each level of the hierarchy. See below for an
example:

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Q: One space or two after end punctuation?
Today, writers should provide only one space after a word if another one follows (hit the spacebar one time
after each word). This includes one space after a period. Note: Do not put a space between a word and a period
at the end of a sentence.

Q: Should I include a table of contents? If so, how do I create one?


Anytime your paper is divided into sections, you should include a table of contents. Most word-processing
software enables a writer to create a table of contents. In Microsoft Word, for example, students can format the
table of contents automatically. If you opt to create a table of contents from “scratch,” use the tab key to keep
page numbers aligned; otherwise, the page numbers will not align vertically.

Q: Why does my paper seem to have more spaces between paragraphs if it’s only set on
double spacing?
You will add an extra line after each time you hit the “return” key unless you change Microsoft Word’s default
spacing option. By default, Word will add a space in addition to any number of lines you assign it. To change
this default setting, you will need to change the space after and before each paragraph. Open the “paragraph”
formatting dialogue box and change the space before and after each paragraph to zero. Then save this as your
default spacing option.

Q: Does the font I use matter?


In a nutshell: It depends. From Purdue’s Online Writing Lab:

“It is easy to think that type font doesn’t matter. We read text all the time and have become very accustomed to
focusing on the content or message of the words themselves and not what the words look like visually. In
reality, the visual appearance of words themselves can (and should) have just as much effect on how a
document is received as the content itself. Fonts can create mood and atmosphere. Fonts can give visual clues
about the order a document should be read in and which parts are more important than others. Fonts can even
be used to control how long it takes someone to read a document.

One of the primary distinctions between font types is Serif fonts versus Sans-Serif fonts. Although the exact
derivation of the word “serif” is unknown, it may be easier to grasp the concept if you think of them as feet.
Since “sans” comes from the French for “without,” you can see fonts as having feet or being with out feet. If
serif-fonts have lines (or feet) at the end of particular strokes, then non-serif fonts are marked by the absence of
these features.”

Examples of Serif fonts include Times New Roman and Baskerville. Examples of Sans-Serifs fonts include Arial
and Calibri.

The OWL recommends the following guidelines when considering fonts:

 Research has found that the difference in readability of serif vs. sans serif fonts is negligible in print sources.
However, in electronic or virtual contexts, sans-serif is a little easier to read. Consider the rhetorical situation
(purpose, audience, context of use) of your communication when you choose your fonts.
 Sans-serifs are most typically used for headings and titles. In this use, they provide a nice contrast with the
serif font used for the extended text below them. Like all conventions, this advice may change based on your
audience. For example, European countries seem to have a higher tolerance for sans-serif fonts in long blocks
of text on paper.
 It’s a good rule to never mix two, different types of the same font category. In other words, do not use a Times
New Roman title over a text block of Palatino. Both are serif fonts and will not mix well. The ideal situation is
to pair one serif font with one sans-serif font.
 Although there is no official rule, too many different fonts on one page can appear chaotic and distracting.
Figure out what message you’re trying to convey and decide how to accomplish it with limited fonts.
 Use decorative fonts sparingly. Their unique features definitely make them unsuitable for extended reading.
They work well for headers and titles or to add a bit of emphasis to a piece of text.
 When emailing or using fonts on the web, remember that not all computers will contain the same font sets as
yours. Either use more popular fonts or set up alternate fonts in the page’s coding.

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When Do You Have to Cite?
Taken from Prentice Hall Reference Guide, 8th ed.

When we use the ideas, findings, data, conclusions, arguments, and words of others, we need to
acknowledge that we are borrowing their work and inserting it in our own by documenting it. For
example, if you are arguing for a particular viewpoint and find someone who expresses that
viewpoint, you may want to include it. That, of course, will require that you document who that
person is and where you found that source.

Common Knowledge: Information That Does Not Require Documentation

Common knowledge, the body of general ideas we share with our readers, does not have to be
documented. Specific details or statistics about topics might not be considered common knowledge,
however. In such cases, you should provide proper documentation to show where the ideas or study
results came from.

Common knowledge consists of the following:

 Common historical facts. For example, it is common knowledge that the Declaration of
Independence was adopted in 1776 and that George Washington was the first U.S. president.
 Common physical or scientific facts. Most people know basic scientific facts such as the
earth is the third planet from the sun and water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen
molecules.
 Facts widely available in a variety of standard reference books. Many reference books,
for example, would note that Brazil is the largest country in South America, Great Britain has
a parliamentary system of government, and the language most commonly spoken in Australia
is English.
 Information that is widely shared and found in numerous sources without reference to
any source. For example, it has been widely reported in the news and in health sources that
obesity is a widespread health problem in the United States. A statement to that effect does
not need to be documented. However, if you are writing about the occurrence of obesity and
find statistics for various segments of the population, your sources must be cited.

Common knowledge may also include more specific ideas or concepts, depending on the expertise of
the audience with whom you are sharing information. For example, if your audience is composed of
educators, it’s common knowledge among this group that U.S. schoolchildren aren’t well acquainted
with geography. However, if you cite test results documenting the extent of the problem or use the
words and ideas of a knowledgeable person about the causes of the problem, that is not common
knowledge and needs documentation. If you are unsure whether the information you are using is
considered common knowledge, consult your instructor.

Studies or Surveys You Conduct Do Not Require Documentation

If you’re reporting the results or data from your own study or survey, you should explain when and
how the study or survey took place, but you don’t need to cite it unless it has been previously
published in another source. If you quote someone you interviewed, you do need to document how
you conducted the interview (personal interview, e-mail message, phone), the person’s name, and
the date of the interview or exchange.

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Citing Your Sources Parenthetically (In-Text)
In MLA style, referring to the works of others in your text is done by using what is known as parenthetical citation.
This method involves placing relevant source information in parentheses after a quote or a paraphrase.

General Guidelines

1. The source information required in a parenthetical citation depends (1) upon the source
medium (e.g. Print, Web, DVD) and (2) upon the source’s entry on the Works Cited
(bibliography) page.
2. Any source information that you provide in-text must correspond to the source information
on the Works Cited page. More specifically, whatever signal word or phrase you
provide to your readers in the text, must be the first thing that appears on the left-
hand margin of the corresponding entry in the Works Cited List.

In-Text Citations: Author-Page Style


MLA format follows the author-page method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the page
number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference
should appear on your Works Cited page. The author's name may appear either in the sentence itself or in
parentheses following the quotation or paraphrase, but the page number(s) should always appear in the
parentheses, not in the text of your sentence. For example:

 Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings"
(263).

 Romantic poetry is characterized by the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (Wordsworth 263).

 Wordsworth extensively explored the role of emotion in the creative process (263).

Both citations in the examples above, (263) and (Wordsworth 263), tell readers that the information in the sentence
can be located on page 263 of a work by an author named Wordsworth. If readers want more information about this
source, they can turn to the Works Cited page, where, under the name of Wordsworth, they would find the following
information:

Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads. London: Oxford U.P., 1967. Print.

In-text Citations for Print Sources with Known Author

For Print sources like books, magazines, scholarly journal articles, and newspapers, provide a signal word or phrase
(usually the author’s last name) and a page number. If you provide the signal word/phrase in the sentence, you do
not need to include it in the parenthetical citation.

 Human beings have been described by Kenneth Burke as "symbol-using animals" (3). Human beings have
been described as "symbol-using animals" (Burke 3).

 These examples must correspond to an entry that begins with Burke, which will be the first thing that
appears on the left-hand margin of an entry in the Works Cited:

Burke, Kenneth. Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method. Berkeley: U of California P,
1966. Print.

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In-text Citations for Print Sources with No Known Author

When a source has no known author, use a shortened title of the work instead of an author name.
Place the title in quotation marks if it's a short work (e.g. articles) or italicize it if it's a longer work
(e.g. plays, books, television shows, entire websites) and provide a page number.

We see so many global warming hotspots in North America likely because this region has “more
readily accessible climatic data and more comprehensive programs to monitor and study
environmental change . . . ” (“Impact of Global Warming” 6).

In this example, since the reader does not know the author of the article, an abbreviated title of the article appears in
the parenthetical citation, which corresponds to the full name of the article that appears first at the left-hand margin
of its respective entry in the Works Cited. Thus, the writer includes the title in quotation marks as the signal phrase
in the parenthetical citation in order to lead the reader directly to the source on the Works Cited page. The Works
Cited entry appears as follows:

“The Impact of Global Warming in North America.” GLOBAL WARMING: Early Signs. 1999. Web. 23 Mar. 2009.

If there are two sources with no author that begin with the same title, provide the wording until the title differs.
 We see so many global warming hotspots in North America likely because this region has “more readily
accessible climatic data and more comprehensive programs to monitor and study environmental change . . .”
(“Impact of Global Warming in North” 6).

“The Impact of Global Warming in North America.” GLOBAL WARMING: Early Signs. 1999. Web. 23 Mar. 2009.

“The Impact of Global Warming in South America.” GLOBAL WARMING: Early Signs. 1999. Web. 23 Mar. 2009.

Author-Page Citation for Classic and Literary Works with Multiple Editions

Page numbers are always required, but additional citation information can help literary scholars, who may have a
different edition of a classic work like Marx and Engels's The Communist Manifesto. In such cases, give the page
number of your edition (making sure the edition is listed in your Works Cited page, of course) followed by a
semicolon, and then the appropriate abbreviations for volume (vol.), book (bk.), part (pt.), chapter (ch.), section
(sec.), or paragraph (par.). For example:

 Marx and Engels described human history as marked by class struggles (79; ch. 1).

Citing Authors with Same Last Names


Sometimes more information is necessary to identify the source from which a quotation is taken. For instance, if two
or more authors have the same last name, provide both authors' first initials (or even the authors' full name if
different authors share initials) in your citation. For example:

 Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (R. Miller 12), others note
that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (A. Miller 46).

Citing a Work by Multiple Authors

For a source with three or fewer authors, list the authors' last names in the text or in the parenthetical citation:

 Smith, Yang, and Moore argue that tougher gun control is not needed in the United States (76).

 The authors state "Tighter gun control in the United States erodes Second Amendment rights" (Smith, Yang,
and Moore 76).

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For a source with more than three authors, use the work's bibliographic information as a guide for your citation.
Provide the first author's last name followed by et al. or list all the last names.

 Jones et al. counter Smith, Yang, and Moore's argument by noting that the current spike in gun violence in
America compels law makers to adjust gun laws (4).

Or

 Legal experts counter Smith, Yang, and Moore's argument by noting that the current spike in gun violence in
America compels law makers to adjust gun laws (Jones et al. 4).

Or

 Jones, Driscoll, Ackerson, and Bell counter Smith, Yang, and Moore's argument by noting that the current
spike in gun violence in America compels law makers to adjust gun laws (4).

Citing Multiple Works by the Same Author

If you cite more than one work by a particular author, include a shortened title for the particular work from which
you are quoting to distinguish it from the others.

 Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children ("Too Soon" 38), though he has
acknowledged elsewhere that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill
development in a child's second and third year ("Hand-Eye Development" 17).

Additionally, if the author's name is not mentioned in the sentence, you would format your citation with the author's
name followed by a comma, followed by a shortened title of the work, followed, when appropriate, by page numbers:

 Visual studies, because it is such a new discipline, may be "too easy" (Elkins, "Visual Studies" 63).

 A 2004 survey found that 20% of employers responding had employees’ e-mail “subpoenaed in the course
of a lawsuit or regulatory investigation,” up 7% from the previous year (Amer. Management Assn. and
ePolicy Inst., “2004 Workplace” 1).

Citing Multivolume Works

If you cite from different volumes of a multivolume work, always include the volume number followed by a colon.
Put a space after the colon, then provide the page number(s). (If you only cite from one volume, provide only the
page number in parentheses.)

 . . . as Quintilian wrote in Institutio Oratoria (1: 14-17).

Citing the Bible

In your first parenthetical citation, you want to make clear which Bible you're using (and underline or italicize the
title), as each version varies in its translation, followed by book (do not italicize or underline), chapter and verse. For
example:

 Ezekiel saw "what seemed to be four living creatures," each with faces of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle
(New Jerusalem Bible, Ezek. 1.5-10).

 If future references employ the same edition of the Bible you’re using, list only the book, chapter, and verse
in the parenthetical citation.

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Citing Indirect Sources
Sometimes you may have to use an indirect source. An indirect source is a source cited in another source. For such
indirect quotations, use "qtd. in" to indicate the source you actually consulted.

 Ravitch argues that high schools are pressured to act as "social service centers, and they don't do that well"
(qtd. in Weisman 259).

Note that, in most cases, a responsible researcher will attempt to find the original source, rather than citing an
indirect source.

Citing Non-Print or Sources from the Internet

With more and more scholarly work being posted on the Internet, you may have to cite research you have completed
in virtual environments. While many sources on the Internet should not be used for scholarly work, some Web
sources are perfectly acceptable for research. When creating in-text citations for electronic, film, or Internet sources,
remember that your citation must reference the source in your Works Cited.

Sometimes writers are confused with how to craft parenthetical citations for electronic sources because of the
absence of page numbers, but often, these sorts of entries do not require any sort of parenthetical citation at all. For
electronic and Internet sources, follow the following guidelines:

• Include in the text the first item that appears in the Work Cited entry that corresponds to the citation (e.g. author
name, article name, website name, film name).
• You do not need to give paragraph numbers or page numbers based on your Web browser’s print preview
function.
• Unless you must list the website name in the signal phrase in order to get the reader to the appropriate entry, do
not include URLs in-text. Only provide partial URLs such as when the name of the site includes, for example,
a domain name, like CNN.com or Forbes.com as opposed to writing out http://www.cnn.com or
http://www.forbes.com.

Miscellaneous Non-Print Sources

 Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo stars Herzog's long-time film partner, Klaus Kinski. During the shooting of
Fitzcarraldo, Herzog and Kinski were often at odds, but their explosive relationship fostered a memorable
and influential film.

 During the presentation, Jane Yates stated that invention and pre-writing are areas of rhetoric that need
more attention.

In the two examples above “Herzog” from the first entry and “Yates” from the second lead the reader to the first item
each citation’s respective entry on the Works Cited page:

Herzog, Werner, dir. Fitzcarraldo. Perf. Klaus Kinski. Filmverlag der Autoren, 1982. Film.

Yates, Jane. "Invention in Rhetoric and Composition." Gaps Addressed: Future Work in Rhetoric and Composition,
CCCC, Palmer House Hilton, 2002. Print.

Electronic Sources

 One online film critic stated that Fitzcarraldo is "...a beautiful and terrifying critique of obsession and
colonialism" (Garcia, “Herzog: a Life”).

 The Purdue OWL is accessed by millions of users every year. Its “MLA Formatting and Style Guide” is one of
the most popular resources (Stolley et al.).

11
In the first example, the writer has chosen not to include the author name in-text; however, two entries from the
same author appear in the Works Cited. Thus, the writer includes both the author’s last name and the article title in
the parenthetical citation in order to lead the reader to the appropriate entry on the Works Cited page (see below).
In the second example, “Stolley et al.” in the parenthetical citation gives the reader an author name followed by the
abbreviation “et al.,” meaning, “and others,” for the article “MLA Formatting and Style Guide.” Both corresponding
Works Cited entries are as follows:

Garcia, Elizabeth. "Herzog: a Life." Online Film Critics Corner. The Film School of New Hampshire, 2 May 2002. Web. 8
Jan. 2009.
Stolley, Karl. "MLA Formatting and Style Guide." The OWL at Purdue. 10 May 2006. Purdue University Writing Lab.
12 May 2006.

Multiple Citations
To cite multiple sources in the same parenthetical reference, separate the citations by a semi-colon:
 . . . as has been discussed elsewhere (Burke 3; Dewey 21).

Citing Drama and Verse (Taken from Santa Fe University of Art and Design)

If writing a paper that refers to more than one work, use the play name in the citation rather than the author’s name.
If writing about one play, then replace the play title in the parenthetical citation for the author's last name.
 Author: Shakespeare
 Italicize play titles: Hamlet (Ham.)
 After introducing the full play title and its abbreviation in parentheses, use the abbreviation to refer to the
play in the rest of the paper.
 Use Arabic numerals to refer to act, scene, and line numbers (no page numbers are listed): 3.2.10 or 3.2.10-
25 if covering information from lines 10 through 25. If the line number is 100 or higher, use the first whole
line number 265 and the last two digits of the second line number: 5.2.265-75.
 If referring to an act and scene of a play in the body of text, format it as such: In 2.2, Hamlet's despondency
becomes the subject of mockery amongst his peers.
 If only referring to one work by Shakespeare, then the parenthetical citation would look like
this: (Shakespeare 3.2.115). After the first parenthetical citation, omit the author’s name: (3.2.115).
 If referring to more than one work by Shakespeare in the paper, after introducing the play Hamlet (Ham.),
the first parenthetical citation will look like this: (Ham. 3.2.115)
 If the title has not yet been introduced in the body of the paper, the first parenthetical citation will look like
this: (Hamlet 3.2.115).

Quoting Verse and Prose

Many of Shakespeare's plays are in a combination of verse and prose. The lesser characters often are written in
prose, while the primary characters are usually written in verse. There are different rules for formatting verse and
prose.
 For quoting both verse and prose remember to always introduce the scene or the character who is speaking.
 If quoting three lines or fewer of verse, use the short quotation format and use a slash [ / ] to indicate line
breaks. Keep all original punctuation and incorporate it into the text of the paper.
 If quoting four lines or more of verse, break the lines as they are shown in the text of the play. Do not use a
slash [ / ] to indicate line breaks. Keep all original punctuation and format as a block quotation.
 If you would like to quote verse or prose, but want to leave out parts of a sentence or phrase, simply use
ellipses to mark the left out text: "Heaven make me free of it! I follow thee / ...Wretched queen, adieu!"

Play Quotations (short verse):


 For quotations that refer to one character and are under four lines of verse, we can use "Quotation Marks."
The citation will come between the last quotation mark and the period.
 We will want to use slashes [ / ] to indicate line breaks.

12
"Doomed for a certain term to walk the night, / And for the day confined to fast in fires, / Til the foul crime done in
my days of nature" (Shakespeare 1.5.10-13).

Play Quotations (short prose):

"Happily he is the second time to come to them, for they say an old man is twice a child" (Shakespeare 2.2.354-55).

Play Quotations (long verse)

 For quotations that refer to one character and are longer than three lines of verse or four lines of prose,
double indent (1" or two taps of the tab key) and create a block quotation.
 Do not use quotation marks or italicize the quotation, the indentation will be indication enough:
He took me by the wrist, and held me hard,
Then goes he to the length of all his arm,
And with his other hand thus o'er his brow,
He falls to such perusal of my face
As 'a would draw it. Long stayed he so.
At last, a little shaking mine arm,
And thrice his head thus waving up and down,
He raised a sigh so piteous and profound
As it did seem to shatter all his bulk,
And end his being. (Shakespeare 2.1.86-95)
 Notice that the parenthetical citation comes after the period in a long quotation and that there is not a
period after the citation.

Play Quotations (long prose):


 Do not use quotation marks or italicize the quotation; however, do not worry about line breaks. Only take
into account the double indentation and citation style.

Here lies the water; good. Here stands the man;


good. If the man go to this water and drowns himself,
it is,will he, nill he, he goes--mark you that. But if the
water come to him and drown him, he drowns not
himself. Argal, he that is not guilty of his own
death shortens not his own life. (Shakespeare 5.1.13-15)

Play Quotations (dialogue between two or more characters):


 Double indent the names of the characters.
 Capitalize each letter (all caps) in the name of the character.
 Indent the text of the quotation one quarter inch further than the character's name.
 Keep original formatting and punctuation.

HAMLET. Then is doomsday near. But your news is not


true. Let me question more in particular. What have you,
my good friends, deserved at the hands of Fortune,
that she sends you to prison hither?
GUILDENSTERN. Prison, my lord?
HAMLET. Denmark's a prison.
ROSENCRANTZ. Then is the world one. (2.2.231-37)

Poem and Sonnet Quotations:


 Follow the same guidelines set by the plays for prose and verse.
 Remember to use line numbers and not page numbers.

13
When a Citation Is Not Needed

Common sense and ethics should determine your need for documenting sources. You do not need to give sources for
familiar proverbs, well-known quotations or common knowledge. Remember, this is a rhetorical choice, based on
audience. If you're writing for an expert audience of a scholarly journal, for example, they'll have different
expectations of what constitutes common knowledge.

When you directly quote the works of others in your paper, you will format quotations differently depending on
their length. Below are some basic guidelines for incorporating quotations into your paper. Please note that all pages
in MLA should be double-spaced.

Short Quotations

To indicate short quotations (fewer than four typed lines of prose or three lines of verse) in your text, enclose the
quotation within double quotation marks. Provide the author and specific page citation (in the case of verse, provide
line numbers) in the text, and include a complete reference on the Works Cited page.

Punctuation marks such as periods, commas, and semicolons should appear after the parenthetical citation.
Question marks and exclamation points should appear within the quotation marks if they are a part of the quoted
passage but after the parenthetical citation if they are a part of your text. For example:

 According to some, dreams express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184), though others
disagree.

 According to Foulkes's study, dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (184).

 Is it possible that dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184)?
Mark breaks in short quotations of verse with a slash, /, at the end of each line of verse: (a space should precede and
follow the slash)

 Cullen concludes, "Of all the things that happened there / That's all I remember" (11-12).

Long Quotations
For quotations that extend to more than four lines of verse or prose: place quotations in a free-standing block of
text and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, with the entire quote indented one inch from the
left margin; maintain double-spacing. Only indent the first line of the quotation by a half inch if you are citing
multiple paragraphs. Your parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark. When quoting
verse, maintain original line breaks. (You should maintain double-spacing throughout your essay.) For example:

Nelly Dean treats Heathcliff poorly and dehumanizes him throughout her narration:
They entirely refused to have it in bed with them, or even in their room, and I had no more sense, so, I put it
on the landing of the stairs, hoping it would be gone on the morrow. By chance, or else attracted by hearing
his voice, it crept to Mr. Earnshaw's door, and there he found it on quitting his chamber. Inquiries were
made as to how it got there; I was obliged to confess, and in recompense for my cowardice and inhumanity
was sent out of the house. (Bronte 78)

14
When citing long sections of poetry, keep formatting as close to the original as possible:

In his poem "My Papa's Waltz," Theodore Roethke explores his childhood with his father:
The whiskey on your breath
Could make a small boy dizzy;
But I hung on like death:
Such waltzing was not easy.
We Romped until the pans
Slid from the kitchen shelf;
My mother's countenance
Could not unfrown itself. (qtd in Shrodes, Finestone, Shugrue 202)

Adding or Omitting Words in Quotations


If you add a word or words in a quotation, you should put brackets around the words to indicate that they are not
part of the original text:

Jan Harold Brunvand, in an essay on urban legends, states: "some individuals [who retell urban legends]
make a point of learning every rumor or tale" (78).

If you omit a word or words from a quotation, you should indicate the deleted word or words by using ellipsis
marks, which are three periods ( . . . ) preceded and followed by a space. For example:

In an essay on urban legends, Jan Harold Brunvand notes that "some individuals make a point of learning
every recent rumor or tale . . . and in a short time a lively exchange of details occurs" (78).

Please note that brackets are not needed around ellipses unless adding brackets would clarify your use of ellipses.

When omitting words from poetry quotations, use a standard three-period ellipses; however, when omitting one or
more full lines of poetry, space several periods to about the length of a complete line in the poem.

15
Achieving Variety When Introducing Quotations
Taken from http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/introquo.html

While it is necessary to introduce direct quotations in order to qualify them in relation to the rest
of a paper, it is also necessary to introduce these quotations using a varied wording. It becomes
monotonous if all the quotations in a paper are introduced with stock phrases: "this critic states"
or "another critic says." A paper is much more interesting and cohesive if the introductory
phrases, or "signal phrases," are varied.

Here are some possible signal phrases:

1. According to Jane Doe, "..."


2. As Jane Doe goes on to explain, "..."
3. Characterized by John Doe, the society is "..."
4. As one critic points out, "..."
5. John Doe believes that "..."
6. Jane Doe claims that "..."
7. In the words of John Doe, "..."

*Note that there exist fine shades of meaning between phrases such as "contend" and "argue"
and large differences between ones such as "claim" and "demonstrate." Ask yourself questions as
to whether the source material is making a claim, asserting a belief, stating a fact, etc. Then
choose a verb that is appropriate for the source material's purpose.

Words to Signal a Citation (see also “Words to use for Said”)

says defines theorizes summarizes


delineates concludes continues elucidates
depicts interjects concedes reasons
denotes cites enunciates muses
remarks relates rationalizes reflects
comments observes offers asserts
proclaims interprets mentions expands
states inquires exhibits points out
avows implies relates shows
divulges proposes stipulates acknowledges
adds ponders postulates professes
admits affirms agrees argues
believes claims compares confirms
contends declares demonstrates denies
disputes emphasizes endorses grants
illustrates insists notes refutes
rejects reports responds suggests
thinks underlines writes underscores

16
Incorporating Quotations into Sentences
Taken from http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QuoLitIncorporating.html

It is permissible to quote an entire sentence (between two sentences of your own), but in
general you should avoid this method of bringing textual material into your discussion.

Instead, use one of the following patterns:

Use an introducing In this poem it is creation, not a hypothetical creator, that is


phrase, or supremely awesome. [argument sentence] The speaker asks, "What
orienter, plus the immortal hand or eye / Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?" [data
quotation sentence; orienter before quote]

Gatsby is not to be regarded as a personal failure. [argument


sentence] "Gatsby turned out all right at the end" (176), according
to Nick. [data sentence; orienter after quote]

"I know you blame me," Mrs. Compson tells Jason (47). [data
sentence; orienter after quote] Is she expressing her own sense of
guilt? [argument sentence]

Use your own Vivian hates the knights for scorning her, and she dreams of
assertion and a achieving glory by destroying Merlin's: "I have made his glory mine"
colon plus the (390).
quotation
Fitzgerald gives Nick a muted tribute to the hero: "Gatsby turned out
all right at the end" (176).

Cassio represents not only a political but also a personal threat to


Iago: "He hath a daily beauty in his life / That makes me ugly . . ."
(5.1.19-20).

Use your own For Nick, who remarks that Gatsby "turned out all right" (176), the
assertion with hero deserves respect but perhaps does not inspire great
quoted material admiration.
integrated
Satan's motion is many things; he "rides" through the air (63),
"rattles" (65), and later explodes, "wanders and hovers" like a fire
(293).

Even according to Cleopatra, Mark Antony's "duty" is to the Roman


state.

17
Sample Paragraph Illustrating Quotations

The following paragraph comes from a student's analysis of the relationship between two characters in Virginia
Woolf's To the Lighthouse. Notice how statements expressing the writer's ideas and observations are verified with
evidence from the novel in both summarized and quoted form.

We learn about Mrs. Ramsey's personality by observing her feelings about other characters. For example,
Mrs. Ramsey has mixed feelings toward Mr. Tansley, but her feelings seem to grow more positive over time as she
comes to know him better. At first Mrs. Ramsey finds Mr. Tansley annoying, as shown especially when he mentions
that no one is going to the lighthouse (52). But rather than hating him, at this point she feels pity: "she pitied men
always as if they lacked something. . ." (85). Then later, during the gathering, pity turns to empathy as she realizes
that Mr. Tansley must feel inferior. He must know, Mrs. Ramsey thinks, that "no woman would look at him with Paul
Rayley in the room" (106). Finally, by the end of the dinner scene, she feels some attraction to Mr. Tansley and also a
new respect: "She liked his laugh. . . . She liked his awkwardness. There was a lot in that man after all" (110). In
observing this evolution in her attitude, we learn more about Mrs. Ramsey than we do about Mr. Tansley. The
change in Mrs. Ramsey's attitude is not used by Woolf to show that Mrs. Ramsey is fickle or confused; rather it is
used to show her capacity for understanding both the frailty and complexity of human beings. This is a central
characteristic of Mrs. Ramsey's personality.

Maintaining Clarity and Readability

Introduce your Introduce a quotation either by indicating what it is intended to


quotations show or by naming its source, or both.

For non-narrative poetry, it's customary to attribute quotations to


"the speaker"; for a story with a narrator, to "the narrator."

For plays, novels, and other works with characters, identify


characters as you quote them.

Do not use two quotations in a row, without intervening


material of your own.

Pay attention to Tense is a tricky issue. It's customary in literary analysis to use the
verb tense present tense; it is at the present time that you (and your reader) are
looking at the text.

But events in a narrative or drama take place in a time sequence. You


will often need to use a past tense to refer to events that took place
before the moment you are presently discussing:

When he hears Cordelia's answer, Lear seems surprised, but not


dumbfounded. He advises her to "mend [her] speech a little." He
had expected her to praise him the most; but compared to her
sisters', her remarks seem almost insulting (1.1.95).

18
Punctuating and Indenting Quotations

For the most part, you must reproduce the spelling, capitalization, and internal punctuation
of the original exactly.

The following alterations are acceptable:

Changing the You may alter the closing punctuation of a quotation in order to
Closing incorporate it into a sentence of your own:
Punctuation
"Books are not life," Lawrence emphasized.

Commas and periods go inside the closing quotation marks; the


other punctuation marks go outside.

Lawrence insisted that books "are not life"; however, he wrote


exultantly about the power of the novel.

Why does Lawrence need to point out that "Books are not life"?

Using the Slash When quoting lines of poetry up to three lines long (which are not
When Quoting indented), separate one line of poetry from another with a slash
Poetry mark.

Using Ellipsis If for the sake of brevity you wish to omit material from a quoted
Points for Omitted passage, use ellipsis points (three spaced periods) to indicate the
Material omission. There is no space before or after the ellipsis.

Using Square When quoting, you may alter grammatical forms such as the tense of
Brackets when a verb or the person of a pronoun so that the quotation conforms
Altering Material grammatically to your own prose; indicate these alterations by
placing square brackets around the changed form.

In the following quotation "her" replaces the "your" of the original so


that the quote fits the point of view of the paper (third person):

When he hears Cordelia's answer, Lear seems surprised, but not


dumbfounded. He advises her to "mend [her] speech a little"
(1.1.95). He had expected her to praise him the most; but compared
to her sisters', her remarks seem almost insulting

19
Indenting Prose or verse quotations fewer than four lines long are not
Quotations indented. For quotations of this length, use the patterns described
above.

Indent "longer" quotations in a block about ten spaces in from the


left margin; when a quotation is indented, quotation marks are not
used.

The MLA Handbook, 7th Edition (2009) recommends that indented


quotations be double-spaced, but many instructors prefer them
single-spaced. The meaning of "longer" varies slightly from one style
system to another, but a general rule is to indent quotations that are
more than two (or three) lines of verse or three (or four) lines of
prose.

When you finish indenting a long quote, the period changes places:
The period comes before the citation.

Example:

At the conclusion of Lord of the Flies, Ralph and the other boys
realize the horror of their actions:

The tears began to flow and sobs shook him. He gave himself
up to them now for the first time on the island; great,
shuddering spasms of grief that seemed to wrench his whole
body . His voice rose under the black smoke before the
burning wreckage of the island; and infected by that emotion,
the other little boys began to shake and sob too. (186)

Indent dialogue between characters in a play. Place the speaker's


name before the speech quoted:

CAESAR: Et tu, Brute! Then, fall, Caesar!

CINNA: Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead! (3.1.77-78)

Note: Do not quote long or whole sentences to take the place of a single noun in an embedded
quotation.

NO: “You can have your choice of carrots, apples, or cucumbers” is the first line of the story.
YES: The author opens the story by stating, “You can have your choice of carrots, apples, or
cucumbers.”
20
The Works Cited Page
According to MLA style, you must have a Works Cited page at the end of your research paper. All entries in the
Works Cited page must correspond to the works cited in your main text.

Basic Rules

 Begin your Works Cited page on a separate page at the end of your research paper. It
should have the same one-inch margins and last name, page number header as the
rest of your paper.
 Label the page Works Cited (do not italicize the words Works Cited or put them in
quotation marks) and center the words Works Cited at the top of the page.
 Double space all citations, but do not skip spaces between entries.
 Indent the second and subsequent lines of citations five spaces so that you create a
hanging indent.
 List page numbers of sources efficiently, when needed. If you refer to a journal article that appeared on pages 225
through 250, list the page numbers on your Works Cited page as 225-50.

Additional Basic Rules New to MLA 2009


• For every entry, you must determine the Medium of Publication. Most entries will likely be listed as Print or Web
sources, but other possibilities may include Film, CD-ROM, or DVD.
• Writers are no longer required to provide URLs for Web entries. However, if your instructor or publisher insists on
them, include them in angle brackets after the entry and end with a period. For long URLs, break lines only
at slashes.
• If you're citing an article or a publication that was originally issued in print form but that you retrieved from an
online database, you should type the online database name in italics. You do not need to provide
subscription information in addition to the database name.

Capitalization and Punctuation


• Capitalize each word in the titles of articles, books, etc, but do not capitalize articles (the, an), short prepositions,
or conjunctions unless one is the first word of the title or subtitle: Gone with the Wind, The Art of War, There
Is Nothing Left to Lose.
• New to MLA 2009: Use italics (instead of underlining) for titles of larger works (books, magazines) and quotation
marks for titles of shorter works (poems, articles)

Listing Author Names

Entries are listed alphabetically by the author's last name (or, for entire edited collections, editor names). Author
names are written last name first; middle names or middle initials follow the first name:

Burke, Kenneth
Levy, David M.

Do not list titles (Dr., Sir, Saint, etc.) or degrees (PhD, MA, DDS, etc.) with names. A book listing an author named
"John Bigbrain, PhD" appears simply as "Bigbrain, John"; do, however, include suffixes like "Jr." or "II." Putting it all
together, a work by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. would be cited as "King, Martin Luther, Jr.," with the suffix following
the first or middle name and a comma.

21
More than One Work by an Author
If you have cited more than one work by a particular author, order the entries alphabetically by title, and use three
hyphens in place of the author's name for every entry after the first:

Burke, Kenneth. A Grammar of Motives. [...]


---. A Rhetoric of Motives. [...]

When an author or collection editor appears both as the sole author of a text and as the first author of a group, list
solo-author entries first:

Heller, Steven, ed. The Education of an E-Designer. 
Heller, Steven and Karen Pomeroy. Design Literacy:
Understanding Graphic Design.

Work with No Known Author

Alphabetize works with no known author by their title; use a shortened version of the title in the parenthetical
citations in your paper. In this case, Boring Postcards USA has no known author:

Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulations. [...]


Boring Postcards USA. [...]
Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. [...]

MLA Works Cited: Books


When you are gathering book sources, be sure to make note of the following bibliographic items: author
name(s), book title, publication date, publisher, place of publication. The medium of publication for all “hard
copy” books is Print.

Basic Format

The first-give author’s name or a book with a single author's name appears in last name, first name format. The basic
form for a book citation is:

Lastname, Firstname. Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication. Medium of Publication.

Book with One Author

Gleick, James. Chaos: Making a New Science. New York: Penguin, 1987. Print.

Henley, Patricia. The Hummingbird House. Denver: MacMurray, 1999. Print.

Book with More Than One Author


The first given name appears in last name, first name format; subsequent author names appear in first name last
name format.

Gillespie, Paula, and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring. Boston: Allyn, 2000. Print.

If there are more than three authors, you may choose to list only the first author followed by the phrase et al. (Latin
for "and others") in place of the subsequent authors' names, or you may list all the authors in the order in which
their names appear on the title page. (Note that there is a period after “al” in “et al.” Also note that there is never a
period after the “et” in “et al.”).

22
Wysocki, Anne Frances, et al. Writing New Media: Theory and Applications for Expanding the Teaching of Composition.
Logan, UT: Utah State UP, 2004. Print.
or
Wysocki, Anne Frances, Johndan Johnson-Eilola, Cynthia L. Selfe, and Geoffrey Sirc. Writing New Media: Theory and
Applications for Expanding the Teaching of Composition. Logan, UT: Utah State UP, 2004. Print.

Two or More Books by the Same Author

List works alphabetically by title. (Remember to ignore articles like A, An, and The.) Provide the author’s name in
last name, first name format for the first entry only. For each subsequent entry by the same author, use three
hyphens and a period.

Palmer, William J. Dickens and New Historicism. New York: St. Martin's, 1997. Print.

---. The Films of the Eighties: A Social History. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1993. Print.

Book by a Corporate Author or Organization


A corporate author may include a commission, a committee, or a group that does not identify individual members on
the title page. List the names of corporate authors in the place where an author’s name typically appears at the
beginning of the entry.

American Allergy Association. Allergies in Children. New York: Random, 1998. Print.

Book with No Author

List by title of the book. Incorporate these entries alphabetically just as you would with works that include an author
name. For example, the following entry might appear between entries of works written by Dean, Shaun and
Forsythe, Jonathan.

Encyclopedia of Indiana. New York: Somerset, 1993. Print.

Remember that for an in-text (parenthetical) citation of a book with no author, provide the name of the work in the
signal phrase and the page number in parentheses. You may also use a shortened version of the title of the book
accompanied by the page number.

A Translated Book
Cite as you would any other book. Add "Trans."—the abbreviation for translated by—and follow with the name(s) of
the translator(s).

Foucault, Michel. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Trans. Richard Howard. New
York: Vintage-Random House, 1988. Print.

Republished Book
Books may be republished due to popularity without becoming a new edition. New editions are typically revisions of
the original work. For books that originally appeared at an earlier date and that have been republished at a later one,
insert the original publication date before the publication information. For books that are new editions (i.e. different
from the first or other editions of the book), see An Edition of a Book below.
23
Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble. 1990. New York: Routledge, 1999. Print.

Erdrich, Louise. Love Medicine. 1984. New York: Perennial-Harper, 1993. Print.

An Edition of a Book
There are two types of editions in book publishing: a book that has been published more than once in different
editions and a book that is prepared by someone other than the author (typically an editor).

A Subsequent Edition

Cite the book as you normally would, but add the number of the edition after the title.

Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. 3rd ed. New York:
Pearson/Longman, 2004. Print.

A Work Prepared by an Editor


Cite the book as you normally would, but add the editor after the title.

Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. Ed. Margaret Smith. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998. Print.

Anthology or Collection (e.g. Collection of Essays)

To cite the entire anthology or collection, list by editor(s) followed by a comma and "ed." or, for multiple editors,
"eds" (for edited by). This sort of entry is somewhat rare. If you are citing a particular piece within an anthology or
collection (more common), see A Work in an Anthology, Reference, or Collection below.

Hill, Charles A., and Marguerite Helmers, eds. Defining Visual Rhetorics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
2004. Print.
Peterson, Nancy J., ed. Toni Morrison: Critical and Theoretical Approaches. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1997. Print.

A Work in an Anthology, Reference, or Collection

Works may include an essay in an edited collection or anthology, or a chapter of a book. The basic form is for this
sort of citation is as follows:

Lastname, First name. "Title of Essay." Title of Collection. Ed. Editor's Name(s). Place of Publication: Publisher, Year.
Page range of entry. Medium of Publication.

Some examples:

Harris, Muriel. "Talk to Me: Engaging Reluctant Writers." A Tutor's Guide: Helping Writers One to One. Ed. Ben Rafoth.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2000. 24-34. Print.
Swanson, Gunnar. "Graphic Design Education as a Liberal Art: Design and Knowledge in the University and The 'Real
World.'" The Education of a Graphic Designer. Ed. Steven Heller. New York: Allworth Press, 1998. 13-24.
Print.
*Note on Cross-referencing Several Items from One Anthology: If you cite more than one essay from the same
edited collection, MLA indicates you may cross-reference within your works cited list in order to avoid writing out
24
the publishing information for each separate essay. You should consider this option if you have several references
from a single text. To do so, include a separate entry for the entire collection listed by the editor's name as below:

Rose, Shirley K., and Irwin Weiser, eds. The Writing Program Administrator as Researcher. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann, 1999. Print.

Then, for each individual essay from the collection, list the author's name in last name, first name format, the title of
the essay, the editor's last name, and the page range:

L'Eplattenier, Barbara. "Finding Ourselves in the Past: An Argument for Historical Work on WPAs." Rose and Weiser
131-40. Print.
Peeples, Tim. "'Seeing' the WPA With/Through Postmodern Mapping." Rose and Weiser 153-67. Print.

Poem or Short Story Examples:

Burns, Robert. "Red, Red Rose." 100 Best-Loved Poems. Ed. Philip Smith. New York: Dover, 1995. 26. Print.
Kincaid, Jamaica. "Girl." The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories. Ed. Tobias Wolff. New York:
Vintage, 1994. 306-07. Print.

If the specific literary work is part of the an author's own collection (all of the works have the same author), then
there will be no editor to reference:

Whitman, Walt. "I Sing the Body Electric." Selected Poems. New York: Dover, 1991. 12-19. Print.
Carter, Angela. "The Tiger's Bride." Burning Your Boats: The Collected Stories. New York: Penguin, 1995. 154-69.
Print.

Article in a Reference Book (e.g. Encyclopedias, Dictionaries)

For entries in encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other reference works, cite the piece as you would any other work in a
collection but do not include the publisher information. Also, if the reference book is organized alphabetically, as
most are, do not list the volume or the page number of the article or item.

"Ideology." The American Heritage Dictionary. 3rd ed. 1997. Print.

A Multivolume Work

When citing only one volume of a multivolume work, include the volume number after the work's title, or after the
work's editor or translator.

Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Trans. H. E. Butler. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980. Print.

When citing more than one volume of a multivolume work, cite the total number of volumes in the work. Also, be
sure in your in-text citation to provide both the volume number and page number(s).

Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Trans. H. E. Butler. 4 vols. Cambridge: Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980. Print.

If the volume you are using has its own title, cite the book without referring to the other volumes as if it were an
independent publication.

Churchill, Winston S. The Age of Revolution. New York: Dodd, 1957. Print.

25
An Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterword

When citing an introduction, a preface, a forward, or an afterword, write the name of the author(s) of the piece you
are citing. Then give the name of the part being cited, which should not be italicized or enclosed in quotation marks.

Farrell, Thomas B. Introduction. Norms of Rhetorical Culture. By Farrell. New Haven: Yale UP, 1993. 1-13. Print.

If the writer of the piece is different from the author of the complete work, then write the full name of the principal
work's author after the word "By." For example, if you were to cite Hugh Dalziel Duncan’s introduction of Kenneth
Burke’s book Permanence and Change, you would write the entry as follows:

Duncan, Hugh Dalziel. Introduction. Permanence and Change: An Anatomy of Purpose. By Kenneth Burke. 1935. 3rd
ed. Berkeley: U of California P, 1984. xiii-xliv. Print.

Other Print/Book Sources


The Bible
Give the name of the specific edition you are using, any editor(s) associated with it, followed by the publication
information. Remember that your in-text (parenthetical citation) should include the name of the specific edition of
the Bible, followed by an abbreviation of the book, the chapter and verse(s).

The New Jerusalem Bible. Ed. Susan Jones. New York: Doubleday, 1985. Print.

A Government Publication
Cite the author of the publication if the author is identified. Otherwise, start with the name of the national
government, followed by the agency (including any subdivisions or agencies) that serves as the organizational
author. For congressional documents, be sure to include the number of the Congress and the session when the
hearing was held or resolution passed. US government documents are typically published by the Government
Printing Office, which MLA abbreviates as GPO.

United States. Cong. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. Hearing on the Geopolitics of Oil. 110th
Cong., 1st sess. Washington: GPO, 2007. Print.
United States. Government Accountability Office. Climate Change: EPA and DOE Should Do More to Encourage
Progress Under Two Voluntary Programs. Washington: GPO, 2006. Print.
Brown v. Board of Educ. 374 US 483-96. Supreme Court of the US. 1954. Supreme Court Collection. Legal Information
Inst., Cornell U Law School, n.d. Web. 3 Aug. 2007.

A Pamphlet
Cite the title and publication information for the pamphlet just as you would a book without an author. Pamphlets
and promotional materials commonly feature corporate authors (commissions, committees, or other groups that
does not provide individual group member names). If the pamphlet you are citing has no author, cite as directed
below. If your pamphlet has an author or a corporate author, put the name of the author (last name, first name
format) or corporate author in the place where the author name typically appears at the beginning of the entry. (See
also Books by a Corporate Author or Organization above.)

Women's Health: Problems of the Digestive System. Washington: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists,
2006. Print.
Your Rights Under California Welfare Programs. Sacramento, CA: California Dept. of Social Services, 2007. Print.

26
Dissertations and Master's Theses
Dissertations and master's theses may be used as sources whether published or not. Cite the work as you would a
book, but include the designation Diss. (or MA/MS thesis) followed by the degree-granting school and the year the
degree was awarded. If the dissertation is published, italicize the title and include the publication date. You may also
include the University Microfilms International (UMI) order number if you choose:

Bishop, Karen Lynn. Documenting Institutional Identity: Strategic Writing in the IUPUI Comprehensive Campaign. Diss.
Purdue University, 2002. Ann Arbor: UMI, 2004. Print.
Bile, Jeffrey. Ecology, Feminism, and a Revised Critical Rhetoric: Toward a Dialectical Partnership. Diss. Ohio
University, 2005. Ann Arbor: UMI, 2006. AAT 3191701. Print.

If the work is not published, put the title in quotation marks and end with the date the degree was awarded:

Graban, Tarez Samra. "Towards a Feminine Ironic: Understanding Irony in the Oppositional Discourse of Women
from the Early Modern and Modern Periods." Diss. Purdue University, 2006. Print.
Stolley, Karl. "Toward a Conception of Religion as a Discursive Formation: Implications for Postmodern Composition
Theory." MA thesis. Purdue University, 2002. Print.

MLA Works Cited: Periodicals


Periodicals (e.g. magazines, newspapers, and scholarly journals) that appear in print require the same medium of
publication designator—Print—as books, but the MLA Style method for citing these materials and the items
required for these entries are quite different from MLA book citations.

Article in a Magazine
Cite by listing the article's author, putting the title of the article in quotations marks, and italicizing the periodical
title. Follow with the date of publication. Remember to abbreviate the month. The basic format is as follows:

Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Periodical Day Month Year: pages. Medium of publication.
Poniewozik, James. "TV Makes a Too-Close Call." Time 20 Nov. 2000: 70-71. Print.
Buchman, Dana. "A Special Education." Good Housekeeping Mar. 2006: 143-48. Print.

Article in a Newspaper
Cite a newspaper article as you would a magazine article, but note the different pagination in a newspaper. If there is
more than one edition available for that date (as in an early and late edition of a newspaper), identify the edition
following the date (e.g., 17 May 1987, late ed.).

Brubaker, Bill. "New Health Center Targets County's Uninsured Patients." Washington Post 24 May 2007: LZ01. Print.
Krugman, Andrew. "Fear of Eating." New York Times 21 May 2007 late ed.: A1. Print.
If the newspaper is a less well-known or local publication, include the city name and state in brackets after the title
of the newspaper.

Behre, Robert. "Presidential Hopefuls Get Final Crack at Core of S.C. Democrats." Post and Courier [Charleston, SC] 29
Apr. 2007: A11. Print.
Trembacki, Paul. "Brees Hopes to Win Heisman for Team." Purdue Exponent [West Lafayette, IN] 5 Dec. 2000: 20.
Print.
27
A Review

To cite a review, include the title of the review (if available), then the abbreviation "Rev. of" for Review of and
provide the title of the work (in italics for books, plays, and films; in quotation marks for articles, poems, and short
stories). Finally, provide performance and/or publication information.

Review Author. "Title of Review (if there is one)." Rev. of Performance Title, by Author/Director/Artist. Title of
Periodical day month year: page. Medium of publication.
Seitz, Matt Zoller. "Life in the Sprawling Suburbs, If You Can Really Call It Living." Rev. of Radiant City, dir. Gary
Burns and Jim Brown. New York Times 30 May 2007 late ed.: E1. Print.
Weiller, K. H. Rev. of Sport, Rhetoric, and Gender: Historical Perspectives and Media Representations, ed. Linda K.
Fuller. Choice Apr. 2007: 1377. Print.

An Editorial & Letter to the Editor

Cite as you would any article in a periodical, but include the designators "Editorial" or "Letter" to identify the type of
work it is.

"Of Mines and Men." Editorial. Wall Street Journal east. ed. 24 Oct. 2003: A14. Print.

Hamer, John. Letter. American Journalism Review Dec. 2006/Jan. 2007: 7. Print.

Article with a Title in Its Title


Use single quotation marks around a title or another quoted term that appears in an article title. Italicize a title or
term normally italicized.

Shen, Min. “‘Quite a Moon!’ The Archetypal Feminine in Our Town.” American Drama 16.2 (2007): 1-14. Print.

However, if the title of a book (which would be italicized) contains another title, make the title within the title
regular font (not italicized).

Anonymous Articles

Cite the article title first, and finish the citation as you would any other for that kind of periodical.

"Business: Global Warming's Boom Town; Tourism in Greenland." The Economist 26 May 2007: 82. Print.
"Aging; Women Expect to Care for Aging Parents but Seldom Prepare." Women's Health Weekly 10 May 2007: 18.
Print.

An Article in a Scholarly Journal


In previous years, MLA required that researchers determine whether or not a scholarly journal employed
continuous pagination (page numbers began at page one in the first issue of the years and page numbers took up
where they left off in subsequent ones) or non-continuous pagination (page numbers begin at page one in every
subsequent issue) in order to determine whether or not to include issue numbers in bibliographic entries. The MLA
Handbook for Writers of Research Papers 7th edition (2009) eliminates this step. Always provide issue numbers,
when available.

Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Journal Volume.Issue (Year): pages. Medium of publication.
Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu." Tulsa
Studies in Women's Literature 15.1 (1996): 41-50. Print.
28
Duvall, John N. "The (Super)Marketplace of Images: Television as Unmediated Mediation in DeLillo's White Noise."
Arizona Quarterly 50.3 (1994): 127-53. Print.

An Abstract of a Journal Article

Include the word “Abstract” after the title of the article. For example:

Walker, Joyce. “Narratives in the Database: Memorializing September 11th Online.” Abstract. Computers and

Composition 24.2 (2007): 121. Print.

An Article in a Special Issue of a Scholarly Journal

When an article appears in a special issue of a journal, cite the name of the special issue in the entry’s title space, in
italics, and end with a period. Add the descriptor “Spec. issue of” and include the name of the journal, also in italics,
followed by the rest of the information required for a standard scholarly journal citation.

Web entries should follow a similar format.

Burgess, Anthony. “Politics in the Novels of Graham Greene.” Literature and Society. Spec. issue of Journal of
Contemporary History 2.2 (1967): 93-99. Print.
Case, Sue-Ellen. “Eve's Apple, or Women's Narrative Bytes.” Technocriticism and Hypernarrative. Spec. issue of
Modern Fiction Studies 43.3 (1997): 631-650. Web. 10 Feb. 2010.

MLA Works Cited: Electronic Sources (Web Publications)


MLA lists electronic sources as Web Publications. Thus, when including the medium of publication for electronic
sources, list the medium as Web.

It is always a good idea to maintain personal copies of electronic information, when possible.
It is good practice to print or save Web pages or, better, using a program like Adobe Acrobat,
to keep your own copies for future reference. Most Web browsers will include URL/electronic
address information when you print, which makes later reference easy. Also, you might use
the Bookmark function in your Web browser in order to return to documents more easily.

Important Note on the Use of URLs in MLA

MLA no longer requires the use of URLs in MLA citations. Because Web addresses are not static (i.e. they change
often) and because documents sometimes appear in multiple places on the Web (e.g. on multiple databases), MLA
explains that most readers can find electronic sources via title or author searches in Internet Search Engines.

For instructors or editors who still wish to require the use of URLs, MLA suggests that the URL appear in angle
brackets after the date of access. Break URLs only after slashes.

Aristotle. Poetics. Trans. S. H. Butcher. The Internet Classics Archive. Web Atomic and Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 13 Sept. 2007. Web. 4 Nov. 2008. ‹http://classics.mit.edu/›.

Abbreviations Commonly Used with Electronic Sources

If publishing information is unavailable for entries that require publication information such as publisher (or
sponsor) names and publishing dates, MLA requires the use of special abbreviations to indicate that this information
is not available. Use n.p. to indicate that neither a publisher nor a sponsor name has been provided. Use n.d.

29
when the Web page does not provide a publication date.

When an entry requires that you provide a page but no pages are provided in the source (as in the case of an online-
only scholarly journal or a work that appears in an online-only anthology), use the abbreviation n. pag.

Basic Style for Citations of Electronic Sources (Including Online Databases)

Here are some common features you should try and find before citing electronic sources in MLA style. Not every
Web page will provide all of the following information. However, collect as much of the following information as
possible both for your citations and for your research notes:

1. Author and/or editor names (if available)


2. Article name in quotation marks (if applicable)
3. Title of the Website, project, or book in italics. (Remember that some Print publications have Web publications
with slightly different names. They may, for example, include the additional information or otherwise
modified information, like domain names [e.g. .com or .net].)
4. Any version numbers available, including revisions, posting dates, volumes, or issue numbers.
5. Publisher information, including the publisher name and publishing date.
6. Take note of any page numbers (if available).
7. Date you accessed the material.
8. URL (if required, or for your own personal reference).

Citing an Entire Web Site

It is necessary to list your date of access because web postings are often updated, and information available on one
date may no longer be available later. Be sure to include the complete address for the site.
Remember to use n.p. if no publisher name is available and n.d. if no publishing date is given.

Editor, author, or compiler name (if available). Name of Site. Version number. Name of institution/organization
affiliated with the site (sponsor or publisher), date of resource creation (if available). Medium of
publication. Date of access.

The Purdue OWL Family of Sites. The Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and Purdue U, 2008. Web. 23 Apr. 2008.
Felluga, Dino. Guide to Literary and Critical Theory. Purdue U, 28 Nov. 2003. Web. 10 May 2006.

Course or Department Websites

Give the instructor name. Then list the title of the course (or the school catalog designation for the course) in italics.
Give appropriate department and school names as well, following the course title. Remember to use n.d. if no
publishing date is given.

Felluga, Dino. Survey of the Literature of England. Purdue U, Aug. 2006. Web. 31 May 2007.
English Department. Purdue U, 14 May 2009. Web. 20 Apr. 2009.

A Page on a Web Site

For an individual page on a Web site, list the author or alias if known, followed by the information covered above for
entire Web sites. Remember to use n.p. if no publisher name is available and n.d. if no publishing date is given.

"How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow.com. eHow, n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2009.

An Image (Including a Painting, Sculpture, or Photograph)


30
Provide the artist's name, the work of art italicized, the date of creation, the institution and city where the work is
housed. Follow this initial entry with the name of the Website in italics, the medium of publication, and the date of
access.

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV. 1800. Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. Museo National del Prado. Web.
22 May 2006.
Klee, Paul. Twittering Machine. 1922. Museum of Modern Art, New York. The Artchive. Web. 22 May 2006.

If the work is cited on the web only, then provide the name of the artist, the title of the work, the medium of the
work, and then follow the citation format for a website. If the work is posted via a username, use that username for
the author.

Brandychloe. "Great Horned Owl Family." Photograph. Webshots. American Greetings, 22 May 2006. Web. 5 Nov.
2009.

An Article in a Web Magazine

Provide the author name, article name in quotation marks, title of the Web magazine in italics, publisher name,
publication date, medium of publication, and the date of access. Remember to use n.p. if no publisher name is
available and n.d. if not publishing date is given.

Bernstein, Mark. "10 Tips on Writing the Living Web." A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites. A List Apart Mag.,
16 Aug. 2002. Web. 4 May 2009.

An Article in an Online Scholarly Journal


For all online scholarly journals, provide the author(s) name(s), the name of the article in quotation marks, the title
of the publication in italics, all volume and issue numbers, and the year of publication.

Article in an Online-only Scholarly Journal

MLA requires a page range for articles that appear in Scholarly Journals. If the journal you are citing appears
exclusively in an online format (i.e. there is no corresponding print publication) that does not make use of page
numbers, use the abbreviation n. pag. to denote that there is no pagination for the publication.

Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and
Society: The International Online-Only Journal 6.2 (2008): n. pag. Web. 20 May 2009.

Article in an Online Scholarly Journal That Also Appears in Print

Cite articles in online scholarly journals that also appear in print as you would a scholarly journal in print, including
the page range of the article. Provide the medium of publication that you used (in this case, Web) and the date of
access.

Wheelis, Mark. "Investigating Disease Outbreaks Under a Protocol to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention."
Emerging Infectious Diseases 6.6 (2000): 595-600. Web. 8 Feb. 2009.

An Article from an Online Database (or Other Electronic Subscription Service)

31
Cite articles from online databases (e.g. LexisNexis, ProQuest, JSTOR, ScienceDirect) and other subscription services
just as you would print sources. Since these articles usually come from periodicals, be sure to consult the
appropriate sections of the Works Cited: Periodicals page, which you can access via its link at the bottom of this
page. In addition to this information, provide the title of the database italicized, the medium of publication, and the
date of access.

Note: Previous editions of the MLA Style Manual required information about the subscribing institution (name and
location). This information is no longer required by MLA.

Junge, Wolfgang, and Nathan Nelson. “Nature's Rotary Electromotors.” Science 29 Apr. 2005: 642-44. Science Online.
Web. 5 Mar. 2009.
Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal 50.1 (2007): 173-96.
ProQuest. Web. 27 May 2009.

Book Accessed Online


Fitzgerald, F. Scott. This Side of Paradise. New York: Scribner, 1920. Bartleby.com. Web. 21 Mar. 2013.

E-mail (Including E-mail Interviews)

Give the author of the message, followed by the subject line in quotation marks. State to whom to message was sent,
the date the message was sent, and the medium of publication.

Kunka, Andrew. "Re: Modernist Literature." Message to the author. 15 Nov. 2000. E-mail.
Neyhart, David. "Re: Online Tutoring." Message to Joe Barbato. 1 Dec. 2000. E-mail.

A Listserv, Discussion Group, or Blog Posting

Cite Web postings as you would a standard Web entry. Provide the author of the work, the title of the posting in
quotation marks, the Web site name in italics, the publisher, and the posting date. Follow with the medium of
publication and the date of access. Include screen names as author names when author name is not known. If both
names are known, place the author’s name in brackets. Remember if the publisher of the site is unknown, use the
abbreviation n.p.

Editor, screen name, author, or compiler name (if available). “Posting Title.” Name of Site. Version number (if
available). Name of institution/organization affiliated with the site (sponsor or publisher). Medium of
publication. Date of access.

Salmar1515 [Sal Hernandez]. “Re: Best Strategy: Fenced Pastures vs. Max Number of Rooms?” BoardGameGeek.
BoardGameGeek, 29 Sept. 2008. Web. 5 Apr. 2009.

MLA Works Cited: Other Common Sources


Several sources have multiple means for citation, especially those that appear in varied formats: films, DVDs,
videocassettes; published and unpublished interviews, interviews over email; published and unpublished
conference proceedings. The following section groups these sorts of citations as well as others not covered in the
print, periodical, and electronic sources sections.

An Interview
32
Interviews typically fall into two categories: print or broadcast published and unpublished (personal) interviews,
although interviews may also appear in other, similar formats such as in email format or as a Web document.

Personal Interviews
Personal interviews refer to those interviews that you conduct yourself. List the interview by the name of the
interviewee. Include the descriptor Personal interview and the date of the interview.

Purdue, Pete. Personal interview. 1 Dec. 2000.

Published Interviews (Print or Broadcast)


List the interview by the name of the interviewee. If the name of the interview is part of a larger work like a book, a
television program, or a film series, place the title of the interview in quotation marks. Place the title of the larger
work in italics. If the interview appears as an independent title, italicize it. Determine the medium of publication (e.g.
print, Web, DVD) and fill in the rest of the entry with the information required by that medium. For books, include
the author or editor name after the book title.
Note: If the interview from which you quote does not feature a title, add the descriptor Interview (unformatted) after
the interviewee’s name. You may also use the descriptor Interview by to add the name of the interview to the entry if
it is relevant to your paper.

Gaitskill, Mary. Interview with Charles Bock. Mississippi Review 27.3 (1999): 129-50. Print.
Amis, Kingsley. “Mimic and Moralist.” Interviews with Britain’s Angry Young Men. By Dale Salwak. San Bernardino,
CA: Borgo, 1984. Print.

Online-only Published Interviews


List the interview by the name of the interviewee. If the interview has a title, place it in quotation marks. Cite the
remainder of the entry as you would other exclusive Web content. Place the name of the Website in italics, give the
publisher name (or sponsor), the publication date, the medium of publication (Web), and the date of access.
Remember that if no publisher name is give, insert the abbreviation n.p.
Note: If the interview from which you quote does not feature a title, add the descriptor Interview (unformatted) after
the interviewee’s name. You may also use the descriptor Interview by to add the name of the interview to the entry if
it is relevant to your paper.

Zinkievich, Craig. Interview by Gareth Von Kallenbach. Skewed & Reviewed. Skewed & Reviewed, 2009. Web. 15 Mar.
2009.
Speeches, Lectures, or Other Oral Presentations (including Conference Presentations)

Provide the speaker’s name. Then, give the title of the speech (if any) in quotation marks. Follow with the name of
the meeting and organization, the location of the occasion, and the date. Use the descriptor that appropriately
expresses the type of presentation (e.g. Address, Lecture, Reading, Keynote speech, Guest Lecture). Remember to use
the abbreviation n.p. if the publisher is not known; use n.d. if the date is not known.

Stein, Bob. Computers and Writing Conference. Purdue University. Union Club Hotel, West Lafayette, IN. 23 May 2003.
Keynote address.

Published Conference Proceedings

Cite published conference proceedings like a book. If the date and location of the conference are not part of the
published title, add this information after the published proceedings title. The medium of publication is Print.
Remember to use the abbreviation n.p. if the publisher is not known; use n.d. if the date is not known.

LastName, FirstName, ed. Conference Title that Includes Conference Date and Location. Place of publication:
Publisher, Date of Publication. Print.

LastName, FirstName, ed. Conference Title that Does Not Include Conference Date and Location. Conference Date,

33
Conference Location. Place of publication: Publisher, Date of Publication. Print.

To cite a presentation from a published conference proceedings, begin with the presenter’s name. Place the name of
the presentation in quotation marks. Follow with publication information for the conference proceedings.

LastName, FirstName. “Conference Paper Title.” Conference Title that Includes Conference Date and Location. Ed.
Conference Editor(s). Place of publication: Publisher, Date of Publication. Print.

A Painting, Sculpture, or Photograph

Include the artist's name. Give the title of the artwork in italics. Provide the date of composition. If the date of
composition is unknown, place the abbreviation n.d. in place of the date. Finally, provide the name of the institution
that houses the artwork followed by the location of the institution.

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV. 1800. Museo del Prado, Madrid.

For photographic reproductions of artwork (e.g. images of artwork in a book), cite the bibliographic information as
above followed by the information for the source in which the photograph appears, including page or reference
numbers (plate, figure, etc.).

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV. 1800. Museo del Prado, Madrid. Gardener's Art Through the Ages. 10th ed.
By Richard G. Tansey and Fred S. Kleiner. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace. 939. Print.

For artwork in an online format, consult “An Image (Including a Painting, Sculpture, or Photograph)” by following
the link Works Cited: Electronic Sources at the bottom of this page.

Films or Movies

List films (in theaters or not yet on DVD or video) by their title. Include the name of the director, the film studio or
distributor, and the release year. If relevant, list performer names after the director’s name. Use the abbreviation
perf. to head the list. List film as the medium of publication. To cite a DVD or other video recording, see “Recorded
Films and Movies” below.

The Usual Suspects. Dir. Bryan Singer. Perf. Kevin Spacey, Gabriel Byrne, Chazz Palminteri, Stephen Baldwin, and
Benecio del Toro. Polygram, 1995. Film.

To emphasize specific performers (perf.) or directors (dir.), begin the citation with the name of the desired
performer or director, followed by the appropriate abbreviation.

Lucas, George, dir. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. Twentieth Century Fox, 1977. Film.

Recorded Films or Movies

List films by their title. Include the name of the director, the distributor, and the release year. If relevant, list
performer names after the director’s name. Use the abbreviation perf. to head the list. End the entry with the
appropriate medium of publication (e.g. DVD, VHS, Laser disc).

Ed Wood. Dir. Tim Burton. Perf. Johnny Depp, Martin Landau, Sarah Jessica Parker, Patricia Arquette. Touchstone,
1994. DVD.

Broadcast Television or Radio Program

34
Begin with the title of the episode in quotation marks. Provide the name of the series or program in italics. Also
include the network name, call letters of the station followed by the city, and the date of broadcast. End with the
publication medium (e.g. Television, Radio). For television episodes on Videocassette or DVD refer to the “Recorded
Television Episodes” section below.

"The Blessing Way." The X-Files. Fox. WXIA, Atlanta. 19 Jul. 1998. Television.

Recorded Television Episodes (e.g. DVD, Videocassette)

Cite recorded television episodes like films (see above). Begin with the episode name in
quotation marks. Follow with the series name in italics. When the title of the collection of
recordings is different than the original series (e.g., the show Friends is in DVD release
under the title Friends: The Complete Sixth Season), list the title that would be help
researchers locate the recording. Give the distributor name followed by the date of
distribution. End with the medium of publication (e.g. DVD, Videocassette, Laser disc).
Note: The writer may choose to include information about directors, writers, performers, producers between the
title and the distributor name. Use appropriate abbreviations for these contributors (e.g. dir., writ., perf., prod.).

"The One Where Chandler Can't Cry." Friends: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ. Andrew Reich and Ted Cohen. Dir.
Kevin Bright. Warner Brothers, 2004. DVD.

Sound Recordings

List sound recordings in such a way that they can easily be found by readers. Generally, citations begin
with the artist name. They might also be listed by composers (comp.) or performers (perf.). Otherwise,
list composer and performer information after the album title.
Use the appropriate abbreviation after the person’s name and a comma, when needed. Put individual song titles in
quotation marks. Album names are italicized. Provide the name of the recording manufacturer followed by the
publication date (or n.d., if date is unknown). List the appropriate medium at the end of the entry (e.g. CD, LP,
Audiocassette). For MP3 recordings, see the “Digital Files” section below.

Note: If you know and desire to list the recording date, include this information before the manufacturer name. Use
the abbreviation for “recorded” (Rec.) and list the recording date (dd mm year format) before the manufacturer
name.

Foo Fighters. In Your Honor. RCA, 2005. CD.

Nirvana. "Smells Like Teen Spirit." Nevermind. Geffen, 1991. Audiocassette.

Beethoven, Ludwig van. The 9 Symphonies. Perf. NBC Symphony Orchestra. Cond. Arturo Toscanini. RCA, 2003. CD.

**If you listen to a song through an open website, list it as a web source. If downloaded, list the file type, such as MP3
file.

Spoken-Word Albums

Treat spoken-word albums the same as musical albums.

Hedberg, Mitch. Strategic Grill Locations. Comedy Central, 2003. CD.

Digital Files (PDFs, MP3s, JPEGs)


Determine the type of work to cite (e.g. article, image, sound recording) and cite appropriately. End the entry with
the name of the digital format (e.g. PDF, JPEG file, Microsoft Word file, MP3). If the work does not follow traditional
35
parameters for citation, give the author’s name, the name of the work, the date of creation, and the medium of
publication. Use Digital file when the medium cannot be determined.

Beethoven, Ludwig van. Moonlight Sonata. Crownstar, 2006. MP3.

Smith, George. “Pax Americana: Strife in a Time of Peace.” 2005. Microsoft Word file.

Bentley, Phyllis. “Yorkshire and the Novelist.” The Kenyon Review 30.4 (1968): 509-22. JSTOR. PDF file.

PowerPoint Presentations and Professional Blogs


Taken from George Mason University Writing Lab

As new technology develops every day, it makes sense that these new forms are popping up in papers. PowerPoint
presentations, podcasts, and blogs are only a few of the new types of media that are making their way into academic
papers including the myriad other types of files accessible on the Internet, such as Portable Document Format (.pdf),
electronic spreadsheet files, and plain text files. The way that you cite these types of sources depends on how you
accessed or viewed the sources. If accessed over the Internet, these sources should be cited as an online source. If
accessed from a CD-ROM, these sources should be cited as a CD-ROM. Blogs and podcasts would be cited as an
online source, like a website.

Note: As with any source, check the validity. If possible, research the author. Many blogs and podcasts can be valid
sources, such as National Public Radio’s or the Wall Street Journal Law Blog. Be discriminating and use the same
techniques you would use to determine a web sites validity.

PowerPoint Presentations
If you attended a conference presentation or meeting where you took notes on the PowerPoint presentation, you
would cite it as a lecture or public address (see Example 1). If you accessed the PowerPoint presentation on the
Internet, cite it as a web source (see Example 2). When citing the PowerPoint presentation as a website, you do not
need to write out what type of file it is if the file extension identifies it as a PowerPoint source.

Example 1:

Lawrence, Laurie. “Broodmare Nutrition.” PowerPoint presentation. Embassy Suites,

Lexington, KY. 16 Feb 2006.

Example 2:

George Mason University Writing Center. “Plot Summary versus Interpretive Writing.” George

Mason University Writing Center. PowerPoint. 2000. 15 July 2006.

Blogs
A blog should be cited as a website with a full link to the post.

Lattman, Peter. “A Tussle Over Presidential Signing Statements.” Wall Street Journal Law

Blog. 17 August 2006. 18 August 2006.

Podcasts
Podcasts all have a URL through which you access the file. In I-Tunes, click on “Podcast Information” to view the
URL. Podcasts should be cited as an online source as well.

“Atlatl.” TERRA: The Nature Podcast. 17 July 2006. 15 August 2006.

36
Other Digital Sources
Video Posted Online
List the name or pseudonym of the person or group who has posted the video recording, if available.

San Antonio SeaWorld. “Harlem Shake.” YouTube. YouTube, 16 Feb. 2013. Web. 5 Mar. 2013.

TV Program or Film Viewed on an App


Include the original release date, when relevant. List the app name (italicized) and app type at the end of the entry.

Game Change. Dir. Jay Roach. Perf. Julianne Moore, Woody Harrelson, and Ed Harris. HBO, 2012. HBOGo. iPad app.

Page on a Social Networking Website

Timberlake, Justin. Facebook: Justin Timberlake. Facebook, 21 Mar. 2013. Web. 22 Mar. 2013.

Tweet
If you know the author’s name, list it and include the username in parentheses if different from the author’s name. If
you do not know the author’s name, just list the username. Give the entire tweet in quotation marks. Add the date,
time, and Tweet.

Colbert, Stephen (stephenathome). “The record Dow numbers show once again that a rising tide lifts all boats of

people who can afford boats.” 6 Mar. 2013. 7:05 p.m. Tweet.

Online Radio Program

Frank, Adam, narr. “How to See the World in a Grain of Sand.” All Things Considered. Natl. Public Radio, 27 Mar.

2013. Web. 1 Apr. 2013

37
MLA Sample Works Cited Page

Works Cited

"Blueprint Lays Out Clear Path for Climate Action." Environmental Defense Fund. Environmental Defense Fund, 8 May

2007. Web. 24 May 2009.

Clinton, Bill. Interview by Andrew C. Revkin. “Clinton on Climate Change.” New York Times. New York Times, May

2007. Web. 25 May 2009.

Dean, Cornelia. "Executive on a Mission: Saving the Planet." New York Times. New York Times, 22 May 2007. Web. 25

May 2009.

Ebert, Roger. "An Inconvenient Truth." Rev. of An Inconvenient Truth, dir. Davis Guggenheim. Rogerebert.com. Sun-

Times News Group, 2 June 2006. Web. 24 May 2009.

GlobalWarming.org. Cooler Heads Coalition, 2007. Web. 24 May 2009.

Gowdy, John. "Avoiding Self-organized Extinction: Toward a Co-evolutionary Economics of Sustainability."

International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 14.1 (2007): 27-36. Print.

An Inconvenient Truth. Dir. Davis Guggenheim. Perf. Al Gore, Billy West. Paramount, 2006. DVD.

Leroux, Marcel. Global Warming: Myth Or Reality?: The Erring Ways of Climatology. New York: Springer, 2005. Print.

Milken, Michael, Gary Becker, Myron Scholes, and Daniel Kahneman. "On Global Warming and Financial Imbalances."

New Perspectives Quarterly 23.4 (2006): 63. Print

Nordhaus, William D. "After Kyoto: Alternative Mechanisms to Control Global Warming." American Economic Review

96.2 (2006): 31-34. Print.

---. "Global Warming Economics." Science 9 Nov. 2001: 1283-84. Science Online. Web. 24 May 2009.

Shulte, Bret. "Putting a Price on Pollution." Usnews.com. US News & World Rept., 6 May 2007. Web. 24 May 2009.

Uzawa, Hirofumi. Economic Theory and Global Warming. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003. Print.

38
MLA Tables, Figures, and Appendices
The purpose of visual materials or other illustrations is to enhance the audience's understanding of information in
the document and/or awareness of a topic. Writers can embed several types of visuals using most basic word
processing software: diagrams, musical scores, photographs, or, for documents that will be read electronically,
audio/video applications.

General Guidelines

 Collect sources. Gather the source information required for MLA documentation for the source medium of
the illustration (e.g. print, Web, podcast).
 Determine what types of illustrations best suit your purpose. Consider the purpose of each illustration,
how it contributes to the purpose of the document and the reader's understanding, and whether or not the
audience will be able to view and/or understand the illustration easily.
 Use illustrations of the best quality. Avoid blurry, pixilated, or distorted images for both print and
electronic documents. Often pixilation and distortion occurs when writers manipulate image sizes. Keep
images in their original sizes or use photo editing software to modify them. Reproduce distorted graphs,
tables, or diagrams with spreadsheet or publishing software, but be sure to include all source information.
Always represent the original source information faithfully and avoid unethical practices of false
representation or manipulation.
 Use illustrations sparingly. Decide what items can best improve the document's ability to augment
readers' understanding of the information, appreciation for the subject, and/or illustration of the main
points. Do not provide illustrations for illustrations' sake. Scrutinize illustrations for how potentially
informative or persuasive they can be.
 Do not use illustrations to boost page length. In the case of student papers, instructors often do not count
the space taken up by visual aids toward the required page length of the document. Remember that texts
explain, while illustrations enhance. Illustrations cannot carry the entire weight of the document.

Labels, Captions, and Source Information

Illustrations appear directly embedded in the document, except in the case of manuscripts that being prepared for
publication. (For preparing manuscripts with visual materials for publication, see Note on Manuscripts below.) Each
illustration must include, a label, a number, a caption and/or source information.

 The illustration label and number should always appear in two places: the document main text (e.g.
see fig. 1) and near the illustration itself (Fig. 1).
 Captions provide titles or explanatory notes.
 Source information documentation will always depend upon the medium of the source illustration. If you
provide source information with all of your illustrations, you do not need to provide this information on the
Works Cited page.

Source Information and Note Form

For source information, MLA lists sources in note form. These entries appear much like standard MLA bibliographic
entries with a few exceptions:

 Author names are in First_Name-Last_Name format.


 Commas are substituted for periods (except in the case of the period that ends the entry).
 Publication information for books (location: publisher, year) appears in parentheses.
 Relevant page numbers follow the publication information.

Note: Use semicolons to denote entry sections when long series of commas make these sections difficult to ascertain
as being like or separate. (See examples below.) The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers 7th edition states
that if the table or illustration caption provides complete citation information about the source and the source is not
cited in the text, authors do not need to list the source in the Works Cited list.

39
Examples - Documenting source information in "Note form"

Book

Tom Shachtman, Absolute Zero and the Conquest of Cold (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999) 35. Print.

Website (using semicolons to group like information together)

United States; Dept. of Commerce; Census Bureau; Manufacturing, Mining, and Construction Statistics; Housing Units
Authorized by Building Permits; US Dept. of Commerce, 5 Feb. 2008; Web; 23 Dec. 2008; table 1a.

In this example, the commas in Manufacturing, Mining, and Construction Statistics prompt the need for semicolons
in order for the series information to be read easily. Even if Manufacturing, Mining, and Construction Statistics had
not appeared in the entry, the multiple "author names" of United States, Dept. of Commerce, and Census Bureau
would have necessitated the use of a semicolon before and after the title and between ensuing sections to the end of
the entry.

Furthermore, the publisher and date in a standard entry are separated by a comma and belong together; thus, their
inclusion here (US Dept. of Commerce, 5 Feb. 2008) also necessitates the semicolons.

MLA Documentation/Formatting for Tables, Figures, and Appendices


MLA provides three designations for document illustrations: tables, figures, and examples (see specific sections
below).

 Figures and images should be a consistent size and alignment (either left aligned or centered) throughout.
 Make sure figures and tables do not extend outside the page margins. If your image is too wide for a single
page, place it on a separate, landscape-oriented page.
 Don’t split tables across multiple pages if you don’t have to. If you need to, it is often better to leave white
space on a page of text and put your table on a separate page if that will allow you to keep the table to one
page.
 Place images, figures, tables near the place in the text where they are discussed. For example, if you refer to
information from a table within your text, place the table on the next page rather than placing it pages away
from the reference.

Tables

 Refer to the table and its corresponding numeral in-text. Do not capitalize the word table. This is typically
done in parentheses (e.g. "(see table 2)").
 Situate the table near the text to which it relates.
 Align the table flush-left to the margin.
 Label the table Table and provide its corresponding Arabic numeral. No punctuation is necessary after the
label and number (see example below).
 On the next line, provide a caption for the table, most often the table title. Use standard capitalization rules.
 Place the table below the caption, flush-left, making sure to maintain basic MLA style formatting (e.g. one-
inch margins).
 Below the title, signal the source information with the descriptor "Source," followed by a colon, then provide
the correct MLA bibliographic information for the source in note form (see instructions and examples
above). Use a hanging indent for lines after the first. If you provide source information with your
illustrations, you do not need to provide this information on the Works Cited page.
 If additional caption information or explanatory notes is necessary, use lowercase letters formatted in
superscript in the caption information or table. Below the source information, indent, provide a
corresponding lowercase letter (not in superscript), a space, and the note.
 Labels, captions, and notes are double-spaced.

40
Table Example

In-text reference:

In 1985, women aged 65 and older were 59% more likely than men of the same age to reside in a nursing home, and
though 11,700 fewer women of that age group were enrolled in 1999, men over the same time period ranged from
30,000 to 39,000 persons while women accounted for 49,000 to 61,500 (see table 1).

Table reference:
The word “Table” and
the cardinal number
Table 1

Rate of Nursing Home Residence Among People Age 65 or older, by Sex and Age Group, 1985, 1995, 1997, 1999a

Caption/Title
follows the
“Table 1,” flush
with the left
margin.

The word “Source” and source


information follows the table.

Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related Statistics, Older Americans 2008: Key Indicators of Well-

Being, Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related Statistics, Mar. 2008, Web, table 35A.

a. Note: Rates for 65 and over category are age-adjusted using the 2000 standard population. Beginning in 1997,
population figures are adjusted for net underenumeration using the 1990 National Population Adjustment Matrix
from the U.S. Census Bureau. People residing in personal care or domiciliary care homes are excluded from the
numerator.

Figures

 All visuals/illustrations that are not tables or musical score examples (e.g. maps, diagrams, charts, videos,
podcasts, etc.) are labeled “Figure” or “Fig.”
 Refer to the figure in-text and provide an Arabic numeral that corresponds to the figure. Do not capitalize
figure or fig.
 MLA does not specify alignment requirements for figures; thus, these images may be embedded as the
reader sees fit. However, continue to follow basic MLA Style formatting (e.g. one-inch margins).
 Below the figure, provide a label name and its corresponding Arabic numeral (no bold or italics), followed
by a period (e.g. Fig. 1.). In the caption/label the word “Figure” and “Fig”. are capitalized.
41
 Beginning with the same line as the label and number, provide a title and/or caption as well as relevant
source information in note form (see instructions and examples above). If you provide source information
with your illustrations, you do not need to provide this information on the Works Cited page.

Figures Example
In-text citation,
In-text reference: no caps.

Some readers found Harry’s final battle with Voldemort a disappointment, and recently, the podcast, MuggleCast
debated the subject (see fig. 2).

The figure caption comes below the figure, here, an embedded podcast file:

Use “Figure”
or “Fig.” with The illustration
caps

Fig. 2. Harry Potter and Voldemort final battle debate from Andrew Sims et al.; “Show 166”; MuggleCast;
MuggleNet.com, 19 Dec. 2008; Web; 27 Dec. 2008.

Another example:

Appendices

If the paper has as Appendix, it begins on a new page after the body of the paper. The Works Cited page(s) always
comes last and begins on a page by itself. Page numbers continue throughout the paper to the end of the Works Cited
page. – 7th edition

Heath, Marilyn S.. (2009). MLA Made Easy.

42
Common Abbreviations in Academic Writing
Taken from University of North Carolina Writing Center

Despite the fact that Latin is no longer the international language of scholars, bits and pieces of it can still be found
scattered around. Some of these bits are very common and are even seen in non-academic writing, while others are
much more obscure.

Simply knowing what an abbreviation stands for and how to translate the underlying Latin words does not
necessarily tell you how the abbreviation is used in actual modern practice. These little remnants of Latin have had a
long and colorful life separated from their original language and context.

There are a few generally accepted rules that apply to most Latin abbreviations. The major style manuals (MLA, APA
and Chicago) agree that Latin abbreviations should be kept out of the main body of a text—that is, they should not
appear in ordinary sentences within ordinary paragraphs. Certain abbreviations may be used in parentheses
within the body of a text (etc., e.g., i.e.), but the rest should appear only in footnotes, endnotes, tables, and
other forms of documentation. One notable exception: APA style allows writers to use the abbreviation et al. when
discussing works with multiple authors and v. in the titles of court cases.

Except for N.B., none of the abbreviations we’re about to discuss need to be italicized or capitalized.

Why Should You Bother Learning about Latin Abbreviations?

While it’s perfectly acceptable to use English phrases instead of Latin abbreviations, there’s a reason why these
abbreviations have survived and continue to be used today: They contain a lot of meaning in a very small package. It
takes less time and fewer characters to write e.g. than “for example.” As an added bonus, using Latin abbreviations
correctly can make your writing sound more sophisticated and scholarly.

Even if you decide that you don’t want to use Latin abbreviations in your own writing, you’re still going to encounter
them in other texts. Knowing what these abbreviations mean and how they are used is crucial to understanding and
interpreting these works.

The Big Three: etc., i.e., and e.g.

The average person could go through life never having to worry about most Latin abbreviations, but there are three
that have become so widespread that they’re impossible to avoid: etc., i.e. and e.g. These are also the most often
misused Latin abbreviations. Let’s take a look at each of them, what they mean and how they can be used.

etc.

The abbreviation etc. stands for et cetera, which translates literally as “and others” or “and the rest.” A more useful
translation that can be substituted for etc. (especially when reading aloud) is “and so on.” It is used at the end of a
list to indicate that there are more elements to the list that are being left out so that the list doesn’t become too long.
For example:

All of the objects in our solar system (planets, comets, etc.) orbit the sun.

Many other examples could be included in a list of objects in our solar system (like asteroids and moons), but it
would take too much space and time to list them all. Also, listing them all wouldn’t add much to the sentence—
readers don’t need to know the identity of every object orbiting the sun in order to understand the sentence.

In lists where you use etc., be sure all the listed items are of the same kind. If you wrote the following sentence, your
readers might have a hard time telling what “etc.” is substituting for because some of the items listed are objects,
while others are people or activities:

I’m very interested in astronomy—planets, stargazing, Carl Sagan, etc.

43
When etc. is used at the end of a list, it should be preceded by a comma just like the other elements of the list. It
should never have the word “and” before it: the Latin word et has already got that covered.

e.g. and i.e.

These are the two most often misused and confused Latin abbreviations—and for good reason. In any given
sentence, it’s often not immediately clear how i.e. and e.g. are different. Both appear inside parentheses and offer
extra information that helps explain what’s come before. There is, however, a very important and useful difference
between these two abbreviations.

The abbreviation e.g. stands for exempli gratia, which translates literally as “for the sake of an example”—but you
can really just cut out the stuff in the middle and read it as “for example.” It is used to give an example or set of
examples to help clarify the preceding idea. In general, if you use e.g., you should provide one or two short examples.
More can be used, but only if they are simple and can be expressed in a single word or short phrase. It isn’t
necessary to use etc. at the end of a list following e.g.; it’s understood that there are more examples than those that
you’ve given. You should not list all of the possible examples.

The abbreviation i.e. stands for id est, which translates literally as “that is.” Sometimes it might be more useful,
however, to translate it as “what that means is” or “that is to say.” This abbreviation is used to clarify the preceding
idea by restating it more simply or in different terms. Strictly speaking, what follows i.e. in parentheses should be
equivalent to what comes before—you should be able to switch them without changing the meaning of the sentence.
If this involves making a list, you should include all of the elements that make up that list. It might be useful to think
of i.e. as representing an equal sign (=). This will help you remember that i.e. stands for a strict equivalence.

Let’s look at some examples of how to use i.e. and e.g. correctly:

YES The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury) are closest to our sun.
NO The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury) are closest to our sun.

Mercury is not equivalent to the rocky planets—they’re not the same thing. Mercury is just one example of a rocky
planet, therefore e.g. is appropriate.

YES The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are closest to our sun.
YES Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars (i.e., the rocky planets) are closest to our sun.
NO The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are closest to our sun.

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are all of the examples of rocky planets in our solar system (they are a full and
complete list, not just a few examples), so e.g. should not be used. Instead, use i.e. to show that the list of four planets
is equivalent to the rocky planets-they refer to the same thing. Notice that switching the rocky planets and Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars doesn’t change the meaning of the sentence.

In some instances, i.e. and e.g. may both be acceptable, but using one or the other will drastically change the meaning
of the sentence. For example:

Farmer Brown sells his produce (e.g., apples, oranges, carrots) at the market.
Farmer Brown sells his produce (i.e., apples, oranges, carrots) at the market.

In the first sentence, the use of e.g. tells the reader that Farmer Brown sells many different types of produce,
including apples oranges and carrots. The information contained in the parentheses provides a few examples to help
clarify the meaning of produce. In the second sentence, the use of i.e. tells the reader that Farmer Brown sells only
apples, oranges and carrots—nothing else. The information contained in the parentheses tells the reader that, as far
as Farmer Brown is concerned, apples, oranges and carrots are what constitute produce—they are equivalent.

N.B.: If you cite one author in body text, it should be “AuthorOne.” Two authors: “AuthorOne and AuthorTwo.” Three
or more authors: “AuthorOne et al.” “et al.” stands for “et alia.” It does NOT have a period after “et” and DOES have
one after “al.”

44
Other Useful Abbreviations

While etc., e.g. and i.e. are perhaps the most important Latin abbreviations for you to get acquainted with, there are
other less common abbreviations that you may find useful in certain situations.

N.B.

The abbreviation N.B. stands for nota bene, which literally translates as “note well,” although in practice you can
read it as “pay attention.” It is used in endnotes or footnotes to call the reader’s attention to a particularly important
piece of information—such as a key assumption of or exception to an argument—that is nevertheless not crucial
enough to be included in the main body of the paper. Also, notice that N.B. is the only Latin abbreviation that should
be capitalized.

Example: N.B.: While all of the study participants were interviewed about their prior medical
histories, researchers did not have access to their medical records to confirm the accuracy
of self-reported data.

cf.

The abbreviation cf. stands for the Latin word confer which means “compare.” It is primarily used in endnotes or
footnotes to point the reader to works that offer an argument, which contradicts or is otherwise different from the
author’s argument. Therefore, it might be more useful to read cf. as “but compare this to.” It is generally preceded by
citations of works that agree with the author’s argument and then followed by one or two examples of works that
disagree with or somehow differ from the argument. Although it is not strictly necessary to explain how these works
are different, you might find it useful to include a short phrase for the benefit of your reader.

Example: 2. Jones 1992, Smith 2003; cf. on methodology Harris 2005.

sic

Although it is not an abbreviation, sic is included here because it is one of the more frequently used Latin terms. The
word sic means “thus” or “so” and is used in quotations to indicate that any strange aspects of a piece of text, such as
errors in of grammar, spelling, or word choice, are part of the original text and not a typo. Therefore, it could be
more appropriately translated as “yes, that’s actually what it says.” Depending on the style you’re using, sic is
italicized and placed in brackets after the word or phrase it identifies (as in APA and Chicago), or it is simply placed
in parentheses after the entire quotation (as in MLA). Consult the most recent edition of the appropriate style
handbook to ensure that you’re using the proper format.

versus (vs. or v.)

You have probably seen the term versus or one of its abbreviation, vs. or v., in the names of court cases (for example,
Smith v. the State of North Carolina). Versus translates as “against” or “as opposed to.” Versus is used to express
conflict or comparison. You may see it in the main body of academic texts, in phrases such as “man versus nature,”
“measured in kilograms versus pounds,” or “protectionism versus free trade.” Versus and its abbreviations also
appear frequently in the titles of books and articles.

circa

Circa, which translates as “around” or “approximately,” usually appears with dates. You may see it abbreviated as c.
or ca. (or, more rarely, as cca. or cir.). It indicates that a number or value is approximate, not exact. For example, you
might see sentences like “the construction of Stonehenge began circa 3000 BCE.” More rarely, you may see circa in
reference to measurements of amounts, such as “circa $45,000″ or “c. 1.5 mL.” Your meaning will often be clearer to
readers if you stick with English in the main body of your text and save “c.” for things in parentheses and notes. So,
for example, you might write “the construction of Stonehenge began around 3000 BCE” or “when Stonehenge began
to be constructed (c. 3000 BCE).”

45
Citation Shortcuts

The abbreviations in this section are used primarily in notes and bibliographic entries in order to save space. It is
important to understand these abbreviations not only so that you can correctly interpret bibliographic citations, but
also so that your citations can be accessible to your readers.

et al.

The Latin abbreviation et al. stands for et alii, which translates as “and other people.” It is like etc., but it is used only
for people. You will generally see et al. used in bibliographical entries for books, articles, or other publications that
have several authors (usually four or more) in order to save space. In such cases, the name of the first author will be
given in full and then followed by et al. As with etc., there is no need to include ‘and’ before et al., but do notice that
unlike etc. there is a space (and no period) after et in this abbreviation.

ibid. and id.

The abbreviation ibid. stands for the Latin word ibidem, which means “in the same place.” It is used in endnotes or
footnotes when you cite the same source and page number(s) two or more times. If you cite the same source but a
different page number, you can use ibid. followed by a comma and the page number(s). Also, note that ibid. is
capitalized when it begins a note. For example:

1. Barsby, 99-101.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid., 97.

Although it is becoming less common, you may encounter the abbreviation id. used in a way similar to ibid. The
abbreviation id. stands for idem, which means “the same person.” It is used in place of ibid. when the same author is
cited but not the same page number. In such instances, ibid. is only used to repeat the preceding citation exactly. For
example:

1. Barsby, 99-101.
2. Ibid.
3. Id., 97.

passim

Like sic, passim is not an abbreviation, but it is included here as a Latin term commonly used to save space in
bibliographic entries. The Latin word passim means “here and there” or “throughout.” It is used when a particular
word, phrase or idea is not restricted to just a few pages of a work, but occurs in many different places. Using passim
is not a way to avoid providing specific citations; instead, it indicates to the reader that the information being cited
occurs frequently in the work and that he/she may want to use the table of contents or index to find specific
examples.

Abbreviation Obscurity

While you may occasionally encounter the following abbreviations in your academic career, they are becoming
increasingly rare. There is no need for you to attempt to incorporate them into your own writing. Instead, use short
English phrases; it will be easier for you to write and for your reader to understand!

loc. cit. and op. cit.

The abbreviations loc. cit. and op. cit. are old forms used in bibliographic citations similar to ibid. and id. above. The
abbreviation loc. cit. stands for loco citato, which translates as “in the place cited,” whereas op. cit. stands for opere
citato, which translates as “in the work cited.” Generally, loc. cit. is used to refer to the same work and page
number(s) as the previous citation, while op. cit. refers only to the same work and may or may not be followed by
page numbers. In all modern style manuals, ibid. is preferred to loc. cit. and op. cit.

46
inf. and sup.

The abbreviations inf. and sup. stand for the words infra and supra, which translate as “below” and “above”
respectively. They are used to indicate that information will be more fully explained or cited elsewhere. If the
information has already appeared in an earlier note, sup. is used. If the information will appear in a later note
(where a more complete citation or explanation is perhaps more appropriate), inf. is used. In general, you can
replace both of these abbreviations with “see below” and “see above” without any change in meaning.

viz. and sc.

The abbreviation viz. stands for the Latin contraction videlicet which translates literally as “it is permitted to see,”
but a more useful translation is “namely” or “that is to say.” It is used to clarify something by elaborating on it, giving
a detailed description of it, or providing a complete list. In this sense, viz. is similar to i.e., although viz. tends to
emphasize the precision and exactness of what follows and is thus a stronger version of i.e. It is generally acceptable
to use i.e. instead of viz.

The similar abbreviation sc. stands for the Latin contraction scilicet which translates literally as “it is permitted to
know,” but a more useful translation is “namely” or “as if to say.” It is often used to provide a clarification, remove an
ambiguity, or supply an omitted word. Like viz., sc. is a more specific version of i.e. and stresses the clarity of what
follows. As with viz., it is generally acceptable to use i.e. rather than sc.

q.v.

The abbreviation q.v. stands for quod vide, which translates literally as “which see,” although in practice it means
something more like “for which see elsewhere.” It is used in notes after a word or phrase to indicate that more
information can be found about the topic somewhere else in the current work. Because q.v. is generally used in
reference books or similar works, page numbers are not included after it. The reader is expected to know how to
locate this information without further assistance. Since there is always the possibility that the reader won’t be able
to find the information cited by q.v., it’s better to use a simple English phrase such as “for more on this topic, see
pages 72-3″ or “a detailed definition appears on page 16.” Such phrases are immediately comprehensible to the
reader (who may not even know what q.v. means) and remove any ambiguity about where additional information is
located.

s.v.

The abbreviation s.v. stands for sub verbo, which translates as “under the word.” It is used when citing a specific
entry in a dictionary or encyclopedia. The word or phrase following the abbreviation should correspond exactly to
the heading in the dictionary or encyclopedia so that the reader can find the precise entry being indicated. Since s.v.
is no longer recognizable to most modern readers, it is better to use a simple English phrase such as “see the Oxford
English Dictionary; look under grape” or something similar.

47
Common Abbreviations in Academic Writing, Part II
Taken from Write.com
For MLA abbreviations that are in all capital letters, omit the periods and spaces.
 CEO
 HTML
 DVD

Proper names are the exception to the above rule, and periods and a space are used after first and/or middle initials.
 E. E. Cummings
 J. R. R. Tolkien
 R. L. Stine

If the letters of a lowercase abbreviation correspond to a word in a recognizable abbreviation, periods are used after
each letter with no spaces following them within the MLA abbreviation.
 a.m.
 e.g.
 i.e.
 p.m.

The above rule does not apply to all MLA abbreviations, however. Some exceptions follow.
 mph = miles per hour
 rpm = revolutions per minute
 n or nn = note, notes
 ns = new series

When a lowercase letter ends an abbreviation, a period is used following the last letter of the MLA abbreviation.
 assoc. = associate, associated
 attrib.= attributed to
 dept. = department
 Eng. = English
 esp. = especially

Degree names do not follow the standard MLA abbreviations rule for lowercase letters; instead, no periods are used
with these.
 EdD
 PhD
 PhysD

Website URL abbreviations (extensions) require a period before the abbreviation.


 .com
 .edu
 .net
 .gov

MLA Abbreviations in Citations


As you use citations, use MLA abbreviations whenever you can to keep the citations as short as possible. The list that
follows contains some of the more common abbreviations that are used in citing sources; however, for a complete
list, refer to your MLA Handbook.

MLA Abbreviations for Months

Any month that is longer than four letters is abbreviated.


 Jan. – January
 Feb. – February
 Mar. – March
 Apr. – April
48
 May – May
 June – June
 July – July
 Aug. – August
 Sept. – September
 Oct. – October
 Nov. – November
 Dec. – December

In addition, dates in the MLA format are written in the date, month, year format. Use one number for single-digit
days (7 instead of 07). The abbreviated month is used (when it is less than four letters), and the year is shown in the
full, four-digit form.
 3 June 2012
 19 Sept. 2009
 27 Dec. 2003

MLA Abbreviations for Time


 AD = Anno Domini
 BC = Before Christ
 BCE=Before Common Era
 wk. = week
 mo. = month
 yr. = year
 a.m. = morning
 p.m. = afternoon

MLA Abbreviations for Geographic Locations


For US states, use the postal code, two-letter code as MLA abbreviations. [URL]Check the complete list of states
www.usps.com/ncsc/lookups/usps_abbreviations.html if you are unsure of the correct abbreviation.
MLA abbreviations for missing information
 no pag. = no pagination
 N.p. = no publisher (common for websites)
 n.d. = no date

MLA Abbreviations for Publisher Names


When citing publisher names, a few special rules apply to allow you to shorter them as much as possible.
 Do not include the articles of “a,” “an” and “the”
 Do not include business abbreviations, such as “Co.,” “Inc.” or “Ltd.”
 Omit any descriptive words at the end of a publisher name, such as “books,” “Press,” “Publishers” or “House”
 Use the letter “P” for all university presses in case a university publishes independently, such as “Michigan
State P” for “Michigan State Press”
 Use only the surname when a publisher name has the full name of one person within it, such as “Wiley” for
“John Wiley & Sons Inc.”
 Use only the first surname when a publisher has more than one surname within it, such as “Farrar” for
“Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Inc.”
 Utilize other MLA abbreviations that may apply whenever possible, such as “UP” for a university press or
“Acad.” for Academy
 Use an acronym if a publisher is commonly known by it.

Publisher examples
 Basic = Basic Books
 GPO = Government Printing Office
 Little = Little, Brown and Company, Inc.
 MIT UP = MIT University Press
 Scribner’s = Charles Scribner’s Sons
 U of Chicago P = University of Chicago Press

49
MLA Abbreviations for Scholarly Works
Many scholarly words also appear in various citations, especially those that are from scholarly journals. Keep this in
mind, and utilize MLA abbreviations for scholarly words whenever possible. The list that follows includes common
ones, but consult your MLA Handbook for a complete list.
anon. = anonymous

ca. = circa
ch. = chapter
comp. = compiler
fwd. = foreword
jour. = journal
lib. = library
par. = paragraph
publ. for publisher or publication
sec., sect. = section
ser. = series
var. = variant
writ. = written by, writer

50
Writing Numbers
Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for
other numbers, especially if numbers appear sparingly in your document. If your document makes frequent use of
statistics and numbers, use numerals instead of words.

Words
 over two pounds
 six million dollars
 after thirty-one years
 eighty-three people

Figures
 after 126 days
 only $31.50
 6,381 bushels
 4.78 liters

Specific Situations
Days and Years
 December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965
 A.D. 1066
 in 1900
 in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972
 the eighties, the twentieth century
 the 1980s

Time of Day
 8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning
 4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon

Addresses
 16 Tenth Street
 350 West 114 Street

Identification Numbers
 Room 8
 Channel 18
 Interstate 65
 Henry VIII

Page and Division of Books and Plays


 page 30
 chapter 6
 in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii

Decimals and Percentages


 a 2.7 average
 13.25 percent (in nonscientific contexts)
 25% (in scientific contexts)
 .037 metric ton

51
Large Round Numbers
 four billion dollars (or) $4 billion
 16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million

Notes on Usage
Repeat numbers in commercial writing.
 The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars.

Use numerals in legal writing.


 The cost of damage is $1,365.42.

Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.


 two apples, six oranges, and three bananas NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas
 115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90'
 scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6
 The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed

Write out numbers beginning sentences.


 Six percent of the group failed. NOT: 6% of the group failed.

Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep
your writing clear.
 Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90-year-olds who were born in the city. (may cause the
reader to read '690' as one number.)
 Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year-olds who were born in the city.

Miscellaneous
 Use numerals with symbols and abbreviations (e.g., %, $, ¢, ft., lbs., p.m., ed. vol.) when these appear
frequently in your text or are used in references. For example, write: 25%, $25, 50 lbs., 3rd ed., vol 5.
Otherwise write out numbers with measures in your text (but not in references) when you can do so in
three words or less, twenty-five percent, twenty-five dollars, fifty pounds.
 Do not mix numerals with written numbers when they refer to similar things. For example, "Only 10 of the
150 people on the tour (not ten of the 150 tourists) were willing to visit the city after the riot." But also
write: "The President got 1.3 trillion of the 1.6 trillion dollar tax cut he proposed."
 Do not mix numbers that are spelled out with symbols, write out the term for the symbols as well. For
example, write: 45%, or forty-five percent; $20 or twenty dollars.
 Hyphenate compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine, compounds with a number as the first
element (e.g., three-way light bulb), and the written form of fractions.
 Ordinal numbers follow the general rules for numbers. For example, "The window for applications was the
third to twenty-third of August." But use numerals if more than two words are needed to write the number.
For example, the Statistical Abstract of the United States is in its 124th edition. MLA style uses only
numerals in references (e.g., 2nd ed., 3rd ed.).
 Inclusive range of numbers. MLA style drops digits in numbers above 99 according to specific rules. This
is the process of eliding a range of inclusive numbers. When writing numbers through 99 give the full digits.
For example, write 42-48 not 42-8. Page numbers above 99 require only the last two digits of the second
number as long as the result is unambiguous. Leading zeros are not dropped in MLA practice. Write pages
1123–24 not 1123–1124; write pages 2000–04 not 2000–4 nor 2000-2004. Write pages 112–35 and pages
102–21, but write pages 102–08 not 102–8 or 102–108. Write pages 1,584–621 not pages 1,582–1,621, and
certainly not pages 1,584–21. Elide dates only when they fall within the same century. Write the years
1865-1917 not 1865-917.
 When expressing a range of numerals in text do not use a dash unless the numbers reflect an inclusive
range of dates, write "to" instead. For example, "The IQ range of the first group was 86 to 112.” But also
write "The years of the Great Depression, 1930–40, tested America severely."

52
Assessing Student Writing
What is writing? The simplest answer would be that it is a means of communication.
However, writing is more complicated than that. In our modern society, we use writing on a
daily basis to communicate our ideas and needs to others. We write informally and formally: a
grocery list, a text message, class notes, a formal essay. Writing reflects a complex relationship
between ourselves and the rest of the world: It involves our exploration of our thoughts and
develops how we think and learn. In essence, writing outputs our thoughts to the world. All
writing has an audience and purpose. Even a personal journal entry has its own reflective
audience (you!). Hence, when we write, we do it for a specific rhetorical context or situation.
Even though people may share the same rhetorical context for writing (say, an essay
assignment), no two people think exactly alike. To some students, this makes the assessment of
writing confusing. After all, if thinking is idiosyncratic, shouldn’t a person’s writing also be
considered unique? It is true: All writers are unique. However, the job of the writing instructor is
to help writers hone their skills to meet any given rhetorical situation. In other words, the
teacher helps students to communicate their ideas clearly and effectively.
Every writer is different, but all writing has some commonalities, or similar traits. When a
teacher reads and evaluates a student’s writing, he or she considers these traits. The School
Town of Munster has adopted a model of writing traits called the Six +1 Traits of Writing, a
framework for evaluating writing and breaking down that evaluation into analytic traits. The
Traits include Idea Development, Organization, Voice, Sentence Fluency, Word Choice,
Conventions, and Presentation. The next section goes over each trait in more detail.
When teachers grade essays, there are two primary means of assessment: holistic and
analytic. Holistic grading requires an experienced eye, an instructor who has read several essays
and can gauge a student’s overall writing ability. A holistic score provides students an overall
score. Likewise, analytic grading requires an experienced eye, but the instructor takes more time
to break down the final evaluation into Traits. With analytic grading, teachers take time to
provide more feedback on each grading criterion.
Finally, a part of assessing writing involves the writer’s own ability to evaluate his/her
own work. How does one improve his/her critical eye? Practice! Effective writers have learned
how to maximize their own writing process. Generally speaking, writing for an audience other
than oneself almost always requires following the process of brainstorming, drafting, revising,
editing, and publishing. Unfortunately, there are no shortcuts to becoming an effective writer. It
takes much practice, feedback, and honest evaluation from peers, instructors, and oneself.

53
Six +1 Traits of Writing
Taken from http://educationnorthwest.org/traits
Overview

The 6+1 Trait® Writing analytical model for assessing and teaching writing is made up of 6+1
key qualities that define strong writing. These are:
1. Ideas, the main message;
2. Organization, the internal structure of the piece;
3. Voice, the personal tone and flavor of the author's
message;
4. Word Choice, the vocabulary a writer chooses to convey
meaning;
5. Sentence Fluency, the rhythm and flow of the language;
6. Conventions, the mechanical correctness;
7. and Presentation, how the writing actually looks on the page.
Ideas: The Ideas are the main message, the content of the piece, the main theme, together with
all the supporting details that enrich and develop that theme. The ideas are strong
when the message is clear, not garbled. Considering his audience and purpose, the
writer chooses details that are interesting, important, and informative–often the kinds
of details the reader would not normally anticipate or predict. Successful writers do not
"tell" readers things they already know; e.g., "It was a sunny day, and the sky was blue,
the clouds were fluffy white …" Successful writers "show" readers that which is normally
overlooked; writers seek out the extraordinary, the unusual, the unique, the bits and pieces of life
that might otherwise be overlooked.

Organization: Organization is the internal structure of a piece of writing, the thread of central
meaning, the pattern and sequence, so long as it fits the central idea. Organizational structure can
be based on comparison-contrast, deductive logic, point-by-point
analysis, development of a central theme, chronological history of an event,
or any of a dozen other identifiable patterns. When the organization is strong,
the piece begins meaningfully and creates in the writer a sense of
anticipation that is, ultimately, systematically fulfilled. Events proceed
logically; information is given to the reader in the right doses at the right times
so that the reader never loses interest. Connections are strong, which is another way of saying
that bridges from one idea to the next hold up. The piece closes with a sense of resolution, tying
up loose ends, bringing things to a satisfying closure, answering important questions while still
leaving the reader something to think about.


Voice: Voice is the writer coming through the words, the sense that a real person is
speaking to us and cares about the message. It is the heart and soul of the writing, the
magic, the wit, the feeling, the life and breath. When the writer is engaged personally
with the topic, he/she imparts a personal tone and flavor to the piece that is
unmistakably his/hers alone. And it is that individual something–different from the mark
of all other writers–that we call Voice. The effective writer will always match his/her voice with
audience and purpose, especially using an appropriate level of formality.

54
Word Choice: Word Choice is the use of rich, colorful, precise, concise language
that communicates not just in a functional way, but in a way that moves and
enlightens the reader. In descriptive writing, strong word choice resulting in
imagery, especially sensory writing, clarifies and expands ideas. In persuasive
writing, purposeful word choice moves the reader to a new vision of ideas. In all
modes of writing figurative language such as metaphors, similes and analogies articulate,
enhance, and enrich the content. Strong word choice is characterized not so much by an
exceptional vocabulary chosen to impress the reader, but more by the skill to use everyday
words well.


Sentence Fluency: Sentence Fluency is the rhythm and flow of the language, the
sound of word patterns, the way in which the writing plays to the ear, not just to
the eye. How does it sound when read aloud? That's the test. Fluent writing has
cadence, power, rhythm, and movement. It is free of awkward word patterns
that slow the reader's progress. Sentences vary in length, beginnings, structure,
and style, and are so well crafted that the writer moves through the piece with ease.


Conventions: The Conventions Trait is the mechanical correctness of the piece and includes five
elements: spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar/usage, and paragraphing.
Writing that is strong in Conventions has been proofread and edited with care. Since
this trait has so many pieces to it, it's almost an analytical trait within an analytic
system. As you assess a piece for convention, ask yourself: "How much work would a
copy editor need to do to prepare the piece for publication?" This will keep all of the
elements in conventions equally in play. Conventions is the only trait where we make
specific grade level accommodations, and expectations should be based on grade level to include
only those skills that have been taught. (Handwriting and neatness are not part of this trait, they
belong with Presentation.)


Presentation: Presentation combines both visual and textual elements. It is


the way we exhibit or present our message on paper. Even if our ideas,
words, and sentences are vivid, precise, and well constructed, the writing
will not be inviting to read unless the guidelines of presentation are present.
Some of those guidelines include: balance of white space with visuals and
text, graphics, neatness, handwriting, font selection, borders, overall appearance. Think about
examples of text and visual presentation in your environment. Which signs and billboards attract
your attention? Why do you reach for one CD over another? All great writers are aware of the
necessity of presentation, particularly technical writers who must include graphs, maps, and
visual instructions along with their text. Presentation is key to a polished piece ready for
publication.

55
6 + 1 Traits Condensed Scoring Guide
Adapted from http://www.nwrel.org
Demonstrated Competency Level
Trait
Competent Emerging Undeveloped/Unsatisfactory
Does the writer stay focused and share original and fresh information or perspective
about the topic? How well does the writer develop his/her thesis or topic?
Idea This paper is clear and focused. It The writer is beginning to The paper has no clear sense of
Development holds the reader’s attention. define the topic, even though purpose or central theme. The
Relevant anecdotes and details development is still basic or reader must make inferences based
enrich the central theme. general. on sketch or missing details

Does the organizational structure enhance the ideas and make it easier to understand?
The organizational structure of
Organization this paper enhances and The organizational structure is
showcases the central idea or strong enough to move the The writing lacks a clear or logical
theme of the paper; the paper reader through the text sense of direction.
includes a satisfying introduction without too much confusion.
and conclusion.
Would you keep reading this piece if it were longer? Does the writer’s
attitude match the purpose and audience for the assignment?
The writer of this paper speaks The writer seems sincere, but
directly to the reader in a manner not fully engaged or involved. The writer seems uninvolved with
Voice that is individual, compelling, The result is pleasant or even the topic and the audience. The
engaging, and shows respect for personable, but not attitude is mismatched with the
the audience. The attitude compelling. The writer’s assignment’s audience and
supports the purpose of the attitude does not fully support purpose.
assignment. the audience and purpose.
Do the words and phrases create vivid pictures that linger in the reader’s mind?
Does the language empower the writer’s message or bog it down?
Word Words convey the intended
Choice message in a precise, interesting, The language is functional,
The writer struggles with a limited
and natural way. The language even if it lacks energy or
vocabulary.
reflects the vocabulary of a first- precision.
year college student.
Do the sentences flow together as they are read aloud? Does the writer employ sufficient variety?

Sentence The text hums along with a


The writing has an easy flow, The reader has to practice quite a
steady beat, but tends to be
Fluency rhythm, and cadences because bit in order to give this paper a fair
more pleasant or businesslike
sentences are varied and well interpretive reading. Sentences
than musical. Sentences need
constructed. lack variety or are choppy.
more variety.
How much editing would have to be done to be ready to share this paper with an outside source?
The writer demonstrates a good
Errors in spelling, punctuation,
grasp of standard writing
Conventions The writer shows reasonable capitalization, usage, grammar, and
conventions, such as spelling,
control over a limited range of paragraphing repeatedly distract
punctuation, capitalization,
standard writing conventions. the reader and make text difficult
grammar, usage, and
to read.
paragraphing.

Does the paper follow guidelines set forth by both instructor and/or MLA?
The writer follows most
Presentation The writer follows all guidelines
guidelines but makes mistakes The writer does not follow
established by the teacher. If
or is inconsistent in formatting. guidelines and fails to cite sources
applicable, all sources are cited
Sources may be cited, but the appropriately.
correctly using MLA guidelines.
formatting needs revision.

56
Sample 6 +1 Traits Grading Criteria Sheet
Points
Trait Description/Indicators for Success Earned/Points
Possible
How detailed is the writing? Are major points
supported with evidence and analysis? Are the
Idea
arguments logical? Does the writer use strong textual
Development evidence to support his/her assertions? Does the
25
essay support the thesis statement?
How well does the student organize his/her ideas? Do
the ideas follow a logical progression, like from least
to most important? Does the student use transitions
Organization to move the reader between ideas (between
paragraphs? Sentences?) Is the essay coherent, and 25
are ideas unified?
Does the paper sound “professional”? Does the writer
avoid using the word “you”? Does the tone (attitude)
match the writer’s purpose? Does the writer avoid
contractions, platitudes, and trite phrases like “I
Voice think that…” or “in conclusion”? Does the student
avoid clichés, dead metaphors, and other trite 25
idiomatic expressions? Does the writer avoid passive
voice as much as possible?
Does the writer use as many strong action verbs as
possible? Are there verb phrases that could be
replaced with a single word? Does the writer employ
Word Choice connotation wherever possible to increase his/her
appeal to his/her audience? Does the writer use 25
specific words?

Does the writer use a variety of simple, compound,


Sentence and complex sentences? Are the sentences cohesive
Fluency in the paragraph? Do they connect to one another
logically and structurally? 25

Does the paper look polished? Does the writer indent


new paragraphs? Is it free from errors in usage,
Conventions spelling, capitalization, and punctuation? Does the
writing appear to have been carefully revised for
errors?
25

Did you follow the style guidelines? Does the writer


double-space the paper? Does the paper have 1”
margins? Is the font professional and size 12? Is the
first page set up correctly? Is there running
Presentation pagination at the top right corner with writer’s last
name + page number? Is the paper stapled the 25
pages together in order? Is there a word count at the
end?

57
Common Editing Marks

Mark/Symbol Meaning/Suggestion/Description

 A check signifies a “nod” on paper. The writer has done something extraordinarily well.

The reader questions something in the writing, such as the evidence, the logic, the
? organization, or meaning.

WC Word choice error

¶ Paragraphing error

SP Spelling error

CAP or  or / Capitalization Error

RS Run-on sentence

CS Comma splice

 Transpose (switch order)

^ Insert

 or  or # Spacing error (close gap or add space)

DEL or  Delete

Agree Agreement error (subject-predicate or pronoun-antecedent)

Frag Sentence fragment

Wordy “Cut the fat!” The wording is vague and indirect. Be more precise.

 Anything circled indicates an error or something that requires attention.

Tense Be careful of tense shifts.

Awk Awkward grammatical construction or phrasing/meaning

Title Inappropriate formatting of title (italics or quotation marks)

58
Six +1 Traits of Writing Revision Codes
Idea Development
I1. The writer draws conclusions without support.
I2. The writer uses faulty logic (e.g., false causality, red herring, ad hominem attacks)
I3. The topic is not well developed. It lacks details.
I4. There is not a clear link between the writer’s assertions and his use of support/evidence.
I5. There is either no thesis or the thesis is vague.
I6. The writing moves off topic instead of supporting the thesis.
I7. The paper does not meet minimal length requirements.
I8. The writer does not analyze the topic in enough depth.
I9. The writer does not use rhetorical devices accurately.
110. Sources are questionable, biased, or of poor quality.

Organization
O1. The writing does not follow a logical progression:
 least-to-most-important
 chronological
 compare and contrast

O2. The writing is missing transitions or transitional phrases.


O3. Sentences do not follow logical organization within a paragraph.
O4. The paper lacks topic sentences for each new paragraph that starts a new topic.
O5. Long paragraphs can be broken up into smaller ones.

Word Choice
W1. The word choice is inappropriate for the audience and purpose.
W2. The word choice is too colloquial.
W3. The word choice is not specific; it is vague.
W4. The language is wordy.
W5. Vocabulary is used incorrectly.
W6. Word choice is unnatural, forced.

Sentence Fluency
S1. Vary sentence types: simple, compound, complex, compound-complex.
S2. Sentence fragment.
S3. There needs to be more variety in sentence beginnings or endings.
S4. Too many ideas are conveyed in one sentence; break up long loose sentences.
S5. Sentences must relate to one another.
S6. Vary sentence length (avoid short, choppy or long, tangled sentence strings).

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Six +1 Traits of Writing Revision Codes (Continued)…

Voice
V1. The tone (attitude) is inappropriate for audience and purpose.
V2. Too many passive verbs appears in the writing (“be” verb + past participle form of verb).
V3. The writer uses 1st person pronouns (I, me, we, us).
V4. The writer uses 2nd person “you.”
V5. The writing lacks enthusiasm and/or energy.

Conventions
C1. Spelling error
C2. Agreement error
C3. Capitalization error
C4. Number consistency
C5. Comma error
C6. Dangling modifier
C7. Semicolon or colon error
C8. Run-on sentence
C9. Comma splice
C10. Parallelism problem
C11. Titles

Presentation
P1. Header on first page in MLA style
P2. MLA pagination
P3. MLA margins
P4. Font selection and size
P5. Print quality (white paper, black ink, clean sheets, etc.)
P6. Stapled in order
P7. Sources not cited correctly
P8. Parenthetical citation not correctly formatted
P9. Works Cited page not formatted correctly
P10. No title/weak title

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Sample Generic AP English Essay Rubric
Holistic Scoring Guide

9-8
Superior papers are specific in their references, cogent in their definitions, and free of plot
summary that is not relevant to the question. These essays need not be without flaws, but they
demonstrate the writer's ability to discuss a literary work with insight and understanding and
to control a wide range of the elements of effective composition. At all times they stay focused
on the prompt, providing specific support--mostly through direct quotations--and connecting
scholarly commentary to the overall meaning.

7-6
These papers are less thorough, less perceptive or less specific than 9-8 papers. They are well-
written but with less maturity and control. While they demonstrate the writer's ability to
analyze a literary work, they reveal a more limited understanding and less stylistic maturity than
do the papers in the 9-8 range.

5
Safe and “plastic,” superficiality characterizes these essays. Discussion of meaning may be
formulaic, mechanical, or inadequately related to the chosen details. Typically, these essays
reveal simplistic thinking and/or immature writing. They usually demonstrate inconsistent
control over the elements of composition and are not as well conceived, organized, or developed
as the upper- half papers. However, the writing is sufficient to convey the writer's ideas, stays
mostly focused on the prompt, and contains at least some effort to produce analysis, direct or
indirect.

4-3
Discussion is likely to be unpersuasive, perfunctory, underdeveloped or misguided. The
meaning they deduce may be inaccurate or insubstantial and not clearly related to the question.
Part of the question may be omitted altogether. The writing may convey the writer's ideas, but it
reveals weak control over such elements as diction, organization, syntax or grammar. Typically,
these essays contain significant misinterpretations of the question or the work they discuss;
they may also contain little, if any, supporting evidence, and practice paraphrase and plot
summary at the expense of analysis.

2-1
These essays compound the weakness of essays in the 4-3 range and are frequently unacceptably
brief. They are poorly written on several counts, including many distracting errors in
grammar and mechanics. Although the writer may have made some effort to answer the
question, the views presented have little clarity or coherence.

From Conni M. Shelnut ,Lakeland, FL

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Introduction Strategies
Taken from http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/introductions.html

The Role of Introductions

Introductions and conclusions can be the most difficult parts of papers to write. Usually when you sit down to
respond to an assignment, you have at least some sense of what you want to say in the body of your paper. You
might have chosen a few examples you want to use or have an idea that will help you answer the question: these
sections, therefore, are not as hard to write. But these middle parts of the paper can't just come out of thin air; they
need to be introduced and concluded in a way that makes sense to your reader.

Your introduction and conclusion act as bridges that transport your readers from their own lives into the "place" of
your analysis. If your readers pick up your paper about education in the autobiography of Frederick Douglass, for
example, they need a transition to help them leave behind the world of Chapel Hill, television, e-mail, and the The
Daily Tar Heel and to help them temporarily enter the world of nineteenth-century American slavery. By providing
an introduction that helps your readers make a transition between their own world and the issues you will be
writing about, you give your readers the tools they need to get into your topic and care about what you are saying.
Similarly, once you've hooked your reader with the introduction and offered evidence to prove your thesis, your
conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives.

Strategies for Writing an Effective Introduction

1. Start by thinking about the question. Your entire essay will be a response to the assigned question
(prompt), and your introduction is the first step toward that end. Your direct answer to the assigned
question will be your thesis, and your thesis will be included in your introduction, so it is a good idea to use
the question as a jumping off point. Imagine that you are assigned the following question:


Education has long been considered a major force for American social change, righting the wrongs of our
society. Drawing on The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, discuss the relationship between
education and slavery in 19th-century America. Consider the following: How did white control of education
reinforce slavery? How did Douglass and other enslaved African Americans view education while they endured
slavery? And what role did education play in the acquisition of freedom? Most importantly, consider the
degree to which education was or was not a major force for social change with regard to slavery.

You will probably refer back to this question extensively as you prepare your complete essay, and the
question itself can also give you some clues about how to approach the introduction. Notice that the
question starts with a broad statement, that education has been considered a major force for social change,
and then narrows to focus on specific questions from the book. One strategy might be to use a similar
model in your own introduction —start off with a big picture sentence or two about the power of
education as a force for change as a way of getting your reader interested and then focus in on the details
of your argument about Douglass. Of course, a different approach could also be very successful, but looking
at the way the professor set up the question can sometimes give you some ideas for how you might answer
it. Keep in mind, though, that even a "big picture" opening needs to be clearly related to your topic; an
opening sentence that said "Human beings, more than any other creatures on earth, are capable of
learning" would be too broad.

2. Try writing your introduction last. You may think that you have to write your introduction first, but
that isn't necessarily true, and it isn't always the most effective way to craft a good introduction. You may
find that you don't know what you are going to argue at the beginning of the writing process, and only
through the experience of writing your paper do you discover your main argument. It is perfectly fine to
start out thinking that you want to argue a particular point, but wind up arguing something slightly or even
dramatically different by the time you've written most of the paper. The writing process can be an
important way to organize your ideas, think through complicated issues, refine your thoughts, and develop
a sophisticated argument. However, an introduction written at the beginning of that discovery process will
not necessarily reflect what you wind up with at the end. You will need to revise your paper to make sure
that the introduction, all of the evidence, and the conclusion reflect the argument you intend. Sometimes it

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helps to write up all of your evidence first and then write the introduction—that way you can be sure that
the introduction matches the body of the paper.

3. Don't be afraid to write a tentative introduction first and then change it later. Some people find that
they need to write some kind of introduction in order to get the writing process started. That's fine, but if
you are one of those people, be sure to return to your initial introduction later and rewrite if necessary.

4. Open with an attention grabber. Sometimes, especially if the topic of your paper is somewhat dry or
technical, opening with something catchy can help. Consider these options:

A. An intriguing example (For example, the mistress who initially teaches Douglass but then ceases her
instruction as she learns more about slavery)

B. A provocative quotation (Douglass writes that "education and slavery were incompatible with each
other.")

C. A puzzling scenario (Frederick Douglass says of slaves that "[N]othing has been left undone to
cripple their intellects, darken their minds, debase their moral nature, obliterate all traces of their
relationship to mankind; and yet how wonderfully they have sustained the mighty load of a most
frightful bondage, under which they have been groaning for centuries!" Douglass clearly asserts
that slave owners went to great lengths to destroy the mental capacities of slaves, yet his own life
story proves that these efforts could be unsuccessful.)

D. A vivid and perhaps unexpected anecdote (For example, "Learning about slavery in the American
history course at Frederick Douglass High School, students studied the work slaves did, the impact
of slavery on their families, and the rules that governed their lives. We didn't discuss education,
however, until one student, Mary, raised her hand and asked, 'But when did they go to school?' That
modern high school students could not conceive of an American childhood devoid of formal
education speaks volumes about the centrality of education to American youth today and also
suggests the significance of the deprivation of education in past generations.")

E. A thought-provoking question (Given all of the freedoms that were denied enslaved individuals in
the American South, why does Frederick Douglass focus his attentions so squarely on education
and literacy?)

5. Pay special attention to your first sentence. Start off on the right foot with your readers by making
sure that the first sentence actually says something useful and that it does so in an interesting and error-
free way.

 Be straightforward and confident. Avoid statements like "In this paper, I will argue
that Frederick Douglass valued education." While this sentence points toward your
main argument, it isn't especially interesting. It might be more effective to say what you
mean in a declarative sentence. It is much more convincing to tell us that "Frederick
Douglass valued education" than to tell us that you are going to say that he did. Assert
your main argument confidently. After all, you can't expect your reader to believe it if it
doesn't sound like you believe it!

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Five Kinds of Less Effective Introductions

1. The place holder introduction. When you don't have much to say on a given topic, it is easy to create this kind of
introduction. Essentially, this kind of weaker introduction contains several sentences that are vague and don't really
say much. They exist just to take up the "introduction space" in your paper. If you had something more effective to
say, you would probably say it, but in the meantime this paragraph is just a place holder.

Example: Slavery was one of the greatest tragedies in American history. There were many different aspects of slavery.
Each created different kinds of problems for enslaved people.

2. The restated question introduction. Restating the question can be an effective strategy, but it can be easy to
stop at JUST restating the question instead of offering a more effective, interesting introduction to your paper. The
professor or teaching assistant wrote your questions and will be reading ten to seventy essays in response to
them—he or she does not need to read a whole paragraph that simply restates the question. Try to do something
more interesting.

Example: Indeed, education has long been considered a major force for American social change, righting the wrongs of
our society. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass discusses the relationship between education and slavery
in 19th century America, showing how white control of education reinforced slavery and how Douglass and other
enslaved African Americans viewed education while they endured. Moreover, the book discusses the role that education
played in the acquisition of freedom. Education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.

3. The Webster's Dictionary introduction. This introduction begins by giving the dictionary definition of one or
more of the words in the assigned question. This introduction strategy is on the right track—if you write one of
these, you may be trying to establish the important terms of the discussion, and this move builds a bridge to the
reader by offering a common, agreed-upon definition for a key idea. You may also be looking for an authority that
will lend credibility to your paper. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and copy down what
Webster says— it may be far more interesting for you (and your reader) if you develop your own definition of the
term in the specific context of your class and assignment. Also recognize that the dictionary is also not a particularly
authoritative work—it doesn't take into account the context of your course and doesn't offer particularly detailed
information. If you feel that you must seek out an authority, try to find one that is very relevant and specific. Perhaps
a quotation from a source reading might prove better? Dictionary introductions are also ineffective simply because
they are so overused. Many graders will see twenty or more papers that begin in this way, greatly decreasing the
dramatic impact that any one of those papers will have.

Example: Webster's dictionary defines slavery as "the state of being a slave," as "the practice of owning slaves," and as
"a condition of hard work and subjection."

4. The "dawn of man" introduction. This kind of introduction generally makes broad, sweeping statements about
the relevance of this topic since the beginning of time. It is usually very general (similar to the place holder
introduction) and fails to connect to the thesis. You may write this kind of introduction when you don't have much to
say—which is precisely why it is ineffective.

Example: Since the dawn of man, slavery has been a problem in human history.

5. The book report introduction. This introduction is what you had to do for your elementary school book reports.
It gives the name and author of the book you are writing about, tells what the book is about, and offers other basic
facts about the book. You might resort to this sort of introduction when you are trying to fill space because it's a
familiar, comfortable format. It is ineffective because it offers details that your reader already knows and that are
irrelevant to the thesis.

Example: Frederick Douglass wrote his autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave,
in the 1840s. It was published in 1986 by Penguin Books. He tells the story of his life.

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Creating the Perfect Thesis & Idea Development
Taken from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/599/01/ AND
Troyka, Lynn Quitman. Handbook for Writers. 6th ed. Simon & Schuster.

A thesis statement is the central message of an essay. It’s the essay’s main idea. You will want to
write a thesis carefully so that it prepares your readers for what follows in the essay. This means
that your thesis must accurately reflect the content of your essay.

Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement

1.Determine what kind of paper you are writing:


 An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts, evaluates
the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience.
 An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
 An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with specific
evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-
effect statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper is to convince
the audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided. It should be debatable.
If you are writing a text that does not fall under these three categories (e.g., a narrative), a thesis
statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.

2. Your thesis statement should be specific—it should cover only what you will discuss in your
paper and should be supported with specific evidence.

3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.

4. The thesis statement uses specific language, not vague words.

5. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement to reflect
exactly what you have discussed in the paper.

Thesis Statement Examples

Example of an analytical thesis statement:

An analysis of the college admission process reveals one challenge facing counselors: accepting
students with high test scores or students with strong extracurricular backgrounds.

The paper that follows should:


 Explain the analysis of the college admission process
 Explain the challenge facing admissions counselors

Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement:

The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending class, and
socializing with peers.

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The paper that follows should:

 Explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing with
peers

Example of an argumentative thesis statement:

High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community service
projects before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness.

The paper that follows should:

 Present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should pursue
community projects before entering college

Argumentation Basics
For much of your high school and all of your college career, you will be using argumentation in
your writing. When you write an argument, you attempt to convince your readers to agree with
you on a topic that has more than one stance. You support your position with evidence, reasons,
and examples—factual, logical data, not opinions. In argumentation, you, as the writer, move
back and forth between general statements and specific details.

Toulmin Model for Argumentation

The Toulmin model for argumentation defines three essential elements in an effective argument:
the claim, the support, and the warrants.

Claim: The main point or central message, usually expressed in a thesis or topic sentence.

Support: Data or other evidence, from broad reasons to specific details.

Warrants: Underlying Assumptions, usually not stated but clearly implied.

To make your Toulmin analysis even stronger, add impacts. Impacts answer the questions of “So
what?” and “Why should we care?”

Example:

From the beginning, Joyce creates the story’s mood with the setting. He describes the streets as
“being blind” (1) where the neighborhood school “sets the boys free” (1). These images signal
ubiquitous desolation, imprisonment, and foreboding.

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The Rhetorical Modes
Taken from www.mtsu.edu/uwc/Handouts/WTG/WTG_1.doc

Rhetorical modes are specific ways of organizing and presenting your ideas in essays to reach your
audience and get your main point across most effectively. While the primary purpose for your essay may
be to inform, persuade, or entertain, certain modes of writing can best help you achieve your chosen
purpose and convey your ideas. For example, an entertaining essay about the best day in your life may use
mostly narrative and descriptive modes over the other modes. Entire essays can be dedicated to one
mode, or multiple modes of writing may be incorporated into your essay. While no mode is superior to
another mode, consider your audience, purpose, and topic before deciding which one(s) best fit your
essay.

Narration: Narration tells either a story or a part of a story and describes what happens in a series of
events. Narrations commonly follow chronological order; however, they may start in the middle of a
sequence and use flashbacks to take the story back to an earlier time. Narration uses time markers like
then, later, or after that. Your main idea and the narrative must be closely related, and the narrative
should fully develop the main idea.

Description: A description creates a picture of a person, place, thing, or sensation by appealing to one or
more of the senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. As with all modes, the description should suit
the purpose and audience of the paper.

Process: The process mode tells readers, usually in chronological order, how to do something by
describing a process. Description and narration are often used in the process mode to show readers how
something happens.

Cause and Effect: This mode either explores why something happens (cause) or the result of the cause
(effect). The structure can move from cause to effect or from effect to cause. Do not assume that because
one event precedes another it necessarily causes it.

Classification and Division: Classification groups items into categories (classes) according to some
consistent principle. This mode explains your point by establishing how something fits into a group or
category. Division breaks objects and ideas into smaller parts according to some consistent principle.

Example: Examples are selected instances and not a complete catalog; however, the example provides
enough information to develop a point. Examples are used when the reader asks, "For example?" or “Such
as?”

Definition: Definition takes a word, a concept, or an object within a class and then distinguishes it from
other members of that class. Examples, details, and/or synonyms often clarify definitions further.

Comparison and Contrast: When you compare two objects, you point out their similarities. When you
contrast two objects, you point out their differences. Comparison and contrast essays can follow one of
two organizational patterns: either each subject is fully presented one at a time, or the subjects can be
examined together by explaining one point at a time.

Argumentative: Argumentative essays depend on giving reasons instead of quarreling over opinions.
Positions must be supported, not just asserted. Even though positions on a controversial issue cannot be
proven right or wrong, arguments can convince others to accept or reject a particular position.

Problem/Solution: Problem/Solution essays inform readers about problems and suggest actions that
can correct them. They often analyze a controversial subject, take a stand on it, and give reasons and
support. These papers urge readers to take a specific action rather than simply take a position.
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Essays: Organization
Taken from UNLV Writing Center: http://writingcenter.unlv.edu/writing/organization.html

The most important part of any piece of writing is the introduction. It gets the reader's attention and is the
determining factor in the reader's choice to continue reading; a dull, uninteresting, or poorly written
introduction voids the rest of the piece, as it simply won't be read. The second most important part of any
piece of writing is the conclusion. It sums up or concludes matters in a satisfying way, and, as it is the last of
your writing the reader will read, it is your opportunity to make one strong final impression and leave your
reader with something significant to think about.
The third most important part of any piece of writing is everything else, but that's beside the point.

The point is that it is important to think of your particular piece of writing as a structural entity and to
understand that paying close attention to the organization of your work is just as important as paying close
attention to the words with which you fill it. Writing with a careful eye toward, and a solid control of, your
work's structure not only gives your writing the credibility a more lazily or haphazardly organized work
would not be given, it also allows you to smoothly move your reader through your text; to isolate, highlight,
or build up to your most important points; and to guide your reader toward your meanings. And that,
combined with good, intelligent, insightful writing, is what creates successful essays and papers.

WAYS OF ORGANIZING ESSAYS AND PAPERS


The general shape of an essay shouldn't change too much from assignment to assignment: An introduction
of some sort, a body, and a conclusion. Depending on your content and purpose, however, you may decide
to set up the body of your paper any one of several different ways.

Chronological: Some types of essays - usually narratives - more or less lay out the organization for you by
being organized most logically in a chronological or time sequence. A personal narrative, an account of an
event, and an explanation of a process are examples of types of papers that usually would work best by
being organized chronologically from the first event, moment, or step to last event, moment, or step.

Spatial: A descriptive paper often is best organized spatially, literally starting with one part of the item
being described and moving to the next part and the next part and so on. For instance, a paper describing a
car might start with the front end, then move to the engine and hood, the dash, and the front and back seat
areas, then finish with the trunk and rear bumper. Depending on the topic - description of a place, building,
person, etc. - arrange the details of your essay by describing the item from top to bottom, left to right,
inside out, outside in, most prominent part to least, or whatever spatial way seems to work for your topic
and audience.

Persuasive Structures: In a persuasive paper, you may want to intentionally build toward a climax, your
most important point, or a dramatic and convincing conclusion. A paper about the need for improved
homeless shelters, for example, might be organized by describing conditions in three different shelters,
saving the most dramatic and disturbing scene for last to provide a strong and compelling climax. While
saving the most dramatic point for last will usually serve you well, occasionally you may want to start with
the most dramatic idea; as long as you have more compelling ideas coming afterward, starting with your
most arresting image or thought may get your reader's attention and make the following evidence seem
even more compelling.

Where your thesis or main idea goes is also a consideration in establishing your persuasive structure. In
what is generally referred to as a Support Structure, the paper develops from the central idea: An assertion,
generalization, claim, or thesis is made early on in the paper and is then supported or backed up with the
rest of the paper. On the other hand, when a writer uses what is called a Discovery Structure, the paper
builds toward a generalization, thesis, or solution, moving from one point to the next until the readers have
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been led to the thesis or conclusion. A Pro-and-Con Structure (also called Exploratory) can be used with
either a support or discovery structure. In a pro-and-con structure, the writer investigates the subject by
considering its strengths and weaknesses, its advantages and disadvantages, its positives and negatives.
Linking the various points carefully with transitions, the writer goes back and forth between one side of an
issue and another, leading, through careful consideration of both sides, to a conclusion. This type of
organization not only effectively presents all sides of an issue, it establishes credibility with the reader by
showing that the writer is neither biased nor uninformed.

Here is a visual breakdown of how these types of Persuasive Structures are generally arranged:

Support Structure:
Intro,
 containing thesis, claim, or generalization
Point
 1
Point
 2
Point
 3
Conclusion

Discovery Structure
Intro

Point
 1
Point
 2
Point
 3, which leads to
Conclusion,
 thesis, or solution

Pro-and-Con Structure (Example 1)


Intro/thesis

pro
butcon
butpro
butcon
butpro
butcon, which leads to…
Conclusion

Pro-and-Con Structure (Example 2)


Intro/thesis

pro
andpro
andpro
butcon
andcon
andcon, which leads to…
Conclusion

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Organizational Patterns and Tips for Position Papers
Taken from Johnson-Sheehan, Robert, and Charles Paine. Writing Today. Longman, 2010. PDF file.

Arguing is fun, but you need to argue fairly and reasonably if you want to win over your readers. The strongest
position papers and argument essays present both sides of an issue as objectively as possible and then persuade
readers that one side is superior to the other. They tend to have the following features:
 An introduction that states the issue being debated, identifies the issue’s two or more sides, and usually
makes an explicit claim (thesis) that the position paper or argument essay will support.
 An objective summary of your opponents’ understanding of the issue.
 A point-by-point discussion of the limitations of your opponents’ understanding.
 A summary of your side’s understanding of the issue.
 A point-by-point discussion of why your side’s understanding is superior to your opponents’ understanding.
 A conclusion that drives home your main point and looks to the future.

This genre tends to be organized two ways. With some topics, you may need to show that there are more than two
sides to the argument. In these cases, the pattern on the left can be expanded to include summaries and limitations
of these other positions. It is best, though, to try to boil the issue down to two major sides. Otherwise, your readers
will find it difficult to keep the sides of the argument straight.

Organizing and Drafting Your Position Paper


The key to organizing a position paper or argument essay is to remember that you need to tell both sides of the
story. As you are drafting your argument, it might help to imagine yourself in a debate with another person. If you
were in a public debate, how would you express your best points and win over the audience? Meanwhile, try to
anticipate your opponents’ best arguments for their position.

The Introduction
Identify your topic and offer some background information to help your readers understand what you are writing
about. State your purpose clearly by telling readers that you are going to explain both sides of the issue and then
demonstrate why yours is stronger. You might offer your main point (thesis) here in the introduction, or you can
save it for the conclusion, especially if you think readers might resist your argument. Look for a good grabber to
catch readers’ attention at the beginning of your introduction.

Summary and Limitations of Your Opponents’ Position


Here is the tough part. Try to explain your opponents’ side of the issue in a straightforward way. You do not need to
argue for their side, but you should explain their side in a way that your readers would consider fair and reasonable.
Where possible, use quotations from your opponents’ arguments to explain their side of the issue. Paraphrasing or
summarizing their argument is fine too, as long as you do it fairly.

As straightforwardly as possible, explain the limitations of your opponents’ position. What exactly are they missing?
What have they neglected to consider? What are they ignoring in their argument? Again, you want to highlight these
limitations as objectively as possible. This is not the place to be sarcastic or dismissive. You want to fairly point out
the weaknesses in your opponents’ argument.

Your Understanding of the Issue


Then it’s your turn. Explain your side of the argument by taking your readers through the two to five points of
contention, showing them why your side of the argument is stronger. Here is where you need to use your sources to
back up your argument. You need to use good reasoning, examples, facts, and data to show readers why your
opinion is more credible.

Before moving to your conclusion, you might spend a little time comparing and contrasting your opponents’ views
with your own. Briefly, go head to head with your opponents, showing readers why your view is stronger. At this
point, it is all right to concede some points to your opponents. Your goal is to show readers that your view is
stronger on balance. In other words, both sides probably have their strengths and weaknesses. You want to show

70
that your side has more strengths and fewer weaknesses than your opponents’ side.

Conclusion
Bring your argument to a close by stating or restating your thesis and looking to the future. Here is where you want
to drive your main point (thesis) home by telling your readers exactly what you believe. Then show how your
position leads to a better future than your opponents’ position. Overall, your conclusion should be brief (a paragraph
in most position papers).

Choosing an Appropriate Style


The style of your position paper will help you distinguish your side from your opponents’ side. Even though your
goal is to be factually fair to your opponents, there is nothing wrong with using style to make your side sound more
appealing and exciting.

Use Plain Style to Describe Your Opponents’ Position


You should not be sarcastic or dismissive of your opponents’ side of the argument. Instead, describe the other side’s
argument as plainly as possible. Consider helpful strategies for writing plainly, like putting the subjects of your
sentences up front and using active verbs. You will also find techniques for writing better paragraphs that use clear
topic sentences. If you use these plain style techniques to describe your opponents’ side of the argument, it will
sound like you are fairly and objectively summarizing their views.

Use Similes, Metaphors, and Analogies When Describing Your Position


When you are describing your side of the argument, you want to present your case as visually as possible. Similes,
metaphors, and analogies are a great way to help your readers visualize your argument.

A simile compares something unfamiliar to something familiar: Simile (X Is Like Y)

 A college campus in which students are armed would be like a tense Old West frontier town.
 Sharing music is like lending a good book to a friend, not pirating a ship on the high seas.

Metaphor (X Is Y)
 If a shooting incident did occur, the classroom would turn into a shooting gallery, with armed students and
police firing away at anyone with a gun in his or her hand. No one would be able to tell the difference between
the original shooter and students with their weapons drawn.
 The purpose of the music industry’s lawsuits is to throw a few unfortunate college students to the lions. That
way, they can hold up a few bloody carcasses to scare the rest of us.

Analogy (X Is to Y Like A Is to B)
 For some people, a gun has the same comforting effect as a safety blanket to a baby. Neither a gun nor a
blanket will protect you from those imaginary monsters, but both can give you a make-believe feeling of
security.
 The music industry’s lawsuits are like your old Aunt Martha defending her tin of chocolate chip cookies at the
church potluck. The industry offers a plate of delicious songs, but only the “right people” are allowed to enjoy
them. College students aren’t the right people because we don’t have enough money.

Try some of these “persuasive style” techniques to enhance the power of your argument. Similes, metaphors, and
analogies will make your writing more visual and colorful, and they will also help you come up with new ways to
think and talk about your topic. However, avoid using clichés, dead metaphors, and platitudes.

Use Top-Down Paragraphs


Your argument needs to sound confident, and your readers should be able to find your major points easily. So, in
your paragraphs, put each major point in the first or second sentence. Don’t put your major points in the middle of
your paragraphs or at the end because your readers won’t find them easily. A top-down style will make you sound
more confident, because you are stating your major claims and then proving them.
71
Define Unfamiliar Terms
Your readers may or may not be familiar with the topic of your argument. So if you use any specialized or technical
terms, you should provide quick parenthetical or sentence definitions to explain them.

Sentence Definition
 A conceal-carry permit is the legal authorization that allows private citizens to carry a handgun or other
weapon on their person or in a secure place nearby.
 Peer-to-peer file sharing involves using a network of computers to store and share files without charge.

Parenthetical Definitions
 Colleges have traditionally invoked an “opt-out” statute, a law that allows the ban of weapons where posted, to
keep concealed handguns off their campuses.
 Music sharing should become illegal when a person burns the songs (i.e., puts them on a CD) and sells them to
someone else.

Designing Your Position Paper

Position papers and argument essays tend to be written for college courses, so the design expectations are not high.
More and more, though, you will find that your professors appreciate the addition of helpful visuals and the use of
good page design. If your work looks professional, they will likely have a more favorable impression of it.

Use Descriptive Headings


Long position papers should be labeled with headings. Each of the major sections in your position paper should start
with a clear heading that identifies what the section is about. For example, you could use headings like these:
 The Case for Allowing Concealed Guns on Campus
 The Limitations of Allowing Guns on Campus
 Why Concealed Guns on Campus Are Dangerous
 Conclusion: Why the Risks of Concealed Weapons Aren’t Worth It

You might use bold type to help your headings stand out, and you might use a larger font size where appropriate.
Make sure your headings are formatted consistently.

Add Photographs and Illustrations


If you are writing about a local issue or an issue with a local angle, you might grab a digital camera and take a few
pictures to use in your paper. The Internet might also be a good place to download a few pictures and illustrations to
add a visual element to your text (remember to cite!).

In your document, make sure you label your visuals with a number and title, and include a caption to explain them. If
you download a photograph or other illustration from the Internet, you will need to cite your source in the caption
and in your works cited. If you want to put your position paper on the Internet, you will need to ask permission from
the owners of the photograph to use it on your website.

Include Helpful Graphs, Diagrams, and Charts


Position papers often discuss trends in our society, so you might look for ways to use graphs that illustrate those
trends. If you collected data or found data on the Internet, you might create a graph or chart to present that data
visually. Or, if you found a helpful graph on the Internet, you could use it in your own document, as long as you cite it
properly. Graphs and charts should have a title, and you should use numbers in your written text to refer
readers to the visual (e.g., “In Figure 2, the graph shows . . .”).

72
Organizational Patterns for the Comparison/Contrast Essay
Taken from San Jose State University Writing Center

In a comparison/contrast essay, a writer must do the following:

1) Identify and explain key points that two or more subjects have in common.
2) Show the similarities and differences between these points.
3) Develop a thesis, indicating his or her position regarding the two subjects. The thesis may
indicate that one subject is stronger than the other and that both subjects have strengths,
or that both subjects possess noteworthy flaws.

There are two ways to organize a comparison/contrast essay: Block Approach and Point-by-
Point Approach
A) Block Approach.
This organizational pattern is most effective when used on short essays, such as in-class essays.
The body of such an essay is organized by discussing one subject, point by point, in complete
detail before moving on to the next subject. The writer should select points by which both
subjects can be examined.
Introduction: Introduce the two or more Example: There are benefits to shopping at both
subjects being compared and lead to a thesis Whole Foods and Safeway, but Whole Foods is
statement or argument. ultimately the better grocery store because it
offers more environmentally- friendly products,
organic produce, and healthy alternatives to
traditional medicine.
First Body Paragraph: Discuss point #1 of the Example: Whole Foods offers a wide selection
first subject. of environmentally friendly products.
Second Body Paragraph: Discuss point #2 of Example: Whole Foods has a wide selection of
the first subject. organic produce.
Third Body Paragraph: Discuss point #3 of the Example: Whole Foods has a wider availability
first subject. of healthy alternatives to medications.
Fourth Body Paragraph: Transition to and Example: Safeway does not offer very many
discussion point #1 of the second subject, environmentally friendly products. Most of the
providing similarities and differences with point cleaning products and packaging sold by
#1 of the first subject. Safeway are not biodegradable and contain
harmful chemicals that pollute our environment.
Fifth Body Paragraph: Discuss point #2 of the Example: Safeway does not have as wide a
second subject, providing similarities and selection of organic produce as Whole Foods.
differences with point #2 of the first subject. Instead, the majority of its produce is grown
with pesticides and hormones.
Sixth Body Paragraph: Discuss point #3 of the Example: Safeway offers very few natural
second subject, providing similarities and remedies. Instead, Safeway has a large selection
differences with point #3 of the first subject. of over-the-counter drugs in addition to a
pharmacy that sells medications manufactured
by pharmaceutical companies.
Conclusion: Without repeating any claims or Example: With its wholesome products, Whole
adding any new information, emphasize the Foods is surely a healthier place to shop than
importance of the similarities and differences Safeway.
between the two subjects as they are relevant to
your thesis.

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B) Point-by-Point Approach.
This organizational pattern is most effective when used on longer essays, such as a comparison
of two articles, short stories, or novels. The body of such an essay is organized by discussing one
point at a time and how it applies to each subject before moving on to the next point. For long
works, at least three points should be examined if not more.
Note: Unlike the first option for organization, this pattern will probably require more than one
body paragraph for each point being discussed.
Introduction: Introduce the two or more Example: There are benefits to shopping at
subjects being compared and lead to a thesis both Whole Foods and Safeway, but Whole
statement or argument. Foods is ultimately the better grocery store
because it offers more environmentally
friendly products, organic produce, and
healthy alternatives to traditional medicine.
First Point: Discuss point #1 of both Example: Whole Foods offers a wide
subjects, comparing and contrasting the selection of environmentally friendly
manifestation of this point in each subject. products, unlike Safeway, whose cleaning
products and packaging are not
biodegradable and contain harmful
chemicals that pollute our environment.
Second Point: Discuss point #2 of both Example: While Whole Foods has a wide
subjects, comparing and contrasting the selection of organic produce, the majority of
manifestation of this point in each subject. Safeway’s produce is grown with pesticides
and hormones.
Third Point: Discuss point #3 of both Example: Whole Foods has a wider
subjects, comparing and contrasting the availability of healthy alternatives to
manifestation of this point in each subject. medications than Safeway, which has a large
selection of over-the-counter drugs in
addition to a pharmacy that sells
medications manufactured by
pharmaceutical companies.
Conclusion: Without repeating any claims Example: With its wholesome products,
or adding any new information, emphasize Whole Foods is surely a healthier place to
the importance of the similarities and shop than Safeway.
differences between the two subjects as they
are relevant to your thesis.

Micro-Organizational Strategies
Within the paper’s structure, ideas flow from one to the other. Between those ideas within and
between paragraphs should exist organizational structures. They include the following:

1. Single-word and phrasal transitions (see page 78).


2. Metabasis: Yoking previous ideas to upcoming ideas: e.g., In addition to X, we should consider Y.
3. Sentence and clause combining, especially into complex sentences.
4. Effective paragraphing.
5. Repeating key words and phrases strategically.
6. Using parallel structure.

74
Outlining to Organize Your Ideas
Taken from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/544/01/

Why create an outline? There are many reasons; but in general, it may be helpful to create an outline when you want
to show the hierarchical relationship or logical ordering of information. For research papers, an outline may help
you keep track of large amounts of information. For creative writing, an outline may help organize the various plot
threads and help keep track of character traits. Many people find that organizing an oral report or presentation in
outline form helps them speak more effectively in front of a crowd. Today’s students often jump on the computer
right after receiving an assignment prompt. However, taking a little bit of time to brainstorm and organize ideas can
save you more time in later revision. Below are the primary reasons for creating an outline.

1. Aids in the process of writing


2. Helps you organize your ideas
3. Presents your material in a logical form
4. Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing
5. Constructs an ordered overview of your writing
6. Defines boundaries and groups

How do I create an outline?

• Determine the purpose of your paper.


• Determine the audience you are writing for.
• Develop the thesis of your paper.

Then:

• Brainstorm: List all the ideas that you want to include in your paper.
• Organize: Group related ideas together.
• Order: Arrange material in subsections from general to specific or from abstract to concrete.
• Label: Create main and sub headings.

Remember: creating an outline before writing your paper will make organizing your thoughts much easier. Whether
you follow the suggested guidelines is up to you, but making any kind of outline (even just some jotting down some
main ideas) will be beneficial to your writing process.

Four Main Components for Effective Outlines


Ideally, you should follow these four suggestions to create an effective outline.

Parallelism - How Do I Accomplish This?


Each heading and subheading should preserve parallel structure. If the first heading is a verb, the second heading
should be a verb. Example:

1. Choose Desired Colleges


2. Prepare Application

("Choose" and "Prepare" are both verbs. The present tense of the verb is usually the preferred form for an outline)

Coordination - How Do I Accomplish This?


All the information contained in Heading 1 should have the same significance as the information contained in
Heading 2. The same goes for the subheadings (which should be less significant than the headings). Example:

75
• Visit and evaluate college campuses
• Visit and evaluate college websites
Note important statistics
Look for interesting classes

(Campus and websites visits are equally significant. They are part of the main tasks you would need to do. Finding
statistics and classes found on college websites are parts of the process involved in carrying out the main heading
topics.)

Subordination - How Do I Accomplish This?


The information in the headings should be more general, while the information in the subheadings should be more
specific. Example:

• Describe an influential person in your life


Favorite high school teacher
Grandparent

(A favorite teacher and grandparent are specific examples from the generalized category of influential people in
your life.)

Division - How Do I Accomplish This?

Each heading should be divided into 2 or more parts. Example:

• Compile resume
List relevant coursework
List work experience
List volunteer experience

(The heading "Compile resume" is divided into 3 parts.)

Technically, there is no limit to the number of subdivisions for your headings; however, if you seem to have a lot, it
may be useful to see if some of the parts can be combined.

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Sample Topic Outline
Taken from http://depts.washington.edu/psywc/handouts/pdf/outline.pdf

Television and Children's Violence

Thesis: Despite rising violence in children and the occurrence of violence on television,
studies reveal no causal link between the two.

I. Research "For"
A. First study "for"
1. Method
2. Results
3. Analysis of their conclusions
a. Insufficient sample size
b. Representative sample

B. Second study "for"


1. Method
2. Results
3. Analysis of their conclusions
a. Faulty instructions
b. Poor control group

II. Research "Against"


A. Study "against"
1. Method
2. Results
3. Analysis of their conclusions
a. Perfect controls
b. No unwarranted generalizations

B. Second study "against"


1. Method
2. Results
3. Analysis of their conclusions
a. Large sample size
b. Real world setting
c. But typical problems with external validity

Things to Keep in Mind:

 For every “A,” there must be a “B.” For every “1,” there must be a “2.”
 You do not need to include Roman numerals for “introduction” and “conclusion,” but you may.
 Keep capitalization consistent.
 Align each subheading with the previous heading.
 Add your thesis to the top under the title. Everything in the outline (i.e., essay) should contribute to prove
your thesis true.

You may use either the topic or the sentence outline. However, be consistent throughout the outline.

77
Transitional Words & Phrases
Taken from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/02/ and http://www.studygs.net/wrtstr6.htm

Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are cues that help the
reader to interpret ideas a paper develops. Transitional devices are words or phrases that
help carry a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one
paragraph to another. And finally, transitional devices link sentences and paragraphs
together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.

There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads readers to make
certain connections or assumptions. Some lead readers forward and imply the building of an
idea or thought, while others make readers compare ideas or draw conclusions from the
preceding thoughts.

Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue readers of writer’s intent.

To Add:

and, again, also, and then, as well as, besides, coupled with, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too,
next, lastly, likewise, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.), similarly, in conjunction with

To Compare:

whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up
against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be
true

To Prove:

because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition,
in any case, that is

To Show Exception:
yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes, aside from, barring, besides,
except, excepting, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside of, save

To Show Similarity:


comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similar, moreover, together with

To Show Time:

immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and
then

To Repeat:
in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted, in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in
short, to put it differently

To Emphasize:

78
above all, chiefly, definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally,
surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly,
undeniably, without reservation, especially, particularly, singularly

To Show Sequence:
at first, first, second, third, and so forth. first of all, in the first place, A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this
time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously,
concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon, for now, for the time being, the next step, in turn, later on,
meanwhile, while, earlier

To Give an Example:

chiefly, especially, for example, for instance, in particular, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation,
take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate, markedly, namely, including, specifically,
such as, for one thing, e.g.

To Summarize or Conclude:
in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore,
accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole, after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large,
in any case, in any event, in short, in summary, in the long run, on balance, to summarize, finally

To Show Consequence:

accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose, 
hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently,
therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore

To Generalize:

as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually

To Compare and Contrast:


contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise,
on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather,

similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast

To Show Direction:
here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above,
to the left, to the right, in the distance

To Intensify:
indeed, undoubtedly, to repeat, in fact, certainly, by all means, surely, without doubt, of course,
in fact, yes, no

To Show Concession:
to be sure, granted, of course, it is true

To Clarify:
that is, in other words, to explain, to clarify, i.e.

79
Tone Words
The chart below lists a sampling of common words that describe a writer’s/speaker’s tone.

Word Definition
Abstruse Difficult to understand
Absurd Ridiculous; silly
Accusatory Charging of wrong doing
Acerbic Sour, harsh, severe
Ambivalent Fluctuating; uncertain due to inability to make a choice
Amused Entertained; finding humor, expressed by a smile or laugh
Angry Very mad; incensed or outraged; threatening or menacing
Apathetic Indifferent due to lack of energy or concern
Audacious Bold or daring; recklessly brave
Awe Solemn wonder
Bantering To speak in a playful or teasing way
Bellicose Aggressively hostile; belligerent
Bitter Exhibiting strong animosity as a result of pain or grief
Callous Unfeeling; insensitive to feelings of others
Caustic Intense use of sarcasm; stinging; biting
Cheerful Happy; jovial; in good spirits
Choleric Hot-tempered; easily angered
Comic Funny; humorous
Complacent Showing smug or uncritical satisfaction with oneself or one’s achievements
Complex Having many varying characteristics; complicated
Condescending A feeling of superiority
Contemplative Studying, thinking, reflecting on an issue
Contentious Tending to argument or strife; argumentative
Conventional Lacking spontaneity, originality, and individuality
Cruel Causing pain and suffering
Cynical Scornful of motives or virtues of others; bitterly mocking; sneering
Derisive Ridiculing, mocking
Detached Impartial; disinterested; aloof
Didactic Author attempts to educate or instruct the reader
Diffident Lacking confidence; timid; shy
Disdainful Scornful
Earnest Sincere; showing deep sincerity; seriousness
Elegiac Expressing sorrow or lamentation
Erudite Learned, polished, scholarly
Excited Emotionally aroused; stirred
Facetious Playfully humorous; flippant; purposefully inappropriate humor
Fanciful Using the imagination
Farcical Ludicrous; absurd mocking ; humorous and highly improbably
Formal Stiff; using textbook style, factual; following accepted styles, rules, or ceremonies
Forthright Directly frank without hesitation
Gentle Kind; considerate; mild; soft
Ghoulish Delighting in the revolting or loathsome
Gloomy Dark, sad, rejected
Hard Unfeeling; hard-hearted; unyielding
Haughty Proud and vain to the point of arrogance
Histrionic Overly dramatic
Impassioned Filled with emotion; ardent
Incredulous Disbelieving; skeptical; doubtful

80
Indignant Marked by anger aroused by injustice
Insolent Boldly rude or disrespectful
Intense Concentrated; deeply felt
Introspective Examining one’s own feelings
Intimate Close; personal; deeply associated; very familiar
Ironic Poignantly opposite of what is expected or intended
Irreverent Lacking due respect
Jovial Happy
Joyous Very happy
Judgmental Authoritative; often having critical opinions
Laudatory Expressing or conferring praise
Lyrical Expressing a poet’s inner feelings; emotional; full of images; song-like
Macabre Of death and decay; gruesome
Malicious Purposefully hurtful
Matter-of-fact(ly) Accepting of conditions; not fanciful or emotional
Mocking Treating with contempt or ridicule
Morose Gloomy, sullen, surly, despondent
Naïve Lack of experience; judgment; credulous
Nostalgic Longing for the past, sometimes bittersweet
Objective An unbiased view; able to leave personal judgments aside
Obsequious Polite and obedient in order to gain something; submissive
Optimistic Hopeful, cheerful
Pathetic Showing deep emotion; evoking pity
Patronizing Air of condescension
Pedantic Narrow; concerned with rules; “playing by the book”
Pensive Reflecting deep or serious thought
Pessimistic Seeing the worst side of things; no hope
Playful Full of fun and good spirits; jovial
Quizzical Odd, eccentric, amusing
Reflective Illustrating innermost thoughts and emotions
Reticent Restrained; reserved
Reverent Treating a subject with honor and respect
Ribald Offensive in speech or gesture
Ridiculing Slightly contemptuous; making fun of
Sanguineous Optimistic; cheerful
Sarcastic Sneering; caustic
Sardonic Scornfully and bitterly sarcastic
Satiric Ridiculing to show weakness in order to make a point, teach
Scathing To attack with severe criticism
Sincere Without deceit or pretense; genuine
Solemn Deeply earnest; tending toward sad reflection
Sympathetic Understanding
Uneasy Lacking comfort or security
Vindictive Revengeful; spiteful; bitter
Whimsical Odd, strange, fantastic; fun
Wry Dry humorous, often with sense of irony
Zealous Marked by active interest and enthusiasm

81
Mapping Tone
Taken from http://www.rhsroughriders.org/ourpages

To discuss tone effectively, it’s important to develop your “tone vocabulary.” In other words, it will help you to learn
terms that will help you to describe important nuances or connotations. In college, you want to go beyond -- “This
story has a happy/sad/evil/bad tone.” Obviously, there are many words that can describe tone; arm yourself with a
dozen or so that will help your papers stand out among the rest. Above all, though, be sure that the tone word you
choose actually fits the piece of writing you are discussing AND that you can support your opinion with proof from
the piece itself.

Tip: Consider grouping tone words according to the dramatic or rhetorical situation:

Positive tone/attitude: lighthearted, hopeful, enthusiastic, confident, optimistic, loving


compassionate, amused, elated, sentimental, sympathetic, passionate
proud
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Negative tone/attitude: angry, disgusted, outraged, accusing, inflammatory, irritated,


indignant, threatening
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Irony/Sarcasm: sarcastic, cynical, critical, facetious, patronizing, satiric, irreverent,


mocking, ironic, flippant
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Sorrow/Fear/Worry: somber, elegiac, gloomy, melancholic, disturbed, mournful, solemn,


serious, apprehensive, concerned, hopeless, resigned
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

General/Organizational: formal, objective, nostalgic, ceremonial, candid, shocked, reminiscent,


restrained, clinical, baffled, sentimental, detached, objective, questioning,
urgent, instructive, matter-of-fact, learned, factual, didactic, informative,
authoritative

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

82
Wording
Frequently Confused Words
Words Confused Explanation
accept, except Accept means to receive. Except means to leave out.

affect, effect As verbs affect means to influence, and effect means to accomplish.

all ready, already All ready means prepared. Already means previously and describes
an action that is completed.

a lot, allot A lot is two words and means many or a group of. If possible, avoid
using a lot in academic, formal writing. Allot is a verb meaning to
distribute. There is no such word as alot.

amount, number Use amount with singular (a large amount of money). Use number
with plural words (a large number of coins).

between, among Among implies more than two. Between implies only two.

bring, take Bring denotes motion toward speaker. Take denotes motion away
from the speaker.

chose, choose Chose is the past tense of the verb. Choose is used for present and future
tense.

cloths, clothes Cloths are pieces of material. Clothes are what you wear.

could of, could have Do not use of for have in this and similar constructions. Of is a preposition;
have is a verb.

fewer, less Use fewer with plural words. Use less with singular words..

good, well Good is used as an adjective. Well is used as an adverb except when it refers
to one's health; then it is an adjective.

hear, here Hear is a verb referring to what you do with your ears. Here is an adverb
meaning this place.

its, it's Its is the possessive pronoun; it's is the contraction of it is.

lay, lie Lay is a transitive verb meaning to put or place. Lie is an intransitive verb
meaning to rest or recline.

like, as Like is not to be used for the conjunction as. Like is a preposition (followed
by a noun or pronoun); as is a conjunction (followed by a clause).

loose, lose Loose is an adjective rhyming with noose, which means free, not close
together. Lose is a verb which means to cease having.
83
passed, past Passed is the past tense of the verb to pass. Past as a noun or an adjective
means earlier than the present time. As a preposition, past means farther than
or beyond.

principal, principle Principal is the head of a school; also as an adjective means most important.
Principle is a rule of conduct, a law, or a main fact.

quiet, quite Quiet means not noisy; quite means entirely, actually, or somewhat.

regardless, irregardless Use regardless. Irregardless is non-standard.

stationary , stationery Stationary means in a fixed position. Stationery is writing paper.

than, then Than is a conjunction, used for comparisons. Then is an adverb or


conjunction indicating at that time or next.

they're, their, there They're is the contraction for they are. Their is the possessive of they. There is
a place or empty sentence starter.

threw, through Threw is a verb meaning hurled; through means in at one side and out at the
opposite side. Thru should not be used.

to, too, two To means toward or in the direction of. Too means also or very. Two is the
number 2.

where, were, wear Where means at or in what place. Were is the plural past tense of the verb to
be. Wear is what you do with clothes.

whose, who's Whose is the possessive of who. Who's is the contraction for who is or who
has.

your, you're Your is the possessive of you. You're is the contraction for you are.

84
Words That Replace Said
Taken from http://dnn.epcc.edu/student/tutorial/writingcenter/Handouts/wordchoice/wordstoreplacesaid.pdf

accused denounced pleaded talked


acknowledged disagreed pledged tattled
admitted disclosed pondered teased
advised disputed prattled tempted
affirmed divulged prayed testified
alleged effervesced predicated told
announced emphasized predicted translated
answered enunciated proclaimed uttered
argued espoused professed verified
articulated exclaimed promised vowed
asked explained pronounced wheezed
asserted explicated proposed whined
attested expounded protested whimpered
authenticated fumed quipped whispered
babbled fussed quoted yelled
barked gasped rambled
begged giggled rattled
bellowed gossiped raved
bellyached griped recalled
beseeched groaned recapitulated
boasted grumbled recited
bragged grunted reiterated
cackled gurgled rejoiced
called gushed relented
challenged harangued remarked
charged harped repeated
chattered hissed replied
cheered hollered reported
chided howled reprimanded
chirped inquired responded
chuckled insisted retorted
claimed instructed revealed
clarified interjected reviewed
commanded interpreted roared
commented interrogated sang
confessed interrupted sassed
confided laughed screamed
confirmed lectured shouted
conjectured maintained shrieked
contended mentioned slurred
conveyed moaned snarled
contradicted mouthed speculated
cooed mumbled spoke
cried murmured sputtered
criticized mused stammered
croaked muttered stated
declared nagged stuttered
delivered objected suggested
demanded ordered swore
denied persuaded summarized

85
Writing Great Sentences
Taken from http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ClearConciseSentences.html and
Troyka, Lynn Quitman. Handbook for Writers. 6th ed. Simon & Schuster.

Conciseness in Writing
Conciseness is desirable in writing; it requires that you craft your sentences so that they are
direct and to the point. It’s opposite is “wordiness.” This

Put Wordy Phrases on a Diet


Make sentences concise by eliminating wordy phrases.
Wordy sentence Concise sentence
In a situation in which a class is overenrolled, you may When a class is overenrolled, you may ask the instructor to
request that the instructor force-add you. force-add you.

I will now make a few observations concerning the matter I will now make a few observations about contingency
of contingency funds. funds.

There is a need for more careful inspection of all welds. Inspect all welds more carefully.

Words to Use
Here are some words you can use to trim the fat off of wordy phrases:
Instead of . . . Use . . .
 the reason for
 for the reason that
 due to the fact that
 owing to the fact that
because, since, why
 in light of the fact that
 considering the fact that
 on the grounds that
 this is why
• despite the fact that
• regardless of the fact that although, even, though
• notwithstanding the fact that
• in the event that
• if it should transpire/happen that if
• under circumstances in which
• on the occasion of
• in a situation in which when
• under circumstances in which
• as regards
• in reference to
• with regard to about
• concerning the matter of
• where . . . is concerned
• it is crucial that
• it is necessary that
• there is a need/necessity for
must, should
• it is important that
• it is incumbent upon
• cannot be avoided
• is able to
• has the opportunity to
can
• is in a position to
• has the capacity for
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• has the ability to
• it is possible that
• there is a chance that
may, might, can, could
• it could happen that
• the possibility exists for
• prior to
• in anticipation of
• subsequent to
• following on
before, after, as, now
• at the same time as
• simultaneously with
• at the present time
• in the process of
• in a reluctant manner
-ly
• of a sarcastic nature
• is aware of
• has knowledge of
Knows, shows, suggests, etc.
• are indications of
• are suggestive of

Some phrases to eliminate altogether


 As a matter of fact
 By means of (just use “by”)
 Factor to consider (use an adjective instead)
 Has a tendency to (just use the present tense: “tends”)
 In a very real sense
 In a sense
 In a way
 In the final analysis
 In the process of
 It seems that
 I think that
 I believe that
 The reader can see that
 That exists
 The point I am trying to make
 Type of/kind of

Sentence Structures That Work Against Conciseness

Two sentence structures in particular, although appropriate in some contexts, often work against
conciseness because they can lead to wordiness: the expletive there and it and passive verbs.

Expletive Constructions

An expletive construction starts with it or there followed by a form of the verb be. When you cut
the expletive construction and revise, the sentence becomes more direct.

Expletive construction: It is necessary for students to fill in both questionnaires.


Better construction: Students must fill in both questionnaires.
Expletive construction: There are three majors offered in computer science.
Better construction: Computer science offers three majors.
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Use the Active Voice

At the heart of every good sentence is a strong, precise verb; the converse is true as well—at the core of most
confusing, awkward, or wordy sentences lies a weak verb.

Try to use the active voice whenever possible.

Active vs. Passive Voice

Active voice: Subject of sentence does the action.
Passive voice: Subject receives the action.

Active voice Passive voice


The candidate believes that Congress must place a ceiling It is believed by the candidate that a ceiling must be placed
on the budget. on the budget by Congress.

Researchers earlier showed that high stress can cause It was earlier demonstrated that heart attacks can be
heart attacks. caused by high stress.

The dog bit the man. The man was bitten by the dog.

Converting Sentences to Active Voice


Here are some tips and strategies for converting sentences from the passive to the active voice.

5. Look for a "by" phrase (e.g., "by the dog" in the last example above).

If you find one, the sentence may be in the
passive voice. Rewrite the sentence so that the subject buried in the "by" clause is closer to the beginning of
the sentence.

6. If the subject of the sentence is somewhat anonymous, see if you can use a general term, such as "researchers," or
"the study," or "experts in this field."

When to Use Passive Voice


There are sometimes good reasons to use the passive voice.

Use passive voice . . . Example


To emphasize the action rather than the actor After long debate, the proposal was endorsed by the long-
range planning committee.

To keep the subject and focus consistent throughout a The data processing department recently presented what
passage proved to be a controversial proposal to expand its staff.
After long debate, the proposal was endorsed by . . . .

To be tactful by not naming the actor The procedures were somehow misinterpreted.

To describe a condition in which the actor is unknown Every year, thousands of people are diagnosed as having
or unimportant cancer.

To create an authoritative tone Visitors are not allowed after 9:00 p.m.

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Avoid using vague nouns
Try to avoid using the following vague, all-purpose nouns, which sometimes lead to wordiness, especially when used
in prepositional phrases.
 factor
 aspect
 area
 situation
 consideration
 degree
 case

Vague nouns How to fix them


Consumer demand is rising in the area of services. Consumers are demanding more services.

Strong reading skills are an important factor in Students' success in college depends on their
students' success in college. reading skills.

Photography took on new aspects during the Civil The Civil War saw the advent of graphic battlefield
War. photography.

Eliminate Wordiness by Combining Sentences

Look at sets of sentences in your writing to see if you can fit information contained in one
sentence into another sentence. One way of doing this is through subordination. Coordinating
and subordinating improve conciseness because they condense ideas and create a relationship
between those ideas.

Two Sentences (25 words total):


1. The Titanic was discovered seventy-three years after striking an iceberg.
2. The wreck was located in the Atlantic Ocean by a team of French and American scientists.
Combined Sentence (19 words total):

Seventy-three years after striking an iceberg, the Titanic was located in the Atlantic Ocean by a
team of French and American scientists.

Sentence-Level Errors
There are three major conventional errors that occur at the sentence level: fragments, run-on
sentences, and comma splices.

What Is a Sentence?
Although professional writers often incorporate fragments for rhetorical or literary effect, you as a high school
student must first demonstrate that you can write effective, standard sentences. Therefore, for our purposes, we
shall consider a sentence as a complete idea written with a subject and a predicate.

Sentence = Subject + Predicate


Babies + cry.

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If only the world of writing were as simple as this! But, it is not. We know that subjects and predicates often involve
multiple words and that sentences often include more than one complete thought. That is where the trouble lies.
Let’s look at some common errors.

Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences because the thought is missing either the subject or the predicate or
both.

The most common type of fragment is a dependent clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction:

Because I feel sick = fragment

There is a subject [“I”] and a predicate [“feel”], but these are a part of a dependent clause.

Because I feel sick, I stayed home = sentence

This is a complete sentence because there is a complete idea, with the subject [“I”] and predicate [“stayed”].

Another common type of sentence fragment occurs when students write phrases:

Going to school every day = fragment

Because there is a verbal [“going”], students mistake it as a predicate.

Going to school every day is good = sentence

I am going to school every day = sentence

Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence is a compound sentence that does not include all the required punctuation. Like a car crash, the
sentences “run” into each other.

The winds ripped the leaves off the trees and the rain pelted our garden into a muddy soup. = run-on
The winds ripped the leaves off the trees the rain pelted our garden into a muddy soup. = run-on

The winds ripped the leaves off the trees, and the rain pelted our garden into a muddy soup. = correct
The winds ripped the leaves off the trees. The rain pelted our garden into a muddy soup. = correct
The winds ripped the leaves off the trees; the rain pelted our garden into a muddy soup. = correct

Comma Splices
A comma splice is closely related to the run-on sentence. However, in a comma splice, students attempt to separate
sentences with a comma. Commas are not strong enough to separate complete sentences. See the Commas-Are-
Needed list for further reference.

The winds ripped the leaves off the trees, the rain pelted our garden into a muddy soup. = comma splice
BUT
The winds ripped the leaves off the trees; the rain pelted our garden into a muddy soup. = sentence
The winds ripped the leaves off the trees. The rain pelted our garden into a muddy soup. = sentence
The winds ripped the leaves off the trees, and the rain pelted our garden into a muddy soup. = sentence

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Sentence Types
To help you know when to apply punctuation, you should familiarize yourself to the four types of sentences that you
will encounter in your writing. If we keep with the recipe model used above, we see there are essential ingredients:

Independent clause = 1 subject + 1 predicate


Dependent clause = 1 [subordinating conjunction/relative pronoun] + 1 subject + 1 predicate

Simple Sentence
1 independent clause only.
May include phrases [prepositional, gerund, participial, infinitive, absolute, appositive]
May include compound subjects.
May include compound predicates.
May include compound subjects and compound predicates.

 Babies cry at night. [subject + predicate + phrase]


 Babies and toddlers cry at night. [subject + subject + predicate + phrase]
 Babies and toddlers cry and scream at night. [subject + subject + predicate + predicate + phrase]

Compound Sentence
At least…
2 independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction [and, or, but, nor, for, yet] + comma
2 independent clauses connected by a semicolon
2 independent clauses connected by a semicolon + conjunctive adverb + comma

 The dog barks, but the duck quacks. [sentence 1 + comma + conjunction + sentence 2]
 The dog barks; the duck quacks. [sentence 1 + semicolon + sentence 2]
 The dog barks; however, the duck quacks. [sentence 1 + semicolon + conjunctive adverb +
comma + sentence 2]
Complex Sentence
1 independent clause + (at least) 1 dependent clause

 Although babies can’t speak, mothers understand them. [dependent clause + independent clause]
 Mothers understand their babies although they can’t speak. [independent clause + dependent clause]

Compound-Complex Sentence
(at least) 1 dependent clause + (at least) 2 independent clauses (see “Compound Sentence” above)

 A student who begins essays the night before they are due are bound to make mistakes, and their teachers can
easily gauge how much time was spent on revision.

[ Subject + adjective clause + predicate + comma + conjunction + subject + predicate + noun clause]

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Sentence Starters
Suggestion Example
Rachel is studying.
Subject alone
1 Article/determiner and subject A child is playing/The children are playing.
Adjective and subject
Small birds sing in the tree.

2 Adverb before subject Quickly, we ran for the shelter. Tomorrow we will win.

In the window the apples looked bigger.


Prepositional phrase first as an adjective
3
or adverb
In Missouri, the humidity reaches stifling levels.

Taking a shortcut, the boy reached the fair quickly.


Participial phrase first (present or past
4
tense)
Finished with his homework, the boy ran outside to play.

5 Absolute phrase His homework finished, the boy went to bed.

6 Infinitive as subject To win is our primary goal.

7 Gerund as subject Swimming is her favorite sport.

8 Adverbial clause When the plane landed, we ran to catch our next flight.

9 Postponed subjects There are six ingredients in that recipe.

10 Noun clause first How she never got a speeding ticket is beyond me.

11 Verb first Yells he does.

But, the last was best of all! Not only is she smart, but she also plays a
12 Coordinating conjunction first
mean piano.

13 Correlative conjunction first Not only do dogs shed, but they also bark.

14 Object first The cat the ancient Egyptians regarded as a god.

15 Interjections What! I have a paper due tomorrow?

16 Transitional word First, we had to postpone the party.

17 Predicate adjective first Calm was the night.

The site of the 1980 Winter Olympics, Lake Placid is a popular resort in
18 Appositive/appositive phrase
both winter and summer.

19 Conjunctive adverb However, the best way to learn a language involves immersion.

20 Two adjectives set off with comma Ripe, juicy peaches made my Grandmother’s pie the best.

21 Parallel adjectives (with conjunction) Handsome and fearless, the prince climbed the tower to his princess.

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Sentence Patterns
Taken from Waddell, Marie L., Robert M. Esch, and Robert R. Walker.
The Art of Styling Sentences: 20 Patterns for Success. 3rd ed. Barron’s Educational Series, 1993.

To improve your sentence fluency, try to incorporate various sentence structures throughout
your writing. While no one uses all sentence patterns in any given text, the more structures you
can incorporate, the better the cadence of your writing.

Pattern 1: Compound Sentence: semicolon, no conjunction

S V; S V

Hard work is only one side of the equation; talent is the other.

Pattern 2: Compound Sentence with Elliptical construction

S V DO or SC; S, DO or SC

A red light means stop; a green light, go.

Pattern 3: Compound Sentence with Explanatory Statement

General statement: specific example

Darwin's Origin of Species forcibly states a harsh truth: only the fittest survive.

Pattern 4: A Series without a Conjunction

A,B,C

The United States has a government of the people, by the people, for the people.

Pattern 4A: A Series with a Variation

A or B or C

Despite his handicaps, I have never seen Larry angry or cross or depressed.

Pattern 5: A Series with a Balanced Pair

A and B, C and D, E and F (may be in any slot in the sentence)

"God is day and night, winter and summer, war and peace, surfeit and hunger." --Heraclitus

Pattern 6: An Introductory series of Appositives

Appositive, appositive, appositive--summary word S V

Vanity, greed, corruption-- which serves as the novel's source of conflict?

Pattern 7: An Internal Series of Appositives or Modifiers

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S --appositive, appositive, appositive--V

The necessary qualities for political life--guile, ruthlessness, and garrulity--she learned by carefully studying his
father's life.

Pattern 7A: A Variation: a Single Appositive or a Pair

S --appositive--V

A sudden explosion--artillery fire--signaled the beginning of a barrage.

Pattern 8: Dependent Clauses in a Pair or in a Series

If..., if..., if..., then S V

If you clothes are made of cotton, if you wash them with soap, if you hang them on the line, you may not need a
fabric softener.

Pattern 9: Repetition of a Key Term

S V key term, repeated key term

"Victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory however long and hard the road may be [. . .]." Winston
Churchill

Pattern 9A: A Variation: Some Word repeated in a Parallel Structure

S V repeated key word in same position

His greatest discoveries, his greatest successes, his greatest influence upon daily life came to Edison only after
repeated failure.

Pattern 10: Emphatic Appositive at End, after a Colon

S V word: appositive

Airport thieves have a common target: unwary travelers.

Pattern 10A: A Variation: Appositive (single or pair or series) after a Dash

S V word--appositive

Adjusting to a new job requires one quality above--a sense of humor.

Pattern 11: Interrupting Modifier Between S and V

S (modifier that whispers) V

The hunter (a common sight in New Hampshire woods during the winter) carried a large caliber rifle.

Pattern 11A: A Full Sentence as Interrupting Modifier

S--a full sentence--V


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Juliet's famous question--"Wherefore art thou, Romeo?"--is often misunderstood.

Pattern 12: Introductory or Concluding Participles

Participial Phrase, S V (or reverse)

Laughing at his foolish behavior, she fell backwards in her chair.

Despised by most Westerners, the terrorist group acted with impunity.

Pattern 13: A Single Modifier Out of Place for Emphasis

Modifier, S V

To begin with, some ideas are just plain difficult.

Pattern 14: Prepositional Phrase Before S--V

Prepositional Phrase S V (or V S)

During the long winter months, Tom toiled as a trapper.

Pattern 15: Object or Complement Before S--V

Object or Complement S V

His kind of sarcasm (,)I do not like.

Pattern 15A: Complete Inversion of Normal Pattern

Object or Complement or modifier V S

Down the field and through the tacklers ran the Heisman Trophy winner.

Pattern 16: Paired Constructions

Paired Construction

The more S V, the more S V

The more I saw of his work, the more I knew I didn't want to purchase any.

Pattern 16A: A Paired Construction for Contrast Only

A "this, not that" or "not this but that" construction

Genius, not stupidity, has limits.

Pattern 17: Dependent Clause as Subject or Object or Complement

S [dependent clause] V

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What a man cannot imagine cannot be created.

Pattern 18: Absolute Construction Anywhere in Sentence

Absolute construction, S V

His early efforts failing, Ted tried a new approach to the calculus problem.

The French defeated, the Germans advanced on Paris.

Pattern 19: The Short, Simple Sentence for Relief or Dramatic Effect.

SV

Perseverance pays.

I think not.

Pattern 19A: A Short Question for Dramatic Effect

Interrogative word standing alone

Question based solely on intonation

Why not?

You really care?

Pattern 20: The Deliberate Fragment*

Merely a part of a sentence

Fine.

First, the nuts and bolts.

*Use deliberate/intentional fragments sparingly in academic papers. Your readers may not
realize you mean to use the fragments intentionally; instead, they may think your writing is
inadequate. They usually appear for emphasis, sometimes after a question, as an exclamation,
or at a point of transition:
 Again and again he called out. No reply.
 Enough already! I am tired of all the negativity.

Another type of stylistic fragment is the “fragment question”:


 When should writers take on a conversational tone? E-mails? Creative writing?
Letters to political leaders?

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Conventions Fixer-Uppers!
Commas-Are-Needed List
Use this list as a guide for both deciding when or if to use a comma and why you misused a comma during the
revision stage of your writing. use a comma to…

1. Separate items in a series. If the series items include commas, use semicolons instead.
2. Separate two independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions: and, or, but, for, nor, yet.
3. Separate elements in dates and addresses. Do NOT use a comma between state and zip code. If a sentence
continues after the last element of a date or address, set it off with a comma.
4. Set off introductory adverb clauses.
5. Set off introductory prepositional phrases with four or more words. To avoid confusion, use a comma after a
shorter prepositional phrase.
6. Set off introductory participles or participial phrases.
7. Set off introductory infinitives or infinitive phrases that do NOT act as the subject.
8. Set off nouns of direct address.
9. Set off non-restrictive adjective clauses (hint: “which” clauses require commas) and phrases.
10. Set off non-essential participial phrases.
11. Set off the word too when it means also.
12. Set off direct quotations.
13. Set off appositives or appositive phrases.
14. Set off nominative absolute phrases.
15. Separate coordinate adjectives.
16. Set off mild interjections like yes/no and well.
17. Set off phrases that express contrast. Note: A contrasting expression introduced by not is parenthetical and
should be set off by commas.
18. Set off phrases that appear at the end but refer to the beginning or end to avoid confusion.
19. Set off a tag question (a short question that appears at the end of a sentence).
20. Set off degrees or titles that follow a proper noun.
21. Set off interrupter words like however or therefore.
22. Set off i.e. or e.g. The comma should appear after these abbreviations.
23. Set off parenthetical elements like after all, as a matter of fact, by the way, for example, however, I believe, I
think, incidentally, in fact, in the first place, naturally, on the other hand, and therefore.
24. Use a comma after the salutation in a friendly letter.
25. Use a comma after the closing of a friendly and/or business letter.
26. Mark the omission of a verb that has already been used in a preceding clause: e.g., A square has four sides; a
triangle, three.
27. Separate items in a works cited entry according to MLA guidelines.

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Apostrophe Rules
Taken from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/621/01/

1. Form possessives of nouns


2. Show the omission of letters, as in a contraction
3. Indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters or numbers, such as B’s and 1960s

Capitalization Rules
Capitalize words in the following situations:

1. The first words of a sentence


2. The pronoun "I"
3. Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)
4. Family relationships (when used as proper names)
5. The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books (Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific
use of the word "god.")
6. Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
7. Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass
directions)
8. The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)
9. Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.
10. The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages
11. The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote
12. Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."
13. The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or
"an," if they are not the first word of the title)
14. Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups
15. Periods and events (but not century numbers)
16. Trademarks
17. Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now
general types)

Semicolon and Colon Rules


Use a semicolon to
1. Link two independent clauses without any conjunctions.
2. Link two independent clauses with a conjunctive adverb and comma.
3. Separate items in a series one or more of the elements contains commas.

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Use a colon to
1. Signal that a series will follow a complete sentence.
2. Signal that the following sentence is very closely related (e.g., completes) to the previous one.
3. Signal that a name or description follows a complete sentence when you want to put a lot of emphasis on
that item.
4. Introduce a long quotation after a complete sentence.
5. Separate titles and subtitles.
6. End a salutation in a business letter.

Titles: Underline, Italicize, or Use Quotation Marks?


Taken from http://www.acadweb.wwu.edu/writingcenter/Handouts/Titles.htm and
http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/documents/punctuating_titles_chart.pdf

Underlining originated because handwritten text and typewriters could not produce italics. However, since
publishing occurs on the computer now, MLA and most other style formats only utilize italics. So, when do you use
italics to punctuate a title versus using quotation marks? Use the following rules:

Italicize Titles of Use Quotation Marks for Titles of


books and novellas articles in periodicals
magazines articles in encyclopedias
journals essays
plays short stories
poems published as books (epic poems) poems
pamphlets songs
newspapers chapters
films and DVDs lectures
television programs episodes of television programs
records, CDs, cassettes short commercials
ballets handouts or guides
operas
instrumental compositions Other Rules for Using Italics
paintings
sculptures  Italicize foreign words that are not fully a part of the English language.
encyclopedias
Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marines, means “always faithful.”
ships and aircraft
BUT…
Tacos are my favorite food.

 Italicize a word to refer to that word as a linguistic unit.

The word justice is often misunderstood.


She defines ambiguity in a positive way.

 Italicize a word for emphasis. (Caution: Don’t overuse this!)

I really don’t care what you think.

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Using Hyphens and Dashes
Taken from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/

Hyphens

Hyphens (-) connect two or more words (and numbers) into a single concept, especially for building
adjectives. Likewise, some married women use hyphens to combine their maiden name with their
spouse’s name:

 There are fewer Italian-American communities these days.


 The family’s money-saving measures have been helping them to build their savings.
 She has stopped buying 2-liter bottles and has started buying 0.5-liter bottles, instead.
 I had a conversation with Mrs. Skinner-Kcrycek this morning.

They are also a necessary component of the numbers 21 through 99:

 Before the exam, Tomas studied for thirty-three hours without sleep.

Although they can be used as substitutes for the word “to” when discussing value ranges and scores in
games, it is better to use the word in formal writing situations than the punctuation:

 The high temperature will be 87-89 degrees.

Hyphens are also used in syllable breaks when words cannot fit completely on a line, and must be
continued on the following line. With word processors and the ability to automatically move whole
words, though, this has become less common:
 This opinion is based on sales figures for the past few months, and con-
versations I have had with customers.

Dashes

Dashes (—) can be used to indicate an interruption, particularly in transcribed speech:


The chemistry student began to say, “An organic solvent will only work with—” when her cell phone
rang.

They can also be used as a substitute for “it is, “they are,” or similar expressions. In this way they function
like colons, but are not used for lists of multiple items, and are used less frequently in formal writing
situations:

 There was only one person suited to the job—Mr. Lee.

They can also be used as substitutes for parentheses:

 Mr. Lee is suited to the job—he has more experience than everybody else in the department—but
he has been having some difficulties at home recently, and would probably not be available.

Note that dashes are double the length of hyphens. When you type two hyphens together (--), most
word processors automatically combine them into a single dash.

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Agreement Errors
Taken from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/599/01/ AND
Troyka, Lynn Quitman. Handbook for Writers. 6th ed. Simon & Schuster.
What Is “Agreement”?

In everyday speech, agreement indicates that people hold the same ideas. In grammar,
agreement refers to the idea of “sameness,” too. Specifically, this means that subjects and verbs
must match, as well as pronouns and their antecedents. The rules for grammatical agreement are
tricky at times, so be sure to familiarize yourself with these rules.

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree


This handout gives you several guidelines to help your subjects and verbs agree. In English, the
subject and its verb must agree in NUMBER (singular or plural) and PERSON (first, second, or
third person). The subject is underlined once and the verb twice.

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by
and, use a plural verb.

She and her friends are at the fair.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.

The book or the pen is in the drawer.

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or
or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.

The boy or his friends run every day.


His friends or the boy runs every day.

4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is a
contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule
appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these
pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.

He doesn't like it.


They don't like it.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

One of the boxes is open


The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
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Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
Either is correct.

Indefinite pronouns refer to unknown persons, things, quantities, or ideas. Most indefinite
pronouns require a singular verb for agreement; however, some are always plural, and some
can be used as singular or plural depending on context. See below.

Always Plural: Both, many


Always Singular: Another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, every, everybody,
everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one
somebody, someone, something
Singular OR Plural: All, any, more, most, none, some

All of my energy is gone.


All of my apples are gone.

Hint: When an indefinite pronoun is followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with the
preposition of, the verb agrees in number with the object of the preposition.

7. Subjects that refer to time, sums of money, distance, or measurement are singular and take
singular verbs.

Two hours is not enough time to finish.


Three hundred dollars is what we must pay to win.
Two miles is a short sprint for some serious joggers.

Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a
singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.

Five dollars is a lot of money.


Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.

8. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, measles, United States, and news require singular verbs,
while sports depends on the context.

The news is on at six.


Sports is a good way to build stamina.
Two new sports are going to be added to the summer Olympics.

9. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts
to these things.) But, if you use pair in front of them, use the singular verb.

These scissors are dull.


The pair of scissors is dull.
10. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is
not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.

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There are many questions.
There is a question.

11. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular
and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family. Note: In British
English, don’t be surprised if the collective noun takes a plural verb.

The team runs during practice.


The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.

In some cases in American English, a sentence may call for the use of a plural verb when using
a collective noun.

The crew are preparing to dock the ship.

12. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well
(as) do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is, too.

The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.


All of the books, including yours, are in that box.

13. A linking verb must agree with the subject, not the subject complement, when the two differ
in number.

The worst part of owning a car is the bills.

14. Use the correct form of the verb with who, which, and that. If the antecedent of who, which, or
that is singular, use a singular verb; if the antecedent is plural, use a plural verb.

The scientist shares the prize with the researchers who work with her.

15. Use a singular verb with titles of written works, company names and words as themselves. A
title itself refers to one work or entity, even when plural and compound nouns are in the
title.

Breathing Lessons by Anne Tyler is a prize-winning novel.


Starbucks packages and ships coffee around the world.
During the Vietnam War, protective reaction strikes was a euphemism for bombing.

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Making Pronouns and Their Antecedents Agree
Pronoun-antecedent agreement means that a pronoun matches its antecedent in NUMBER
(singular or plural) or PERSON (first, second or third person). The antecedent is underlined once
and the correct pronoun form is underlined twice.

1. When and connects two or more antecedents, they require a plural pronoun. This rule applies
even if each separate antecedent is singular.

The Cascade Diner and the Wayside Diner closed Christmas Eve to give their [not its]
employees the night off.

When and joins singular nouns that nevertheless refer to a single person or thing, use a
singular noun.

My friend and neighbor makes his famous chili every Monday. [same person]
My friend and neighbor make their famous chili every Monday. [different people]

2. When antecedents are joined by or or by correlative conjunctions (either/or, neither/nor, not


only/but also), antecedents might mix singulars or plurals. For the purpose of agreement,
ignore everything before the final antecedent.

After the restaurant closes, either the resident mice or the owner’s cat gets itself a meal.
After the restaurant closes, either the owner’s cat or the resident mice get themselves a
meal.

3. Indefinite pronouns refer to unknown persons, things, quantities, or ideas. In a sentence,


however, the context gives an indefinite pronoun a clear meaning. Like verbs, which must also
match its subject in number and person, pronouns must also match the number and gender of
their antecedents. Therefore, pronouns must match the indefinite pronoun in number, too.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Everyone taking the course hopes to get his or her college degree within a year.
Anybody wanting to wear a cap and gown at graduation must have his or her
measurements taken.
Each of the boys handed in his football uniform.

Singular OR Plural Indefinite Pronouns

At winter break, most leave their dormitories.


As for the luggage, most is already on its way to the airport.
None of the students have paid their graduation fee yet.
None ignores his or her deadline.

Note on Sexism and the “Great Pronoun Debate”: Despite evidence of current usage, few
experts are prepared to abandon the rules. Read the following sentence:
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The typical student in the program takes about six years to complete their course work.

Eighty-two percent of a recent usage panel members objected to using the plural pronoun
their to refer to the singular noun student . Many experts feel that the rule on pronoun
agreement has a logical rationale worth preserving: Singular goes with singular and plural
with plural. Some linguists argue that allowing they to be either singular or plural could lead to
confusion, as in this example:

Each topic in the self-esteem curriculum is covered in detail, so that the children may be aware of
their importance.

In this sentence, the pronoun their has an unclear antecedent: topic or children.

So, which form do I choose?

As a general rule, when you are writing informal correspondences (like personal letters or
emails) or having informal conversations, it is acceptable to use their instead his or her.

Email between friends:


Hi, Sidarth! Has every student brought their money for the trip?

However, almost all linguists, teachers, professors, editors, etc., will recommend students use
the rule of keeping single pronouns with single antecedents and plural pronouns with plural
antecedents.

Formal writing situation:


Has every student brought his or her money for the trip?

Avoidance Strategies

Some students find the language awkward or unnatural when applying the rules to their formal
writing. Instead of breaking standard agreement conventions, students may want to reword the
sentence to avoid the problem in the first place.

Original Sentence: Every student questions their career path at sometime. [incorrect]

Reworked Sentence: All students question their career path at sometime.

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NCTE Guidelines for Gender-Fair Use of Language
(Revised 2002, Women in Literacy and Life Assembly (WILLA); Formerly "Guidelines for Nonsexist Use of Language in
NCTE Publications"; Revised 1985; Created 1975, Committee on the Status of Women in the Profession)

Language plays a central role in the way human beings behave and think. The National Council of
Teachers of English (NCTE) is concerned about the critical role language plays in promoting fair
treatment of women and girls, men and boys. Through careful selection of gender-fair language,
NCTE members have the opportunity to influence thought and behavior both directly and
indirectly. These guidelines offer suggestions for language use that will open rather than close
possibilities and that speakers and writers should consider when engaged in communication
activities that include:
 writing papers and publications
 preparing handouts and materials
 designing and delivering oral presentations
 speaking with students, parents, and community members
 working with students
 developing curriculum selecting texts and media
 exploring language use in classrooms serving on local, regional, and national committees

Gender-Fair Language

The language that educators use provides an important model for students and the larger
community. Word choices often reflect unconscious assumptions about gender roles. As
professionals, we all need to examine our language to reduce or eliminate choices that silence,
stereotype, or constrain others. The following examples provide inclusionary alternatives to
specific exclusionary wording. Many are matters of vocabulary; others are matters of usage.
What follows details choices and recommendations that address the following issues of
gender-fair language use:

1. The pseudo-generic he
2. The pseudo-generic man
3. Titles, labels, and names
4. Gender stereotypes
5. Textual citation
6. Implications of the guidelines
7. Implementation of the guidelines

The Pseudo-Generic He and His: Creating Gender Balance


(a) The use of he or his when referring to both a female and a male excludes the female. To be
inclusive, writers and presenters must use both he and she, and they must consciously balance
pronoun use by sometimes reversing their order.

Avoid exclusionary forms such as


 If a student studies hard, he will succeed.
Choose inclusionary alternatives
 If a student studies hard, he or she will succeed.
 If a student studies hard, she or he will succeed.
 Students who study hard will succeed.
Note: The constructions s/he and he/she provide writers with additional gender-free alternatives.
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(b) Sometimes it is possible to drop the possessive form his altogether or to substitute an article.
Avoid exclusionary forms such as
 The average student is worried about his grades.
 When the student hands in his paper, grade it immediately.

Choose inclusionary alternatives


 The average student is worried about grades.
 When the student hands in the paper, grade it immediately.

(c) Often, it makes sense to use the plural instead of the singular.
Avoid exclusionary forms such as
 Give the student his grade right away.
 Ask the student to turn in his work as soon as he is finished.
 Each student will do better if he has a voice in the decision.

Choose inclusionary alternatives


 Give the students their grades right away.
 Ask students to hand in their work as soon as they are finished.
 Students will do better if they have a voice in the decision.

(d) The first- or second-person pronoun can sometimes be substituted for the third person.
Avoid exclusionary forms such as
 As a teacher, he faces excessive paperwork daily.
 When a teacher asks a question, he seeks student response.

Choose inclusionary alternatives


 As teachers, we face excessive paperwork daily.
 When you ask your students a question, you are asking for student response.

(e) In some situations, the form one/one's can be substituted for he/his, but this construction
should be used sparingly to avoid changing the tone of the writing.
Avoid exclusionary forms such as
 He might wonder what his response should be.

Choose inclusionary alternatives


 One might wonder what one's response should be.

(f) A sentence with he or his can sometimes be recast in the passive voice. Although the passive
voice has been much maligned, it has a valid function if not overused.
Avoid exclusionary forms such as
 Each student should hand in his paper promptly.
 The average citizen pays his taxes promptly.

Choose inclusionary alternatives


 Papers should be handed in promptly.
 Taxes are paid promptly by the average citizen.

Note: Gender-conscious language users object to the passive voice when its use allows the performer of
an action to escape responsibility for that action, i.e., She was assaulted.
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(g) A sentence with he or his can be recast by substituting a participial phrase for a clause.
Avoid exclusionary forms such as
 Listen to the two-year-old as he uses his short, simple sentences to communicate.

Choose inclusionary alternatives


 Listen to the two-year-old using short, simple sentences to communicate.

(h) When the subject is an indefinite pronoun, a number of options exist.

1. Recast the sentence to avoid using the indefinite pronoun.


Avoid exclusionary forms such as
o When everyone contributes his own ideas, the discussion 1. will be a success.
o Does everybody have his book?

Choose inclusionary alternatives


o When all the students contribute their own ideas, the discussion will be a success.
o Do all of you have your books?

2. Use both pronouns (he or she; her or his).


Avoid exclusionary forms such as
o When everyone contributes his own ideas, the discussion will be a success.
o Does everybody have his book?
o Each student will do better if he has a voice in the discussion.

Choose inclusionary alternatives


o When everyone contributes her or his own ideas, the discussion will be a success.
o Does everybody have his or her book?
o Each student will do better if she or he has a voice in the discussion.

3. Use the plural pronoun when the indefinite referent is clearly understood to be plural.
Avoid exclusionary forms such as
o When everyone contributes his own ideas, the discussion will be a success.
o Does everybody have his book?

Choose inclusionary alternatives


o When everyone contributes their own ideas, the discussion will be a success.
o Does everybody have their book?

4. Use of the singular they/their form. This construction is becoming increasingly


acceptable. However, classroom teachers need to be aware that state and/or national
assessments may not regard this construction as correct.
Avoid exclusionary forms such as
o Does each student have his book?

Choose inclusionary alternatives


o Does each student have their book?

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The Pseudo-Generic Man: Creating Gender Balance

Like the pseudo-generic form he, the use of the word man to represent both women and men
excludes women, and it minimalizes their contributions and their worth as human beings. To
make language more inclusive:

Avoid exclusionary forms such as


• mankind
• man’s achievements
• the best man for the job
• man the controls
• man the ticket booth

Choose inclusionary alternatives


• humanity, human beings, people
• human achievements
• the best person for the job
• take charge of
• staff the ticket booth

(a) Some forms pose greater problems than those listed above:

• man-made (as in man-made materials). Artificial materials or even synthetic materials


has less positive connotations when substituted here.
• freshman (as in certain official names such as freshman orientation). First-year student is
an alternative which may work.
• alumni which is the masculine plural form; alumnae is the feminine plural.

(b) When describing a job or career both men and women might perform, avoid using a
combined term that specifies gender.
Avoid exclusionary words and phrases such as
• chairman/chairwomen
• businessman/businesswoman
• congressman/congresswoman
• policeman/policewoman
• salesman/saleswoman
• fireman
• mailman

Choose inclusionary alternatives


• chair, coordinator, moderator, presiding officer, head, chairperson
• business executive, manager, businessperson
• congressional representative
• police officer
• salesperson, sales clerk, sales representative
• firefighter
• postal worker, letter carrier

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Titles, Labels, and Names: Promoting Gender Equity
The titles used to name people and occupations often reflect inequitable assumptions about
males and females. Gender-fair language promotes more inclusive and equitable representations
of both females and males, opening possibilities rather than restricting choices.

(a) Identify men and women in the same way. Diminutive or special forms to name women are
usually unnecessary. In most cases, generic terms such as doctor, judge, or actor include both
genders. Only occasionally are alternate forms needed, and in these cases, the alternate form
replaces both the masculine and the feminine titles.
Avoid exclusionary words and phrases such as
• stewardess
• authoress
• poetess
• coed
• male nurse
• lady lawyer
• woman doctor

Choose inclusionary alternatives


• flight attendant, steward
• author
• poet
• student
• nurse
• lawyer
• doctor

Note: If the gender of a professional is important to a person seeking professional assistance,


exceptions may occur. For example, a woman may prefer to visit a gynecologist who is a female.
In such cases, the effects of gender labeling can be mitigated by changing the gender-laden
descriptor to a noun, emphasizing the professional title, and de-emphasizing gender, i.e., a
woman who is a doctor rather than woman doctor; a male who is a nurse rather than male nurse.

(b) Seek alternatives to language that omits, patronizes, or trivializes women, as well as to
language that reinforces stereotyped images of both women and men.

Avoid exclusionary forms such as


• I'll have my girl do that job.
• Maria is a career woman.
• You guys go ahead.
• The ladies on the committee all supported the bill.
• Pam had lunch with the girls at the office.
• This is a man-sized job.
• old maid; spinster

Choose inclusionary alternatives


• I'll ask my assistant (or secretary) to do that job.
• Maria is a professional. Maria is a doctor.
• students, class, folks, all of you, third graders

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• The women on the committee supported the bill.
• Pam had lunch with the women at the office.
• This is a complex (huge, enormous, difficult) job.
• single person

(c) Treat women and men in a parallel manner.


Avoid exclusionary forms such as
• The reporter interviewed Chief Justice William Rehnquist and Mrs. Sandra Day O'Connor
(or Chief Justice William Rehnquist and Sandra Day O'Connor).
• The reading list included Jane Austen, Joyce, Proust, and Virginia Woolf.
• The steward seated Mr. Clinton and his lovely wife Hillary.
• The invitation was addressed to Mr. and Mrs. Michael Webber.
• The invitation was addressed to Dr. and Mrs. Michael Webber (when both are doctors).

Choose inclusionary alternatives


• The reporter interviewed William Rehnquist and Sandra Day O’Connor (or Chief Justice
Rehnquist and Justice O’Connor).
• The reading list included Austen, Joyce, Proust, and Woolf (or Jane Austen, James Joyce,
Marcel Proust, and Virginia Woolf).
• The steward seated Mr. and Mrs. Clinton.
• The invitation was addressed to Dr. Olivia and Mr. Michael Webber.
• The invitation was addressed to Drs. Michael and Olivia Webber.

(d) Use courtesy titles that promote gender equity. Courtesy titles that label a woman in regard
to her relationship to a man (her marital status) or forms of address that depict a woman as the
mere appendage of her husband trivialize women or render them invisible.

Avoid exclusionary forms such as


• Miss, Mrs.
• Mrs. Michael Webber
• Mr. and Mrs. Michael Webber

Choose inclusionary alternatives


• Ms.
• Ms. Olivia Webber
• Ms. Olivia Webber and Mr. Michael Webber

Note: Too often, people substitute Ms. for Miss and keep using Mrs. for married women,
defeating the original purpose of adopting Ms. to create an equitable form of address for all
women regardless of marital status. Use Ms. for married as well as unmarried women.

(e) Do not label athletic teams according to gender.


Avoid exclusionary words and phrases such as
• girl pitcher or lady pitcher
• the Lady Cardinals

Choose inclusionary alternatives


• pitcher
• the Cardinals

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Gender Stereotypes: Strategies for Reducing Negative Effects
Gender stereotypes limit and trivialize both females and males, presenting an inaccurate view of
the world and its possibilities. Such misrepresentations constrain communication.

(a) Do not represent certain jobs or roles as only appropriate for, or held by, women or men, i.e.,
farmers are men and elementary teachers are women. Doing so makes gender-based
assumptions. When referring to a job or role, use a gender-specific pronoun only if the gender of
the person is known.
Avoid exclusionary forms such as
• Dear Mothers, Please bake cookies for our class party.
• NCTE convention attendees and their wives are invited.
• The policy manual states that a principal must take attendance at his faculty meetings
(the principal's gender is unknown).

Choose inclusionary alternatives


• Dear Families, Please bake cookies for our class party.
• NCTE convention attendees and their guests are invited.
• The policy manual states that a principal must take attendance at all faculty meetings.

(b) Do not represent females and males as possessing stereotypic gendered attributes. For
example, do not always imply that:
• girls are timid and boys are brave
• males are admired for their accomplishments and women for their physical attributes
• females are passive and males are active.

Textual Citations: Reducing the Effects of Language That Is Not Gender-Fair


When citing from texts, make a choice whether to use a directly stated passage or a paraphrase
of the wording. Quoted passages cannot be altered, but there are a number of options for
making language more inclusive when passages are dated and/or contain nonequitable language.

(a) Recast the material, changing a direct quotation into a paraphrase that fits the sense of the
discussion and retains the original author's intent and idea.

(b) Point out the gender-biased nature of the passage to defuse its power. Thomas Jefferson
stated, "All men are created equal." Of course, had he written during current times, he surely
would have said all people are created equal.
(c) Make substantial revisions or deletions when language is gender-biased or when stereotyped
assumptions about males and females pervade a passage.
(d) If none of these options work, consider avoiding the passage altogether whenever doing so
does not detract from the writing's content, tone, or purpose.

Implications of the Guidelines

Balancing the Representation of Females and Males

As important as language is, making minor changes in vocabulary and usage to achieve gender
fairness is virtually futile if underlying assumptions about gender restrict the people represented
in texts to traditional roles. Simply changing cavemen to cave dweller or actress to actor will do
little to promote gender fairness when female voices are absent or underrepresented in texts.

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Attempts must be made to provide gender balance through the careful selection of materials.
A balance of literature by and about both women and men should be included 1. whenever
possible. Materials should be chosen to emphasize gender equity and to show males and females
in traditional and nontraditional roles.

2. Non-inclusive texts and classic pieces can provide a focus for discussion of gender roles and
gender equity. They should be placed in proper historical context and should be balanced by
other texts that show gender-fair roles and assumptions.

3. Trade books, texts, videos, and other media resources should be chosen to show females and
males actively participating in a variety of situations at home, work, or play.

4. In organizing lists of materials and educational activities, avoid separation by gender. Choose
headings and activities that do not assume stereotypic male and female interests. For example,
use categories such as exploration or friendship rather than books for boys or women's videos.
Avoid promoting competition of girls against boys, i.e., girls vs. boys in a spelling bee; a debate
with males taking one side of the issue, females the other. Avoid assuming gendered interests
and abilities, i.e., girls decorate the bulletin board, boys boot up the computer, girls are
cheerleaders, boys play sports.

5. Present gender-equitable examples by alternating male and female names and by avoiding the
use of stereotyped gender roles. When discussing roles traditionally held by males, use examples
of females in those roles; use examples of males in roles traditionally held by females.

6. Promoting Gender-Fair Discourse Practices


• Praise, encourage, and respond to contributions of females and males equally.
• Call on females as often as males to answer both factual and complex questions.
• Create a classroom atmosphere where females are not interrupted by others more often
than males.
• Establish collaborative groups composed of both males and females to provide
opportunities for all voices to be heard.
• Value intellect; avoid references to appearance and physical attributes.
• Choose females for leadership positions as often as males.
• Avoid comments or humor that demean or stereotype males or females.

Implementing the Guidelines


These guidelines for gender-fair language use are suggestions applicable to writers, speakers,
contributors to the publications of professional organizations, conference-session presenters,
designers of curriculum and materials, and educators at all levels.

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Who? Which? That? What to Use?
Taken from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/645/01/

The most common relative pronouns are who/whom, whoever/whomever, whose, that, and which.
(Please note that in certain situations, what, when, and where can function as relative pronouns.)
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, which are a type of dependent clause. Relative
clauses modify a word, phrase, or idea in the main clause. The word, phrase, or idea modified is
called the antecedent. In the following examples, that and whom modify the subject:

 The house that Jack built is large.


 The professor, whom I respect, recently received tenure.

The type of clause determines what kind of relative pronoun to use. Generally, there are two
types of relative clauses: restrictive (defining) clause and non-restrictive (non-defining)
clause. In both types of clauses, the relative pronoun can function as a subject, an object, or a
possessive pronoun (whose).

Relative pronouns in restrictive relative clauses

Relative pronouns that introduce a restrictive relative clause ARE NOT separated from the main
clause by a comma. Restrictive relative clauses (also known as defining relative clauses) add
essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is crucial for
understanding the sentence's meaning correctly and cannot be omitted. In other words, without
the restrictive relative clause, the sentence does not make sense.

The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in restrictive relative clauses:

Function in Reference to
the sentence People Things / concepts Place Time Explanation
Subject who, that which, that
Object (that, who, whom)* (which, that)* where when what/why
Possessive whose whose, of which

Examples

Relative pronouns used as a subject of a restrictive relative clause:

 This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration.


 It took me a while to get used to people who eat popcorn during the movie.

Relative pronouns used as an object in a restrictive relative clause:

1) As can be seen from the table, referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be
omitted in the object position, but formal English includes the relative pronoun. When the
relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, which is used instead of that, for example, "in
which," "for which," "about which," "through which," etc. (please see the third example below):

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Formal English: This is the man to whom I wanted to speak and whose name I had
forgotten.
Informal English: This is the man I wanted to speak to and whose name I'd forgotten.

Formal English: The library did not have the book that I wanted.
Informal English: The library didn't have the book I wanted.

Formal English: This is the house in which I lived when I first came to the United States.
Informal English: This is the house I lived in when I first came to the United States.

2) In American English, the word whom is not used very often. Whom is more formal than who
and is very often omitted while speaking:

Grammatically Correct: The woman to whom you have just spoken is my teacher.
Conversational Use: The woman you have just spoken to is my teacher.

OR

The woman who you have just spoken to is my teacher.*

(*Misusing who for whom is considered nonstandard English when writing a semi-/formal
composition.)

However, whom may not be omitted if preceded by a preposition because the relative pronoun
functions as the object of the preposition:

The visitor for whom you were waiting has arrived.

Relative pronouns used as a possessive in a restrictive relative clause:

Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun in English. The antecedent of whose can be both
people and things:

 The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a complimentary suite in
a hotel.
 The book whose author won a Pulitzer has become a bestseller.

Relative pronouns in non-restrictive relative clauses

Although similar in use, relative pronouns that introduce a non-restrictive relative clauses ARE
separated from the main clause by a comma (in most instances). Typically, which is the preferred
relative pronoun for indicating that a relative clause is non-restrictive. Non-restrictive relative
clauses (also known as non-defining relative clauses) provide non-essential information
about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is not crucial for understanding the
sentence's meaning correctly and can be omitted without affecting the sentence's meaning. In
other words, non-restrictive relative clauses are an aside that adds extra information.

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Examples

Relative pronouns used as a subject of a non-restrictive relative clause:

 The science fair, which lasted all day, ended with an awards ceremony.
 The movie turned out to be a blockbuster hit, which came as a surprise to critics.

Relative pronouns used as an object in a non-restrictive relative clause:

 The sculpture, which he admired, was moved into the basement of the museum.
 The theater, in which the play debuted, housed 300 people.

That vs. Who and Which

The relative pronoun that can only be used in restrictive clauses. It can also be substituted for
who (referring to persons) or which (referring to things) in informal English. Whereas that is
often used while speaking, who and which are more common in formal written English.

Conversational, Informal: William Kellogg was the man that lived in the late nineteenth
century and had some weird ideas about raising children.
Written, Formal: William Kellogg was the man who lived in the late nineteenth
century and had some weird ideas about raising children.
Conversational, Informal: The café that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed.
Written, Formal: The café, which sells the best coffee in town, has recently been
closed.

Some special uses of relative pronouns in restrictive clauses

That/Who

When referring to people, both that and who can be used in informal language. That may be used
to refer to the characteristics or abilities of an individual or a group of people:

 He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down.


 I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to Chicago.

However, when speaking about a particular person in formal language, who is preferred:

 The old lady who lives next door is a teacher.


 The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention at the party.

That/Which

There are several cases when that is more appropriate than which:

1) After the pronouns all, any(thing), every(thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none,
some(thing):

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 The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person.
 Dessert is all that he wants.

2) After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree:

This is the best resource that I have ever read!

Some special uses of relative pronouns in non-defining clauses

a. Which

 If you are referring to the previous clause as a whole, use which:


 My friend eventually decided to get divorced, which upset me a lot.

b. Of whom, of which

Use of whom for persons and of which for things or concepts after numbers and words
such as most, many, some, both, none:

 I saw a lot of new people at the party, some of whom seemed familiar.
 He was always coming up with new ideas, most of which were absolutely
impracticable.

Tips on the Use of Relative Pronouns

Although there is no one single rule to cover all the cases, the following summary may be helpful
if you need to make a quick decision:

1. Use that if the main clause poses the question WHAT? answered by the relative clause;
2. Do not use that presenting non-essential, additional information (that is, in non-defining
relative clauses); use who or which instead;
3. Use who to refer to people;
4. Use which to refer to things or to refer to the previous clause as a whole;
5. If you choose between who or that, use who in writing;
6. If you choose between which and that, use which in writing;
7. Do not put a comma before that.
8. Always use a comma before which.

117
Avoiding Dangling Modifiers
Taken from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/597/1/

Dangling Modifiers and How To Correct Them

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A
modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.

Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.

Having finished states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences,
the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems
logically to be the one doing the action (having finished), and this sentence therefore does not
have a dangling modifier.

The following sentence has an incorrect usage:

Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

Having finished is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the
main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the
participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.

Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:


1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:

Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.

Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who
actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this:

Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.

The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase
(arrived late).

2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the
action in that clause:

Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide
who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:

Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it is not considered "dangling."


3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
118
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve
its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The
revision might look something like this:

He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

More examples of dangling modifiers and their revisions:


INCORRECT: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
REVISED: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.

INCORRECT: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.
REVISED: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.

INCORRECT: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
REVISED: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

Using Numbers in Your Writing


Whether you should write a number out as a word or a numeral depends on what you are
referring to and how often numbers occur in your writing. The following guidelines are for MLA
style.

If you deal with a lot of numbers, you may want to reserve numerals for some categories and
spelled-out numbers for other categories. Be careful not to mix them up!

Incorrect: In four days, our volunteers increased from five to eight to 17 to 233.

Correct: In four days, our volunteers increased from 5 to 8 to 17 to 233.


[All numbers referring to the volunteer category are written in numerals, but the
day category number is written out in words.]

General Guidelines
 The general rule for writing numbers is to spell out the number if it may be done in one or
two words; otherwise, it should be written in figures
o He gave me one thousand dollars.
o He gave me 1,397 copies of the paper.
 When writing a two-word number, use a hyphen between the spelled-out words.
 If you use numbers frequently, spell out numbers one through nine but use numerals for
10 and above.
 NEVER start a sentence with a numeral. Always write out the word.
 If you give specific numbers, use numerals.
 If you give only an approximation, spell out the numbers.
 The names of centuries are always spelled out: the twentieth century
 Use numerals with chapters, pages, identification numbers, measurements, act/scene/line
numbers, temperatures, money amounts, scores, and statistics

119
About Conclusions
Taken from http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/conclusions.html

Introductions and conclusions can be the most difficult parts of papers to write. While the body is often easier to
write, it needs a frame around it. An introduction and conclusion frame your thoughts and bridge your ideas for the
reader.

Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers from their own lives into the "place" of your
analysis, your conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives. Such
a conclusion will help them see why all your analysis and information should matter to them after they put the paper
down.

Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject. The conclusion allows you to have the final say
on the issues you have raised in your paper, to summarize your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your
ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final
impression and to end on a positive note.

Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond the boundaries of the
prompt and allows you to consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your
findings.

Your conclusion should make your readers glad they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your reader something
to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways. It can
suggest broader implications that will not only interest your reader, but also enrich your reader's life in some way. It
is your gift to the reader.

Strategies for Writing an Effective Conclusion


One or more of the following strategies may help you write an effective conclusion.

1. Restate the thesis WITHOUT saying, “In conclusion,” or “All in all,” etc. By restating the thesis, the reader
knows that you are not going to add any new information or arguments and that the paper is winding down.
2. Play the "So What" Game. If you're stuck and feel like your conclusion isn't saying anything new or
interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the
friend to say, "So what?" or "Why should anybody care?" Then ponder that question and answer it. Here's
how it might go:


You: Basically, I'm just saying that education was important to Douglass.


Friend: So what?


You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen.


Friend: Why should anybody care?


You: That's important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so
that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that
control personally.


You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself "So What?" as you develop your ideas or your
draft.

3. Return to the theme or themes in the introduction. This strategy brings the reader full circle. For
example, if you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay
is helpful in creating a new understanding. You may also refer to the introductory paragraph by using key
words or parallel concepts and images that you also used in the introduction.

120
4. Synthesize, don't summarize: Include a brief summary of the paper's main points, but don't simply
repeat things that were in your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you made and the support
and examples you used fit together. Pull it all together. If the paper is short (fewer than 5 pages, do not
summarize).

5. Include a provocative insight or quotation from the research or reading you did for your paper.

6. Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect
your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader
implications.

7. Point to broader implications. For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another
event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole.
A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later
feminists. In this kind of conclusion, you are pointing out the significance of your ideas.

Strategies to Avoid
• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing."
Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.

• Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.

• Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.

• Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.

• Contradicting your entire paper.

• Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.

• Offering an apology or afterthought on the subject matter. The conclusion should leave a favorable parting
impression.

• Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

• Drawing conclusions that are absolute or too general (allow for possibilities or exceptions).

• Restating the paper’s points in an essay under 10 pages long.

Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions


• The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually
painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of
anything else to say. Example:

In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that
education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.

• The "Sherlock Holmes" Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don't want to give everything away too early in your paper. You
may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then "wow" him with your
main idea, as in a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical
discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a
paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and
his views on education):

So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders'
121
power and also an important step toward freedom.

• The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually
draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is
usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than
emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Example:

Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining
beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was
truly an American hero.

• The "Grab Bag" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of
but couldn't integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after
hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-
organized essay can just create confusion. Example:

In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for
masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when
he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in
the slave community.

122
Essay Exams
Taken from www.princeton.edu/writing/center
The Essay Exam
The essay exam is one of the most common forms of college writing. Typically, you might be
asked to:
 Evaluate a quotation in light of what you have studied.
 Analyze and assess the significance of a particular policy or event.
 Choose between two conflicting assessments of an event or theory.
 Write about a particular theme in several works of fiction.
In every case, you must use specific examples drawn from the lectures and assigned readings.
**The point of this assignment is not merely to provide a summary of facts or a chronology of
events, but to make an argument that is supported by evidence drawn from course materials.**
Its Purpose: An essay exam gives you an opportunity to demonstrate your ability to:
 Think critically about the themes and materials of the course.
 Make your own assessment of those themes and conflicting interpretations of them.
 Support your assessment using evidence from the texts, lectures, and precept
discussion.
 Show how well you are able to connect the various materials of the course to the
central themes of the course, and to each other.
How to Begin
I. The Assignment: Before you do anything else, make sure you understand the
assignment.
 Are there terms you don't understand?
 If you must respond to a quotation or to conflicting statements by different scholars,
do you understand what the quotation or quotations mean? To what event, time
period, or issue does the quotation pertain? What do you know about the person(s)
being quoted?
 If you are taking a position in a scholarly debate, do you understand all sides of the
issue?
 Ask questions before you begin writing (if possible), and make sure you choose the
question(s) you are best prepared to answer.
II. Preparation:
For take-home exams: (In general, prepare more and write less!)
1. Read the question through several times, and make a list of each component of the
question that your essay will need to address.
2. Make a list of any terms or concepts in the exam question that you don't understand.
Write definitions for them in your own words, using the surrounding context of the
book or article and a dictionary to help you.
3. Use the indexes of the course texts and your reading and lecture notes to help you
locate the key supporting evidence you need to respond to the exam question. Make a
list of all the key points that relate to the exam question, noting the source and page
number(s) as you go.
4. Note when sources disagree in their interpretation of the evidence. How do you decide
123
which analysis is most convincing?
For in-class exams:
1. Make a list of any terms or concepts in the course readings you don't understand.
Write definitions for them in your own words, using the surrounding context of the
book or article and a dictionary to help you.
2. As you read, make a list of key points comprising the author's argument, again in your
own words.
3. Think about the author's argument in relation to the other authors you have read. On
which points do more than one author agree? On which do they differ? What kinds of
evidence does each author use?
4. Look for themes that come up in more than one text or are repeated in more than one
lecture, for these will certainly be the issues that will be emphasized in the exam
question(s).

III. Approaching the Question


You can make choices about how you respond to essay exam questions. While you must
incorporate every part of the question in your response, here are some ways to limit the scope of
your essay:
 Comparisons. If you are asked to compare two works of literature or two policy
proposals, or two interpretations of the Cold War, choose one or two themes or issues
that illustrate the comparison and build your argument around them.
 Analyzing Themes. If you are asked to discuss a theme or issue that the course
emphasized, limit your response to three of the stories you've read that illustrate the
theme, or three of the philosophers you've studied who take different positions on the
theme, or three of the countries you've studied where the issue is important.
 Controlling the Terms. Take control of the terms and concepts you will use in your
essay by defining them clearly and explaining the specific aspects of these concepts
that you will focus on. You cannot explore all of the complexities of "democracy," or
"feminism," or "segregation," in 5 pages. Showing your reader that you realize this,
and that you are going to focus on political representation, or equal pay for equal
work, or government housing policy, will strengthen your essay and clarify your
thesis.

Don't try to cover all of the course material in your essay! Instead, tell part of the big story of
the course in the small space of your essay by using 2 or 3 carefully chosen and deeply analyzed
cases or examples.
For in-class exams, your responses must necessarily be even more limited in scope, since you
are faced with strict time limits.
Remember the focus should always be on your argument. Your sources are supports for your
argument. Avoid quoting or summarizing unless it is crucial for the points you want to make.

124
IV. Organization
For take-home exams: Before you begin writing, make an outline using one complete sentence
that encapsulates the key point of each paragraph.

1. For your introduction, this sentence should be your thesis statement. This is the
sentence that states the argument you will make in the body of your paper.
2. For the paragraphs in the body of your essay, this sentence should be the first (topic)
sentence of each paragraph. This is the sentence that provides a transition between
ideas and/or introduces new points or major themes in your argument.
3. Then make a list of the 2 or 3 pieces of evidence you will use to support each major
point of your argument, and the relevant citation information.
4. Even though this is an exam, your essay should have an identifiable introduction and
conclusion.
5. Essay exam responses should be concise and to the point; 5 or 6 strong paragraphs are
better than 8 or 10 poorly organized ones.

For in-class exams: Before you begin writing, spend 5 minutes making a brief, schematic
outline. Taking a few minutes to organize your ideas first will result in a much more coherent
essay, with no key points left out.
1. Write out a concise statement of your argument (your thesis), and indicate what major
point you will make in each paragraph.
2. Under each major point, list the pieces of evidence you will use to support it, along with the
relevant citation.
3. Remember that even though this is an exam, your essay should have an identifiable
introduction and conclusion.
4. Essay exam responses should be concise and to the point; 5 or 6 strong paragraphs are
better than 8 or 10 poorly organized ones.

V. Citation

Don't forget to cite all quotations and ideas that you take from other sources. Follow the
rules in terms of page and word limits. This is an exam, so your citation style may be informal.
Indicate the source by author and page number(s) in parentheses in the body of your essay e.g.,
(Morrison 23-77) For in-class exams, simply indicate the author, e.g. (Morrison), or the title, e.g.
(Beloved) if no page numbers are available.

125
Recommetiquette
So, you need a letter of recommendation for admission to college
or perhaps for a scholarship? Naturally, you plan to ask at least
one of your teachers, coaches, or adult mentors to write one for
you; however, you may not realize that this process does come
with its own etiquette: That is, there are social conventions that
govern how you approach asking for a letter of recommendation.
Your teachers are not required to write letters of
recommendation, and you are not entitled to one; therefore, as
you begin the application and scholarship process, use the
following guidelines to receive the best recommendation possible.

1. Time. Begin your application and scholarship process early. Do not procrastinate. Why
does this matter? You should always give your recommender plenty of time to write the
best letter possible. Generally speaking, you should give your recommender at least three
to four weeks to prepare your letter, but never under two weeks. Asking someone to
write a letter of recommendation the same week the letter is due is not only rude, but it
also jeopardizes the quality of your letter.

2. Personal/Academic Information. Provide as much information about yourself as


possible. You should create a résumé or list of activities, sports, volunteer activities, etc.,
that you have done throughout high school. This document should include a history of
part-time work, extraordinary duties at home, tutoring, etc. You may even wish to add a
brief narrative about a particular hardship you may have had to overcome (e.g., death of a
friend or family member or overcoming an illness). Make sure you provide as much
information to cover the need the letter will address.

3. Selection. Choose your recommender(s) carefully.


a. You should select someone who knows you well enough to talk about your skills,
attitude, leadership abilities, etc.
b. You should also choose someone who has known you recently. For example, if you
are a senior who chooses your freshman English teacher to write your letter of
recommendation, it may raise the eyebrows of the selection committee. However,
if that freshman English teacher had you again as a student on the debate team
your junior and senior years, then that would be all right.
c. You should also tailor your recommender list to the purpose of the letter. For
example, if you are applying for an athletic scholarship, you may want to ask a
coach for the letter of recommendation because that coach can speak specifically
about your athletic abilities. If you are seeking a scholarship based on your
volunteering activities, choose a sponsor who can attest to the positive attitude
and optimism you brought to the volunteering.
d. Balance your choices of recommender for general applications to college, but seek
field-specific recommenders when you are looking for entry into that field’s honors
college or scholarships in that field. With this said, however, keep in mind that
many honors colleges are looking for skills beyond field-specific content mastery.
Many search for those who can work well in groups, communicate well, and think
outside of the box.
126
4. Supplies. Ask your recommender if he/she would like a stamped envelope. If so,
provide a plain white business envelope with appropriate postage and clearly/neatly
write on the envelope the address to which the letter should be sent. You should also ask
if you should provide school letterhead to the teacher (most teachers will access the
letterhead themselves). Do not assume your recommender will provide the paper,
envelopes, and postage.

5. Specificity. When you ask for a letter of recommendation, make sure to include the
following information for your recommender:
a. The purpose of the letter (admissions, scholarship, internship, etc.).
b. The exact requirements for the letter. Sometimes, colleges and scholarship
committees ask for specific information in a letter of recommendation.
c. Due date. You should provide a due date that will not endanger your acceptance
into college or receiving the scholarship.
d. Communicate whether the recommender should seal your letter in an envelope or
mail it directly to the college or scholarship committee.

6. Do not
a. List anyone who has not explicitly agreed to be a reference for you. Never assume!
b. Nag your recommenders about the letter’s upcoming due date. However, it is
reasonable as the due date approaches to ask your recommender about the status
of the letter. You can check the letter’s status on your own via the school’s website
or by calling the admissions office.
c. Simply drop off information without first asking if the recommender will write the
letter for you.
d. Ask for a letter of recommendation without providing information about the
recommendation: the audience (who will receive the letter?), the purpose
(scholarship? Admissions? Admissions to an honors program?), and the due date
(who sends the letter?).

7. Follow up. Tie up loose ends:


a. Check to make sure the letter was received, whether online (electronic
application) or via a telephone call to the appropriate office.
b. Write a brief, handwritten thank-you note to your recommender. This is one
of the most important parts of etiquette that many students fail to do. Your
recommender has spent his/her own personal time to tailor a letter to your
specific needs. To only drop a “thank you” in person or via email is better than
nothing, but writing the brief thank-you note is more appropriate.
c. If possible, tell the recommender when you hear news of your acceptance or
receiving a scholarship. Your teachers care about you and want to hear how things
turn out.

127
Online Resources
Writing Aids

 The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL): This “full service” website offers help with writing, research,
grammar, style guides, and professional writing. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/.
 The University of Chicago Grammar Resources: This website provides students resources for additional
grammar help. http://writing-program.uchicago.edu/resources/grammar.htm.
 Elements of Style: Strunk, Jr.: The quintessential grammar reference!
http://www.bartleby.com/141/index.html
 Turnitin.com: A website tool to check the validity of your citation and paraphrase. www.turnitin.com.
 The Six +1 Traits of Writing: This website offers rubrics and definitions of the Six +1 Traits of Writing.
http://educationnorthwest.org/traits.

Documentation Help

 Knight Cite: This website helps students create works cited entries.
http://www.calvin.edu/library/knightcite/
 Easybib: This website helps students create works cited entries. http://www.easybib.com/.
 BibMe: This website helps students create works cited entries. http://www.bibme.org/

Databases

 Inspire.net: The State of Indiana provides a database of resources for students. www.inspire.net.
 Plagiarist.com: A storehouse of poems from various eras. http://www.plagiarist.com/.
 Project Gutenberg: Thousands of free-domain novels. http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Main_Page.
 American Rhetoric: A storehouse of free-domain speeches. http://americanrhetoric.com.
 Read Print: A collection of free online novels, poems, and stories. http://www.readprint.com/.
 Lewis University Online Databases. A collection of subscription databases like JStor and Lexis-Nexis.
http://www.lewisu.edu/academics/library/index.htm.

Glossaries and Dictionaries

 Virtual Salt: A glossary of rhetorical devices. http://www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm


 Silva Rhetoricae—The Forest of Rhetoric: A glossary of rhetorical devices.
http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/Silva.htm
 Merriam-Webster Online. Free online dictionary and thesaurus. www.merriam-webster.com.
 Gale Literary Terms. Free online literary devices glossary.
http://www.gale.cengage.com/free_resources/glossary/.

Miscellaneous Resources

 Moodle: Use this resource to check weekly assignments. www.moodle.munster.k12.in.us.


 The Nizkor Project: This website lists common logical fallacies. http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/
 The Onion: Home of short American satire. www.theonion.com.
 Simple Teaching Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes: A list of roots, prefixes, and suffixes.
http://www.betterendings.org/homeschool/Words/Root%20Words.htm
 Google Docs: Use this program to work synchronously with groups members. Google account required
(free). www.google.com.

128
Use an easy to 2009 MLA Sample Paper: Revised Your last name and
read font like
12 pt. Times page numbers
New Roman. should be right
justified and typed
in the header 1/2"
Use 1 " Velasquez 1
from the top of the
margins and page.
double-space Rosa Velasquez
throughout.
Professor Nguyen

English 1A
To cite an
electronic
2 June 2009
source that has
no page
numbers or Personality and Birth Order: First-Borns and Later-Borns
paragraph
numbers, Does birth order have any effect on personality? The naysayers,
simply give the
author's name. including psychologists Monica A. Seff, Viktor Gecas, and James H. Frey,

argue that "research on birth order effects has been remarkably


When
mentioning an
author in-text
inconsistent and inconclusive with regard to various personality and
When quoting,
for the first summarizing, or
time, include behavioral outcomes." MIT historian Frank Sulloway disagrees. In his
paraphrasing an
his or her full author, use the
name. book, Born to Rebel, he offers proof of the relationship between birth present tense.
Thereafter, the
author can be order and personality.
referred to by
last name. Researching the lives of historical figures, Sulloway observes For an indirect
source in which
Use an that later-borns tend to champion liberal or unconventional ideas while one author is
ellipsis (. . .) being quoted or
when paraphrased in
first-borns do not: "Later-borns were more likely than first-borns were another author's
omitting
original work, cite the
to support each of the 61 liberal causes . . . surveyed, from the Protestant indirect source.
material.
Reformation to the American civil-rights movement" (qtd. in Cowley).

Rule-breaking later-borns include Susan B. Anthony, Mahatma Gandhi,


In-text
citations
Martin Luther King, Jr., and Charles Darwin. In contrast, first-borns typically
consist of the
defend the status quo (Sulloway 79). Naturalist Louis Agassiz fits this author's
name and
mold. The most influential naturalist of the page
number.

129
Velasquez 2

his day, first-born Agassiz staunchly opposed Darwin's radical notions

A quotation
about biological change:
of four lines
or more When Darwin proposed a revolutionary solution -- that
starts on a Quoted material
new line and all nature's variety stems from a simple process that within a block
is indented quotation is
1" or 10 preserves useful variations and discards harmful ones -- enclosed with
spaces. double quotation
marks.
the authorities were appalled. "A scientific mistake,"

thundered Louis Agassiz, [. . .] "untrue in its facts . . . and

mischievous in its tendency." (Cowley)

In a block When omitting


quotation, end material from a
punctuation quotation that already
comes before contains an ellipsis, put
the in-text brackets around your
citation. ellipsis.

MLA Sample Paper: Works Cited


Sources are
listed in
alphabetical Velasquez 5
order by
author's last Works Cited
name. If
The works
there is no Cowley, Geoffrey. "First Born, Later Born." Newsweek 7 Oct. 1996, 65+. cited list
author,
begins on a
alphabetize
Academic Search Premier. Web. 16 July 2009. new page.
by the first
major word
in the title. Seff, Monica A., Viktor Gecas, and James H. Frey. "Birth Order, Self

Concept, and Participation in Dangerous Sports." The Journal of


The entire
reference list
Psychology 127.2 (1993): 221+. Academic Search Premier. Web. 16 page is
double-
July 2009. spaced and
The second has 1"
line of each Sulloway, Frank J. Born to Rebel. New York: Pantheon, 1996. Print. margins.
entry is
indented
1/2" or 5
spaces.
Electronic
sources no
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MLA Research Paper (Daly)

Daly 1

Angela Daly
Professor Chavez
English 101
14 March XXXX
A Call to Action: Title is centered.

Regulate Use of Cell Phones on the Road


When a cell phone goes off in a classroom or at a concert, we Opening sentences
catch readers’
are irritated, but at least our lives are not endangered. When we attention.
are on the road, however, irresponsible cell phone users are more
than irritating: They are putting our lives at risk. Many of us have
witnessed drivers so distracted by dialing and chatting that they
resemble drunk drivers, weaving between lanes, for example, or
nearly running down pedestrians in crosswalks. A number of bills to
regulate use of cell phones on the road have been introduced in
state legislatures, and the time has come to push for their passage.
Regulation is needed because drivers using phones are seriously Thesis asserts
Angela Daly’s main
impaired and because laws on negligent and reckless driving are point.
not sufficient to punish offenders.
No one can deny that cell phones have caused traffic deaths Daly uses a clear
topic sentence.
and injuries. Cell phones were implicated in three fatal accidents in
November 1999 alone. Early in November, two-year-old Morgan
Pena was killed by a driver distracted by his cell phone. Morgan’s
mother, Patti Pena, reports that the driver “ran a stop sign at 45 Signal phrase names
the author of the
mph, broadsided my vehicle and killed Morgan as she sat in her car quotation to follow.
seat.” A week later, corrections officer Shannon Smith, who was No page number is
available for this
guarding prisoners by the side of the road, was killed by a woman Web source.
distracted by a phone call (Besthoff). On Thanksgiving weekend Author’s name is
given in parenthe-
ses; no page num-
ber is available.

Marginal annotations indicate MLA-style formatting and effective writing.

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Daly 2

that same month, John and Carole Hall were killed when a Naval
Academy midshipman crashed into their parked car. The driver
said in court that when he looked up from the cell phone he was
Page number dialing, he was three feet from the car and had no time to stop
is given when
available. (Stockwell B8).
Clear topic Expert testimony, public opinion, and even cartoons
sentences, like
this one, are suggest that driving while phoning is dangerous. Frances Bents,
used throughout
the paper.
an expert on the relation between cell phones and accidents,
estimates that between 450 and 1,000 crashes a year have some
connection to cell phone use (Layton C9). In a survey published
by Farmers Insurance Group, 87% of those polled said that cell
phones affect a driver’s ability, and 40% reported having close
calls with drivers distracted by phones. Many cartoons have
depicted the very real dangers of driving while distracted (see
fig. 1).
Scientific research confirms the dangers of using phones
while on the road. In 1997 an important study appeared in the
Summary and New England Journal of Medicine. The authors, Donald Redelmeier
long quotation are
introduced with and Robert Tibshirani, studied 699 volunteers who made their cell
a signal phrase
naming the authors.
phone bills available in order to confirm the times when they
had placed calls. The participants agreed to report any nonfatal
collision in which they were involved. By comparing the time of
a collision with the phone records, the researchers assessed the
dangers of driving while phoning. The results are unsettling:
Long quotation is We found that using a cellular telephone was
set off from the
text; quotation associated with a risk of having a motor vehicle
marks are omitted.
collision that was about about four times as high as

132
Daly 3

Fig. 1. A cartoon shows the dangers of using cell phones and Illustration has
figure number,
other devices while driving (Lowe A21). caption, and
source information.

that among the same drivers when they were not using
their cellular telephones. This relative risk is similar
to the hazard associated with driving with a blood
alcohol level at the legal limit. (456)
The news media often exaggerated the latter claim (“similar
to” is not “equal to”); nonetheless, the comparison with drunk
driving suggests the extent to which cell phone use while driving
can impair judgment.
A 1998 study focused on Oklahoma, one of the few states to
Summary begins
keep records on fatal accidents involving cell phones. Using police
with a signal
records, John M. Violanti of the Rochester Institute of Technology phrase naming the
author and ends
investigated the relation between traffic fatalities in Oklahoma and with page numbers
in parentheses.

133
Daly 4

the use or presence of a cell phone. He found a ninefold increase


in the risk of fatality if a phone was being used and a doubled
risk simply when a phone was present in a vehicle (522-23). The
latter statistic is interesting, for it suggests that those who carry
phones in their cars may tend to be more negligent (or prone to
distractions of all kinds) than those who do not.
Daly counters an Some groups have argued that state traffic laws make
opposing argument.
legislation regulating cell phone use unnecessary. Sadly, this is not
true. Laws on traffic safety vary from state to state, and drivers
distracted by cell phones can get off with light punishment even
when they cause fatal accidents. For example, although the
midshipman mentioned earlier was charged with vehicular
manslaughter for the deaths of John and Carole Hall, the judge was
unable to issue a verdict of guilty. Under Maryland law, he could
only find the defendant guilty of negligent driving and impose a
Facts are docu- $500 fine (Layton C1). Such a light sentence is not unusual. The
mented with in-
text citations: driver who killed Morgan Pena in Pennsylvania received two tickets
authors’ names
and page numbers
and a $50 fine—and retained his driving privileges (Pena). In
(if available) in Georgia, a young woman distracted by her phone ran down and
parentheses.
killed a two-year-old; her sentence was ninety days in boot camp
and five hundred hours of community service (Ippolito J1). The
families of the victims are understandably distressed by laws that
lead to such light sentences.
When certain kinds of driver behavior are shown to be
especially dangerous, we wisely draft special laws making them
Daly uses examples illegal and imposing specific punishments. Running red lights, failing
to justify passing a
special law. to stop for a school bus, and drunk driving are obvious examples;

134
Daly 5

phoning in a moving vehicle should be no exception. Unlike more


general laws covering negligent driving, specific laws leave little
ambiguity for law officers and for judges and juries imposing
punishments. Such laws have another important benefit: They leave
no ambiguity for drivers. Currently, drivers can tease themselves
into thinking they are using their car phones responsibly because
the definition of “negligent driving” is vague.
As of December 2000, twenty countries were restricting use of Daly explains why
U.S. laws need to
cell phones in moving vehicles (Sundeen 8). In the United States, be passed on the
state level.
it is highly unlikely that legislation could be passed on the
national level, since traffic safety is considered a state and local
issue. To date, only a few counties and towns have passed traffic
laws restricting cell phone use. For example, in Suffolk County,
New York, it is illegal for drivers to use a handheld phone for
anything but an emergency call while on the road (Haughney A8).
The first town to restrict use of handheld phones was Brooklyn,
Ohio (Layton C9). Brooklyn, the first community in the country to
pass a seat belt law, has once again shown its concern for traffic
safety.
Laws passed by counties and towns have had some effect, Transition helps
readers move from
but it makes more sense to legislate at the state level. Local laws one paragraph to
the next.
are not likely to have the impact of state laws, and keeping track
of a wide variety of local ordinances is confusing for drivers. Even
a spokesperson for Verizon Wireless has said that statewide bans
are preferable to a “crazy patchwork quilt of ordinances” (qtd. in Daly cites an
indirect source:
Haughney A8). Unfortunately, although a number of bills have words quoted in
another source.
been introduced in state legislatures, as of early 2001 no state law

135
Daly 6

seriously restricting use of the phones had passed—largely because


of effective lobbying from the wireless industry.
Daly counters a Despite the claims of some lobbyists, tough laws regulating
claim made by
some opponents. phone use can make our roads safer. In Japan, for example,
accidents linked to cell phones fell by 75% just a month after
the country prohibited using a handheld phone while driving
(Haughney A8). Research suggests and common sense tells us that
it is not possible to drive an automobile at high speeds, dial
numbers, and carry on conversations without significant risks. When
such behavior is regulated, obviously our roads will be safer.
Because of mounting public awareness of the dangers of
drivers distracted by phones, state legislators must begin to take
the problem seriously. “It’s definitely an issue that is gaining steam
For variety Daly around the country,” says Matt Sundeen of the National Conference
places a signal
phrase after a of State Legislatures (qtd. in Layton C9). Lon Anderson of the
brief quotation.
American Automobile Association agrees: “There is momentum
The paper ends building,” he says, to pass laws (qtd. in Layton C9). The time has
with Daly’s stand
on the issue. come for states to adopt legislation restricting the use of cell
phones in moving vehicles.

136
Daly 7

Works Cited Heading is centered.

List is
alphabetized by
Besthoff, Len. “Cell Phone Use Increases Risk of Accidents, but Users Willing to
authors’ last Take the Risk.” WRAL.com. Capitol Broadcasting, 9 Nov. 1999. Web. 12 Jan.
names (or by title
when a work has 2001.
no author).
Farmers Insurance Group. “New Survey Shows Drivers Have Had ‘Close Calls’ with
Cell Phone Users.” Farmers. Farmers Insurance Group, 8 May 2000. Web. 12
Jan. 2001.
Haughney, Christine. “Taking Phones out of Drivers’ Hands.” Washington Post 5 Nov.
2000: A8. Print.
First line of each
entry is at the left Ippolito, Milo. “Driver’s Sentence Not Justice, Mom Says.” Atlanta Journal-
margin; extra lines
are indented 1⁄ 2''. Constitution 25 Sept. 1999: J1. eLibrary Curriculum. Web. 12 Jan. 2001.
Layton, Lyndsey. “Legislators Aiming to Disconnect Motorists.” Washington Post
Double-spacing is 10 Dec. 2000: C1+. Print.
used throughout.
Lowe, Chan. Cartoon. Washington Post 22 July 2000: A21. Print.
Pena, Patricia N. “Patti Pena’s Letter to Car Talk.” Cartalk.com. Dewey,
Abbreviation “n.d.” Cheetham, and Howe, n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2001.
indicates that the
online source has Redelmeier, Donald A., and Robert J. Tibshirani. “Association between Cellular-
no update date.
Telephone Calls and Motor Vehicle Collisions.” New England Journal of Medicine
336.7 (1997): 453-58. Print.
Stockwell, Jamie. “Phone Use Faulted in Collision.” Washington
Post 6 Dec. 2000: B1+. Print.
Sundeen, Matt. “Cell Phones and Highway Safety: 2000 State Legislative Update.”
National Conference of State Legislatures. Natl. Conf. of State Legislatures, Dec.
2000. Web. 27 Feb. 2001.
Violanti, John M. “Cellular Phones and Fatal Traffic Collisions.” Accident Analysis
and Prevention 30.4 (1998): 519-24. Print.

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