Siliciclastic Sequence

Siliciclastic Sequence
Stratigraphyin
Stratigraphy Well Logs,
in Well Logs, -

Cores, and
Cores, and Outcrops:
Outcrops:
Concepts for
Concepts High-Resolution
for High-Resolution
Correlation of
Correlation of TilDe and
~ i mand Facies
e Facies
by
J.C.Van
J.C. VanWagoneI; R.M. Mitchum,
Wagoner,R.M. Mitchum,
K.M.Campion,
K.M. Campion,and
andV.D. Rahmanian
V.D. Rahmanian

Methodsin
AAPG Methods
AAPG inExploration
ExplorationSeries,
Series, No.7
No. 7

Publishedby
Published by
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101 U.S.
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101 U.s.A. A.

© 1990 The American Association of Petroleum Geologists, All Rights Reserved.

© 1990 The American Association of Petroleum Geologists, All Rights Reserved.
 2 Previous stratigraphic
stratigraphic concepts
concepts

facies above
in most places, the facies above these boundaries have stratigraphy, Sloss's ideas had found found little
little acceptance
acceptance
no physical or temporal relationship to the facies facies 1950s, 1960s,
in the 1950s, 1960s, and early early 1970s
1970sexcept
except for
for Wheeler
below. Because of this decoupling
below. decoupling of faciesfacies across
across (1958)
(1958)and "former students students and close close acquaintances"
these boundaries, vertical
vertical facies
facies analysis should be (Sloss, 1988).
(Sloss, 1988).
done within the context of parasequences, parase- The next major development in the evolution of
quence sets,
quence sets, and
and sequences
sequences to to interpret lateral facies
facies sequence stratigraphy occurred when P.R.
sequence P.R. Vail, R.M.
Vail, R.M.
accurately.
relationships accurately. Mitchum, J.B.
Mitchum, J.B. Sangree, and and S. S. Thompson III I11of Exxon
Exxon
well logs,
Using well logs, cores,
cores, or outcrops,
outcrops, each sequence
sequence published the the concepts
concepts of seismicseismic stratigraphy in in the
the
can be subdivided into
can into stratal units
units called
called systems
systems American Association
Association of Petroleum Geologists Geologists Mem- Mem-
tracts, based on
tracts, on their positions within the the sequence,
sequence, oir 26
oir (Payton, 1977).
26 (Payton, 1977). In a seriesseries of seminal
seminal articles
articles
the distribution
the distribution of parasequence sets, sets, and
and facies
facies asso-
asso- these authors
these authors presented the the concepts
concepts of eustasy and and
ciations. Systems
ciations. Systems tracts are are defined as as a "linkage of resulting unconformity-bounded stratal patterns
depositional systems" (Brown
contemporaneous depositional (Brown and applied to and documented with seismic-reflection seismic-reflection
Fisher, 1977).
Fisher, 1977).Systems
Systems tracts provide a high degree degree of data.
data. Mitchum (1977) (1977) sharpened and extended the
facies predictability within the chronostratigraphic
facies chronostratigraphic concept of the sequence sequence by defining it as as "a strati-
strati-
framework of sequence
framework sequence boundaries. This This predictabil-
predictabil- graphic unit composed of a relatively conformable conformable suc- suc-
ity is
ity is especially
especially important
important for for the
the analysis
analysis of reservoir,
reservoir, cession of genetically
genetically related strata and and bounded at at its
its
source, and
source, and seal
seal facies
facies within a basin or a field.field. top andand base by unconformities or their correlative correlative
This book documents
This documents the the stratal
stratal expressions
expressions of para-para- conformities." Vail Vail modified Sloss's (1963) (1963) use of
sequences, parasequence sets,
sequences, sets, especially
especially as as compo-
compo- sequence in
sequence in two
two other important ways. ways. First,
First, the
the
systems tracts,
nents of systems tracts, and
and sequences
sequences in in well
well logs,
logs, sequence
sequence of Vail Vail and
and Mitchum
Mitchum encompassed a much
cores, and
cores, and outcrops.
outcrops. Additionally,
Additionally, thethe book illustrates
illustrates smaller amount of time time than the the sequence
sequence of Sloss Sloss
core, and
well-log, core, and outcrop-recognition criteria criteria for
for the
the (1963).The
(1963). The original
original six six cratonic
cratonic sequences
sequences were signif- signif-
stratal units
stratal units from
from the the lamina to to the
the sequence, and and icantly subdivided;
icantly subdivided; Sloss's sequences sequences became super- super-
demonstrates how the the stratal
stratal units
units are
are used toto achieve
achieve sequences on
sequences on thethe Exxon
Exxon cyclecycle chart.
chart. Second,
Second, Vail
a high-resolution correlation of time and and facies.
facies. proposed eustasy as as the
the predominant driving mecha- mecha-
Finally, the
Finally, the book willwill relate
relate these
these stratal
stratal patterns
patterns toto nism for for sequence evolution (Vail
sequence evolution (Vail et
et aI.,
al., 1977).
1977). ThisThis
accommodation concepts
accommodation concepts developed
developed by by Jervey (1988),
Jervey (1988), interpretation alone
interpretation alone generated
generated and and continues
continues to to gen-
gen-
Posamentier et
Posamentier et al.
al. (1988),
(1988), and
and Posamentier and and Vail
Vail erate
erate much
much discussion
discussion (Sloss,(Sloss, 1988;
1988; Galloway,
Galloway, 1989a).
1989a).
(1988).
(1988). As
As aa result
result ofof Memoir
Memoir 26 26 (Payton,
(Payton, 1977)
1977)andand the
the advent
advent
of improved
of improved seismic-reflection
seismic-reflection technology, technology, the the
PREVIOUS STRATIGRAPHIC
PREVIOUS STRATIGRAPHIC sequence
sequence as as a practical,
practical, unconformity-bounded unit
CONCEPTS
CONCEPTS for stratigraphic analysis
for analysis advanced a giant giant leapleap
beyond Sloss's originaloriginal concept of cratoniccratonic sequences.
sequences.
TERMINOLOGY
AND TERMINOLOGY
AND represented a major step
Although they represented step forward in in
The sequence
The sequence as as an
an unconformity-bounded stratal stratal the application of sequences,
the sequences, seismic-stratigraphy
was proposed
unit was proposed by SlossSloss inin 1948
1948(Sloss
(Sloss et
et al.,
al., 1949;
1949; concepts in
concepts in the
the late
late 1970s
1970s were
were applied
applied primarily to to
Sloss, 1950,
. Sloss, 1950, 1963).
1963). Sloss
Sloss (1963)
(1963) pointed out, out, "The
"The analysis at
basin analysis at the
the scale
scale ofof the
the seismic
seismic data.data. Well
Well
sequence concept
sequence concept is is not new and and waswas already
already old old logs, cores,
logs, cores, and and outcrops
outcrops generally
generally werewere not used
when itit was
when was enunciated
enunciated by the the writer
writer and
and hishis col-
col- independently to
independently to analyze
analyze sequences.
sequences. Seismic
Seismic stratig-
stratig-
leagues in
leagues in 1948.
1948. The
The concept
concept and and practice
practice isis as
as old
old as
as raphy did
raphy did not offer
offer the
the necessary precision to to analyze
analyze
organized stratigraphy:'
organized stratigraphy." Nonetheless,
Nonetheless, Sloss Sloss deserv-
deserv- sedimentary strata
sedimentary strata at at the
the reservoir scale.
scale.
edly is
edly is given
given credit
credit for
for developing
developing the the uncon- In 1980
In 1980 the
the application
application of of seismic
seismic stratigraphy
stratigraphy was was
formity-bounded sequence
formity-bounded sequence as as aa stratigraphic
stratigraphic tool.tool. accommodation models
broadened by new accommodation models developed
developed
Sloss(1963)
Sloss (1963)recognized six six packages
packages of of strata
strata bounded Jervey (1988)
by Jervey (1988) to to explain
explain seismically
seismically resolvable
resolvable
interregional unconformities on
by interregional on the
the North Ameri-
Ameri- stratal patterns. The
stratal The accommodation
accommodation models models quickly
quickly
can craton
can craton between latest
latest Precambrian and and Holocene
Holocene led
led to
to the
the realization that the the sequence
sequence could be be subdi-
subdi-
deposits. He
deposits. H e called
called these
these stratal
stratal packages
packages vided
vided into
into smaller
smaller stratal
stratal units,
units, ultimately
ultimately called"sys-
called "sys-
"sequences" and
"sequences" and gave
gave them
them native
native American
American namesnames tems
tems tracts"
tracts" (Brown
(Brown and and Fisher,
Fisher, 1977).
1977). InIn conceptual,
conceptual,
to emphasize
to emphasize their
their North
North American
American derivation
derivation (Sloss,
(Sloss, 3-dimensional block diagrams developed by
3-dimensional block diagrams developed by Posa-
Posa-
1988). Sloss
1988). Sloss (1988)
(1988) used
used these
these cratonic
cratonic sequences
sequences as as mentier and Vail, (1988), and Baum and Vail (1988),
mentier and Vail, (1988), and Baum and Vail (1988),
operationalunits
operational units for
forpractical
practical tasks
tasks such
such asasfacies
facies map-
map- submarine-fan, lowstand,
submarine-fan, lowstand, transgressive, and and high-
high-
ping, although
ping, although he he felt
felt that
that these
these sequences
sequences "have
"have no no stand systems tracts were illustrated in type-1
stand systems tracts were illustrated in type-1
applications to
necessary applications to the
the rock
rock stratigraphy
stratigraphy and and sequences; shelf-margin,
sequences; shelf-margin, transgressive, and and high-
high-
time stratigraphy
time stratigraphy of of extracratonic
extracratonic or or extracontinental
extracontinental stand systems
stand systems tracts tracts werewere illustrated
illustrated in in type-2
type-2
areas" (Sloss,
areas" (Sloss, 1963).
1963).Although
Although the the concept
concept of of the
the cra-
cra- sequences. After
sequences. After 19801980the the lowstand
lowstand system
system tract
tract ofof the
the
tonic sequence
tonic sequence provided the the foundation
foundation for for sequence
sequence type-1 sequence
type-1 sequence was was recognized to to consist
consist of of the
the
 stratigraphic concepts
Previous stratigraphic 3

basin-floor fan, slope fan, fan, lowstand-prograding

lowstand-prograding sequence was pointed out by Wilson (1975), (1975), who
incised-valley fill (Vail,
wedge, and incised-valley (Vail, 1987).
1987). Type-1
Type-1 and cycles are bounded by wide-
stated that carbonate cycles
type-2 referred to the type of unconformity upon spread transgressive surfaces that may "closely "closely
rested. Systems tracts and type-1
which the sequence rested. type-1 approximate time markers and are more useful as such
and type-2 sequences will be explained further in the facies within each cycle." In a
than the diachronous facies
"Sequence" section, later in the book.
"Sequence" review of work by Sears et al. al. (1941),
(1941), Krumbein and
Concurrently with the development of the concep- (1963)pointed out that the transgressive surface
Sloss (1963)
tual models, other Exxon stratigraphers strongly influ- of a progradational-shoreline sandstone approximates
approximates
(1974) and c.v.
D.E. Frazier (1974)
enced by D.E. C.V. Campbell (1967)
(1967) a time line. Anderson et al. (1984)
(1984) and Goodwin and
began to analyze the stacking patterns of shallowing- (1985) also emphasized this importance of
Anderson (1985)
siliciclastic strata in well logs, cores, and out-
upward siliciclastic cycles for chronostratigraphy, based on work in the
crops. The goal of this analysis was to use stacking carbonate Helderberg Group of New York, and they
patterns to improve subsurface correlations of time designated the upward-shoaling carbonate cycle of
facies. These shallowing-upward stratal units are
and facies. (1975) a PAC, an acronym for Punctuated
Wilson (1975)
bounded by chronostratigraphically
chronostratigraphically significant Cycle.
Aggradational Cycle.
marine-flooding surfaces and are composed of lami- 1983, within Exxon,
By 1983, Exxon, stratigraphic analysis had
nae, laminasets, beds, and bedsets.
bedsets. Beds, bounded by evolved beyond parasequence analysis to documenta-
practically synchronous
synchronous bedding surfaces, were used tion of the various stratal expressions of siliciclastic
siliciclastic
as informal time-stratigraphic markers for well-log well-log sequences and systems tracts in well logs, cores, and
correlation (Campbell, 1967).1967). outcrops. This represented a major step beyond seis-
This line of research quickly converged with the con- mic stratigraphy.
stratigraphy. Using well logs and cores, a very
ceptual models when it became apparent that the high-resolution chronostratigraphic framework of
shallowing-upward stratal units and their component sequence and parasequence boundaries, defined
sedimentary layers were the building blocks of the sys- solely by the relationships of the strata, could be con-
tems tracts and sequences. Although shallowing- facies at the res-
structed to analyze stratigraphy and facies
upward units had been called "cycles" by some other scale. Integration of the systematic
ervoir scale.
(Wilson, 1975;
workers (Wilson, 1975; Goodwin and Anderson, documentation of siliciclastic sequences, similar
1985), these units were called"parasequences"
1985), called "parasequences" by Van advances in carbonate facies (Sarg, (Sarg, 1988),
1988), and
(1985). This usage preserved the dictionary
Wagoner (1985). sequence-keyed biostratigraphy (Loutit et al., al., 1988)
1988)
use of the word "cycle" by Vail et al. al. (1977)
(1977)to indicate a with the methodology of seismic stratigraphy pro-
time in which a regularly repeated event occurs and duced the framework and methodology for strati-
emphasized the relationship between the parase- facies analysis now known as sequence
graphic and facies
quence and the sequence. stratigraphy.
Groups of associated parasequences were observed As more basins were analyzed with sequence-
to stack into retrogradational, progradational, and stratigraphic techniques two important observations
aggradational patterns; these distinct associations of were made. (1)(1) Siliciclastic
Siliciclasticsequences in many parts of
parasequences were called "parasequence sets" (Van (Van the sedimentary record occur with a 100,000- 100,000- to
1985; Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
Wagoner, 1985; 1988).Each parase- 200,000-year frequency.
200,000-year frequency. This is much higher than has
quence set approximately corresponded to a systems been observed previously by seismic stratigraphers
tract. In addition, each systems tract generally was (Goldhammer et al.,al., 1987;
1987; Van Wagoner and andMitchum,
Mitchum,
characterized by a distinct association of faciesfacies and by 1989). (2)
1989). (2) The lowstand systems tract is the dominant
a position within the sequence. systems tract preserved in siliciclastic
siliciclastic sequences, and
Recognition of parasequences and parasequence on the shelf, its major component is the incised valley.valley.
sets as the building blocks of the systems tract and the Examples of incised valleys have been cited in the lit- lit-
sequence placed them within a chronostratigraphic erature for many years. Fisk (1944) (1944) documented the
framework in which their stacking patterns, constitu- extensive incision in the Mississippi valley in response
extent, their compo-
ent bedding types, and, to a great extent, sea-level fall
to the last sea-level fall commencing approximately
nent depositional environments, were predictable. 27,000 years ago (Williams,
27,000 (Williams, 1984).
1984). The incised alluvial
alluvial
This enhanced their use for the subsurface correlation valley of the Mississippi is, in places, 260 ft deep and
facies.
of time and facies. 120 mi (193
120 (193 km) wide (Fisk,(Fisk, 1944).
1944). The lower two-
The concept of the parasequence, or upward- alluvial fill
thirds of the alluvial fill from Cairo, Illinois, to the
Cairo,
shoaling cycle as it is commonly named in literature, present coastline, a distance of approximately 600 mi
dates back at least to Phillips (1836) (1836) and includes (963 km),
(963 km), contains gravel and coarse-grained sand. sand.
(1912), Weller (1930),
Udden (1912), (1930), Wanless
Wanless (1950),
(1950), Duff et al.
al. Using high-resolution seismic data, Suter and Berry-
(1967), Busch (1971,
(1967), (1971, 1974),
1974), Wilson (1975),
(1975), and Einsele (1985) documented regional incision across the
hill (1985)
(1982). The chronostratigraphic signifi-
and Seilacher (1982). signifi- continental shelf of the northern Gulf of Mexico, Mexico, also
cance of the marine-flooding surface bounding a para- sea-level fall.
in response to the last sea-level fall. Incised valleys in
 4 The sequence as a tool

the Albian-aged Muddy Sandstone and its strati- cial cycles.

cycles. The depositional episodes are bounded by
graphic equivalents in the western United States have "hiatuses" or flooding surfaces formed during sea-
(Harms, 1966;
been studied extensively (Harms, 1966; Stone, 1972;
1972; level rise or by shifting delta lobes. Galloway (1989b)
(198913)
Dresser, 1974;
Dresser, 1974; Weimer,
Weimer, 1983,
1983, 1984,
1984, 1988;
1988; and Aubrey, applied Frazier's (1974)
(1974) concept to much larger Ceno-
1989).
1989). zoic units of the Gulf of Mexico
Mexico basin, recognizing
Sequence stratigraphy relates the formation of about 1414 major continental-margin outbuilding epi-
incised valleys to relative changes in sea level and, for sodes, each of which culminated in a major flooding
the first time, places them in a chronostratigraphic event. Although Frazier's (1974)
(1974) depositional episodes
context of parasequence and sequence boundaries.boundaries. have frequencies
frequencies comparable to fourth-order
Detailed analysis of sequences in well logs, cores, and sequences, Galloway'S
Galloway's (1989b)
(1989b) units average 4 to 5 Ma
outcrops reveals the widespread occurrence in time in frequency.
frequency. They commonly include several third-
and space of incised valleys within the updip part of order sequences as defined by Vail et al. (1977).
(1977).
tract. As a result, the timing and
the lowstand systems tract. Both T-R cycle analysis and the nearly identical
distribution of valley incision and fill fill becomes more "genetic stratigraphic
stratigraphic sequence" analysis rely on the
predictable. This, in turn, is critical for understanding: transgressive surface at the top of a regressive unit or
the surface of maximum flooding
flooding for regional correla-
correla-
(1) variations in type-l
(1) type-1 sequence-boundary tion. We believe that the sequence boundary is a better
shelf;
expression on the shelf; surface for regional stratigraphic analysis than a trans-
(2) regional distribution of shallow-marine
(2) shallow-marine and gressive surface for the following reasons:
nonmarine depositional environments within
each sequence; and
(3) reservoir distribution within the sequence,
(3) (1) The sequence boundary is a single, wide-
because on the shelf, incised valleys com- spread surface that separates all of the rocks
monly contain the best reservoirs within each above from all of the rocks below the bound-
sequence. ary. Although all points on the sequence
ary.
boundary do not represent the same duration
of time, one instant of time is common to all
SEQUENCE AS A TOOL
THE SEQUENCE points. This synchroneity is basinwide and is
interpreted to be global within limits of bio-
STRATIGRAPHICANALYSIS
FOR STRATIGRAPHIC stratigraphic dating. For these reasons the
Application of sequence-stratigraphic analysis sequence boundary has time-stratigraphic
depends on the recognition of a hierarchy of stratal significance.
units including beds, bedsets, parasequences, parase- (2) The sequence boundary forms independently
quence sets, and sequences bounded by chronostrati- fall in sea
of sediment supply. A rapid relative fall
graphically significant surfaces of erosion, level coupled with a large supply of sediment
nondeposition, or their correlative surfaces. This delivered rapidly will result in a sequence
method of stratigraphic analysis contrasts with the use boundary strongly marked by truncation. A
of transgressive and regressive cycles of strata for fall in sea level coupled with a
rapid relative fall
regional correlation of time and facies.
facies. minor supply of sediment delivered slowly
Transgressive and regressive cycles have been used will result in a sequence boundary marked by
for regional correlation for at least 50 years (Grabau, widespread subaerial exposure but little trun-
Widespread
1932; Krumbein and Sloss,
1932; Sloss, 1963).
1963). Recently,
Recently, propo- cation. In contrast, transgressions and regres-
cation.
nents of transgressive and regressive cycles, referred sions are strongly controlled by sediment
to as T-R units, for regional correlation have included supply and for that reason may not be syn-
(1983), Busch and Rollins (1984),
Ryer (1983), (1984), Busch et al. chronous, even within a given basin. basin. For
(1985), and Galloway (1989a).
(1985), (1989a). Galloway (1989a)
(1989a) intro- example, movements of the shoreline are
the "genetic stratigraphic sequence;'
duced the"genetic sequence," which is a often due to local differences in sediment sup-
regressive depositional unit bounded by transgressive ply around a basin rather than sea-level
surfaces. Although he did not define it specifically, he changes, and therefore typically are regionally
described it as "a package of sediments recording a diachronous.
significant episode of basin-margin outbuilding and (3) There are two major transgressive surfaces
(3)
basin filling,
filling, bounded by periods of widespread basin- within the sequence: the first flooding surface
flooding."
margin flooding:' forming the upper boundary of the lowstand
forming
The genetic stratigraphic sequence is based on Fra- systems tract and the maximum-flooding sur-
(1974) concept of depositional episodes pat-
zier's (1974) face associated with the condensed section.
face section.
"sequences" deposited
terned after late Quaternary "sequences" Typically, several other transgressive surfaces,
"episodes" controlled by gla-
during high-frequency "episodes" bounding parasequences within the transgres-
 Sequence
Sequencestratigraphy
stratigraphy 55

sive systems
sive systemstract, tract, occur
occur between
between these these major
major SEQUENCESTRATIGRAPHY
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
surfaces. All
surfaces. All of
of these
these surfaces
surfaces potentially
potentially can can AND THE
AND THE HIERARCHY
HIERARCHY
be confused
be confused in in regional
regional correlation,
correlation, especially
especially OF
OF STRATALUNITS
STRATAL UNITS
the data
ifif the datausedused toto correlate
correlateare arewidely
widelyspaced.
spaced.
Theage
The ageof of each
eachtransgressive
transgressivesurface surfacewithin
withinaa As already
As already discussed,
discussed, stratal
stratal units
units from
from the the lamina
lamina
sequenceat
sequence atdifferent
differentpoints
pointsin inaabasin
basin maymaydif-
dif- to the
to the sequence
sequencecan can bebe grouped
grouped into into aa hierarchy.
hierarchy.Rec- Rec-
fer significantly depending upon
fer significantly depending upon variations in variations in ognitionof
ognition of these
thesestratal
stratalunits
unitsandandtheir
their use
use inincorrelat-
correlat-
regional sediment
regional sediment supply. supply. ing time
ing time and and facies
facies isis thethe essence
essence of sequence
of sequence
(4) The
(4) Thesequence
sequenceboundaryboundary commonly
commonlyisis markedmarked stratigraphy.The
stratigraphy. Thefollowing
followingdiscussion
discussionbuildsbuilds upward
upward
by significant
by significant regional
regional erosion
erosion and onlap,
and onlap, fromthe
from the smallest
smallestunit unit inin the
the hierarchy,
hierarchy, the the lamina,
lamina,to to
which exert
which exertaastrong
strongcontrol
controlon on facies
faciesdistribu-
distribu- thelargest
the largestunit
unit considered
consideredin in this
this book,
book, thethe sequence.
sequence.
tion. Transgressive
tion. Transgressive surfaces surfaces are are characterized
characterized Eachstratal
Each stratalunit
unit ininthe
thehierarchy
hierarchyisis defined
definedand andiden-
iden-
byvery
by veryslow
slowdeposition
depositionor ornondeposition
nondepositionwith with tified only
tified only byby the
the physical
physical relationships
relationships of of the
the strata,
strata,
onlyrelatively
only relativelyminorminor transgressive
transgressivescour. scour. including lateral
including lateral continuity
continuity and and geometry
geometry of of the
the sur-
sur-
Systems tracts
(5) Systems
(5) tracts occur
occur predictably
predictably within within thethe faces bounding
faces bounding the the units,
units, vertical-stacking
vertical-stacking patterns,
patterns,
sequence and
sequence and areare related
related to to the
the sequence
sequence and lateral
and lateral geometry
geometry of of the
the strata
strata within
within thethe units.
units. In In
boundary; each
boundary; each systems
systems tract tract is is associated
associated addition, facies
addition, facies andand environmental
environmental interpretations
interpretations of of
with the
with the boundary
boundary at at some
some point.
point. ThisThis rela-
rela- strata on
strata on either
either side
side ofof bounding
bounding surfaces
surfaces are are critical,
critical,
tionship is
tionship is not
not true
true ofof the
the transgressive
transgressive sur- sur- especially for
especially for parasequence,
parasequence, parasequence
parasequence set, set, and
and
faces.
faces. sequence-boundaryidentification.
sequence-boundary identification.Thickness,
Thickness,time timefor for
(6) There
(6) There isis aa distinct
distinct break in in deposition
deposition and and aa formation, and
formation, and interpretation
interpretation of of regional
regional or or global
global ori-
ori-
basinward shift
basinward shift inin facies
facies across
across the the uncon-
uncon- gin are
gin are not used to to define
definestratal
stratalunits
units or
or toto place
place them
them
formable portion
formable portion of of aa type-1
type-1 sequence
sequencebound-bound- in the
in the hierarchy.
hierarchy. In In particular,
particular, parasequences and and
ary, making
ary, making itit aa natural
natural surface
surface for for separating
separating sequences can
sequences can bebe identified
identified in in well
well logs,
logs, cores,
cores, oror out-
out-
relatively conformable
relatively conformable facies facies packages
packages above above crops and
crops and used to to construct
construct aa stratigraphic
stratigraphicframework
framework
and below.
and below. Commonly,
Commonly, this this break occurs occurs regardless of
regardless of their
their interpreted
interpreted relationship
relationship to to changes
changes
within the
within the middle
middle to to upper partsparts of regressive
regressive in eustasy.
in eustasy.
units. If
units. If the
the transgressive
transgressive surfacessurfaces bounding
bounding Documentation of
Documentation of parasequences, parasequence
parasequence
Galloway's (1989a)
Galloway's (1989a) "genetic
"genetic stratigraphic
stratigraphic sets, and
sets, and sequences
sequencesin in this
this book isis primarily
primarily from from Ter-
Ter-
sequence" are
sequence" are used to to subdivide
subdividebasin basin stratig-
stratig- tiary strata
tiary strata inin the
the northern Gulf Gulf ofof Mexico
Mexico and and Creta-
Creta-
raphy and and the sequence
sequence boundaries are are over-
over- ceous strata
ceous strata ofof the
the basins
basins in in the
the western
western interior
interior of of the
the
looked, then the
looked, the basic depositional unit United States.
United States. Examples
Examples are are exclUSively
exclusiveiy of siliciclastic
siliciclastic
contains aa potentially major
contains major unconformity rocks; however,
rocks; however, many of the concepts concepts documented
documented by
within it,
within it, making
making the the accurate
accurateinterpretation
interpretation of examples can
these examples can also
also be applied
applied to to carbonate
carbonate strata strata
lateral-faciesrelationships
lateral-facies relationships difficult.
difficult. (Sarg, 1988).
(Sarg,1988).
(7) Recognizing
(7) Recognizing the the unconformable
unconformableportion portion of thethe
sequence boundary as
sequence as part of the hierarchy of LAMINA, LAMINASET,
chronostratigraphic stratal
chronostratigraphic stratal surfaces
surfaces and dis- dis- BED, BEDSET
continuities
continuities describeddescribed in this book has great
great
Campbell (1967)
Campbell (1967) identified laminae,
laminae, laminasets,
laminasets,
significance in working out chronostrati- chronostrati-
beds, and bedsets asas the components
components of a sedimentary
sedimentary
contemporaneity of facies.
graphy and contemporaneity facies. How-
How-
body; we recognize
body; recognize these stratal
stratal units asas the building
ever, using only facies facies boundaries, or
parasequences. General
blocks of parasequences. General characteristics
characteristics of
subordinating "the stratigraphy of surfaces" these units are given in Table 1; definitions and more
1; definitions
(Galloway, 1989a)
(Galloway, 1989a) to facies
facies boundaries that
detailed characteristics
detailed characteristics are given in Table
Table 2.2. Figure
Figure 11
commonly transgress geologic
commonly geologic time,
time, may lead
shows these
shows these types of strata from
fromdelta-front
delta-front turbidites
turbidites
to erroneous
to erroneous conclusions
conclusions about about contempora-
contempora-
outcrops, and well logs
in cores, outcrops, logs from
from the Panther
Panther
facies distribution.
neity of facies distribution.
Tongue of late Santonian age
Tongue age (Fouch
(Fouch et aI.,
al., 1983)
1983) in
east-central Utah.
east-central Utah. Because treatment of these units is
As will be discussed throughout this book, book, the not our major thrust, Campbell's (1967) (1967) paper is rec-
rec-
correla-
sequence, bounded by unconformities or their correla- additional detail.
ommended for additional detail.
conformities, is a highly practical
tive conformities, practical stratal
stratal unit for four types of stratal
The four stratal units listed above
above are geneti-
geneti-
regional stratigraphic
stratigraphic analysis
analysis with seismic, well log, similar; they differ primarily in the interval of
cally similar;
and biostratigraphic
biostratigraphic data, as well as for reservoir-scale
reservoir-scale formation and in the areal extent of the bound-
time for formation
analysis using well logs, outcrops,
analysis outcrops, and cores.
cores. It is most ing surfaces. The surfaces bounding the units are arc-
completely understood and used at all scales of defined by (1) texture, (2)
(1)changes in texture, (2) stratal termina-
termina-
analysis by a synthesis of these data bases.
analysis bases. (3) paraconformities (Dunbar
tions, and (3) (Dunbar and Rogers,
Rogers,
 Stratal
Stratal Units
Units in
in Hierarchy:
Hierarchy: Definitions
Definitions and
and Characteristics
Characteristics

TABLEt
TABLE 1
STRATAL
STRATAL RANGE
RANGE OF
OF RANGE
RANGE OF
OF LATERAL
LATERAL RANGE
RANGE OF
OF TIMES
TIMES FOR
FOR
UNITS
UNITS DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS THICKNESSES
THICKNESSES (FEET)
(FEETI EXTENTS
EXTENTS(SQ.
(SO. MILESI
MILES1 FORMATION
FORMATION (YEARS)
(YEARS) TOOL
TOOL RESOLUTION

1000 100 10 1 INCHES 100001000100 10 1 lo6 105104lo3 10' 10 1

AA RELATIVEL
RELATIVELYY CONFORMABLE
CONFORMABLE SUCCESSION
SUCCESSION u
OF
OFGENETIC ALL Y RELA
GENETICALLY TEp STRA
RELATED TA
STRATA ~
SEQUENCE BOUNDED
SEQUENCE BOUNDED BYBY UNCONFORMITIES
UNCONFORMITIESAND AND THEIR
THEIR 8 ~
CORRELATlVE
CORRELATIVE CONFORMITIES
CONFORMITIES (MITCHUM
(MITCHUM 4. rJ)

I- ~I-A-N_D-O-T-H-E-R-S-.- 1-9-7-7-'---------t-_f-_-t-_+-_f--+__t--t-__t---i_+-t_--if-t---i_+---i_-t_+--i__+_0..
AND OTHERS 19771
2
AA SUCCESSION
SUCCESSION OF
OF GENETICALLY
GENETICALLY RELATED
RELATED
«
d
II:
o..J
PARA-
PARA
PARASEQUENCES
PARASEQUENCESFORMING
FORMINGAA DISTINCTIVE
DISTINCTIVE 9
a
a..
SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE
ST ACKING PATTERN
STACKING
BOUNDED
BOUNDEDBY
PATTERNAND
BY MAJOR
AND COMMONL
COMMONLY
MAJORMARINE-FLOODING
Y
MARINE FLOODING
::
X
w
SET
SET
SURFACES
SURFACESAND
AND THEIR
THEIRCORRELATIVE
CORRELATIVE SUR-
SUR
FACES_
FACES

AA RELA TIVEL Y CONFORMABLE

RELATIVELY CONFORMABLE SUCCESSION
SUCCESSION
OF
OFGENETIC ALL Y RELA
GENETICALLY TED BEDS
RELATED BEDS OR
OR
PARA
PARA
BEDSETS
BEDSETS BOUNDED
BOUNDEDBY BY MARINE-FLOODING
MARINE FLOODING
SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE
SURFACES
SURFACES AND
AND THEIR
THEIRCORRELATIVE
CORRELATIVE SUR-
SUR
FACES
FACES

BEDSET
BEDSET SEE TABLE
SEE TABLE TWO
TWO
0
<.:l
o..J
S
1-----1r-------------------+-+--t--t-+-t---+-t---+-+-II-t--+-+-+-+-+-+_-t-+--t-------:j
I I I
2,

~
BED
aED SEE TABLE
SEE TABLE TWO
TWO

a
a..
LAMINA-
SET
SEE TABLE
SEE TABLE TWO
TWO
II g
0
a:
u
0
I-

-
l-
?=,
00.
0P
-
zZ
LAMINA
LAMINA SEE TABLE
SEE TWO
TABLE TWO
II II «
4
w
LU
a
a:.
00
u
U
 Characteristics of Lamina,
Detailed Characteristics Lamina, Laminaset,
Laminaset, Bed,
Bed, and
and Bedset
Bedset (from Campbell,
Campbell, 1967)
1967)
TABLE 22
TABLE
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS
STRATAL
STRATAl OF CONSTITUENT
OF DEPOSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
CHARACTERISTICS OF
UNIT
UNIT DEFINITION
DEFINITION STRATAL UNITS
STRATAL UNITS PROCESSES
PROCESSES BOUNDING SURFACES
BOUNDING SURFACES

RELATIVELY CONFORMABLE
A RELATIVELY CONFORMABLE BEDS ABOVE AND BELOW
BEDS BELOW EPISODIC OR
EPISODIC OR PERIODIC.
PERIODIC. (SAME AS BED
(SAME BED BELOW)
BELOW)
SUCCESSION OF
SUCCESSION OF GENETICALLY
GENETICALLY BEDSET ALWAYS DIFFER
BEDSET DIFFER IN
IN (SAME AS BED
(SAME BED BELOW)
BELOW) PLUS
PLUS
RELATED BEDS
RELATED BEDS BOUNDED
BOUNDED BY
BY COMPOSITION. TEXTURE,
COMPOSITION, TEXTURE. OR
OR
SURFACES 'CALLED
SURFACES BEDSET
(CALLED BEDSET STRUCTURE
SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURE • BEDSETS
BED BEDSET SURFACES
SETS AND BEDSET SURFACES FORM
FORM
BEDSET
BEDSET SURFACES) OF
SURFACES) OF EROSION,
EROSION. NON-
NON- FROM THOSE
FROM THOSE COMPOSING OVER
OVER A LONGER PERIOD OF
LONGER PERIOD OF TIME THAN
THAN
DEPOSITION. OR
DEPOSITION, OR THEIR
THEIR CORREL-
CORREL- THE BEDSET
THE BEDSET BEDS
BEDS
ATlVE
A TlVE CONFORMITIES
• HAVE A GREATER
COMMONLY HAVE GREATER LATERAL
EXTENT
EXTENT THAN
THAN BEDDING
BEDDING SURFACES
SURFACES

RELATIVELY
A RELATlVEL CONFORMABLE
Y CONFORMABLE NOT ALL BEDS
NOT BEDS CONTAIN EPISODIC OR PERIODIC
EPISODIC PERIODIC • FORM RAPIDLY,
FORM RAPIDLY, MINUTES
MINUTES TO
TO YEARS
YEARS
SUCCESSION OF
SUCCESSION OF GENETICALLY
GENETICALLY LAMINASETS
LAMINASETS
RELATED LAMINAE OR
RELATED LAMINA-
OR LAMINA- EPISODIC DEPOSITION
EPISODIC DEPOSITION INCLUDES
INCLUDES • SEPARATE ALL YOUNGER STRATA FROM
SEPARATE FROM
SETS BOUNDED BY
SETS BY SURFACES
SURFACES DEPOSITION FROM
DEPOSITION FROM STORMS,
STORMS. OLDER STRATA OVER THE
ALL OLDER THE EXTENT
EXTENT OF
OF
(CALLED BEDDING SURFACESI
(CALLED SURFACES1 OF FLOODS. DEBRIS
FLOODS, DEBRIS FLOWS,
FLOWS. TUR-
TUR- THE
THE SURFACES
SURFACES
EROSION. NON-DEPOSITION
EROSION, NON-DEPOSITION OR CURRENTS
BIDITY CURRENTS
• FACIES
FACIES CHANGES ARE BOUNDED
BOUNDED BY BED-
BED-
THEIR CORRELATIVE
THEIR CORRELATIVE CONFORMI·
CONFORMI- PERIODIC DEPOSITION
DEPOSITION INCLUDES
PERIODIC DING
DING SURFACES
SURFACES
TIES
TIES
BED DEPOSITION FROM
DEPOSITION FROM SEASONAL
BED • USEFUL FOR
USEFUL FOR CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY
CLIMATIC CHANGES
OR CLIMATIC CHANGES
UNDER CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES

• TlME REPRESENTED
TIME REPRESENTED BY BEDDING
BEDDING SURFACES
SURFACES
PROBABLY
PROBABLY GREATER
GREATER THAN TIME
TlME REPRE-
REPRE-
SENTED BY BEDS
SENTED BEDS

• EXTENTS VARY WIDELY FROM

AREAL EXTENTS FROM
SQUARE
SQUARE FEET
FEET TO 1000's
1 0 0 0 ' s SQUARE MILES

A RELATIVELY
RELATlVEL Y CONFORMABLE CONSISTS OF A GROUP OR EPISODIC.
EPISODIC, COMMONLY FOUND • FORM RAPIDLY.
RAPIDLY, MINUTES TO DAYS.
SUCCESSION OF GENETICALLY
GENETICALL Y SET OF CONFORMABLE IN
IN WAVE-
WAVE· OR CURRENT-RIPPLED
CURRENT-RIPPLED
RELATED LAMINAE BOUNDED
BOUNDED BY LAMINAE THAT COMPOSE BEDS, TURBIDITES, WAVE-
BEDS. • SMALLER AREAL EXTENT THAN ENCOM-
ENCOM-
SURFAC~S
SURFACES (CALLED LAMINASET DISTINCTIVE STRUCTURES
STRUCTURES RIPPLED
RIPPLED INTERVALS IN
IN HUM- PASSING BED
LAMINASET SURFACE)
SURFACEI OF EROSION.
EROSION. NON-
NON- IN
IN A BED MOCKY BEDSETS,
BEDSETS, OR CROSS
DEPOSITION OR THEIR CORRELA.
CORRELA· BEDS
BEDS AS REVERSE
REVERSE FLOW RIP-
RIP-
TIVE CONFORMITIES
TlVE PLES
PLES OR RIPPLED
RIPPLED TOES OF
FORESETS
FORESETS

THE SMALLEST MEGASCOPIC UNIFORM IN

IN COMPOSITION/
COMPOSITIONI EPISODIC
EPISODIC • FORMS VERY RAPIDLY.
RAPIDLY, MINUTES TO
LAYER TEXTURE
TEXTURE HOURS
LAMINA
NEVER INTERNALLY • SMALLER AREAL EXTENT THAN ENCOM-
LAYERED
LAYERED PASSING BED
8 Parasequence

1957) marked by burrow, root, or soil zones.

1957) zones. Figure 2 Delta: A genetically related succession of strata
Delta:
illustrates these criteria at the scale
illustrates scale of the bed. The coastline
deposited at the mouth of a river, causing the coastline
bounding surfaces
surfaces are slightly
slightly erosional
erosional to nondeposi- to bulge into a standing body of water.
water. The delta can be
tional and separate younger from from older strata. The delta-plain and distributary-channel
subdivided into delta-plain distributary-channel
lateral continuity of the bounding surfaces
lateral surfaces varies from
from subenvironments dominated by unidirectional, fluvial
inches for some laminasets
square inches laminasets to thousands of processes;
processes; and stream-mouth bar, delta-front, and
some beds or bedsets. The surfaces
square miles for some surfaces prodelta subenvironments
subenvironments dominated by unidirec-
form relatively
form relatively rapidly,
rapidly, ranging from
from seconds to thou- tional or bidirectional processes. The subenviron-
sands of years, and so are essentially synchronous associations of
ments of the delta are interpreted from associations
extents (Campbell,
over their areal extents 1967). In addition,
(Campbell, 1967). addition, beds and bedsets, sandstone/shale
sandstonelshale ratios, and
interval represented by the surfaces
the time interval surfaces bound- geometry.
sandstone-body geometry.
layers probably is much greater than the time
ing these layers Beach: A genetically related succession of strata
interval represented by the layers
layers themselves.
themselves. For all processes and depos-
dominated by wave and current processes depos-
of these reasons, beds and bedsets commonly can be along a coastline
ited as a ribbon of sediment along coastline of a
chronostratigraphic correlation,
used for chronostratigraphic correlation, over wide water. The beach can be subdivided
standing body of water.
depositional settings.
areas in many depositional settings. Closely spaced foreshore, upper-shoreface, and
into backshore, foreshore,
(0.5 to 2 mi or 0.8
induction logs (0.5 0.8 to 3 km apart, espe- lower-shoreface subenvironments based on associa-
lower-shoreface associa-
sections) or contin-
cially in marine-shale or mudstone sections) contin- tions of beds and bedsets, ichnofossil
ichnofossil assemblages,
assemblages,
outcrops provide the most detailed data for a
uous outcrops sandstonelshale ratios.
and sandstone/shale ratios.
time-stratigraphicanalysis
time-stratigraphic analysisbased on bed or bedset sur-
faces.
faces. Characteristics
Characteristics
Parasequence characteristics are summarized in
PARASEQUENCE
PARASEQUENCE siliciclasticparasequences are prograda-
1.Most siliciclastic
Table 1. prograda-
distal toes of successively
tional, i.e., the distal successively younger
Observations
Scope of Observations sandstone bedsets were deposited progressively far- far-
depositional pattern results in an
ther basinward. This depositional
Parasequences have been identified
Parasequences identified in coastal-plain,
coastal-plain, facies in which youn-
upward-shoaling association of facies
deltaic, beach, tidal, estuarine, and shelf environ-
deltaic,
ger bedsets were deposited in progressively shallower
(Van Wagoner, 1985).
ments (Van 1985). It is difficult to identify Some siliciclastic,
siliciclastic, and most carbonate, parase-
water. Some
parasequences in fluvial
fluvial sections
sections where marine or quences are aggradational
quences aggradational and also shoal upward.
marginal-marine rocks are absent, and in slope or
marginal-marine schematic well-log and stratal characteristics
The schematic characteristics of
basinal sections,
sections, which are deposited too far below sea upward-coarsening and upward-fining parase-
level to be influenced
influenced by an increase
increase in water depth.
depth. quences are shown in Figure 3. In the typical upward-
The general
general concepts
concepts presented here apply to all of the coarsening parasequence (Figures
coarsening (Figures 3A-3C), bedsets
depositional environments mentioned above in which
depositional
thicken, sandstones coarsen, and the sandstone/
thicken, sandstone1
parasequences have been recognized; the followingfollowing mudstone ratio increases upward. In the upward-
discussion illustrates
discussion illustrates deltaic
deltaic and beach parasequences
fining parasequence (Figure 3D), bedsets thin,
(Figure 3D),
because these are common in most basins.
sandstones become finer finer grained (commonly
(commonly culmi-
culmi-
Definitions nating in mudstones and coals),coals), and the sandstone/
sandstone1
decreases upward.
mudstone ratio decreases
We will use the following
following terms in the described con-
con-
vertical-facies associations within both the
The vertical-facies
texts:
texts:
upward-coarsening and upward-fining parase-
Parasequence: relatively conformable
Parasequence: A relatively conformable succession
succession of
quences are interpreted to record a gradual decrease in
genetically related beds or bedsets bounded by
depth. Evidence
water depth. Evidence of an abrupt decrease in water
surfaces or their correlative
marine-flooding surfaces correlative surfaces.
surfaces.
foreshore bedsets lying sharply on
depth, such as foreshore
In special positions within the sequence,
sequence, parase-
lower-shoreface bedsets, has not been observed
quences may be bounded either above or below by
within parasequences. associa-
parasequences. Also, vertical-facies associa-
sequence boundaries.
sequence
indicatinga gradual increase
tions indicating increase in water depth have
Marine-Flooding Surface:
Surface: A surface
surface separating youn-
not been observed within parasequences. If individual
parasequences. If individual
across which there is evidence of
ger from older strata across
parasequences do exist,
"deepening-upward" parasequences exist, they
an abrupt increase in water depth. This deepening
accompanied by minor submarine ero-
commonly is accompanied
sion or nondeposition (but not by subaerial
subaerial erosion
due to stream rejuvenation or a basinward shift in
facies), with a minor hiatus indicated.
facies), indicated. The marine- r

flooding surface
flooding surface has a correlative
correlative surface
surface in the coastal
coastal 1-Bedset, bed, laminaset, lamina characteristics
Figure l-Bedset, characteristics
plain and a correlative surface on the shelf.
shelf. and relationships.
 0-
A!'( U~ITS
o
'" Parasequence 9

BEDDING
,0
~ ;;
IN .., ~
COAE ::l: 0 WITHIN EACH PARA SeQUENCE:
GR
API UNITS
0
PARASEQUENCE SANDSTONE BEDSET$ AND BEDS THICKEN UPWARD
eOUNDA,AYi
SANDSTONEIMUDSTONE RATIO INCREASES UPWARD

WlTHlN EACH
GRAIN PARASEQUENCE:
SIZE INCREASES UPWARD

SANDSTONE
LAMINAE BEDSETS AND
GEOMETRY BEDS THICKEN
BECOME UPWARD
STEEPER UPWARD ON GENERALI
SANDSTONEIMUDSTONE RATIO INCREASES UPWARD
BIOTURBATION DECREAses U~AAD TO THE PARASEQUENCE
BOUNDARY
GRAIN SlZE INCREASES UPWARD

LAMINAE
FACIES GEOMETRY
WITHIN BECOME
EACH STEEPER UPWARD
PARASEOUENce IIN GENERAL1
SHOAL UPWARD

BIOTURBATION DECREASES UPWARD TO THE PARASEOUENCE

PARASEQUENCE BOUNDARY MARKED BY:
BOUNDARY
• ABRUPT CHANGE IN LITHOLOGY FROM SANDSTONE BELOW
FACIES
THEWlTHlN EACH PARASEOUENCE
BOUNDARY TO MUDSTONESHOAL
ORUPWARD
SILTSTONE ABove THE
BOUNDARY
PARASEQUENCE BOUNDARY MARKED BY:
• ABRUPT DECREASE
ABRUPT CHANGE IN BED THICKNESS
IN LITHOLOGY FROM SANDSTONE BELOW
• THE BOUNDARY
POSSIBLE TO MUDSTONE
MINOR OR SILTSTONE
TRUNCATION ABOVE THELAMINAE
OF UNDERLYING
BOUNDARY
HORIZON OF BIOTURBATION; BIOTURBATION INTENSITY
ABRUPT DECREASE IN BED THICKNESS
DIMINISHES DOWNWARD
POSSIBLE MINOR TRUNCATION OF UNDERLYING LAMINAE

o SANDSTONE
GLAUCONITE, PHOSPHORITE, SHELL HASH, ORGANIC· RICH
HORIZON OF BIOTURBATION; BIOTURBATION INTENSITY
SHALE, SHALE PEBBLES
DIMINISHES DOWNWARD
ABRUPT DEEPENING IN DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMtNT ACROSS

o
GLAUCONITE, PHOSPHORITE, SHELL HASH, ORGANIC-RICH
SANDSTONE
THE BOUNDARY
SHALE. SHALE PEBBLES
MUDSTONE
ABRUPT DEEPENING IN DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT ACROSS
THE BOUNDARY

~ ~
~ BURROWS AND A VESTIGE OF
PLANAR BEDDING
MUDSTONE TROUGH·CROSS
BEDDING
~ HUMMOCKY BEDDlriG .;;.;:.. A WAVE·RIPPLW SANDSTONE
~ ~v BED
FS _ FORESHORE;
TROUGH-CROSS
USF _ UPPER SHOREFACE:
PLANAR BEDDING
Isl
HUMMOCKY BEDDING
BEDDING LSF _ LOWER SI-fOREFACE; O,LSF _ DISTAL LOWER SHOREFACE: SH • SHELF
BED
Y~~;,;::;;:;;:~~~
Figure 3A-Stratal characteristics of an upward-eoarsening
FS = FORESHORE. USF parasequence.
UPPER SHOREFACE. LSF This type
LOWER SHOREFACE.=D LSF of parasequence
DISTAL LOWER SHOREFACE; SHis
= interpreted to
= SHELF =

form in a beach environment

Figure on a sandy,of wave-
3A-Stratal characteristics or fluvial-dominated
an upward-coarsening shoreline.
parasequence. This type of parasequence is interpreted to
form in a beach environment on a sandy, wave- or fluvial-dominated shoreline.
0
'"
API UNITS
z , ,.i s ·0
API UNITS '" o. BEDDING 0 "<
I0
~~ g 5
BEDDING 2 ffi~i d?
5 CORE
2
" ;
s g,"> O
"•
IN O z WITHIN EACH PARASEOUENCE:
$2 CORE WITHIN EACH PARASEQUENCE:
PAAASEQUENCE
,
BOUNDARY.,

•,,• ,• V

~
v
V

.-;:u
v v
v~"<:
..
V SANDSTONE BEDS
SANDSTONE BEDS OR OR BEOSETS
BEDSETS

SANDSTONEIMUDSTONE RATIO
THICKEN
THICKEN

INCREASES
UPWARDUPWARD

UPWARDUPWARD
" •0
SANDSTONE/MUDSTONE RATIO

GRAIN SlZE INCREASES UPWARD

GRAIN SIZE INCREASES UPWARD
INCREASES

LAMINAE GEOMETRY BECOME STEEPER UPWARD

LAMINAE GEOMETRY BECOME STEEPER UPWARD
BIOTURBATION INCREASES UPWARD TO THE PARASEQUENCE
BIOTURBATION
BOUNDARY INCREASES UPWARD TO THE PARASEOUENCE
BOUNDARY
FACIES WlTHlN THE PARASEOUENCE SHOAL UPWARD
FACIES WITHIN THE PARASEQUENCE SHOAL UPWARD
PARASEQUENCE BOUNDARY MARKED BY:
ABRUPT CHANGE IN LITHOLOGY FROM SANDSTONE BELOW TO
PARASEQUENCE BOUNDARY MARKED BY:
MUDSTONE ABOVE
ABRUPTDECREASE
ABRUPT CHANGEININ LITHOLOGY
BED THICKNESS FROM SANDSTONE BELOW TO
MUDSTONE
POSSIBLE ABOVE
SLIGHT TRUNCATION OF UNDERLYING LAMINAE
ABRUPT OF
HORIZON DECREASE IN BED
BIOTURBATION, THICKNESS
BURROWING INTENSITY
DECREASES SLIGHT
POSSIBLE DOWNWARDTRUNCATION OF UNDERLYING LAMINAE
GLAUCONITE. SHELL HASH, PHOSPHORITE. OR ORGANIC-RICH
HORIZON OF BIOTURBATION; BURROWING INTENSITY
SHALE
DECREASES DOWNWARD
SANDSTONE ABRUPT DEEPENING IN DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT ACROSS
• GLAUCONITE,
THE BOUNDARY SHELL HASH, PHOSPHORITE. OR ORGANIC·RICH

o SANDSTONE
MUDSTONE
SHALE
ABRUPT DEEPENING IN DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT ACROSS
CURRENT-RIPPLE LAMINAE
THE BOUNDARY

o
TROUGH

I
MUDSTONE
OSMB = OUTER STEAM-MOUTH BAR. DF = DELTA FRONT. PRO D = PRO DELTA. SH = SHELF

~
CURRENT_RIPPLE LAMIN"'E
F71 BURROWS
~
Figure 3B-Stratal characteristicsof an upward-coarsening
H PLANARparasequence.
TROUGH- This type of parasequence is interpreted to
CROSS. BEDS
LAMINAE
form in a deltaic environment on a sandy, fluvial- or wave-dominated
I-fOMOGENEOUS
TURBIDITE
shoreline. c:::J WAVE-RIPPLED LAMINAE
OSMB _ OUTER STEAM-MOUTH BAR. DF • DELTA FRONT. PAD 0 • PAD DELTA. SH • SHELF

Figure 3D-Stratal characteristics of an upward-coarsening parasequence. This type of parasequence is interpreted to

form in a deltaic environment on a sandy, fluvial- or wave-dominated shoreline.
 facies relationships
Vertical facies relationships 13
13

venation, downward shift in coastal onlap, or onlap of several reasons.

can be made, for several reasons. (1) (1) Parasequence
Parasequence
strata; it may be marked by local erosion due
overlying strata; recognizable surfaces that sepa-
boundaries are easily recognizable sepa-
to fluvial processes and local evidenceevidence of subaerial
subaerial rate older beds from younger beds. (2) (2)The boundaries
exposure such as soil or root horizons normally found
exposure (similarobservations
form rapidly (similar observations have been made by
coastal-plain deposits.
in coastal-plain deposits. The correlative
correlative surface on Wilson, 1975;
other authors, notably Wilson, 1975; and Goodwin
conformable surface
the shelf is a conformable surface with no significant
significant Anderson, 1985),
and Anderson, 1985), probably within hundreds of
hiatus indicated and is marked by thin pelagic or hemi- approximate time
years to thousands of years, and approximate
pelagic deposits. These deposits include include thin carbon- markers useful for chronostratigraphy
markers chronostratigraphy (Sears (Sears et al.,
ates, organic-rich mudstones, glauconites, and 1941; Krumbein and Sloss, 1963;
1941; 1963; Wilson, 1975;1975;
indicating terrigenous-sediment
volcanic ashes indicating terrigenous-sediment star- Goodwin and Anderson, 1985). 1985). (3)(3) Parasequence
across correlative
vation. Strata across correlative surfaces usually do boundaries bound genetically
genetically related assemblages
assemblages of
indicate a change in water depth; commonly
not indicate commonly the facies, providing an essential
facies, essential framework for faciesfacies
correlative surfaces
correlative surfaces in the coastal plain or on the shelf well-log cross sec-
interpretation and correlation on well-log sec-
identified only by correlating updip or downdip
can be identified sequence. (4)
tions within the sequence. (4) Finally,
Finally, they commonly
from a marine-flooding surface. In even deeper-water areally extensive enough for local subsurface
are areally subsurfacecorre-
corre-
environments, such as the slope or basin floor,
environments, floor, parase- lation within a basin. However, parasequence
parasequence bound-
quence boundaries may also also be unrecognizable.
unrecognizable. aries usually cannot be easily correlated regionally
regionally
characteristics of parasequence boundaries sug-
The characteristics with widely spaced well control.
control. For this reason, and
gest that they form in response to an abrupt increase in because parasequence
parasequence distribution is very sensitive to
sufficiently rapid to overcome
water depth that is sufficiently overcome sediment supply, parasequence boundaries usually
deposition. The stages of parasequence-boundary
deposition. parasequence-boundary for- for- are not good surfaces
surfaces for regional correlation of time
simplisticallyillustrated
mation are simplistically illustrated in Figure 4. facies.
and facies.
In two special cases, shown in Figure 5, parase-
quences may be bounded either above or below by Vertical Facies Relationships
sequence boundaries. In the first case (Figure
sequence (Figure5, Exam- in Parasequences
ple 1),
I), a sequence
sequence boundary truncates a parasequence Well-exposed outcrops
Well-exposed outcrops in the Blackhawk Formation
in the underlying transgressive systems tract and east-centralUtah were studied to document the ver-
of east-central ver-
lower-shoreface sandstones (well
erodes into lower-shoreface (well A) and facies relationships
tical and lateral facies relationships in parasequences
marine mudstones (well (well B). Subsequent deposition of subsurface correlation. These exposures
as a guide for subsurface exposures
a lowstand-shoreline parasequence on top of the also have been studied by Spieker (1949), (1949), Young
sequence boundary results in (1)
sequence (1) a younger parase- (1955), Balsely and Horne (1980),
(1955), (1980),Kamola and Howard
quence bounded above above by a marine-flooding surface (1985), and Swift et al.
(1985), al. (1987).
(1987). To
To relate outcrop obser-
obser-
and below by a sequence
sequence boundary,
boundary, and (2) (2) an older vations of parasequences to subsurface
vations subsurface expression,
expression,
parasequence bounded below by a marine-flooding three wells were drilled on the outcrop by Exxon Pro- Pro-
surface and above by an erosional sequence
surface sequenceboundary.
boundary. Research Company
duction Research Company in 1982.1982. Each well was
The correct parasequence interpretation in Example Example 1, 1, continuously with a suite of conven-
cored and logged continuously conven-
sequence boundary, is con-
based on recognition of the sequence con- electric- and nuclear-logging tools.
tional electric- tools. The vertical
trasted in Figure 5 with the incorrect parasequence
parasequence facies relationships
facies relationships of parasequences
parasequences from the Late
interpretation that results if if the sequence
sequence boundary is Cretaceous age (Campanian)
Cretaceous (Campanian) Blackhawk Formation
identified.
not identified. outcrop, core,
are shown in Figure 6 in outcrop, core, and well log,
log,
In the second case (Figure (Figure 5, 5, Example 2) 2) the the latter from
from one of the nearby 1982
1982wells.
wells. Each para-
para-
sequence boundary in well 2, expressed as a surface surface of sequence on the log is marked by an upward decrease
sequence decrease
subaerial exposure,
subaerial exposure, coincides
coincides with a marine-flooding in gamma-ray response, indicating an upward
surface. This juxtaposition of surfaces
surface. surfaces results in a para- increase in the sandstone/mudstone
increase sandstone/mudstone ratio within the
sequencebounded above by a sequence
sequence sequence boundary and parasequence and generally an upward increase in the
below by a marine-flooding surface. surface. There are three thickness. This vertical pat-
sandstone bed or bedset thickness.
surfaces at the top of the youngest parase-
coincident surfaces parase- coarsening and thickening
tern of upward coarsening thickening reflects
we11 2:
quence in well 2: (1)
(1) the marine-flooding surface
surface origi- parasequence progradation. .'
parasequence, probably formed
nally bounding the parasequence, formed at parasequence boundary in Figure 6 is marked
Each parasequence
the end of the highstand, (2) (2) the sequence
sequence boundary,
boundary, by a blue line on the well log.log. The parasequence from
from
expressed as a subaerial
expressed subaerial exposure
exposure surface, and (3) (3) the interval A (160
interval (160 to 218 ft, or 49 to 66 m)
m) begins at the
last marine-flooding surface formed formed during the sea- sea- base with interbedded mudstones and burrowed,
level rise that terminated the lowstand. hummocky-bedded sandstones deposited in the
Parasequence boundaries, within a framework of
Parasequence shoreface of a beach. The upper part of the cored
lower shoreface
regional sequence
sequence boundaries, are the best surfaces to interval consists of trough and tabular cross-bedded
interval cross-bedded
use for local correlation
correlationof time and facies
facies from
fromlogs
logs and sandstones and planar-laminated depos-
planar-laminated sandstones depos-
cores, and as surfaces
cores, surfaceson which paleogeographic maps ited, respectively,
respectively, in the upper shoreface
shoreface and fore-
fore-
 PARASEQUENCES IN OUTCROP PARASEQUENCES IN A WELL LOG PARASEQUENCES IN CORES
NORTH CUFF. MOUTH OF GENTILE WASH EXXON PRODUCTION RES. CO. EXXON PRODUCTION RES. CO.
NE CORNEA $EC.11- T1 35-R9E PRICE RIVER COAL NO. 3 PRICE RIVER COAL NO.3
CARBON COUNTY, UTAH N.W. CORNER SEC.6-T1 3S-R1 DE N.W. CORNER SEC.6- T13S-Rl DE

PARASEQUENCE CORE INTERVAL A

· · ~~~

...
"
.

PARASEQUENCE_
BOUNDARY

••

50

,.

. .
• I--~ ....~4!.,.-..:..--Il 00
~~COAL
...
::
•
• ••
: i'

w
or
o
u
w<
u~
z<
w>
::lor
Ow
w ....
AU RIOE
V>z
~---­
; t-
PARASEQUENCE CORE INTERVAL B PAAASEOUENCE
Base map for outcrop BOUNDARY

and well location

HXON'1I0D
IIU til
-
'IIIC( IIIVI II
CO,ll Me.1

·,
Tl2S
TllS
·
,
·
,,
·, ..
,
, ., ,'
• -. · - r""7

, .
~'='=
, 350
· ,
• ! ;
,
.,
., . ..
__"l .:..;

: I ;
...
; ,
: ! :

·,
_- r
i 400

,
•
i':l !f,,,.. ·
•
,
•
OH+t--
· ..
.;_ L ~
,
~V L:
, . , .

Figure 6-Parasequences in outcrop, well log, and core from the Blackhawk Formation, Spring Canyon Member, in the
Book Cliffs, near Helper, Utah.
PARASEQUENCE
BOUNDARY
 EXXON EXXON UNION OIL OF CALIFORNIA QUINTANA PETROLEUM AND KOCH INDUSTRIES
ELM GROVE PLANTATION FARMERS LIFE G.U. NO.2 J LAND S CO. "C" NO. 1 S/L 9967 NO.1
BOSSIER PARISH, LA. DUVAL CO. TEXAS ST. MARTIN PARISH, LA. ST. MARY PARISH, LA.
SEC.23-T16N-RllW SEC.ll-T13S-RllE

00 ILD 2000 o SHORT NORMAL 10

00 SFLA 10.00
SP SFL 100000 GR L J I I
·12000 3000 ·10000 10000 00 ILM 2000 ol AMP SHORT NORMAL 2 ·1600 SP 4000 I~_---::-=-:---";;"'
r-------Tl-II:.:.:.~~;-------1 ~!===::;;r~I---~I::;,~=~::=~!
l
r-_-_-_-_-_-----
I
I I
I
00
I
SFLA 2.0
I

I
I '~ I
1 - - - - - - - - I 8600 t---~~ C
13700 ,> 12000 f - + - - - -..... 1.
~ )"
I
I 9200

8700 < I
, I
1----:
~

~ "7
12200
. .~...
<

13800 ~-- ~====j 9300 -

~
,'
I
J ~
f
\
\
, 12300 t---.F---
I----'l~----i 8900 1----; , I
!
, 9400
•
" 1
13900
12400 r-
9600

• t
14000
12500 f-t----=:; ,,-------j
9600

:s;
1
- - 9700

~
1-------'1---1 9300 1 - - - - 14100

1-------="F==9 9400 1------'

~ 9800 ~
7-
c
14200
13300 1---' :::-----==
.... c
~ 9900
SHALLOW·MARINE BEACH PARASEQUENCES FROM
THE LATE JURASSIC TO EARLY CRETACEOUS
COTTON VALLEY GROUP OF LOUISIANA. CORES
WERE AVAILABLE FOR FACIES INTERPRETATION.
{-=F
13400 r-~ ~-------' 10000
14300

r
SHALLOW· MARINE DELl AIC PARASEQUENCES FROM
THE MIOCENE OF CENTRAL LOUISIANA. FACIES SHALLOW·MARINE DELTAIC PARASEQUENCES FROM
INTERPRET A TIONS FROM LOG RESPONSE AND THE MIOCENE OF CENTRAL LOUISIANA. FACIES

o SHALLOW· MARINE SANDSTONES 14400 REGIONAL WELL· LOG CORRELATIONS. INTERPRETATIONS FROM LOG RESPONSE AND
REGIONAL WELL·LOG CORRELATIONS.
o SHELF MUDSTONES ANi) THIN SANDSTONES

PARASEQUENCE BOUNDARY
SHALLOW·MARINE BEACH PARASEQUENCES FROM
~-- POSSIBLE PARASEQUENCE BOUNDARY THE PALEOCENE WILCOX GROUP OF SOUTH TEXAS
CORES WERE AVAILABLE FOR FACIES
INTERPRET ATION.

Figure 7-Well-Iog responses for beach and deltaic parasequences from Jurassic to Miocene in age. All well-log depths are in feet.
 facies relationships
Lateral facies 15
15

shore of the beach.

beach. The parasequence boundary bed. Because the types of facies
facies changes occurring
occurring in
occurs 158.5 ft (48
occurs at 158.5 m) near the top of the last core
(48 m) each bedset within the parasequence are similar and
box.
box. The boundary is marked by deeper-water,
deeper-water, black, significant chronostratigraphic breaks
there are no significant
shelf mudstones lying sharply on burrow-churned, between bedsets, a parasequence is considered to be a
low-angle
low-angle to planar-laminated sandstone beds with no genetically succession of beds and bedsets.
genetically related succession
intervening transgressive lag. In outcrop, this parase- single bed in a beach parasequence (Figure
Within a single (Figure8),
8),
quence boundary can be traced approximately 15 15 mi seaward-dipping, planar, parallel laminae of
gently seaward-dipping,
km)along depositional dip. This core was cut near
(24 km) the foreshore change geometry basinward into more
the youngest, most basinward position of the fore- fore- steeply dipping foreset laminae within trough-cross
shore in the parasequence. beds of the upper shoreface. These foreshoreforeshore and
(308 to 255 ft,
Interval B (308 ft, or 94 to 78
78 m)
m) contains two upper-shoreface rocks compose the potential hydro-
parasequences (Figure
(Figure 6).
6). The lower parasequence carbon reservoir in the parasequence.
parasequence. The trough-
begins at the base of the core with burrowed, black cross beds grade seaward bed-by-bed into hummocky
mudstones and partially burrowed-churned, wave- beds of the lower shoreface. Finally, the same bedset
shoreface. Finally,
shelf. This facies
rippled sandstones deposited on a shelf. facies is deposited in the lower shoreface can be traced sea-
overlain by burrowed, hummocky-bedded sand- ward to a point where the sandstone bedset thins to a
stones interbedded with thi11.,
thin, black mudstones depos- few inches and may be so churned by burrowing orga-
ited in the lower shoreface of a beach. The boundary Campbell
nisms that its boundaries become indistinct. Campbell
for the lower parasequence is a burrowed surface surface at (1979) has documented similar lateral facies
(1979) facies changes in
274 ft (84
(84 m)
m) defined by black mudstones lying the beach deposits of the Gallup Sandstone.
abruptly on hummocky-bedded sandstones. sandstones. The direction, foreshore and upper-
In the landward direction,
upper parasequence in interval B B begins at the base shoreface bedsets within a parasequence either
with burrowed, black, shelf mudstones and thin facies into washover fans, which in
abruptly change facies
wave-rippled sandstones; like the lower parase- facies into coastal-plain
turn change facies coastal-plain mudstones and
quence, it is capped with burrowed, hummocky- thin sandstones, or are truncated by tidal inlets.
bedded sandstones deposited in the lower shoreface
shoreface Because of progradation, the entire vertical succession
Because
of a beach.
beach. The parasequence boundary for the upper of strata composing the parasequence is rarely com-
parasequence occurs at 260 ft (79(79m).
m). The boundary is a plete at any point in the parasequence, as shown by
distinct surface
surface defined by black mudstones in sharp the schematic well-log and core profiles
profiles in Figure 8.
8.
contact with underlying burrowed and hummocky- Parasequences terminate in a landward direction by
bedded sandstones. In outcrop, these parasequence onlap onto a sequence boundary, by local fluvial- fluvial-
boundaries can be traced at least 12 12 mi (19
(19 km)
km) along channel erosion in the updip coastal or alluvial plain,
dip. As in interval A, both parasequence
depositional dip. fluvial incision associated with a
or by widespread fluvial
boundaries in interval B are devoid of transgressive sequence boundary. Parasequences lose their identity
outcrop.
lags in the core and outcrop. basinward by thinning, shaling out, and downlapping
The parasequence boundaries in intervals A and B accompanied by stratal thinning onto an older parase-
marine-flooding surfaces
are marine-flooding surfaces interpreted to result from quence, parasequence set, or sequence boundary.
an abrupt increase in water depth. This deepening is Shoreline parasequences often can be correlated on
indicated by the facies
facies contrasts across
across the parase- well-log cross
well-log cross sections for tens of miles into the basin
quence boundaries. Vertical-facies
Vertical-facies associations
associations within before the parasequence boundaries become unrecog-
parasequences in intervals A and B do not exhibit any flooding surfaces.
nizable as flooding surfaces.
significant discontinuities and are interpreted to result
from normal-shoreline progradation. Additional well- Interpretation of Depositional Mechanisms
Interpretation Mechanisms
log responses of parasequences and parasequence
Shallow-marine parasequences form when the rate
Shallow-marine
boundaries in different regions and formations are
deltaic, beach, or tidal-flat envi-
of sedimentation in deltaic,
shown in Figure 7.
- accommodation
ronments is greater than the rate of accommodation
coastline. Accommodation
along the coastline. Accommodation is defined as the
Relationships
Lateral Facies Relationships available for sedimentation and is inter-
new space available
Parasequences
in Parasequences preted to be a function of eustasy and subsidence (Jer-
(Jer-
facies relationships, predicted rock types
The lateral facies 1988; Posamentier et aI.,
vey, 1988; a]., 1988).
1988). Parasequence
cores, and well-log
observed in cores, well-log responses for a single
single form when the rate of
boundaries are interpreted to form
parasequence interpreted to have been deposited in a sediment supply at the shoreline is less than the rate of
beach environment are shown in Figure 8. 8. Bedset sur- accommodation. Under these conditions, the shore-
accommodation.
faces are the throughgoing master surfaces that define
faces little marine
line normally retreats rapidly and very little
the primary stratification
stratification within the parasequence. record; com-
sediment is preserved in the stratigraphic record;
facies changes within each bedset occur bed by
The facies marine-flooding surface
monly a marine-flooding surface is the only indication
 Parasequence
Parasequence set
set 17
17

that the
that the rate
rate of
of accommodation
accommodation exceeded exceeded the the rate
rate ofof Parasequence Set
Parasequence Set Boundary
Boundary
sediment supply.
sediment supply. Like
Like parasequence
parasequence boundaries,
boundaries, parasequence
parasequence setset
Three different
Three different mechanisms
mechanisms can can generate
generate parase- parase- boundaries
boundaries areare marine-flooding
marine-flooding surfaces
surfacesand
and their
their cor-
cor-
quence boundaries.
quence boundaries. One One well-documented
well-documented mecha- mecha- relative surfaces.
relative surfaces. Figure shows aa parasequence
Figure 99 shows parasequence set
set
nism isis the
nism the relatively
relatively rapid
rapid increase
increase in in water
water depth depth boundary with
boundary with hummocky-bedded
hummocky-bedded and and burrowed,
burrowed,
caused by
caused by compaction
compaction of of prodelta
prodelta mudstones
mudstones in in aa lower-shoreface
lower-shoreface sandstones
sandstones lying
lying in
in sharp
sharp contact
contact on
on
delta lobe
delta lobe following
following distributary-channel
distributary-channel avulsion avulsion coastal-plain
coastal-plain coals.
coals. Parasequence
Parasequence set boundaries (1)
set boundaries (1)
(Frazier, 1967).
(Frazier, 1967).TheThe drowning
drowning of of the
the lobe
lobe produces
produces an an separate distinctive
separate distinctive parasequence-stacking
parasequence-stacking patterns,
patterns,
abrupt, planar,
abrupt, planar, slightly
slightly erosional
erosional surface,
surface, commonly
commonly (2) may coincide
(2) may coincide with
with sequence
sequence boundaries,
boundaries, and (3)
and (3)
with little
with little or or no
no preserved
preserved transgressive
transgressive lag lag lying
lying may
may bebe downlap
downlap surfaces
surfaces and
and boundaries
boundaries ofof systems
systems
above itit (Elliott,
above (Elliott, 1974).
1974). TheThe resulting
resulting parasequence
parasequence tracts.
tracts.
boundary has has aa lateral
lateral extent
extent equivalent
equivalent to to the
the areal
areal
extent of the
extent the lobe
lobe itself.
itself. Frazier
Frazier andand Osanik
Osanik (1967) (1967) Types of Parasequence
Types Parasequence Sets Sets
showed that the
showed the three
three youngest lobes lobes inin the
the Holocene
Holocene Stacking patterns
Stacking patterns of of parasequences within parase- parase-
San Bernard delta
San delta in in southeastern
southeastern Louisiana have have quence sets
quenee sets are
are progradational, retrogradational, or or
2
areal extents
areal extents ranging from from 300 300 toto 3000
3000 mimi2 (777to
(777 to 7770
7770 aggradational (Van
aggradational (VanWagoner,
Wagoner, 1985),
1985),depending
depending on on the
the
2
km2).
km The rates
). The rates for
for lobe
lobe progradation range range from from 800 800to to ratio
ratio ofof depositional rates to
depositional rates to accommodation
accommodation rates. rates.
1400 years.
1400 years. Because
Because the the surfaces
surfaces bounding each each of of Figure 10
Figure 10 schematically
schematically illustrates
illustrates these
these stacking
stacking pat-
pat-
these lobes
these lobes areare extensive
extensive areally
areally andand formed
formed rapidly,
rapidly, terns
terns and
and their well-log
well-log responses.
responses. In In aa progradational
progradational
provide local
they provide local time
time lines
lines for
for chronostratigraphic
chronostratigraphic parasequence
parasequence set,set, successively
successively younger parasequences
parasequences
and lithostratigraphic
and lithostratigraphic analysis analysis over over relatively
relatively large large are
are deposited
deposited farther
farther basinward;
basinward; overall,
overall, thethe rate
rate ofof
areas in
areas in the
the subsurface.
subsurface. deposition isis greater
deposition greater than
than thethe rate
rate of
of accommodation.
accommodation.
A second
A second mechanism for for the
the formation
formation of of aa parase-
parase- In aa retrogradational
In retrogradafional parasequence
parasequenceset, set, successively
successivelyyoun-youn-
quence boundary isis aa rapid relative
quence relative rise
rise inin seasea level
level ger parasequences
ger parasequences are are deposited
deposited farther
farther landward,
landward, in in
caused by subsidence
caused subsidence alongalong tectonically
tectonically activeactive faults.
faults. aa backstepping pattern; overall, overall, the
the rate
rate of
of deposition
deposition
Earthquakes such
Earthquakes such as as the
the 1964
1964 earthquake
earthquake in in Alaska
Alaska is less
is less than
than the
the rate
rate of
of accommodation.
accommodation. AlthoughAlthough eacheach
(Plafker, 1965) or the 1960 earthquake
(Plafker, 1965) or the 1960 earthquake in Chile (Plafkerin Chile (Plafker parasequence in in aa retrogradational
retrogradational parasequence
parasequence set set
and Savage,
and Savage, 1970) 1970) produced nearly instantaneous,instantaneous, progrades, the the parasequence set set deepens
deepens upward
upward in in aa
maximum coastal coastal subsidence
subsidence of 6.5 and
of 6.5 and 99 ftft (2 (2 and
and 33 "transgressive pattern." We
"transgressive We use
use the
the term "retrograda-
"retrograda-
m), respectively.
m), respectively. Plafker
Plafker and and Savage
Savage (1970)
(1970)document
document tion" in in the
the dictionary
dictionary sense
sense(Gary
(Garyet al., 1972)
et aI., 1972)toto mean
a zone of of subsidence
subsidence 600 600 mimi (963
(963km)km) long
long and and 70 70 mimi "the backward (landward)
(landward) movement or retreat of a
(112km)
(112 km) wide along along thethe Chilean coastline.
coastline. Along low- low- coastline." As
shoreline or coastline:' As Gary
Gary et a1. al. (1972)
(1972) pointed
lying shorelines,
lying shorelines, such such subsidence
subsidence could drown large large out,
out, retrogradation is is the
the antonym
antonym of progradation.
progradation. In
areas of coastal
areas coastal deposits
deposits rapidly,
rapidly, thereby producing a an aggradational
an aggradational parasequence
parasequence set,set, successively
successively younger
parasequence boundary.boundary. Short-term
Short-term increases in the the parasequences are are deposited aboveabove one one another
another with
subsidence on
rate of subsidence on thethe order of a few few thousand no
no significant
significant lateral shifts;
shifts; overall,
overall, thethe rate of accom-
accom-
years near coastal coastal salt domesdomes or growth faults faults also also modation approximates the the rate
rate of deposition.
deposition.
could produce local local relative
relative rises
rises in sea
sea level
level sufficient
sufficient
to drown coastal
to coastal deposits and and produce parasequence
parasequence Vertical Facies
Vertical Facies Relationships
Relationships
boundaries. in Parasequence
in Parasequence SetsSets
A third mechanism for for parasequence boundary for- for- Parasequence
Parasequence sets sets can
can be identified from
from a single
single
mation is is eustasy.
eustasy. The
The relationship of eustasy and and sub-
sub- log. In a progradational
well log. progradational parasequence
parasequence setset (Figure
(Figure
sidence to to parasequence and and sequence
sequence deposition
deposition is is l l ) , successively younger parasequences
11), parasequences contain
presented in Figure 39 39 and
and isis discussed
discussed later,
later, in in "Inter- depositional porosities and
sandstone with greater depositional and
pretations of Depositional Mechanisms" within the the higher percentages of rocks rocks deposited in in shallow-
shallow-
"Sequence" section. section. marine to
marine to coastal-plain environments than underlying
parasequences. The The youngest parasequence in in the
the
well maymay consist entirely of rocks
rocks that were
were deposited
PARASEQUENCE SET
PARASEQUENCE SET in
in a coastal-plain environment. In addition, younger
parasequences tend to to be thicker than older parase-
Definition quences in
quences in the
the set.
set.
A parasequence set isis a succession of genetically In a retrogradational
retrogradational parasequence set (Figure
(Figure 11),
ll),
forming a distinctive stacking
related parasequences forming successively
successively younger parasequences contain more
pattern bounded by major marine-flooding surfaces shale or mudstone and higher percentages of rocks
shale rocks
and their correlative surfaces. Parasequence set char- deposited in deeper-water
deeper-water marine environments,
environments,
acteristics are
acteristics are summarized in Table
Table 1.
1. such as as lower shoreface,
shoreface, delta front,
front, or shelf,
shelf, than

underlying parasequences. The youngest parase-
quence in the set commonly is composed entirely of
rocks deposited on the shelf.
shelf. In addition, younger
parasequences tend to be thinner than older parase-
quences in the set. .
(Figure 11)
In an aggradational parasequence set (Figure 11)the
facies, thicknesses, and sandstone to mudstone ratios
significantly.
do not change significantly.
Lateral Facies Relationships
in Parasequence
Parasequence Sets
Sets
The vertical expressions of different kinds of parase-
quence sets in single well logs (Figure 11) 11) also have
sections.
characteristic lateral expressions on cross sections.
These subsurface and outcrop cross-section expres- expres-
sions are illustrated with four examples, shown in Fig- Fig-
ures 12
12 through 16.16.
In the first example, the dip-oriented distribution of
parasequences in a progradational parasequence set
(Campanian) Blackhawk
from the Late Cretaceous age (Campanian)
Formation exposed in the Book Cliffs,Cliffs, north of Price,
Price,
Utah, is shown in Figure 12. 12. A gamma-ray curve from
the Exxon Production Research Company Price River
Coal No. section. Facies
No.33 well is included on the cross section. Facjes
data plotted on the gamma-ray curve are from contin-
3-in. (7.62-cm)
uous 3-in. (7.62-cm) cores recovered from that well
(Figure 6).
(Figure 6). Successively
Successively younger parasequences step
farther basinward, and produce the well-log patterns
shown in Figure 11 11for a progradational parasequence
set. The updip pinchouts of porous marine sandstones
set.
into nonporous, coastal-plain mudstones also step
basinward in successively younger parasequences.
The highest depositional porosities in each parase-
quence are preserved just seaward of the pinchout of
marine rocks into coastal-plain deposits. These pinch-
outs are very abrupt, commonly occurring laterally
over a distance of less than 100 100 ft (30
(30 m).
m). Such pinch-
outs can lead to confusion in well-log correlations
because of the abrupt change in log shape between
two closely spaced wells. One of the updip pinchouts
within a parasequence is shown in Figure 13. 13. In this
foreshore and upper-shoreface sandstones
example, foreshore
are truncated updip by a landward-dipping erosional
surface, interpreted to be cut by a migrating tidal inlet.
A wedge-shaped sandstone body with a maximum
thickness of 15 15 ft (4.6
(4.6 m), consisting of imbricate,
landward-dipping bedsets, and interpreted as a flood- flood-
tidal delta, rests on the erosional surface. b he pinch-
surface. The
(Figure 13)
out (Figure 13) occurs on the cross section (Figure
(Figure 12)
12)
between Gentile Wash (Sec. (Sec. 2, T13S,
T13S, R9E)
R9E) and Spring
(Sec. 15,
Canyon (Sec. 15, T12S, R9E).
R9E).
In the second example, the dip-oriented distribution
of parasequences in three progradational parase-
quence sets from the subsurface Parkman and Teapot
(Campanian)
sandstones of the Late Cretaceous age (Campanian)
Mesaverde Formation, Powder River basin, Wyo-
Lateral facies
facies relationships in parasequence sets 21
21
ming, is shown in Figure 14. 14. In the Parkman parase-
quence set, successively younger parasequences step
father basinward to the east, producing the well-log
well-log
pattern characteristic of a progradational parase-
(Figure 11).
quence set (Figure 11). Only the marine-flooding sur- sur-
faces
faces on top of each parasequence are carried on the
cross section; their seaward correlative surfaces are
indicated. The parasequence set is terminated by
not indicated.
an abrupt increase in water depth that flooded across
the top of the parasequence set and superimposed
deeper-water marine mudstones on top of shallow-
marine sandstones. Well-log correlation indicated that
surface.
the top of the parasequence set is a planar surface.
Each parasequence within the set is bounded by a
minor marine-flooding surface; the parasequence set
is bounded by the major marine-flooding surface that
terminates the underlying stacking pattern.
(Figure 14)
The Teapot Sandstone (Figure 14) is composed of
two progradational parasequence sets. sets. The lower
parasequence set is terminated by a sequence bound-
ary marked by truncation of the underlying parase-
quences and a slight basinward shift in facies. facies. A
second progradational parasequence set, composed of
two parasequences, rests on top of the sequence
boundary. A marine-flooding surface separates
deeper-water mudstones above the parasequence set
boundary from shallow-marine
shallow-marine sandstones below the
boundary.
In the third example, the dip-oriented distribution of
parasequences in a retrogradational parasequence set
(Campanian) Almond
from the Late Cretaceous age (Campanian)
Formation and Ericson Sandstone, Mesaverde Group,
Washakie basin, Wyoming, is shown in Figure 15.
Washakie 15. Suc-
Suc-
cessively younger parasequences step farther land-
ward, producing the well-log pattern characteristic of
a retrogradational parasequence set (Figure
(Figure 11).
11). Sand-
stones deposited in nearshore, shallow-marine envi-
ronments compose the bulk of the middle part of the
cross section, where porosities are best developed.
Updip pinchouts of porous marine sandstones into
nonporous, coastal-plain mudstones step landward
time.
with time.
In the fourth example, the dip-oriented distribution
of parasequences in an aggradational parasequence
set from the Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous age, Cot-Cot-
ton Valley Group, East Texas basin, is shown in Figure
16. Parasequences stack vertically with little or no
16.
facies, producing the well-log
lateral shift in facies, well-log pattern
characteristic of an aggradational parasequence set
11). A significant vertical
(Figure 11). vertical thickness of porous
sandstones may develop where this stacking occurs.
In an updip position, or just seaward of the updip
pinchouts of marine sandstones into coastal-plain
mudstones, the porous sandstones may stack, with lit-
tle or no intervening nonporous sandstone or mud-
facies with
stone, to form a potentially thick reservoir facies
continuity. In an intermediate position,
good vertical continuity
22 Sequence

the porous sandstones will be separated by shelf mud- change. Correlating the logs using
abrupt resistivity change.
stones or thin beds of nonporous sandstones. surface leads to an interpretation of a continuous,
this surface continuous,
relatively
relatively thin, shallow-marine
shallow-marine sandstone.
sandstone. The conti-
conti-
Concepts
Correlation Concepts nuity is exaggerated, and potential reservoir sand-sand-
Parasequence and parasequence set correlations incbrrectly linked into the same
stones are inc6rrectly same sandstone
commonly yield results that differ significantly
commonly significantly from
from body with an interpreted common oil-water contact.
contact.
those obtained by conventional
conventional lithostratigraphic
lithostratigraphic cor-
cor- When production data suggest that there are at least
formations, or formation "tops"
relations that rely on formations, geologist
two oil-water contacts in this reservoir, the geologist
intervals. To illustrate
of sandstone or mudstone intervals. illustrate some discrepancy
commonly adds a fault to explain the discrepancy
differences, schematic
of these differences, schematic cross
cross sections through between production data and the stratigraphic
stratigraphic inter-
inter-
a progradational parasequence set and a retrograda- pretation. Benthonic
Benthonic fauna usually are preserved in
tional parasequence set are compared with typical lith- the shales just above the sandstone.
sandstone. Using the first
ostratigraphic correlations
ostratigraphic correlations (Figures
(Figures 17
17 and 18).
18). occurrence of the benthonic foraminifera
occurrence foraminifera as a correla-
correla-
The progradational parasequence set cross cross section
section tion tool results in the same correlation arrived at by
17 was constructed using the parasequence
in Figure 17 using the sandstone tops, because these organisms
organisms are
set boundary as a datum. The shallow-marine
shallow-marine and facies controlled.
facies controlled.
coastal-plain rocks of each younger parasequence step
coastal-plain
shallow-marine sand-
upward and basinward. The shallow-marine
stones are potential reservoirs. Many are isolated SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE
above and below in mudstones, ensuring poor vertical
above
communication and possibly separate oil-water con- Definitions
tacts. Because of amalgamation of shoreline sand- Sequence: A relatively conformable
Sequence: conformable succession of
some of the potential reservoirs
stones, some reservoirs have good genetically related strata bounded by unconformities
genetically
vertical communication near the updip pinchouts of correlative conformities
or their correlative conformities (Mitchum,
(Mitchum, 1977).
1977).
coastal-plain rocks.
marine rocks into coastal-plain rocks. Parasequences and parasequence sets are the stratal
Parasequences
lithostratigraphic cross section in Figure 17
The lithostratigraphic 17 was building blocks of the sequence.
sequence. Sequence
Sequencecharacteris-
constructed using the tops of the shallow-marine tics are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1.
sandstones as a datum because this boundary (1) (1)com- Unconformity: A surface separating younger from
Unconformity: from
site of coal deposition
monly is the site deposition providing a good evidence of subaerial-
older strata along which there is evidence
marker, (2) is the most conspicuous
log marker, conspicuous boundary on erosional truncation and, in some areas, correlative
erosional correlative
the SP or gamma-ray log, and (3) (3) provides
provides a similar subaerial exposure,
submarine erosion, or subaerial exposure, with a sig-
resistivity response on each log inasmuch as the facies,facies, indicated (Van
nificant hiatus indicated (Van Wagoner et aI.,al., 1988).
1988).
porosities, and fluids
fluids in each massive,
massive, shallow-marine
shallow-marine definition restricts the usage of unconformity to
This definition
sandstone are similar.
sandstone similar. If
If this datum is selected,
selected, as is subaerial surfaces
subaerial surfaces and their correlative
correlative submarine ero-
lithofacies are correlated by
commonly done, and the lithofacies surfaces and is somewhat more restrictive than
sional surfaces
connecting the sandstone tops, the continuity
connecting continuity of the the definition of unconformity used by Mitchum
genetically different sand-
reservoir is exaggerated, genetically (1977). Local, contemporaneous erosion and deposi-
(1977). deposi-
together, and potential shallow-
stones are linked together, shallow- tion associated with geological
geological processes such as
reservoirs are interpreted to change
marine sandstone reservoirs point-bar development or aeolian-dune
aeolian-dune migration are
facies updip into marine shales and mudstones.
facies excluded from the definition of unconformity used in
The retrogradational
retrogradational parasequence section
parasequence set cross section this book.
18was constructed using a parasequence set
in Figure 18 Confomzity:A surface separating younger from older
Conformity:
boundary as a datum.
datum. This boundary can be traced strata along
along which there is no evidence
evidence of erosion (nei-
(nei-
basinward into a diagnostic resistivity marker bed in subaerial nor submarine)
ther subaerial submarine) or nondeposition, and
shale. The marine rocks in successively
the shale. successively younger along which no significant hiatus is indicated. It
parasequences step landward or backstep.backstep. Each para- includes surfaces onto which there is very slow depo-
includes
sequence progrades and each shallow-marine
sequence shallow-marine sand- sition or low rates of sediment accumulation, with
changes facies
stone changes facies updip into coastal-plain
coastal-plain rocks. long periods of geologic time being represented by
shallow-marine sandstone reservoirs are isolated
The shallow-marine isolated very thin deposits.
deposits.
above and below in marine mudstones and commonly
above Sequences can be subdivided into systems tracts
Sequences
contacts.
have separate oil-water contacts. (Van Wagoner et aI.,
(Van al., 1988;
1988; Posamentier al., 1988)
Posamentier et aI., 1988)
lithostratigraphic cross section in Figure 18
The lithostratigraphic 18 was based on objective
objective criteria including
including types of bound-
significant
constructed using the top of the youngest, significant surfaces, parasequence set distribution,
ing surfaces, distribution, and posi-
shallow-marine sandstone in each well as a datum.
shallow-marine tion within the sequence.
sequence. Systems
Systems tracts also can be
lithologic break. It has a simi-
This horizon is a distinct lithologic simi- characterized by geometry
characterized geometry and facies
facies associations.
associations.
appearance in all of the wells and is easy to identify
lar appearance identify contempora-
Systems tracts are defined as a linkage of contempora-
on the logs because it commonly is marked by an depositional systems
neous depositional systems (Brown
(Brown and Fisher, 1977);
1977);
 WEST
ANADARKO
NO. A-l PISTOL POINT
CAMPBELL CO., WYOMING
SEC.22- T45N-R76W
EAST
MESA
NO. 3-19 POWELL-FED. NO. 1-26 PUMPKIN BUTTE-FED. NO. 1 RUTH NO.1 VIRGINIA STATE NO. 1 SCHLAUTMANN NO.2 WRIGHT RANCH PEARSON FED. NO. 24-9
CAMPBELL CO., WYOMING CAMPBELL CO., WYOMING CAMPBELL CO" WYOMING CAMPBELL CO., WYOMING CAMPBELL CO., WYOMING CAMPBELL CO., WYOMING CAMPBELL CO., WYOMING
SEC.19- T45N-R75W SEC.28-T45N-R75W SEC.23- T45N-R75W SEC.16- T45N-R74W SEC.l- T45N-R74W SEC.26- T46N-R73W SEC.24- T46N-R73W
SP "'s

SP ",S
SP RES,,?
=:} .
r SP
'"
SP
'~
-S
SP
'"-! SP P~S

~
1-.-
~
TEAPOT
1 ;

.- ~
1 / .... I)
SANDSTDNE

.~
< f <0'
;!i ¢ ~
'\ ~
~
~

1- ~
•
~
:jr:::r
t + n+
~
~
~
1 , .. .
~
' . r . ~ -">
'?
I
PARKMAN

~ ./ {. , - 'f SANDSTDNE
1-
~
~
H"
-'>
~
~
.5 f

I:".
I I + IT
'-, I
,
~
~
I

~> ~ ;'!' ~
~
~ ::IiiOi:
:;:;:
l
.

] -
1
I
l
.""'- , i"
~
~
~

\.
r -
1
.... f-
~

-.. c. .--: ~>

( ~ ~-

~ C#
.J
-::
s::.,'
f·

-J ~
':! ~I DATUM
!.
PARASEQUENCE SET
BOUNDARY
/

Figure 14-Parasequence stacking in progradational parasequence sets. Three parasequence sets are shown; one
parasequence set is in the Parkman Sandstone, Mesaverde Formation (Campanian), two parasequence sets are in the
Teapot Sandstone (Campanian). The Teapot Sandstone in the three western wells rests on an unconformity (sequence
PSS •
UNCONfORMITY

PARASEQUENCE sn -CJ
c=J
FlUV1AUESTUARINE SANDSTONES

COASTAl·ptAIN SANDSTONES AND MUDSTONES

SHAllOW MARINE SANDSTONES

boundary). These wells are from the Powder River basin, Wyoming.
L:::J SHELF MUDSTONES ONE MilE
WEST
TEXAS all & GAS CORP
NO. 1 EAGLE SPRINGS
SWEETWATER co., WYOMING
SEC 27- T25N-R94W
"'
EAST
DAVIS Oil CO.
SOONER RESERVOIR UNIT 1
ENERGY RESERVES GROUP, INC. SWEETWATER CO .. WYOMING
NO.1 BAnlE SPRINGS UNIT SEC 34- T24N-R92W DAVIS all CO
SWEETWATER CO., WYOMING ENERGY RESERVES GROUP, INC STEWART CREEK UNIT NO 2
SEC 23- T24N-R94W STRATTON DRAW UNIT NO 1 SWEETWATER CO , WYOMIG .
"', SWEETWATER CO .. WYOMING "" SEC.5- T23N-R91 W
-<~
SEC 21-T24N-A93W

~
'" "',
J ", '"
"
.n
" ~
~..f
.~

~£
• ~
4~C .

~ I" ')

- --it~
",
- -,

• , ,r •

.. ' . '()
4 (

r ' ,

~
}
;r '4100
/ '}

~
"H

,- - • 5-
1--0
/
/
J
" ,., J""'
~ .. i
" Y'

• '50-.
-S
-
hf ~
: ; : '.*
~
.' ~- ?~
~ - ---'\. ~tE
-I
';; $ ----~
-

'3
~.~ if :3 'Y~
- c-'
- ;

£ ~
OATVM RESISTIVITY MARKER BEO
'''' THE SHA.LE SECTION
- :f. ,~.
\

~
D
~
COASTAL PlAIN SANOSTOMS
MUOSTONES COALS \00 FT I- Y

CJ ;~'- ::;
SHAllOW MARINE SANDSTONES
.. ,"-
"\
~
U SHELF MUDSTONES '>
C
ONE MIL[
I, 120;

~
Figure 15-Parasequence stacking in a retrogradaHonal parasequence set, Almond Sandstone, Late Cretaceous age,
Washakie basin, Wyoming, I
< '> Y. ~
NORTH SOUTH

F. H. MARKEY NO.1 GULF NO. 1 LANGSTON MAX. HART G. U. NO. 1 A. T. MAST NO.1
PANOLA CO .. TEXAS qUSK CO .. TEXAS NACOGDOCHES CO .. TEXAS NACOGDOCHES CO .. TEXAS

SP RES SP RES SP RES SP RES

~
t.... -i! ~
~ ~ <\ ~
::: .s ~
~ 1
:::Ii:
.
~
.
.3:

¥<
7-
--
t 7'l'
~ 'I.

?
~
•
" ~ ~ "
*- / •
~
{

~
I-. ..s.
'1
~ ['

~ - k ~ r
.". , '\ ..).I
<:
~ 3;;

•
FIgure 16-Parasequence stacking in an aggradational parasequence set, Cotton Valley Group, Schuler Formation, east Texas. •

D COASTAL·PLAIN SANDSTONES AND

MUDSTONES
100 FT

D SHALLOW·MARINE
SANDSTONES 6 MILES

O SHELF
MUDSTONES
26 Stratal patterns in type-1
type-1 sequences

In addition to being deposited in a basin with a shelf

shelf As strictly defined, parasequences are difficult to
break, the following- additional conditions must exist: recognize in basin-floor and slope-fan environments
(1)
(1) sufficiently large fluvial systems to cut can- because there are no criteria in these units with which
yons and deliver sediment to the basin; to recognize shallowing upward. Fan lobes in these
(2)
(2) enough accommodation for the parasequence units characterized by upward thinning and fining
sets to be preserved; and bedsets or by upward thickening and coarsening bed-
(3) a relative fall in sea level of
(3) of a rate and magni- sets may represent parasequences.
tude sufficient to deposit the lowstand sys- Incised valleys are entrenched fluvial systems extend-
tems tract at or just
just beyond the shelf break. ing their channels basinward and eroding into under-
lying strata in response to a relative fall in sea level. On
The component parasequence sets discussed below the ihelf,
shelf, the inci'sed
incised valleys are bounded
bounded below by the
are the ones most commonly encountered in each sys- sequence boundary and above by the first major
tems tract. Variations in the rates of of sediment supply marine-flooding surface, called the transgressive sur-
and relative sea-level change along a basin margin can face.
face. The well log at the left in Figure 19 shows a com-
result in the simultaneous deposition of of different para- mon well-log pattern through an incised-valley
incised-valley fill.
sequence
sequence sets in different places on the shelf. For this The blocky well-log pattern, interpreted from the log
reason, boundaries between systems tracts may vary shape as a braided stream, lies in sharp contact with
in time from place to place on the shelf within the same shelf mudstones. This abnormal
abnormal vertical association of
sequence. Fundamental stratal components of
sequence. of the sys-
sys- depositional
depositional environments is called a basinward shift
tems tracts in an ideal sequence
sequence (Figure 19)
(Figure 19) are dis- in facies; it forms
forms in response to a relative fall fall in sea
cussed below. Although a submarine fan is included level. A basinward shift
shift in facies
facies occurs when shallow-
in Figure 19,
19, this inclusion is not meant to convey a marine to nonmarine strata, deposited above a
particular thickness
thickness for the sequence,
sequence, especially
especially on the sequence boundary, lie directly on much deeper
shelf. As mentioned previously in this book, strata, such as middle- to outer-shelf mudstones and
sequences
sequences are defined by the component strata and thin sandstones below the sequencesequence boundary, with
types of bounding surfaces, not by thickness
thickness or time no intervening rocks deposited in intermediate depo- depo-
formation. For example, an unconformity-
for formation. sitional environments. The basinward shift in facies facies is
bounded stratal
stratal unit, composed of systems
systems tracts with gradational
a result either of erosion of the intervening gradational
no internal unconformities (as (as defined in this book) is facies, or of nondeposition because of the rapid shift of
facies,
sequence may be tens of feet thick
sequence. This sequence
a sequence. environments. Differentiation
environments. Differentiation of basinward shifts shifts in
detectable only on well logs or in cores and out-
and detectable facies from distributary
facies distributary channels is discussed in the
crops, or it may be hundreds of feet thick and easily Characteristics."
section entitled "Sequence Boundary Characteristics:'
resolvable seismic lines.
resolvable on seismic The well-log response through a single single parasequence
parasequence
illustrated in Figure
at the top of the lowstand wedge is illustrated
Lowstand Systems
Systems Tract
19.
19.
systems tract consists of a basin-floor
The lowstand systems stratigraphic analyses, such as those docu-
Regional stratigraphic
fan, a slope
fan, slope fan, wedge. Typically,
fan, and a lowstand wedge. Typically, the suggest that a proportionately
mented in this book, suggest proportionately
basin-floor fan is dominantly
basin-floorfan dominantly sand,
sand, consisting
consisting of Tab,
Tab, large number of the reservoirs
large reservoirsin siliciclastic
siliciclasticsequences
sequences
sequences. It appears to
Tac and truncated Ta Bouma sequences. systems tract.
occur within the lowstand systems
be similar to the type I and type II I1 fans
fans of Mutti (1985).
(1985).
basin-floor fan may be deposited
The basin-floor deposited at the mouth of a Systems Tract
Transgressive Systems
canyon, although
canyon, although it may occur widely separated from from transgressive systems
The transgressive systems tract is bounded below by
the canyon mouth, or a canyon evident. It
canyon may not be evident. transgressive surface
the transgressive surface and above
above by the downlap
has no age-equivalent rocks rocks on the slope shelf. Slope
slope or shelf. Slope surface or maximum-flooding
surface maximum-flooding surface.surface. Parasequences
Parasequences
fans are
fans are made up of turbidite-leveed
turbidite-leveedchannel
channel and over-
over- transgressive systems
within the transgressive backstep in a
systems tract backstep
deposits. They overlie
bank deposits. overliethe basin-floor fan fan and are retrogradational parasequence
retrogradational parasequence set.set. The systems
systems tract
overlying lowstand wedge
downlapped by the overlying wedge (Vail,
(Vail, deepens upward as
progressively deepens as successively
successively youn-
youn-
1987).The
1987). The slope
slope fan
fan appears
appears to be similar
similarto to the type 111
type III parasequences step
ger parasequences step farther
farther landward. The The down-
down-
fan of Mutti
fan Mutti (1985). The lowstand
(1985).The lowstand wedge is is composed
composed of surface, coincident
lap surface, coincident with the upper boundary of the
progradational parasequence
one or more progradational parasequence sets sets making
making parasequence in the transgressive
youngest parasequence transgressive systems
systems
up a wedge that is is restricted seaward
seaward of the shelf break is the surface
tract, is surface onto which
which the clinoform
clinoform toes
toes of
onlaps the slope
and that onlaps slope of the preceding
preceding sequence.
sequence. overlying highstand systems
the overlying systems tract may merge and
The proximal part of the wedge
The wedge consists
consists of incised-
incised- thin. It is
become very thin. is during the time
time of the transgres-
transgres-
valley fills
valley fills and their associated
associated lowstand-shoreline
lowstand-shoreline sive to
sive to early highstand systems
systems tracts
tracts that this
this con-
con-
deposits on the shelf or upper slope.
deposits slope. The
The distal
distal part of section is
densed section is deposited.
deposited.
wedge is
the wedge is composed of a thick,
thick, mostly shale-prone,
shale-prone, The condensed section
The section (Loutit
(Loutit et aI.,
al., 1988)
1988) is
is a facies
facies
wedge-shaped unit that downlaps
wedge-shaped downlaps ontoonto the
the slope
slope fan.
fan. consisting of thin hemipelagic
consisting hemipelagic or or pelagic
pelagic sediments
sediments
 Stratal patterns
Stratal patterns in
in type-2
type-2 sequences
sequences 27
27

deposited as
deposited as the
the parasequences
parasequences step step landward
landward and and as as (3) no abrupt
(3) no abrupt breaks
breaks inin gradient
gradient separating
separating rela-
rela-
the shelf
the shelf isis starved
starved of of terrigenous
terrigenous sediment.
sediment.The The great-
great- tively low
tively low dips
dips from
from much
much steeper
steeper dips;
dips;
est diversity
est diversity and and abundance
abundance of of fauna
fauna within
within the the no abrupt
(4) no
(4) abrupt changes
changes in in water
water depth
depth fromfrom shal-
shal-
sequence are
sequence are found
found in in this
this terrigenous-starved
terrigenous-starved inter- inter- low water
low water toto much
much deeper
deeper water;
water;
val. Deposition
val. Deposition within within the the condensed
condensed sectionsection isis con-
con- (5) incision
(5) incision to,
to, but
but not
not below,
below, the
the lowstand
lowstand shore-
shore-
tinuous although
tinuous although the the section
section commonly
commonly is is thin,
thin, line in
line in response
response to to aa relative
relative fall
fall in
in sea
sea level;
level;
accumulates at
accumulates at very
very slow slow rates,
rates, and
and encompasses
encompasses aa and
and
great deal
great deal ofof time.
time. deposition of
(6) deposition
(6) lowstand deltas
of lowstand deltasand
and other
other shore-
shore-
Condensedsections
Condensed sectionsare aremost
most extensive
extensive at at the
the time
time ofof line sandstones
line sandstonesin inresponse
response to to the
the sea-level
sea-levelfall
fall
maximum regional
maximum regional transgression
transgression of of the
the shoreline
shoreline (basin-floor
(basin-floor submarine
submarine fans fans andand slope
slope fans
fans
(Loutitet
(Loutit etaI.,
al., 1988).
1988).These
These characteristics
characteristicsof of condensed
condensed unlikely
unlikely to to be
be deposited
deposited onon the
the ramp
ramp margin).
margin).
sections have
sections have two two important
important implications
implications for for strati-
strati-
graphic analysis.
graphic analysis. First,
First, ifif thethe sampling
sampling of of outcrop,
outcrop,
core, or
core, or cuttings
cuttings for for biostratigraphic-age
biostratigraphic-age determina-determina- Cretaceous strata
Cretaceous stratainin the
theinterior
interior foreland
forelandbasin
basin ofof the
the
tion isis not
tion not selective,
selective, the the condensed
condensed section section can can be be western United
western United States
States and
and Canada
Canada contain
contain examples
examples
missed. If
missed. If the
the condensed
condensed section section isis missed,
missed, therethere may of this
of this type
type ofof sequence.
sequence. Asquith
Asquith (1970) (1970)showed
showed well-well-
be an
be an apparent
apparent major major timetime gap gap in
in the
the biostratigraphic defined examples
defined examples of of sigmoidal
sigmoidal to to shingled
shingled clinoforms
clinoforms
prompting paleontologists to
record, prompting to infer
infer aa major
major with present dips dips of 0.5° or
of 0.5 or less
less in in the
the Washakie,
Washakie, Big Big
unconformity where
unconformity where deposition
deposition really really waswas continu-
continu- Horn, andand Powder River River basins
basins in in Wyoming.
Wyoming.
ous. Second,
ous. Second, the the condensed
condensed section section commonly
commonly con- con- Although the the transgressive and and highstand
highstand systems
systems
tains more
tains more abundant,
abundant, diverse,
diverse, deep-water
deep-water fauna fauna thanthan tracts in
tracts in Figure
Figure 19 19and
and Figure
Figure 20A 20A areare similar,
similar, the
the low-
low-
do rocks
do rocks above
above or or below.
below. Few Few or
or nono fauna
fauna areare recov-
recov- stand systems
stand systems tracts
tracts in
in these
these two two figures
figures differ.
differ. Thick,
Thick,
ered from
ered from the the largely
largely fluvial,
fluvial, estuarine,
estuarine, or or shallow-
shallow- shale-prone lowstand
shale-prone lowstand wedges,
wedges, slope slope fans,
fans, and
and basin-
basin-
sandstones of the
marine sandstones the transgressive
transgressive or or lowstand floor fans
floor fans are
are unlikely
unlikely to to form
form in in the
the lowstand
lowstand systems
systems
systems tracts.
systems tracts. If If fauna
fauna from from successive
successive condensed
condensed tract because the the depositional
depositional dips dips on on ramps
ramps are are rela-
rela-
sections are
sections are sampled
sampled throughthrough several
several sequences
sequences in in aa tivelylow
tively lowand and uniform.
uniform. Instead,
Instead, the lowstand systems
thelowstand systems
well, and
well, and no no attention
attention is is paid to to interpretations
interpretations of of tract inin aa ramp
ramp margin
margin typically
typically consists
consists of of narrow to to
depositional environments
depositional environments from from well-log
well-log or or seismic
seismic incised valleys, usually filled
broad incised filled with
with tide-
tide-
data in
data in the
the same
same interval,
interval, aa continuous,
continuous, deep-water
deep-water dominated deltaic
dominated deltaic deposits
deposits andand age-equivalent,
age-equivalent, updip updip
environment may
environment may be be interpreted
interpreted for for the
the sampled
sampled fluvial strata. Low-angle
fluvial strata. Low-angle clinoforms,
clinoforms, such such as as those
those
interval. This
interval. This interpretation
interpretation misses misses the the important
important documented by Asquith (1970),
documented (1970), commonly
commonly are are found
found
sequence boundaries along
sequence along which fluvial fluvial oror shallow-
shallow- on ramp
on ramp margins
margins within the the transgressive or high-
or high-
marine, reservoir-quality sandstones
marine, sandstones might have have been stand systems
stand systems tracts.
tracts. Delta-front
Delta-front turbidites, such such as as
introduced farther
introduced farther into
into the the basin.
basin. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the those documented
those documented from from thethe Panther Tongue Tongue deltadelta
sandstones might be
sandstones be interpreted
interpreted erroneously
erroneously as as hav-
hav- (Figure 1),
(Figure I), are
are common
common in in this
this type
type of of basin andand maymay
ing been deposited
ing deposited in in deep
deep water.
water. be mistaken
be mistaken for for submarine
submarine fans.fans.
Two end-members
Two end-members of type-1 type-1 sequence
sequence deposition
deposition
Highstand Systems
Highstand SystemsTract
Tract are represented
are represented by FiguresFigures 19 19andand 20A.
20A. In the
the first
first end
The highstand systems
The systems tract
tract isis bounded below by member (Figure(Figure 19),
19),the
the relative
relative fallfall in sea
sea level
level isis suf-
suf-
the downlap
the downlap surface
surface and
and above
above by the the next sequence
sequence ficient to
ficient to move the shoreline beyond the
the lowstand shoreline the
boundary. The
boundary. The early
early highstand commonly consists consists of depositional-shorelinebreak to
depositional-shoreline to the
the shelf break, result-
an aggradational parasequence set;
an set; the
the late
late highstand ing in probable
ing probable canyon and and submarine-fan
submarine-fan formation.
formation.
is composed
is composed of one one or more progradational parase- parase- the second
In the
In second end member (Figure (Figure 20A), either the
ZOA), either the rel-
rel-
quence sets.
quence sets. The
The ideal highstand is is illustrated in Fig-
Fig- ative fall
ative fall in sea
sea level
level moves the the lowstand shoreline
shoreline
ure 19. siliciclastic sequences
19. In many siliciclastic sequences the the highstand beyond the the depositional-shoreline break but not to to the
the
systems tract is
systems is significantly
significantly truncated by the the overly-
overly- shelf break, or
shelf or nono shelf
shelf break exists exists in in the
the basin
ing sequence
ing sequence boundary and, and, ifif preserved, isis thin and
and because the
because the margin
margin isis aa ramp,
ramp, resulting
resulting in in aa lowstand
lowstand
shale prone.
shale prone. systems tract consisting of a relatively
systems relatively thin wedge with
Margin
Ramp Margin
Ramp no canyon or submarine-fan
no submarine-fan formation.
formation.
to Figure
In contrast to Figure 19,
19, the
the type-1
type-1 sequence
sequence in Fig-
Fig- Stratal Patterns
Stratal in Type-2
Patterns in Type-2 Sequences
Sequences
20A was deposited in a basin with a ramp
ure 20A ramp margin.
margin.
The distributions
The distributions of parasequence setssets and
and systems
systems
on a ramp
Deposition on ramp margin is is characterized by
tracts in
tracts in a type-2
type-2 sequence
sequence are
are illustrated in
in Figure 20B.
Figure 20B.
(1) uniform, low-angle dips
(1) dips of less 1",with The
less than 1°, The lowest system tract in the the type-2
type-2 sequence
sequence is is the
the
dips less
most dips 0.50;O;
less than 0.5 systems tract
shelf-margin systems tract (Posamentier
(Posamentier et al.,
al., 1988).
1988).
(2) shingled to
(2) to sigmoidal
sigmoidal clinoforms
clinoforms (Mitchum
(Mitchum et It
It can
can be deposited anywhere on on the
the shelf and
and consists
consists
al., 1977);
aI., 1977); one or more
of one more weakly
weakly progradational to to aggradational
30
30 characteristics
Sequence boundary characteristics

parasequence sets
parasequence sets composed of shallow-marine para- criteria for for the unconformable part of aa type-2 type-2
sequences
sequences with updip coastal-plain
coastal-plain deposits.
deposits. The
The base sequence boundary include
sequence onlap of overlying
include onlap overlying strata,
of the shelf-margin systems systems tract is is the type-2
type-2 aa downward shift in in coastal
coastal onlap,
onlap, and
and subaerial expo-expo-
sequence boundary,
sequence boundary, and theand the top is the first significant
is the first significant sure with minor subaerial
sure subaerial truncation,
truncation, allall landward
landward of
flooding surface on the
flooding the shelf.
shelf. The
The transgressive
transgressive and
and the depositional-shoreline
the depositional-shoreline break within the the updip,
updip,
highstand systems tracts tracts in type-2
type-2 and type-1
type-1 sequence where correlation is
coastal-plain part of the sequence is
sequences are
sequences are similar.
similar. less precise.
less precise. For this reason, these criteria
criteria are
are particu-
Type-2 sequences (Figure 20B)
Type-2 sequences (Figure 20B) and type-1
type-1 sequences
sequences larly difficult to recognize in well-log or outcrop cross
larly cross
deposited on a ramp (Figure(Figure 20A)
20A) superficially
superficially resem-
resem- sections. Type-2
sections. Type-2 sequence
sequence boundaries are are most readily
ble each other; both lack fansfans and canyons,
canyons, and both of changes in parasequence stacking pat-
defined by the changes
their initial
initial systems
systems tracts (shelf-margin
(shelf-margin systems
systems tract terns described above.above. Based on this criterion,
criterion, type-2
type-2 sequence
in the type-2 sequence and lowstand systems tract in sequence boundaries in siliciclastic
sequence siliciclasticstrata appear to be
the type-1
type-1 sequence)
sequence) areare deposited on the shelf.
shelf. How-
How- rare in most basins.
ever, unlike the type-1
ever, type-l sequences deposited on ramps, On a well-log or outcrop cross cross section the recogni-
recogni-
there isis no relative fall
fall in sea level
level at the depositional-
depositional- criteria for
tion criteria for the unconformable part of a type-1 type-1
shoreline break for for the type-2
type-2 sequence. Conse-Conse- sequence boundary include
sequence include the following:
following:
quently, type-2 sequences do not have incised valleys
quently, valleys *Subaerial-erosional truncation, a laterally correla-
-Subaerial-erosional correla-
significant erosional truncation that
and they lack the significant tive subaerial-exposure surface marked by soil or
results from stream rejuvenation and a basinward root horizons, and laterally correlative-submarine
facies.
shift in facies. especially in the deep-water slope envi-
erosion, especially envi-
ronment must be present.
Sequence Boundary Characteristics
Sequence Boundary Characteristics O n l a p of overlying strata either onto the margins of
.Onlap
A sequence boundary is an unconformity and its incised valleys or coastal onlap must exist. exist.
correlative conformity;
correlative conformity; it is a laterally continuous, -*A coastalonlap
A downward shift in coastal (Vailet aI.,
onlap (Vail al., 1977);
1977);
widespread surface covering at least an entire basin however, this commonly cannot be demonstrated
and seems to occur synchronously in many basins on well-log cross sections because much of the
around the world (Vail
(Vailet al., 1977;
1977; Vail and Todd, 1981;
1981; coastal onlap occurs in the updip, fluvialfluvial part of the
1984; Haq et aI.,
Vail et al., 1984; al., 1988).
1988). A sequence bound- sequence where accurate well-log correlation is dif- dif-
ary separates all of the strata below the boundary from ficult, and therefore, the criterion of a basinward
ficult,
all of the strata above the boundary (Mitchum, 1977) 1977) facies must be used.
shift in facies
and has chronostratigraphic significance.
significance. Correlation *To confirm that erosional truncation and a basin-
-To
of sequence boundaries on well-log cross sections pro- facies marks a sequence boundary and
ward shift in facies
vides a high-resolution chronostratigraphic
chronostratigraphic frame- not a local-distributary channel, one or more of
work for facies
facies analysis. If
If sufficient well control is these criteria must be demonstrated over a region-
available, not only does this framework equal or sur-
available, area.
ally significant area.
pass other tools in chronostratigraphic resolution, but, The unconformable part of a type-1 type-1 sequence
if necessary, the framework can be developed from the boundary can be traced seaward into a conformable
well-log data base. The following discussion of surface on the shelf or slope, commonly occurring at or
sequence boundaries is divided into three parts: rec- near the base of a marine parasequence. Based on the
ognition criteria, incised-valley attributes and exam- criteria listed above, applied to the stratigraphic
ples, and correlation pitfalls. analysis of many basins around the world, type-1 type-1
sequence boundaries appear to predominate in silici-
Recognition Criteria clastic strata.
The criteria that identify the unconformable part of Not all of the recognition criteria presented above
sequence boundaries in a single well log, core, or out- occur everywhere along a particular type-1 sequence
crop include a basinward shift in facies
facies for a type-1
type-1 boundary in a basin. A type-1 type-1 sequence boundary has
sequence boundary and a vertical change in parase- different physical expressions depending on where it
quence stacking patterns for a type-1 or a type-2 is observed and on the variations along a basin margin
sequence boundary. As an example of of the latter crite- in rates of of sediment supply and sea-level change.
rion, consider the case of of three parasequence sets On the slope, seaward of of the shelf
shelf break or in
arranged in vertical order from the oldest to the deeper-water environments, the most pronounced pronounced
youngest: retrogradational, progradational (or aggra- attributes of of a type-1 sequence boundary are trunca-
dational),
dational), followed by retrogradational. In this case, tion and onlap. The distribution of of these recognition
there is commonly a sequence boundary
boundary at the top or criteria is controlled by the distribution of of submarine
the base of
of the progradational (or aggradational) para- canyons, slope failure, contour-current erosion set up
sequence set. by lowstand conditions, and the deposition of of the
On a well-log or outcrop cross section the recognition basin-floor and slope fans.
 Sequence boundary characteristics 31
31

On the shelf, the most pronounced attributes of a following paragraphs.

type-1 sequence boundary are truncation, a basinward
type-l
facies, and subaerial exposure. The distribu-
shift in facies,
type-1 sequence boundaries
tion of these properties of type-l
is controlled primarily by the distribution of incised
valleys and the lithology of the strata that fill these
valleys.
Valleys
Incised Valleys
Incised valleys range in width from less than several
miles to many tens of miles. They range in depth from
tens to several hundreds of feet. feet. Incised valleys
valleys form
fill in two phases. The first phase consists of ero-
and fill
sion, sediment bypass through the eroded valleys,
sion, valleys,
and deposition at the lowstand shoreline in response
fall in sea level. The second phase consists
to a relative fall
of deposition within the valleys in response to a rela- rela-
sealevel,
tive rise in sea level, generally during the late lowstand
or transgressive systems tracts.
Because incised valleys form in these two temporally
distinct phases, the fill fill may consist of a wide variety of
rock types deposited in a variety of environments.
Depositional environments and associated rock types
within the upper reaches of the incised valleys include
estuarine and braided-stream sandstones, fluvial fluvial
sandstones showing evidence of significant tidal mod-
ification, or coastal-plain sandstones, mudstones or
ification,
coals. These deposits, which lie above the sequence
coals.
boundary, commonly rest directly on the middle- to
outer-shelf mudstones and thin sandstones that lie
below the boundary, with intervening rocks either
intermediate-depositional
eroded or not deposited in intermediate-depositional
environments. As discussed above, this abnormal ver-
facies marks a basinward shift in
tical association of facies
facies. Incised valleys
facies. valleys also can be filled
filled with marine
mudstones if if the rate of deposition of coarse-grained
sediment is low relative to the rate of sea-level rise at
the end of the lowstand.
Depositional environments and associated rock
types within the lower reaches of the incised valleys
vary and include lowstand-delta and tidal-flat sand-
stones and mudstones and beach and estuarine sand-
Commonly, these shallow-marine
stones. Commonly, shallow-marine strata, in
the case of beaches or deltas, form one or more progra-
dational parasequence sets. If If tide-dominated deltas,
consisting of tidal bars and tidal shoals within an estu-
ary, form in the lower reaches of an incised valley there
ary,
may be no n o deposition of sand-prone lowstand-
facies across the shelf until the transgressive
shoreline facies
systems tract is deposited. Landward, these tide-
dominated strata change facies facies into coarse-grained
braided-stream deposits.
Adjacent to incised valleys, the erosional surface
passes into a correlative subaerial-exposure
subaerial-exposure surface
marked by soils or rooted horizons. Three examples of
incised valleys marking type-l type-1 sequence boundaries,
exhibiting the characteristics described above, are dis-
cussed in the following
The first example is a relatively narrow incised valley
in the Muddy Sandstone, illustrated with a well-log
cross section in Figure 21 21 showing the Clareton field field in
the eastern Powder River basin, Wyoming.
Wyoming. The valley
is approximately 6 mi (9.6 km) wide, 40 mi (64
(9.6 km) (64 km)
km)
long, and erodes 40 ft (18 (18 m)
m) into the underlying shelf
mudstones of the Skull Creek Shale. Shale. The valley is
filled with fine-
filled fine- to medium-grained sandstone and
mudstone interpreted to have been deposited in a flu- flu-
vial to estuarine environment. The fluvialfluvial to estuarine
sandstones lying directly on the shelf mudstones rep-
ero- facies and, along with the
resent a basinward shift in facies
truncation, sharply mark the sequence boundary. The
fill is encased laterally in the shelf mud-
incised-valley fill
stones; delta-front or lower-shoreface sandstones do
not occur below the incised valley or adjacent to it. it.
Shallow-marine parasequences, in a retrogradational
parasequence set, overlie the fluvial or estuarine
fill. The sequence boundary defined by
incised-valley fill.
the incised-valley erosion can be correlated through- through-
out the Powder River and Denver basins in Wyoming
(Weimer, 1983,
and Colorado (Weimer, 1983, 1984,
1984, 1988).
1988).
The second example illustrates three middle Mio-
cene incised valleys from south-central Louisiana
well-log cross section (Figure
shown on a well-log 22). This
(Figure 22).
cross section is a small part of a regional study of mid-
dle Miocene sequence stratigraphy in south Louisi- Louisi-
ana. Approximately 700 well logs, six cores, and
numerous biostratigraphic analyses were used to
interpret the stratigraphy.
Depositional environments of the Miocene strata
were interpreted from well-log shapes, core descrip-
tions calibrated to well-log response, map patterns,
and paleowater depth from biostratigraphy. Based on
foraminifer-age dates, sequence 2 was placed at the
foraminifer-age
top of the Cibicides
Cibicides opima biozone, sequence 1 at the
base of the Bigenerina humblei biozone. These zona-
tions suggest that sequence boundary 1l corresponds
to the 13.8-Ma sequence boundary (L.c. (L.C. Menconi,
Menconi,
personal communication, 1988) 1988)on the Exxon sea-level
sea-level
(Haq et aI.,
curve (Haq al., 1988)
1988) and that sequence boundaries
2 and 3 are not on the Exxon chart.chart.
Broad, sheet-like geometries, well-developed trun-
cation, and a basinward shift in facies facies are associated
(Figure 22).
with these incised valleys (Figure 22). The sandstones
sandstones
within the incised valleys are interpreted as fluvial, fluvial,
possibly braided stream to estuarine in origin. In core,
the blocky sandstones are medium- to coarse-grained,
have sharp, erosional bases often overlain by the
sandstone, are nearly
coarsest grains in the blocky sandstone,
trough-cross beds, and gen-
completely composed of trough-cross
erally are composed of smaller 2- 2- to 10-ft-
10-ft-(0.6-
(0.6- to 3 m-)
m-)
thick fining-upward units. units. Based on biostratigraphic
data, the marine mudstones below the sequence
data,
boundaries were deposited in inner- to middle-neritic
depths. Thin sandstones within or at the top of
water depths.
32 Sequence
Sequence boundary characteristics
characteristics

the mudstones but below the sequence sequence boundaries are initially flooded.
were initially flooded. This condition
condition may explain
explain why
interpreted to be distal delta frontfront or lower shoreface,
shoreface, valleys in the central
the incised valleys central and eastern part of the
based on well-log
well-log shape, thickness, areal distribution,
distribution, interfluves at their southern or down-
map have more interfluves
association with open-marine
and association open-marine mudstones. This Incised-valley sheet sandstones, commonly
dip ends. Incised-valley commonly
vertical
vertical juxtaposition of very shallow-marine
shallow-marine to non- bifurcating to the south,
south, are a typical reservoir pattern
open-marine rocks marks
marine strata directly above open-marine Tertiary strata along the Texas
in Tertiary Texas and Louisiana Gulf
the basinward shift in facies. facies. These incised valleys
valleys Coast.
Coast.
extend many tens of miles updip and cut across across under- incised-valleyfill in the western part of the map
The incised-valley
depositional environments,
lying depositional environments, which range from from relatively narrow sandstone 11to 5 mi (1.6
is a relatively km)
(1.6 to 8 km)
fluvial to outer shelf.
fluvial shelf. (64km)
wide, at least 40 mi (64 km) long,
long, and up to 270 ft (82(82 m)
m)
resistivity-curve patterns from
Correlation of similar resistivity-eurve from dimensions are com-
thick. Except for thickness, these dimensions com-
well to well in the marine mudstones beneath the dimensions of the Muddy Sandstone
parable to the dimensions
incised valleys provides an accurate and detailed incised valleys in the Powder River basin, Wyoming
chronostratigraphic framework, derived indepen- indepen- (Figure 21).
(Figure 21). These relatively narrow incised valleys valleys
from biostratigraphic or radiometric control,
dently from control, for probably formed
formed when a singlesingle small- to moderate-
moderate-
terminations such as truncation.
recognition of stratal terminations truncation. sea-level fall.
sized river entrenched during a sea-level fall.
Where incised valleys are not present, for example example Not all type-1
type-1 sequence
sequence boundaries marked by ero-
along sequence
along sequence boundary 2, the sequence sequence boundary sional truncation associated with incised valleys
coincides with a marine-flooding surface. surface. The exhibit a basinward shift in facies.
facies. The third example
example
sequence boundary in this interfluvial area may be
sequence type-1 sequence
of a type-1 sequence boundary (Figure
(Figure 24)
24) illustrates
illustrates
marked by soil or root horizonshorizons if if these products of truncation along one side of an interpreted incised val-
subaerial exposure
subaerial exposure have not been removed by the sub- sub- 80-Ma sequence
ley at the 80-Ma sequence boundary (Haq(Haq et aI.,
al., 1988)
1988)
sea-level rise.
sequent sea-level Ferruginous Member of the
on the top of the Gammon Ferruginous
Figure 2323 is a paleogeographic map showing the dis- dis- Pierre Shale in the Powder River basin, eastern Wyo-
tribution of the incised-valley fill fill and interfluves
interfluves for ming. The incised valley is filled with siltstones,
ming.
Miocene sequence
the middle Miocene sequence boundary 2. The map marine mudstones, and bentonites. In the cross sec-
illustrates the distribution
illustrates distribution of sediments
sediments on the deposi-
deposi- (Figure 24),
tion (Figure 24), 300 ft (92
(92 m)
m) of strata within the Gam-Gam-
tional surface just before the first major marine- mon are truncated where the sequence sequence boundary at
flooding event inundated the shelf, terminating the base of the incised valley cuts down to the south-
deposition, and creating the transgressive
lowstand deposition, transgressive east. Above the sequence
east. sequence boundary the Ardmore ben-
surface. Contours
surface. Contours show the gross incised-valley
incised-valley fill
fill tonite, interbedded marine mudstones, and the
thickness; the major incised-valley axes are high- Sharon Springs Member of the Pierre Shale Shale (another
lighted with heavy lines.lines. The location of the crosscross sec- marine mudstone), onlap to the northwest. The Ard-
tion in Figure 22 is marked on the map. The more bentonite and lower half of the Sharon Springs Springs
incised-valleyfill in the central
incised-valley central and eastern part of the are within the Baculifes
Baculites obtusus ammonite biozone (Gill
obfusus ammonite
map is a broad sheet of sandstone at least 40 mi (64 (64 km)
km) and Cobban, 1966).1966). Shallow-marine
Shallow-marine to fluvial
fluvial sand-
wide, 25 mi (40 (40 km)
km) long, and locally, is up to 240 ft (73 (73 recording a basinward shift in facies
stones recording facies have not
thick, but averages
m) thick, averages about 150 150ft (46
(46m)
m) thick over the directly above the sequence
been observed directly sequence boundary.
boundary.
area. These dimensions
area. dimensions of the valley fill are a mini- This pattern of truncation below the sequence
sequence bound-
mum because the southern and eastern limits of the ary and onlap of marine mudstones above above has been
incised valley are outside the study area. area. Truncation
Truncation observed regionally within the Powder River basin.
and a basinward shift in faciesfacies can be observed every-every- The regional truncation below the 80-Ma 80-Ma sequence
sequence
where below the incised valley in Figure 23. boundary, interpreted to have been formed by
This incised-valley sheet sandstone represents regional paleovalleys,
paleovalleys, is shown on Figure 25. 25. In con-
con-
single, large incised Miocene river similar in
either a single, trast to Figure 24, Figure 25 shows both sides of the
dimensions to the modern Mississippi (Fisk,
dimensions (Fisk, 1944)
1944)or a major incised valley. This map illustrates
illustrates the subcrop
number of smaller rivers that coalesced during the sea- sea- thickness in the Powder River basin from
thickness from the 80-Ma
80-Ma
fall. In the latter case, tributaries
level fall. tributaries forming
forming as sea sequence boundary to an underlying resistivity
fell would erode progressively into interfluvial
level fell sequence boundary at the
marker coincident with a sequence
areas, allowing
areas, allowing separated rivers to coalesce into a sin- sin- base of the Sussex sandstone.
sandstone. Small,
Small, open circles indi-
indi-
gle, large alluvial
gle, alluvial valley.
valley. Tributary development
development in distribution of well logs used to make the
cate the distribution
sea-level fall
response to the sea-level fall would have begun first in map. North-south
North-south erosional axes axes in Figure 25, indi-indi-
the earliest exposed or most northerly strata (Figure (Figure cated by heavy lines, are interpreted to be incised- incised-
23), allowing
23), allowing ample
ample time, in this case, for the separate axes cut during the 80-Ma
valley axes 80-Ma sea-level
sea-level fall
fall (Haq
(Haq et
coalesce. In the latest exposed,
valleys to coalesce. exposed, or most al., 1988).
aI., 1988).These axes suggest a dendritic
dendritic drainage
drainage pat-
tributaries barely would have begun
southerly strata, tributaries tern; this regional pattern is unlikely to be produced
incising before the sea-level
incising sea-level fall
fall ended and the valleys by submarine erosion on this ramp margin. margin. A rapid
NW SE
RIMROCK DRILLING CO
CARDINAL PET. CO. TRUE OIL COMPANY
C. E. WEIR VOSS-GOV'T NO 1
FEDERAL 7 -11 TURNBOW FED. 24-30 TAYLOR OIL CO.
NO.1 SIMMONS SEC.8~T42N-A65W
SEC, 11- T43N-R66W SEC,30- T43N-R65W FISHER NO. 1
SEC.13- T43N-R66W WESTON CO.. WYOMING
WESTON CO .. WYOMING WESTON CO" WYOMING Sec.17- T42N-R65W
WESTON CO .. WYOMING
WESTON CO.. WYOMING

'"
~
';~":'===1
1::-+-+- '-'y,---+---------+--+--+- 9- J;:- •
L
~
g
••

-=S
>:~5;j----lti:;;:'-~=~::--j------t----=>
~~
J'
C 1~ .~
<;.
I
-- ~ --- -

~P:~=t=======~=t:
'i
" , ,
,
I -
g •• - --
11:. ~

7
FtuVIAl OR ESTUARINE
ONE MILE _ -"-J1 INCISED VAlln FILL
SANDSTONES

I TEN FEET o NONMARINE MUDSTONES

o SHAllOW-MARINE SANDSTONES

Figure 21-An incised valley in the Powder River basin. Albian-aged Muddy Sandstone within the incised valley erodes
o.. SHElFAl MUDSTONES

SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
b .... AND TRUNCATION
into the Skull Creek Shale. The sequence boundary at the base of the Muddy Sandstone is marked by regional-subaerial
SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
erosion or exposure, a downward shift in facies, and onlap. AND ONlAP
 ,, o ST JOHN
, o 00
o " , , o o THE BAPTIST ,dl
o "- J
/
00 o ,4'
o
I
o o
o ,,-_/ ST. JAMES
o o I,
, - o
, ,,-.... ..... _....
o
,,
,----- _Jl. .. ~.
o o 00

"-
"
\
,"
I o
o
'-,
"" , I
'.. . ......n.-- I
o
o
"0"0" o
o o
o
o
o '
-_.~
o
I
" o 6..0 - -_ _150-....0-- I
o "\ ,, I
',>
o
\ o
o
, o o
\ \
\ ASSUMPTION 0
o
o \ o o
o o
\ 00
\ o
o \
) o
I 0 5O-~ o
o ST. o
I MARTIN
100
o I o 0
o
1 0
0 0
~ 0 INCISED
" VALLEY
"- - _Q.. _ EDGE o

0
0 0 0
o 0
o
o 0

o
--_
o - --
o '-',.
o
o
o
o
0 00 0 o
"
0 o (,
\

~
0

LAFOURCHE
ST. CROSS SECTION,
FIGURE 22
",
MARY
o " ... _- ........
TERREBONNE "
o
o
'\
o o 38 o "
o
o
o o "'\,
o
. . -''
/ \
MAP REPRESENTS DISTRIBUTION OF DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS IMMEDIATELY BELOW THE FLOODING
,,'" ....- o o SURFACE tFS OR FS/SB). THE GROSS THICKNESS OF
o / o
,,
I THE INCISED-VALLEY Fill IS ALSO SHOWN.
o o o
o I

;"'---
.. I

( 30
I 0 INCISED VALLEY FILL
\
\
\
0 SANDSTONES/MUDSTONES o WELL DATA USED TO CONSTRUCT MAP
I

MILES
6
o THIN SHELF SANDSTONES
AND MUDSTONES
LINE OF CROSS SECTION
ON FIGURE 22
)
~:::~~ TRUNCATED BY OVERLYING _ _ _ _ INCISED VALLEY AXES FS
FS/SB
C,1. = 50 FEET SEQUENCE BOUNDARY SB

Figure 2~Paleogeographic map of the middle Miocene-aged sequence 2 from Figure 22 showing the distribution of the lowstand incised·valley fill below the tran-
gressive surface in south-eentral Louisiana. Contours show the incised-valley·fill thickness; the major incised-valley axes are highlighted with heavy lines. The
incised·valley fill is sheet-like in the eastern area of the map. This pattern is common in Tertiary incised valleys in the Gulf Coast and probably forms when several
river systems coalesce during sea-level lowstand. The incised·valley fill is ribbon-like in the western area of the map, probably reflecting incision of a single fluvial
system during sea-level lowstand. This pattern is developed in basins with small or widely spaced fluvial systems. The location of the cross section in Figure 22 is
indicated on the map.
 Sequence boundary characteristics 33
33

I o0 I
I I
"0
o
o

o
o o

°a
CROOK
00
00 0 0
I o"0 0 0
o 0
I o
, 0 o
o 0 0
1 00 ~o o

,Po 'C.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I WESTON
r
,I o
, o
I o
I
I o 0
I 00 0
o o
I 00 0
I 0 o
o
, I
o
o o

I o
~_.1 _ - -o - - - - - -o- - - - - - - -
0
00
000% 0 0
0 0
00
0 0
0 0
0 'b
0 0 0
0 rP'°00
0 0'
0
0
0
o
00
o NIOBRARA 00
o o
- INCISED VALLEY o
AXIS
o

I
I
CONVERSE
0
!
12
!
MILES
t
-N-

~
C I == 20
C.I 2 0 FEET

150
150-1
;
A
I
A'
I
100
100-
8 0 MA SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
>-
w REGIONAL RESISTIVITY
50
~

-- 50
50-

2CSubcmp map showing the thickness of the erosional remnant between the 80-Ma sequence
Figure 25-Subcrop sequence boundary and an
correlative resistivity marker. The resistivity marker is interpreted to have been nearly horizontal
underlying regionally correlative
at the time of deposition. Cross-section A-A ' represents the relief of the erosional remnant. The surface
Cross-section A-A' surface represented by
lowetand. Axes of interpreted incised valleys
this map is interpreted to have been incised during the 80-Ma sea-level lowstand. valleys are
shown on the map and coincide A-A ' cross
coincide with the low areas on the A-A' cross section.
section. Following incision, a rapid relative rise in
sea level drowned the valleys, which were subsequently filled with onlapping bentonites and prograding, downlapping
marine mudstones.
 34 Sequence boundary characteristics

following lowstand incision the thrust sheets for a short distance into the basin,
relative rise in sea level following
drowned the incised systems and, coupled with a and then turn 90 flow parallel
90"0 to the north or south to flow
probable low influx of coarser-grained sediment, pre- to axes of regional subsidence for long distances. distances. Dur-
siliciclastic infil!.
vented significant coarse-grained siliciclastic sea-level highstands in the foreland basin
infill. ing times of sea-level
Following the sea-level rise, bentonites and marine most fluvial
Following fluvial systems flow
flow perpendicular to the thrust
shelf-perched sheets because this drainage orientation represents, in
siliciclastic mudstones and shales, in shelf-perched
siliciclastic
clinoforms of subsequent transgressive and highstand most cases, the shortest path to the sea.
clinoforms sea. Shoreline
topography.
systems tracts, filled the incised topography. . parasequences prograde to the east and have north- north-
The 80-Ma sequence boundary has been recognized south-oriented depositional strikes in highstand or
as a subaerial-erosion surface in other places in the transgressive systems tracts. tracts.
States. In western Nebraska, DeGraw
western United States. These three examples (Figures (Figures 21
21 through 25) 25) of
(1975) mapped extensive truncation at the top of the incised valleys on well-log
(1975) well-log cross sections and maps
Niobrara just below the Ardmore bentonite. A map of show that the physical expression of type-1 type-1 sequence
the incision on the top of the Niobrara shows a com- boundaries in siliciclastic siliciclastic strata on a shelf or ramp can
plex fluvial-drainage system characterized by a north- north- vary depending on incised-valley size, distribution,
south-trending trellis-drainage pattern (DeGraw, and fill. fill. These aspects of incised valleys are, in turn,
1975).Basal Pierre siltstones and mudstones filling
1975). filling the controlled by the dimensions, rate of sediment supply,
incised topography are interpreted to be nonmarine . and distribution of the rivers existing in the basin at
(DeGraw,
(DeGraw, 1975). 1975). Another south- to southeast- . the time of the sea-level fall. fall. The variations in type-1
type-l
trending paleodrainage system at the top of the Nio- sequence boundary expressions and the relationships
brara has been observed in central and eastern North of these variations to incised valleys and their precur-
and South Dakota (Shurr and Reiskind, 1984). fluvial systems are shown in Figure 26. In this fig-
1984). This sor fluvial fig-
unconformity also occurs at the base of the Baculites Baculites ure, three different incised-valley types are
obtusus ammonite zone (Shurr (Shurr and Reiskind, 1984), illustrated-a relatively narrow, sandstone-filled val-
1984), illustrated-a
establishing it as the 80-Ma sequence boundary.
boundary. ley like Figure 21; a relatively wide, sandstone-filled
Interpretation of a widespread sequence boundary valley Fig-
like Figure 22; and a shale-filled valley like fig-
at the top of the Niobrara or the base of the Pierre has ure 24-each 24-each incising across subaerially exposed ramp
implications for the sedimentary history of the Creta- or shelf strata deposited landward of the shelf break.
ceous seaway in the western United States. States. Figure 24 Each valley represents a different original fluvial fluvial
coincides closely with a portion of the cross section type and each is associated with a different sequence- sequence-
through eastern Wyoming presented in Asquith (1970, (1970, boundary expression.
expression. For example, a type-l
type-1 sequence
his figure 12). 12). Asquith interpreted the surface at the boundary in a basin or portion of a basin with widely
top of the Gammon Ferruginous and unnamed mem- spaced rivers of moderate discharge and a moderate
bers of the Pierre Shale as a depositional surface defin- rate of relative sea-level rise will be marked by local
ing a shelf, shelf-break, slope, slope, and basin-floor truncation and a basinward shift in facies facies below rela-
topography. Most of the clinoforms on Asquith's cross tively narrow, sandstone-filled incised valleys. Soil or
section have very low present dips, ranging from 18 18 ' root horizons in interfluvial areas, if not removed by
to 43 '.'. These low-angle clinoforms or offlaps, coupled the subsequent sea-level sea-level rise, will be widespread. The
with the interpretation that the most steeply dipping sequence boundary might only be recognized in a well
surface on Asquith's figure 12 12 is erosional, not deposi-
deposi- log, core, or outcrop if they intersected the incised-
tional, suggests that this is a ramp margin (see discus- valley fill. The position of the sequence boundary in
sion of ramp margin stratal geometries in the section the other well logs in the data base would have to be
on "Stratal Patterns in Type-lType-1 Sequences"). Further- established by correlation from the wells that pene-
more, if if the Cretaceous seaway from the eastern Pow- trated the valleys.
der River basin to eastern South Dakota were type-1 sequence boundary in a basin or portion of
A type-l
subaerially exposed, it is probable that the sea a basin with numerous, closely spaced rivers or one
retreated from a large part of the North American cra- large river with significant discharge and a low to
ton at or about 80 Ma. moderate rate of relative sea-level rise will be marked
Finally, the paleodrainage patterns in this example by regional truncation beneath an extensive fluvial- fluvial- or
are to the south, not to the east away from the high- estuarine-sheet sandstone and a widely distributed
lands, as is considered normal in this foreland basin basinward shift in facies. facies. Because of extensive regional
(Mallory, 1972).
(Mallory, 1972). A fall in sea level in foreland basins, truncation, interfluve areas will only be locally pre-
such as the Cretaceous basin of western North Amer- served and soil horizons, commonly developed on
ica, may result in realignment of fluvial fluvial axes with interfluves will be rare. The sequence boundary will be
major, basinwide tectonic elements such as loci of recognized in most of the well logs, cores, and out-
major,
regional subsidence parallel to thrust sheets. sheets. If so, crops in the data base.
lowstand-fluvial systems may flow perpendicular to type-1 sequence boundary in a basin or a portion
A type-l
 Sequence boundary characteristics
Sequence characteristics 35

of a basin with rivers carrying little or no bed load and (3) basal-channel lags deposited on sequence
(3)
moderate to rapid rate of relative sea-level
a moderate sea-levelrise will be valleys.
boundaries within incised valleys.
marked by truncation and widespread soil or root discussed in the sec-
The first two types of lags are discussed sec-
evidence of subaerial
horizons or equivalent evidence subaerialexposure,
exposure, Boundary." The third type of lag
tion "Parasequence Boundary:'
if preserved, but not by a basinward shift in facies.
facies. The forms during sea-level
forms sea-levelfall
fall as the shelf is eroded by flu-
flu-
sequence boundary would not be recognized in an
sequence channels forming
vial channels forming the incised valleys.
valleys. During inci-
inci-
individual well log and probably not recognized in
individual sion, finer-grained shelf sediments are flushed
cores. However,
cores. However, correlation demonstrating truncation system. Coarser-grained
through the valley system. Coarser-grained particles
resistivity markers on well-log
of resistivity well-logcross
cross sections or seis-
seis- concentrated as a basal
eroded from the shelf strata are concentrated
mic lines would readily reveal the incised valley and lag as much as several feet thick on the sequence sequence
sequence boundary.
sequence boundary. boundary in the valley.
valley. The lag derived from the shelf
Finally, a type-1
Finally, type-1 sequence
sequence boundary in a basin or a commonly consists of a wide variety of grain
strata commonly
portion of a basin with no rivers will be marked only by types including intertidal and open-marineopen-marine shells,
subaerial exposure,
widespread evidence of subaerial exposure, if evi-
if this evi- glauconite, phosphorite pebbles, shale
shark teeth, glauconite,
dence is not removed by the subsequent sea-levelsea-level rise.
rise. rip-up clasts, and bones. The lag commonly shows
transgressivelag of calcareous
A thin transgressive calcareous nodules lying on subaerial exposure.
evidence of subaerial exposure.
sequence boundary is commonly the only
the flooded sequence Basal-channel lags also may be derived from more
indication that a soil horizon existed on the sequencesequence sources. These lags commonly consist of
proximal sources.
sea-level rise.
boundary before the sea-level rise. This lag is dis- dis- coarse grains
coarse grains of chert and quartz, well-rounded
well-rounded quartz
"Parasequence
cussed in more detail in the section "Parasequence quartzite pebbles, and sandstone and shale
and quartzite shale rip-up
Characteristics" and more briefly discussed
Boundary Characteristics" discussed clasts. It is common to find quartz and quartzite
clasts. quartzite peb-
section. Significant
at the end of this section. Significant erosion and a bles ranging in thickness from from thin beds, only one peb-
facies will not be associated with the
basinward shift in facies ble thick,
thick, to beds 11 or 2 ft (0.3 (0.3 or 0.6 m)
m) thick.
thick. Thin
sequence boundary in this case.
sequence case. The sequence
sequence bound- pebble beds may be deposited in the axes of incised
ary will probably not be recognized in a well log in the valleys or at the edges of incised valleys,
valleys valleys, almost on val-
absence of core, and might be only recognized in the interfluves. Commonly,
ley interfluves. Commonly, basal-channel
basal-channel lags within
well if it were correlated from from another area where it axes consist of a mixture of particles derived
valley axes
expressed.
was more clearly expressed. from the incised shelf and more proximal sources. sources. If
In Figure 26, different expressions of the type-1 type-1 the incised valley erodes into inner-shelf parase-
sequence boundary on the shelf or ramp are labelled
sequence quences and the valley is filled with marine mud-
quences
SB1 where they are beneath sandstone-filled
SB1 sandstone-filled incised fine-grained estuarine or lower-shoreface
stones, or fine-grained lower-shoreface
valleys; SB2 SB2 where they are beneath shale-filled strata, the basal-channel lag could be interpreted as
incised valleys; and SB3 SB3 to show where the sequence
sequence transgressive lag with no apparent evidence of a rela-
transgressive rela-
boundary is conformable
conformable on the shelf or ramp seaward fall in sea level.
tive fall level. If
If the incised valley erodes into
shoreline. Marine-flooding
of the lowstand shoreline. Marine-flooding surfaces
surfaces middle- or outer-shelf mudstones and the valley sub- sub-
marking parasequence
parasequence boundaries are labelled FS, filed with cross-bedded estuarine sand-
sequently is filled sand-
and subaerially exposed interfluves marking the stones, the basal-channel lag could be interpreted as a
sequence boundary away from from the incised valleys transgressive lag overlain by a shelf-ridge
transgressive shelf-ridge sandstone.
sandstone.
coincident with the flooding surface are labelled In Figure 26, the sequence boundary between
FSISB. Depositional environments,
FS/SB. environments, stratal termina-
termina- (labelled FS/SB)
incised valleys (labelled FSISB) is a soil or root horizon
tions, and other diagnostic criteria associated with shallow-marine parasequence.
lying on a shallow-marine parasequence. This parase-
type-1 sequence
type-1 sequence boundaries in siliciclastic
siliciclastic strata on a quence may be deposited during either the highstand
quence
shelf or ramp are summarized in the table in Figure 26. 26. systems tract of the previous sequence
systems sequence or the early part
In addition to the criteria listed in the table in Figure systems tract to which the incised val-
of the lowstand systems
sequence boundaries can be marked by various
26, sequence leys belong in Figure 26. The latter case probably
types of lag deposits.
deposits. These lags include:
include: occurs frequently
occurs frequently in the rock record, forming
forming in the fol-fol-
(1) transgressive
(1) transgressive lags of calcarous
calcarous nodules depos-
depos- lowing way.
lowing way. In the early stages of the relative fallfall in sea
ited on marine-flooding surfaces
surfaces that are coin-
coin- level, fluvial systems
level, systems incise
incise and move progressively
cident with sequence
sequence boundaries (FS/SB)
(FSISB)or on across the shelf as the shelf is exposed.
seaward across exposed. Sedi-
Sedi-
sequence boundaries within incised valleys.
sequence valleys. ment eroded from from the underlying highstand strata by
calcareous nodules are derived by shore-
The calcareous shore- valleys is deposited seaward of and adja-
the incised valleys adja-
face erosion from
face from soil horizons
horizons formed during cent to the valley mouths, forming forming thin delta and
subaerial exposure
the subaerial exposure of the sequence
sequence bound- parasequences. As the sea-level fall
beach parasequences. fall continues
ary.
ary. valleys erode farther across
and incised valleys across the shelf,
shelf, (1)
(1)
(2) organic or inorganic carbonates
(2) carbonates deposited on new beach and delta parasequences
parasequences are deposited far- far-
surfaces that are coincident
marine-flooding surfaces ther out on the shelf at the mouths of incised valleys,
sequence boundaries.
with sequence (2) previously deposited parasequences are eroded in
(2)
36 Sequence boundary
boundary characteristics

front ofof incised valleys or are partially to totally pre- salt is not subdued, the paleovalleys have little or no
served and "stranded"
"stranded" on the shelf shelf at the edges of, or truncation at their bases. When little or no truncation
adjacent to, the incised valleys, and (3) (3) the stranded" exists, the sequence boundary is still marked by a
the""stranded"
parasequences are overridden by the subaerial- basinward shift in facies at the base of of the paleovalley
exposure surface of of the sequence boundary. fill, but the paleovalley cannot properlyproperly be described
"stranded" lowstand parasequences repre- as incised.
These "stranded" incised.
sent early lowstand systems tract deposition on the
shelf or ramp. In basins with a shelf break, these para- Correlation Pitfalls
sequences could predate submarine-fan deposition To interpret type-1 sequence boundaries correctly in
before the sea-level fall reaches the shelf shelf edge. well logs, cores, or outcrops, it is critical to distinguish
Although they form during the early part of of the sea- between incised valleys and local channels, such as
fall, they are overlain by a regionally extensive distributary channels, in constructing an accurate
level fall,
unconformity marked by subaerial exposure and trun- chronostratigraphic framework. In the examples pre-
cation labelled on Figure 26 as SB1, SB2, SB3, and sented in Figures 21 through 25,
SB1, SB2, 25, we interpreted the
FSISB.
FS/SB. Although it does not record the time of of the ini- vertical association of of facies
facies on the cross sections as
tial sea-level fall over its entire extent, this unconform- incised valleys and not distributary channels or other
ity is the sequence boundary because (1) (1) it separates all local channels because the valleys are too wide to be
of the rocks below from the rocks above; (2) (2) although distributary channels, the strata at the edges of the
all points on the surface do not represent the same incised valleys are distal-marine sandstones and shelf
duration of time, one instant of time is common to all mudstones, not delta-front or stream-mouth bar
points when the sea-level fall ends and the uncon- deposits, and valley fills occur along certain surfaces,
formity is completely formed;formed; (3) (3) it is readily identified i.e., sequence boundaries, that are widespread in the
over most of its extent; (4) (4) it is the surface that controls basin and not confined to one deltaic lobe. Criteria for
the distribution of overlying strata in the lowstand sys- the differentiation of incised valleys from distributary
tems tract on the shelf; and (5) (5) it forms relatively channels in a single well leg and on a well-log cross
welllcg
quickly, probably in less than 10,000 10,000 years. section or in an outcrop are explained more fully in the
The "stranded"
The" stranded" lowstand parasequences below the following following paragraphs.
sequence boundary commonly have the following Incised-valley interpretation is more difficult difficult in a
stratal characteristics:
characteristics: single well log than on a cross section because distribu- distribu-
(1) they typically are deltaic or beach parase- tary channels, eroding deeply into underlying deltaic
(1) deltaic
quences, but commonly consist of sharp- deposits, can juxtapose juxtapose relatively coarse-grained
. based, lower-shoreface sandstones; strata directly on prodelta mudstones thereby mimick- mimick-
(2)' they have no significant updip coastal-plain ing a basinward shift in facies.
(2) facies. However, where a dis-
equivalents, and there is no sediment accom-
equivalents, accom- tributary channel of a given delta lobe cuts into but not
modation updip because of the sea-level sea-level fall;
fall; through the prodelta mudstones of the same lobe, the
(3)
(3) they rest, commonly abruptly, on open- thickness of the distributary-channel fill fill cannot be
marine strata, although their bases cannot be much greater than the paleowater depth of the eroded
interpreted as a basinward shift in facies; facies; mudstones. For example, if prodelta mudstones were
(4)
(4) they rest on a conformable surface, and each deposited 100ft (30
in 100 (30m) of water, the fill fill of the distrib-
parasequence gradually shoals upward; utary channel eroding into them must be nearly 100 100ft
(5)
( 5 ) they are overlain by the unconformable part of (30 (30 m) This is not necessarily the case with
m) thick. This
the sequence boundary marked either by incised valleys. Because incised valleys erode in
minor truncation or subaerial exposure; and response to a relative fall fall in sea level,
level, the paleowater
(6) they generally are thin because of reduced depth of the eroded mudstones beneath the sequence
(6) sequence
accommodation on the shelf; shelf; their thicknesses boundary is commonly much greater than the thick- thick-
typically do not exceed tens of feet; feet; and they ness of the valley fill. fill. For example, shelf mudstones
also may vary in thickness due to a varying deposited in 300 ft (92
also (92 m)
m) of water can be truncated by
amount of truncation below the overlying an incised valley only 30 (9 m)
30 ftft (9 m) thick or less. As
sequence boundary.
sequence boundary. important as as this relationship is, it is is not always possi-
Paleovalley distribution on the shelf is
Paleovalley is often con- accurately the paleowater depth of
con- ble to determine accurately
tectonic features
trolled by tectonic features such as as basement-involved the strata imaged on a well log. log. Cores,
Cores, cuttings,
cuttings, or an
faults, thrusts, and growth faults.
faults, faults. Structural
Structural lows outcrop, if available,available, may provide enough data to
caused by salt withdrawal also also control valley
valley distribu- interpret the paleowater depth. depth.
tion. In many cases,
tion. cases, the paleovalleys
paleovalleys deposited in low Another important distinction between distributary
areas controlled by tectonics
areas tectonics or salt are are incised and can channels and incised valleys valleys that may be recognized in
valleys. In other cases,
properly be called incised valleys. cases, espe- core or outcrop is
espe- a core is that the sequence
sequence boundary at the
cially when the topography created by the tectonics
cially tectonics or base of an incised valley commonly shows shows evidence of

a hiatus between the times of erosion and deposition.
Root zones, soils,soils, or burrowed horizons can form on
the valley floor during sea-level lowstand but before
filled with sediment (Weimer,
the valley is flooded and filled (Weimer,
1983). A distributary channel is always full
1983). full of fresh
water, or if
water, if discharge is low, salt water. It is unlikely
that evidence of significant subaerial exposure will
occur on a distributary-channel floor. floor.
On a well-log cross section or in a relatively continu-
ous outcrop, differentiation between incised valleys
and distributary channels depends on an analysis of
lateral-facies relationships. Distrib-
channel width and lateral-facies
utary channels are relatively narrow. The distributary
channels of the modern Mississippi River range from
500 to 5500 ft (153(153 to 1673
1673 m) wide.
wide. Incised valleys are
commonly several miles wide (Figures (Figures 2l
21,22, 23)
22, and 23)
to many tens of miles wide (Figure 23). 23). These widths
can be identified on cross sections or in outcrops, and
if possible, should be mapped regionally. regionally. Further-
more, widespread incised-valley erosion occurs along
a single stratigraphic surface. Deltaic distributary
channels usually stack to form multiple horizons.
facies encasing the channel
It is critical to analyze the facies
in order to distinguish between distributary channels
and incised valleys. Distributary channels are encased
in delta-plain or stream-mouth bar deposits (Figure (Figure
27). Even when the distributary channel of a given
27).
lobe erodes through the prodelta of that lobe into an
underlying parasequence, most of the distributary-distributary-
channel fillfill is laterally encased in stream-mouth bar
deposits. Distributary channels can only step seaward
subaqueous, shallow-water delta plat-
if they have a subaqueous,
form across which they can migrate. migrate. By their nature,
distributary channels cannot be encased regionally in
deeper-water deposits. For much of their length,
incised valleys commonly are encased in middle- to
outer-neritic mudstones because they incise incise during a
fall in sea level.
relative fall
Sequences in Outcrop and Subsurface
Sequences
type-1 sequences and sequence bound-
Examples of type-1
aries, component parasequence sets, systems tracts,
facies associations in outcrops and well-log cross
and facies
33. Each
sections are illustrated in Figures 28 through 33.
sequence in these examples is bounded by uncon-
formities or their correlative conformities and contains
lowstand, transgressive, and highstand systems
tracts.
(Campanian)
The first example is from Cretaceous (Campanian)
outcrops of the Grassy and Desert members of the
Blackhawk Formation and the Castlegate, Buck
Tongue, and Sego members of the Price River Forma-
Tongue,
Cliffs between Green River,
tion exposed in the Book Cliffs
Utah and the Utah-Colorado border (Young, (Young, 1955;
1955;
Graaff, 1964;
Hale and Van De Graaff, 1964; Van De Graaff,
Graaff, 1970;
1970;
1975; and Pfaff, 1985).
Gill and Hail, 1975; 1985). Eight sequences
Sequences in outcrop and subsurface
Sequences 37
are exposed in the cliffs, as follows:
follows: one sequence in
the upper part of the Grassy and lower Desert mem-
bers, one sequence within the upper Desert Member,
another one within the Castlegate and Buck Tongue Tongue
members, two sequences within the lower part of the
Sego Member, and three sequences within the upper
part of the Sego Member.
Member. These sequences were
deposited on a ramp margin.
Figures 28 and 29 show the well-log response
through the stratigraphic interval containing the
sequences, parasequence sets, systems tracts, and
parasequences in the Tenneco Rattlesnake State 2-12
(Figure 28)
(Figure 28) and the Exxon Production Research Co.
(EPR)
(EPR) Sego Canyon no. 2 (Figure (Figure 29).
29). The systems
tracts are identified in the well logs using
parasequence-stacking patterns and facies facies interpreta-
cores. The Tenneco well is 11
tions from outcrops and cores. 11
(18 km)
mi (18 km) north of the Desert and Castlegate out-
crops, nearly on depositional strike with these strata;
the Exxon well is 2 mi (3.2 km) north of the outcrops.
The Sego, Buck Tongue, Castlegate, and Desert mem-
bers were cored continuously in this well.
A measured section through the Sego, Buck Tongue,
Castlegate, and Desert members at Thompson Can-
yon is illustrated in Figure 30.30. The measured section
documents the vertical-facies associations and the
sequence stratigraphy of these units.
A simplified outcrop cross section of the sequences
and systems tracts in the upper part of the Desert
Member, and the Castlegate, Buck Tongue, Tongue, and Sego
members is illustrated in Figure 31. Photographs of
face at the Crescent Flat location
these strata in the cliff face
on the cross section are also shown. This cross section
is based on 135135 sections measured between Green
River, Utah, and Hunter Canyon, Colorado, supple- supple-
mented with numerous outcrop panoramas.
The cross section in Figure 31, oriented west-
southwest to north-northeast, is close close to a deposi-
tional dip section with respect to the Castlegate
Member, but is close
Member, close to a depositional strike section
Sego. This occurs because, in the
with respect to the Sego.
area of the thickest Castlegate exposure, the cliffs cliffs
east-west between Green
change orientation from east-west
northeast-southwest
River and Sagers Canyon, to northeast-southwest
from just east of Sagers Canyon to the Colorado-Utah
border, where the Sego is best exposed. The deposi- deposi-
tional dip for the Castlegate is to the southeast; the
depositional dip for the Sego Member is to the south
southwest.
and southwest.
A map locating the Tenneco Rattlesnake State 2-12 2-12
28), the EPR Co.
(Figure 28), Co. Sego Canyon no. 2 (Figure
(Figure
29), the measured section at Thompson Canyon (Fig- (Fig-
30), and the outcrop cross section (Figure
ure 30), (Figure 31),
31), is
32.
illustrated in Figure 32.
Three backstepping parasequences near the top of
the Grassy Member form the transgressive systems
tract (Figure 28)
28) of sequence 1. 1. The parasequences are
 38 Sequences in outcrop and subsurface
Sequences
overlain by the highstand systems tract (Figures (Figures 28
29), which consists of a progradational parase-
and 29),
quence set within the lower part of the Desert Mem-
ber. Sequence 2 begins with a sequence boundary at
the base of the upper part of the Desert Member (Fig- (Fig-
31), and is marked in outcrop by trunca-
ures 30 and 31),
tion and a basinward shift in facies. facies. These two
attributes can be traced 30 mi (48 km) down deposi-
(48 km)
tional dip from Tuscher Canyon to Sagers Canyon
(Figure 31). The sequence boundary is the base of a
regional incised valley; the lowstand systems tract of
sequence 2 within the valley is composed of braided-
stream, point-bar, and estuarine sandstones and mud-
stones arranged in an aggradational parasequence set. set.
Along the outcrop, especially between Hatch Mesa
and Coal Canyon, the incised valley cuts deeply into
the underlying strata, resulting in juxtaposition of
coal-bearing, coastal-plain rocks above the sequence
boundary directly on dark gra)'J
gray, shelf mudstones.
The transgressive systems tract of sequence 2 (Fig- (Fig-
ures 30 and 31) is best developed at Crescent Flat East
and eastward to Sagers Canyon, where most of this
facies to shelf sandstones and
systems tract changes facies
mudstones. Over this area, the transgressive systems
tract consists of two lower-shoreface parasequences
within a retrogradational parasequence set lying in
sharp contact with a well-developed coalbed. The
highstand systems tract is developed locally between
Thompson and Sagers canyons (Figure (Figure 31), where it
consists of beach parasequences stacked in a progra-
dational parasequence set.set. Much of the transgressive
and highstand systems tracts of sequence 2 is trun-
cated by the boundary of sequence 3. 3.
(Figures 28 through 31)
Sequence 3 (Figures 31) includes the Cas-
tlegate and Buck Tongue members of the Price River
Formation. Sequence-boundary 3 is marked in out-
crop by a basinward shift in facies
facies and truncation (Fig-
(Fig-
31) that can be traced at least 40 mi (64
ure 31) (64 km) down
depositional dip from Tuscher Canyon to between
Sagers and Cottonwood canyons (Figure 32). 32).
The lowstand systems tract of sequence 3 is com-
fluvial sandstones and mudstones, coals, and
posed of fluvial
estuarine sandstones and mudstones within the Cas-
fluvial and estuarine rocks fill
tlegate Sandstone. The fluvial fill
broad, coalesced, incised valleys that extensively dis-
sect the underlying systems tracts of sequence 2.
Sequence-boundary 3 incises progressively more
deeply into the underlying Desert Member (Figure (Figure 31)
31)
in a landward and westward direction. Near Wood-
side Canyon, northwest of the town of Green River
32), the Desert Member, including all of
(Figure 32),
sequence 2 and most of sequence I, 1, is absent because
incised-valley truncation (Young,
of this incised-valley (Young, 1955).
1955). Alter-
nately, sequence-boundary 3 incises progressively less
deeply into the underlying Desert Member (Figure (Figure 31)
east. Between Sagers and
in a seaward direction to the east.
(Figure 32), the unconformable
Cottonwood canyons (Figure
part of the sequence boundary merges with the top of
the youngest lower-shoreface parasequence on the
shelf and becomes a conformable surface (Figure (Figure 31).
31).
At West Salt Creek Canyon, a ferruginous, phosphatic
oolite at the conformable surface lies on shelf mud-
stones and distal lower-shoreface hummocky beds,
attesting to the substantial shallowing that must have
occurred along this sequence boundary.
The transgressive systems tract in sequence 3 is com- com-
posed of two parasequences in a retrogradational
parasequence set and is best expressed in the EPR Co. Co.
(Figure 29).
Sego Canyon no. 2 (Figure 29). The highest organic-
rich mudstones, with total organic-carbon values of
10%, lie on the transgressive surface at the top of the
10010,
Castlegate, which is within the lowest part of the
deepening-upward transgressive systems tract. tract.
The highstand systems tract of sequence 3 (Figure (Figure
30) is composed of one complete and one incomplete
beach parasequence within a progradational parase-
(Figures 28 through 30).
quence set (Figures 30).
(Figures 29 and 30) occur
Sequences 4 through 8 (Figures
within the Sego Member of the Price River Formation.
Each sequence boundary is marked by regional-
erosional truncation associated with incised valleys
and a basinward shift in facies.
facies. Based on clinoform
directions, orientations of channel-cross sections, and
408 paleocurrent
paleocurrent directions measured on sigmoidal-
and trough-cross beds, Sego incised valleys are ori-
ented north-south and northeast-southwest with
paleoflow to the south and southwest.
southwest.
Sequence-boundary 8 is a major regional-erosional
surface at the top of the lowstand-estuarine sandstone
in sequence 7. 7. This regional-erosional surface has as
much as 100 ft (30(30 m) of relief locally and is overlain by
fluvial sandstones, mudstones, and coals everywhere
fluvial
studied. Some of the thickest coals
in the area studied. coals in west-
ern Colorado and eastern Utah are in the lowstand
systems tract of this sequence. In the area studied,
sequence 8 is composed entirely of nonmarine strata.
Sequences 4 through 7 have similar systems tracts,
facies associations, and sequence-boundary expres-
facies expres-
sions; these attributes are summarized in the follow-
sions; follow-
ing description of sequence 4 (Figure (Figure 30).
Sequence-boundary 4 is marked by truncation and a
basinward shift in facies
facies at the base of a regionally
extensive incised valley approximately 15 mi (24 km)
(24 km)
wide; incised valley edges can be seen clearly in out-
crop. Shelf mudstones or wave-rippled siltstones and
interbedded mudstones below the sequence bound-
ary are overlain by upper-fine- to medium-grained,
well-sorted sandstones above the sequence boundary.
In places, a channel lag of clay clasts, shell and bone
fragments, and phosphorite pebbles occurs at the base
of the incised-valley sandstones. More commonly a
lag of red clay clasts rests on the sequence boundary.
The sandstones are composed of sigmoidal cross bed-
(Mutti et a1.,
sets (Mutti 1984,1985)
a]., 1984, (1 m) thick, with
1985) up to 3 ft (1
 BALIZE BAYOU SOUTHEAST
(ABANDONED) PASS
DISTRIBUTARY CHANNELS

A A'

----- --
- -'-
'r---- -
---- - - - - - ?
0

---
-
-- 100
0-
W
-'::>
c,_
-'- -------- -- -- -- _- --
200
'"z
~

I
f-
300 ~
w

400
"
ONE MILE

o STREAM·MOUTH BAR SANDSTONE

o LOWER-TRANSITIONAL ZONE SANDSTONES

AND MUDSTONES

DELTA·FRONT SANDSTONES AND MUDSTONES

AND PRODELTA MUDSTONES

LEVEE AND MARSH SANDSTONES AND

• MUDSTONES

MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER

Figure 27-Relationship of the distributary channel to the stream-mouth bar and delta front of the Mississippi River.
The distributary channel i. encued in shallow-marine deltaic deposits (after Fisk, 1961).
 TENNECO
RATTLESNAKE STATE 2-12
GRAND CO .• UTAH
SEC.2-T19S-R19E

o GR "0 o S'LA '00

I I I I

UPPER
PART .( ESTUARINE
.<0
awo LOWSTAND
OF SEGO <nz SYSTEMS TRACT

~
MEMBER
w TRANS. S. T,
ANCHOR LOWER SHOREFAce U
z<n
W LOWSTAND
~
? ESTUARINE =>0 SYSTEMS
00:
w
~ az
w TRACT
1-0> <n
0::1; w TRANSGRESSIVE
Z O<w LOWER SHOREFACE U
2 ":I; "'i z~
w
SYSTEMS TRACT
I- =>0
0< ilia LOWSTAND
:I; ~o ~ ESTUARINE az
w SYSTEMS TRACT
g~ ~~
~
0: <n
0 DISTAL LOWER $.F.
~

0: HIGHSTAND
w
) LOWER SHOREFACE
SYSTEMS

~
>
a: w
::> 3200 SHELf M
TRACT
w 0
-fu z
a
I- D1STAllDWEA
0
z
w
TRANSGRESSIVE
U
'"::>
U
0>
( SHOREFACE AND
SHElf
Z
w
=>
aw
SYSTEMS
TRACT
<n
. 0:
www LOWSTAND
~I-O> ESTUARINE SYSTEMS
",0<:1;
o<ow
,£ TRACT
u :I; LOWER SHOREFACE TRANS. S. T.
. N
_COAL SWAMP awo LOWSTAND
fLUVIAL TO SYSTEMS
3400 <nz
ESTUARINE TRACT

~ LOWER SHOREFACE
0:
w • S L O W E R SHOAEFACE
Z 0>
0
I-
0<
:;
:I;
w
:; 3500 sc:.. DISTAL LOWER
SHOREfAce
0:
0
I-
0:
w "'-
015TAt LOWER
SHOREFAce
-
0
HIGHSTAND
SYSTEMS
TRACT
~

'"
w z
'"
;:
0<
C
u
w
zw
:r SHELF
=>
'"0<
U 3600
f '"
w

~
<n
~
0> ---- f--------
>0:
",w DISTAL LOWER TRANSGRESSiVe
",0> SHOREFACE SYSTEMS
0<:1;

~
o:w AND SHELF TRACTm
0:1; 3700

SEQUENCE BOUNDARY PARASEQUENCE-SET BOUNDARY PARASEQUENCE BOUNDARY

Figure 28-Well-logexpression of sequence stratigr~phy in the Tenneco Ra"lesn~ke St~te 2-U, Book Oiffs, UI~h_
 EXXON PRODUCTION RESEARCH CO. SEGO CANYON NO.2
NW Y. SEC.27- T20S-R20E
GRAND CO., UTAH

GR MSFL
o1 IAPll 150 6.0
1 ,'-
(OHMS) 2000.0
,

~::
~~~ <...-
- ...
~ -.-
~::]=l==~:..
200
COASTAL S lXl
+-'P~LA"""N'____!~V>'--+.'""..,"",..j
0
(,I)
LOWSTAND
ESTUARINE w"'" SYSTEMS
TRACT
: =====I=::='SHEL . RANS. 5'.. ~
ESTUARINE 7 fa
10 LOWSTAND

==I==I===>:=====t==
300 ESTUARINE· d
TIDAL
LOWSTAND
~ '" SYSTEMS
(,I) ~
!"""" -i_riBili:ARS TRACT

::-_-+_-+__-1 ~-----tl ~ fa
t
L
SH ot TRANS. S. T.
SL-7S~~~
i
ffi
400
ESTUARINE
L. SF.
L. F.
(,I)

.
>
w
!o!
t- i::-+--l__}-i=
LOWER
+S~H:!!O!!!R~EF':!A~C~e
HIGHSTAND
SYSTEMS
TRACT
IE SHELF
i"'t-"OO+-__ 1-,.....--+=:.,--1
r~;-
"
'--...... -~<'.....,r-+-- .--
LOWeR
DISTAL
--I SHOREFACE TRANS.
SYSTEMS
AND TRACT
SHELF

rIiii'il~~~
~ ~ ~ "'i:
c( :E
cow
~ ~~:::!:l==]~~===l~F;L~u~v~'~A~LJ ~
AND SYSTEMS
re;;;S,.TUARI"N;;;e+_~~T.::RA?C:_T_:_l
LOWSTAND

,," '-== ;;;;:==t~~=~;:====~~~_~~'.\e:l~'CE SHOREFACE

~~I:~:S~:N~'
"--I
S.

LOWER
SHOREFACE
,
., ~~~~~ - w
SHELF o HIGHSTAND
~ SYSTEMS
~ TRACT
8V>
DISTAL
LOWER
) SHOREFACE
AND
SHELF

SEQUENCE
, 1000 -
PARASQUENCE SET PARASEQUENCE
BOUNDARY BOUNDARY BOUNDARY
Figure 29-Well.log ell:pression of sequence stntigrilphy in the Exxon Production ReseaKh Co. Sego
unyon no. 2, Book Cliffs, Utah.
40 subsurface
Sequences in outcrop and subsurface

clay drapes on each foreset lamina.lamina. Foreset toes are coarse-grained, braided-stream sandstones sandstones and
extremely tangential and interbedded with clay conglomerates.
conglomerates.
ripples. Reacti-
drapes, small clay clasts, and current ripples. Reacti- Tide-dominated deltas
Tide-dominated deltas were deposited within the
vation surfaces are common within the cross bedsets; partially flooded incised valley of sequence
sequence 4 during
the upper bounding surfaces
surfaces of the cross bedsets typi- sea-level rise, presumably because
the early stages of a sea-level
cally are convex upward. Tidal bundles can be recog- recog- linear, relatively narrow embayment focused
the linear, focused tidal
nized locally in the sandstones. Burrowing is minor gradually filled
currents. The incised valley gradually filled with tide-
tide-
within the sandstones, but when present is generally deposits, while there was no deposition on
dominated deposits,
that of Ophiomorpha or Thalassinoides.
Thalassinoides. the subaerially exposed shelf adjacent to the incised
In some places, the sandstones lying on the valley at this time. As sea level continued to rise, most
sequence boundary have a more gradational
sequence gradational base. In flooded. This flooding
of the shelf flooded. flooding finally
finally terminated
these places, the vertical succession begins with the tidal deposition within the incised valley,valley, and created
above described lag, which is overlain
above overlain by thin, upper- conditions for deposition of sheet-like, wave-
fine-grained, current-rippled sandstones with abun-
fine-grained, abun- dominated deposits over the entire shelf. shelf. The sharp
dant interbedded clay drapes and minor zones of contact separating the estuarine sandstones from from the
bioturbation. sandstone beds gradually thicken
bioturbation. The sandstone lower-shoreface sandstones records this
overlying lower-shoreface
upward, and there is a progressive decline decline in the flooding. The progradation direction of the wave-
flooding. wave-
small-scale sigmoidal cross
amount of clay drapes; small-scale shoreline deposits of the transgressive
dominated shoreline transgressive sys-sys-
(15em)
in. (15
beds, up to 6 in. cm) thick, and current ripples pre- tems tract appears to be oriented nearly parallel to the
dominate. The upper part of this prograding unit is
dominate. valleys.
longitudinal axes of the incised valleys.
large-scale sigmoidal
composed of the large-scale sigmoidal cross
cross beds As the previous examples (Figures(Figures 28 through 30) 30)
(described above)
(described above) with minor current-ripple
current-ripple deposi-
deposi- show, the lithostratigraphic
show, lithostratigraphic subdivision
subdivision of these Cre-
tion. taceous rocks does not always correspond to the
These sandstones, lying on the sequencesequence boundary, chronostratigraphic or sequence
chronostratigraphic sequence subdivision
subdivision (Figures
(Figures
are interpreted to be tidal bars and shoals
shoals (Mutti
(Mutti et al., 29). For example, the sequence boundary
28 and 29).
1985) within a tide-dominated delta prograding into
1985) within the Desert Member separates the lower part of
an estuary created by the flooding
flooding of the incised valley. the Desert, interpreted as a highstand systems tract for
sandstones represent the lowstand
These estuarine sandstones sequence I,
sequence 1, from
from the upper part of the Desert, inter- inter-
systems tract of sequence
systems sequence 4. A sharp,
sharp, planar surface preted as a lowstand systems tract for sequencesequence 2, with
separates the lowstand sandstones below from fiom a 2- to a potentially large,
large, intervening stratigraphic
stratigraphic gap. The
8-ft- (0.6- to 2.4-m-)
8-ft- 2.4-m-) thick interval of very fine- fine- sequence boundaries record the fundamental breaks
sequence
grained, hummocky-bedded sandstones above. above. The deposition; at each sequence
in deposition; sequence boundary the "slate 11 slate is
hummocky-bedded sandstones are overlain either by
hummocky-bedded wiped clean" and a new depositional
depositional record begins. begins.
a parasequence or a sequence boundary.
boundary. In the case of subdivisions commonly miss these
Lithostratigraphic subdivisions
the parasequence boundary,
boundary, marine mudstones and fundamental boundaries, making it difficult to con- con-
thin, wave-rippled, very fine-grained sandstones, accurately a chronostratigraphic
struct accurately chronostratigraphic and regional-regional-
locally up to 20 ft (6 m) m) thick, lie directly on the facies framework.
facies framework. Once the sequence-stratigraphie
sequence-stratigraphic
hummocky-bedded sandstones recording an increase
hummocky-bedded subdivision is made, the lithostratigraphic
subdivision lithostratigraphic terminol-
depth. The top of the mudstones and thin
in water depth. confusing that it needs to be modified
ogy is often so confusing
sandstones is truncated by the next sequencesequence bound- substantially or abandoned.
substantially
hummocky-bedded sandstones and overly-
ary. The hummocky-bedded overly- example of sequences
The second example sequences is a well-log cross
ing shelf mudstones and thin sandstones are section through middle Miocene strata of onshore
interpreted as backstepping parasequences in the Louisiana. The cross
Louisiana. cross section
section is illustrated in Figure 33. 33.
transgressive systems
transgressive systems tract.
tract. If
If a highstand systems sequences are typical of much of the Tertiary
These sequences
tract is present in the sequence,
sequence, it is very thin and fine
fine rocks in the Gulf Coast basin. Five sequencessequences can be
grained. recognized on this cross section (Figure (Figure 33).33). Each
In the case of the sequence boundary, medium- sequence boundary is marked by erosional
sequence erosional truncation
grained estuarine sandstones erode into the lower- lower- and a basinward shift in facies.
facies. The sequence
sequence bounda-
shoreface deposits and record a relative fall fall in sea ries have been mapped by means of these criteria, criteria,
level. It is important to note that the estuarine sand-
level. sand- using nine other regional cross cross sections constructed
stones grade basinward into thinner,thinner, current-rippled from 700 well logs in addition to the cross section illus- illus-
sandstones and interbedded mudstones that in turn here; the sequences
trated here; sequences can be recognized over an
2
grade into shelf mudstones. Lower-shoreface, area of at least 5600 me mi2 (14,500
(14,500 km km2) central and
) in central
hummocky-bedded sandstones are not lateral-facies
hummocky-bedded lateral-facies Louisiana. The systems tracts, parasequence
southern Louisiana.
equivalents of the estuarine strata. strata. In a landward facies within the five
sets, and facies five sequences
sequences are similar;
deposits become sandier and
direction, the estuarine deposits sequence 11 typifies
sequence typifies the distribution of these stratal
grained, eventually
coarser grained, eventually grading transitionally
transitionallyinto components.
 R105W
R105W
R19E R20E R21E R22E R23E R24E R25E R26E'
T
WEST 7
T WILD COW S
16
S BITTER WASH
CREEK
CANYON T
8
5

T
17
S
R17E

T TENNECO
158 RATTLESNAKE 2 - 12
GRAND CO .• UTAH
SEC.2-T19S-R19E
.~-+-----

T
19 T
•
5 19
5 COTTONWOOD
CANYON

T T
20 20
5 S

T
21 AREA COVERED
AREA COVERED
5 6 LOCATION
BY LOCATION
BY
US 50
MAP
R20E R21E R22E

LOCATION-MAP SCALE

o0 5
.,,,p.'. CASTLEGATE, DESERT,
CASTLEGATE, DESERT,
u
!
5 MILES
MILES
! eU~
. SEGO OUTCROPS
AND SEGO
AND OUTCROPS

Figure 32-Map
Figure 32-Map showing
showing the
the location
location of the
the Desert,
Desert, Castlegate,
Castlegate, and
and Sego
Sego outcrops
outcrops in
in eastern
eastern Utah,
Utah, the
the Tenneco
Tenneco Rattlesnake
Rattlesnake State
State 2-12
2-12 (Figure
(Figure28),
28), the
the EPR Co.
Co. Sego
Sego rn
Canyon
canyon no.
no. 22 (Figure
(Figure29),
29), and
and the
the sequence
sequence cross
cross section
sectionillustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 31.
31.
42 Interpretation of depositional mechanisms

(Figure33)
The lowstand systems tract of sequence 11(Figure 33) for sequence development are the topics of the next
for
consists of sandstones up to 250 ft (76 (76 m)
m) thick, charac- section.
section.
terized by a blocky to upward-fining SP well-logwell-log pat-
tern. The sequence boundary at the base of the
tern. Interpretation of Depositional Mechanisms
Interpretation Mechanisms
regional-erosional surface
sandstones is a regional-erosional surface with local-
local- Sequence Frequency
and Sequence Frequency
erosional relief as great as 200 ft (61 (61 m).
m). The deposi- Sequences and their boundaries are interpreted to
tional environment of the sandstone is interpreted to cycles of relative fall
form in response to cycles fall and rise of sea
fluvial or estuarine, filling
have been fluvial filling a broad, incised-
incised- level. Jervey
level. Jervey (1988)
(1988) and Posamentier et al. al. (1988)
(1988) pre-
complex, based on log response and widely
valley complex, analysis of the interaction between eustasy
sented an analysis
spaced core control. Maps constructed using the addi- addi- (see figure 7, Posamentier and Vail, 1988)
(see figure 1988) and basin
regional cross sections
tional nine regional sections in the area show subsidence that is interpreted to form sequence
that the incised-valley complex is approximately 75 75 mi boundaries.
(120 km)
(120 km) wide. The depositional environment of the The interpreted relationship of stratal patterns to
mudstones and thin sandstones below the sequence accommodation for a type-1
accommodation type-1 sequence with no signifi-
signifi-
boundary is interpreted to have been middle to outer incised-valley-filldeposition is shown in the block
cant incised-valley-fill
shelf, based on biostratigraphy and well-log diagrams of Posamentier and Vail Vail(1988, figures 11
(1988, their figures
responses. No intermediate water-depth deposits 6 ) . A variation of this idealized sequence, based on
to 6).
occur between the lowstand, incised-valley-fill
incised-valley-fill sand- observations made in the TertiaryTertiary strata of the Gulf of
stones and the underlying shelf mudstones of the pre- Mexico, is shown in block diagrams
Mexico, diagrams in Figures 34 to 38
vious sequence. Incised valleys of similar-agedsimilar-aged book. These block diagrams illustrate
in this book. illustrate the suc-
suc-
Louisiana are illustrated in Figures 22
sequences from Louisiana cessive evolution, over a period of 120,000
cessive 120,000 years, of a
and 23. sequence similar to the sequences in Figure 33, with
The transgressive systems tract of sequence 11(Fig- (Fig- well-defined incised valleys and erosionalerosional truncation
ure 33) is composed of thin backstepping parase- of the highstand systems tract. As the block diagrams diagrams
quences in a retrogradational parasequence set. set. A fluvial deposits within incised valleys are
illustrate, fluvial
condensed section has not been identified in this sys- sys- commonly coarse-grained, low-sinuosity channels
tract. Only mudstones and very thin sandstones
tems tract. reflecting slow rates of accommodation.
reflecting accommodation. Transgressive
Transgressive
are preserved in the highstand systems tract. tract. The and early highstand-fluvial deposits are commonly commonly
coarser-grained part of the highstand systems tract finer-grained, high sinuosity channels and associated
finer-grained,
apparently was truncated by the next sequence overbank strata reflecting high rates of accommoda- accommoda-
boundary. Erosion of the highstand systems tract by fluvial-architecturalpatterns
tion. These two different fluvial-architectural
overlying sequence boundary is common in many
the overlying can be used as a guide to interpret sequences in totally
Tertiary sequences in the Gulf Coast basin. This pat- sections (Shanley and McCabe, 1989).
nonmarine sections 1989). A
tern of systems tract distribution in sequence 11 is eustatic curve in the corner of each block diagram is
repeated in the other four sequences on the cross sec- sec- color-coded to indicate
color-coded indicate the interpreted relationship of
tion. eustasy. This eustatic
the systems tracts to eustasy. eustatic curve is a
The mudstone in the transgressive and highstand graphic representation of the eustatic cycle of Jervey Jervey
systems tracts is within the Cibicides opima shale. Based (1988),although at a higher frequency.
(1988), frequency. Outcrop photo-
on the fauna in this shale, the lower sequence bound- characteristicsof the facies
graphs illustrate the stratal characteristics facies
ary on Figure 33 is dated as 15.5 15.5 Ma (L.c.
(L.C. Menconi, that occur typically in each systems tract.
personal communication,
communication, 1989)1989) and appears on the Parasequences and their boundaries also also can be
global-cycle chart of Haq et a1.
Exxon global-cycle al. (1988).
(1988). The interpreted as responses to cycles cycles of relative fall and
youngest sequence in Figure 33 is within the Bigenerina rise of sea level.
level. Sea-level
Sea-level cycles are classified by Vail et
humblei biozone and corresponds to the Hollywood (1977) according
al. (1977) according to the duration of the cycle:cycle: third-
informal regional mapping unit within
sandstone, an informal order cycles, defined from fall to fall, fall, have durations of
this biozone, suggesting an age date of 14.7 Ma for 11to 5 million years, fourth-order cycles have durations
sequence boundary 5 (L. (L.C.
C. Menconi, personal com- of hundreds of thousands of years. Following Following Vail et
1989). Based on these age dates, each of
munication, 1989). al. (1977)
a1. (1977) we assign to fifth-order
fifth-order cycles durations of
five sequences in Figure 33
the five 33 is interpreted to have tens of thousands of years. The relationship between
been deposited during sea-level cycles lasting 100,000 cycles, subsidence, and the
this hierarchy of eustatic cycles,
to 200,000 years. These frequencies may be even deposition of sequences and parasequences is illus- illus-
higher if one assumes a significant hiatus on the third- trated in Figure 39. 39. In this figure,
figure, a third-order eustatic
basin-floor and slope-
order boundary representing basin-floor slope- (approximately one million years)
cycle (approximately years) is added to
fan deposition. A model for the development of these fourth-order cyclescycles (approximately 120,000 years), years),
implications for
high-frequency sequences and their implications fifth-order cycles (approximately
and fifth-order (approximately 50,000 years)years) to
the interpretation of eustasy as a driving mechanism form a composite
form composite eustatic curve. Adding a total subsi- subsi-
 46 Interpretation of depositional mechanisms

HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT

>.
-6
, z HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT

RATE OF EUSTATIC RISE IS AT A MINIMUM AND IN THE LATE HIGHSTAND, FALLS SLOWLY
RATES OF DEPOSITION GREATER THAN THE RATES OF SEA-LEVEL RISE, PARASEQUENCES BUILD BASINWARD IN
• RATE OF EUSTATIC RISE
AGGRADATIONAL TO IS AT A MINIMUMPARASEQUENCE
PROGRADATIONAL AND IN THE LATE
SETS HIGHSTAND, FALLSSYSTEMS
OF THE HIGHSTAND SLOWLYTRACT
• RATES PARASEQUENCES
OF DEPOSITION DOWNLAP
GREATERONTO
THANTHE
THE RATES OFSECTION
CONDENSED SEA-LEVEL RISE, PARASEQUENCES BUILD BASINWARD IN
AGGRADATIONAL TO PROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCE SETS OF THE HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT
• PARASEQUENCES DOWNLAP ONTO THE CONDENSED SECTION
PHOTOGRAPH
CONDENSED SECTION (PHOSPHATIC OOLITES) AND PROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCE SET, HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS
TRACT; CASTLEGATE, BUCK TONGUE, AND SEGO PHOTOGRAPH
MEMBERS, PRICE RIVER FORMATION, BOOK CLIFFS, DOUGLAS
CREEK ARCH, COLORADO
CONDENSED SECTION IPHOSPHATIC OOLITES) AND PROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCE SET, HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS
Figure CASTLEGATE,
TRACT; 37-Sequence evolution: 4. SlowAND
BUCK TONGUE, relative rise,MEMBERS,
SEGO stillstand, and slow
PRICE relative
RIVER fall of sea level.
FORMATION, BOOK CLIFFS, DOUGLAS
CREEK ARCH, COLORADO
Figure 37-Sequence evolution: 4. Slow relative rise, stillstand, and slow relative fall of sea level.
48 Interpretation of depositional mechanisms

dence rate of 0.5 ft1lOOO years (15

0.5 ft/1000 cmIlOOO years) to the
(15 cmllOOO
composite eustatic curve gives a curve of the relative
change in sea level, assumed to be defined at the
depositional-shoreline break. The linear-subsidence
depositional-shoreline
curve on Figure 39 is drawn as an ascending, ascending, rather
than descending, line to indicate that the net effect of
level.
subsidence is a relative rise in sea level.
Two types of fourth-order cycles, designated cycle
"A" and cycle "B;'
"K "B," compose the relative change in sea- sea-
(Figure 39).
level curve (Figure 39). Fourth-order cycle"X'
cycle "A" is
defined from sea-level fall to sea-level fall. fall. If
If we
assume adequate sediment supply, this fourth-order
cycle deposits a sequence bounded by subaerial
unconformities. Fifth-order cycles superimposed on
the fourth-order cycle form parasequences bounded
by marine-flooding surfaces.surfaces. A schematic outcrop or
well-log profile of the strata deposited during fourth- fourth-
cycle "A"
order cycle" X' is illustrated in Figure 39. The dark-
orange shading on the relative sea-level curve shows
the ages and positions on the curve of strata that have
a low-preservation potential because of incised-valley
erosion; near incised valleys most of the highstand
truncated.
deposits will be truncated.
Fourth-order cycle "B" "B" (Figure
(Figure 39)
39) is defined from
(transgression) to rapid rise. This fourth-
rapid rise (transgression)
order cycle deposits parasequences bounded by
marine-flooding surfaces, if we assume that no differ- differ-
ential subsidence occurs in the basin. A schematic out-
crop or well-log profile of the strata deposited during
this fourth-order cycle "B" "B" is illustrated in Figure 39. 39.
However, if the rate of subsidence decreases landward
of the depositional-shoreline break so that the rate of
fall exceeds the rate of subsidence in this
eustatic fall
updip position and thereby produces a downward
shift in coastal onlap in the coastal plain, cycle "B" "B"
sequence.
may deposit a type-2 sequence.
In this schematic example (Figure(Figure 39), depending on
the interaction between the rates of eustasy and subsi-
dence, fourth-order cycles deposit sequences or para-
fifth-order cycles deposit parasequences or
sequences; fifth-order
expression. If the subsidence
have no depositional expression.
rate is increased well above 0.5 ft/1000 ftllOOO years (15(15 cm/
cml
1000 years) in this example, the third-order cycle will
1000
deposit a sequence, referred to as a third-order
sequence; the fourth-order cycles will form parase-
quences that are the components of the third-order
sequence. If
sequence. If the subsidence rate is decreased well
0.5 ft/1000
below 0.5 ftilOOO years (15 (15cm/1000
cmllOOO years) in this exam-
exam-
ple, the fourth-order
fourth-order cycles will deposit only
sequences, referred to as fourth-order sequences,
composed of fifth-order parasequences. In this situa-
tion, the fourth-order sequences stack to build a third-
order unit, tentatively called a third-order composite
sequence, composed of sequence sets (Van
sequence, (Van Wagoner
and Mitchum, 1989) 1989)of fourth-order sequences. In our
siliciclastic
experience, this situation is typical of many siliciclastic
depocenters, at least since the
sequences deposited in depoeenters,
Pennsylvanian. We have observed fourth-order
sequences within sequence sets in Pennsylvanian
strata of the western and central United States, Creta-
ceous strata of the western United States, and most of
Mexico.
the Tertiary strata in the northern Gulf of Mexico.
It is worth repeating that, in this book, we define
sequences and parasequences based on their physical
characteristics and not on the frequency of the sea-
level cycle that resulted in their deposition. Although
parasequences and fourth-order sequencessequences may,
under certain circumstances, be produced by sea-level
cycles of the same duration, we do not treat them as
synonymous stratal units as some authors do (e.g.,
synonymous
Wright, 1986).
1986).
Finally, the interpreted role of eustasy in sequence
deposition can be evaluated by referring back to Fig-
ures 22, 23, and 33 illustrating type-1
type-1 sequences from
the Miocene of Louisiana. Although from the Mio-
cene, these sequences are typical of most Tertiary-
aged sequences along the Gulf Coast. As previously
mentioned, these sequence boundaries are regional-
100to 200 ft (30 to 60 m)
erosional surfaces with 100 m) of trun-
cation covering at least thousands of square miles.
Fluvial to estuarine sandstones above these sequence
boundaries lie abruptly on outer- to mid-shelf mud-
stones with no intermediate shallow-marine deposits.
Typically these sequences occur with a frequency of
100,000 to 200,000 years (Figure
100,000 (Figure 33).
33). The erosional
truncation and vertical-facies associations marking
these boundaries were produced by a basinward shift
in the shoreline of tens of miles, as determined from
facies relationships on the cross sections.
facies sections.
These stratal characteristics of the Miocene sequence
boundaries formed in response to a relative fall fall in sea
level. Two mechanisms can produce the relative fall: fall:
regional-tectonic uplift, or eustasy. Although they do
not result in a basinward shift or a relative fall
fall of sea
level, rapid-deltaic progradation and distributary-
channel erosion are also considered.
The Tertiary structural style of the northern Gulf
Coast basin is characterized by detached, down-to-
the-basin normal faults and local-salt features. These
structures are diagnostic of a passive-margin tectonic
setting where no dynamic plate-tectonic processes
occur. The Tertiary of the northern Gulf Coast basin
occur.
contains no evidence of thermal- or compressional-
tectonic events that could cause regional uplift (Mur- (Mur-
ray, 1961; Rainwater, 1967), 1967), especially at the
frequencies necessary to produce the observed Mio-
frequencies Mio-
cene sequence boundaries.
fluvial and estuarine sandstones of
The interpreted fluvial
the lowstand systems tract of sequences 11to 3 in Fig-
ure 22 and sequence 11in Figure 33 33 were deposited in
incised valleys that appear to be tens of miles wide
23), based on data from nine regional well-log
(Figure 23),
cross sections and 23 paleogeographic maps con-
structed in central Louisiana. The incised valleys cut
 50 Interpretation of depositional mechanisms

into, and are encased in, outer- to mid-shelf mud- intraplate stresses, interacting with deflections of the
sandstones. Delta-front
stones and thin, distal-marine sandstones. lithosphere caused by sediment loading. Although
stream-mouth sandstones are absent, both lateral
and stream-mouth Cloetingh did not define a frequency at which these
to and beneath, the blocky sandstones of the incised tectonic events might occur,
occur, he suggested that this
valleys-according to interpretation of well-log
valleys-according well-log shapes type of activity might occur episodically on time scales
scales
correlations. Furthermore, the fluvial
and regional correlations. fluvial or of "a few million years" to produce "apparent" sea-
produce"apparent" sea-
estuarine sandstones within the incised valleys do not level changes of more than 327 ft (100 (100 m)
m) along the
facies into shoreline deposits along deposi-
change facies deposi- flanks of sedimentary basins. This mechanism,
strike. In comparison, distributary channels of
tional strike. although not cyclic in nature, might be one explana-
rivers like the modern Mississippi may erode into or tion for some second-order cycles (9-10 m.y. fre- fre-
through prodelta deposits, but are laterally encased in quency) on the Exxon cycle chart, but does not
quency)
stream-mouth bar and delta-front sandstones.
sandstones. These satisfactorily explain the higher-frequency third-order
satisfactorily
lateral-facies relationships exist because a distributary
lateral-facies cyclicity.
or fourth-order cyclicity.
channel builds seaward over the subaqueous-delta (1988), attributing major control of the for-
Hubbard (1988), for-
platform, even if if deltaic progradation is extremely forces, dis-
mation of sequence boundaries to tectonic forces,
rapid. Sixteen deltas associated with the Mississippi
rapid. cussed this point of view. He described two types of
River have been deposited in the last 7000 years and sequence boundaries within the Santos, Grand Banks,
record extremely rapid progradation (Frazier, (Frazier, 1974).
1974). and Beaufort basins. One type (megasequence)
(megasequence)
However, the preserved deltas and delta lobes show appears to be caused by folding and/or faulting related
distributary-channel deposits encased in stream- to the onset of stages in the evolution of a given basin,
mouth bar and delta-front deposits (Fisk (Fisk 1961,
1961, Gould, such as rift onset, synrift faulting, and rift termination.
1970).
1970). The notable lack of subaqueous,
subaqueous, sandy deltaic These sequence boundaries represent tectonic epi-
deposits beneath the sequence boundary or adjacent cyclic frequency,
sodes rather than true cyclic frequency, and average 49
to the incised valley-fill sandstones in Figures 22 and m.y. in their occurrence. Sequence boundaries of the
33 argues strongly against rapid-deltaic progradation second type are unstructured, and separate transgres-
associated with large rates of sediment supply as a andlor
sive and! or regressive wedges. They are interpreted to
mechanism for sequence-boundary formation. formation. be the result of the interaction of the rates of change of
If tectonic uplift and distributary-channel erosion basin subsidence and sediment input with that of
associated with deltaic progradation are ruled out as long-term global, tectono-eustatic sea level. These
viable mechanisms for the formation of sequence noncyclic and have
sequence boundaries are probably noncydic
boundaries, then eustasy is the most likely mechanism a modal frequency range of 10 10 to 15
15 m.y. Hubbard
to explain the stratal geometries observed in Figures 22 attempted to demonstrate that the surfaces are not
and 33.33. Pleistocene eustatic falls
falls produced surfaces synchronous between basins because each basin has a
facies associations (Fisk,
and facies (Fisk, 1944;
1944; Frazier,
Frazier, 1967,
1967,1974;
1974; history.
different history.
Berryhill, 1985;
Suter and Berryhill, 1985; Suter et a1.,
al., 1987;
1987; Boyd et Members of the Exxon group have worked in all
1988)identical to those seen in the Miocene of the
al., 1988) three basins that Hubbard described and have recog- recog-
(Figure 33).
Gulf Coast (Figure 33). Carbon-isotope curves provide nized those sequence boundaries he described. In
evidence for Miocene eustatic changes (Renard, 1986). 1986). addition, we described other boundaries that are less
The role that tectonism plays in forming or enhanc- prominently developed, but that are important never-
ing sequence boundaries is widely debated by stratig- theless in controlling sediment distribution and lithol-
raphers. Pitman and Golovchenko (1983) (1983) stated that ogies within the basin. These occur at the higher
changes in sea level rapid enough to match the Exxon frequency expected from the Exxon cycle chart. We
1987,1988)
cycle chart (Haq et al., 1987, 1988) can be formed only Hubbard's "megasequence"
certainly agree that Hubbard's "megasequence"
by glacially induced sea-level
sea-level fluctuations.
fluctuations. Yet others boundaries, occurring during onset of stages of basin
Watts, 1984)
(e.g., Thorne and Watts, 1984) have pointed out that evolution or other structural events, are tectonically
tectonically
large parts of the geologic
geologic column apparently lack evi- enhanced, and become the most prominent and impor-
activity, Therefore, the formation of
dence of glacial activity. tant surfaces in structural analysis of a basin. Similarly,
Similarly,
sequence boundaries has been attributed alternatively unconformities bounding transgressive-regressive
by many scientists to tectonism (Sloss, (Sloss, 1979,
1979, 1988;
1988; wedges are enhanced because the wedges commonly
1980,1982;
Bally, 1980, 1982; Thorne and Watts,
1982; Watts, 1982; Watts, 1984;
1984; are produced by subordinate phases of basin subsi-
1984; Parkinson and Summerhayes,
Hallam, 1984; Summerhayes, 1985; 1985; Miall,
Mid, dence. Because their enhancement is controlled by
1986; Ooetingh,
1986; Cloetingh, 1988;
1988; Hubbard, 1988; others).
1988; and others). basinal tectonism, we would not expect the enhance-
However, the type of tectonic events that would pro- ment to extend beyond the limits of the individual
duce rapid, short-term fluctuations in sea level basins.
remains unclear, especially those tectonic events that sequences, when
However, the higher-frequency sequences,
would produce type-1 type-1 unconformities. Cloetingh dated as accurately as possible using biostratigraphy,
(1988) has advanced the idea of rapid alternations in
(1988) appear to be synchronous between the basins. The
 Exploration application
Exploration applicationand
and play
play types
types 51
51

presence of
presence of these
these sequences
sequencesstrongly
stronglysuggests
suggests thatthat the
the sedimentary strata.
sedimentary strata. Fundamental
Fundamental to to sequence
sequence stratig-
stratig-
higher-frequency eustatic
higher-frequency eustatic overprint
overprint isis superposed
superposed on on raphy isis the
raphy the recognition
recognition that that sedimentary
sedimentary rocks rocks are are
the lower-frequency
the lower-frequency or or non-cyclic
non-cyclic tectonic
tectonic and and composed of
composed of aa hierarchy
hierarchy of of stratal
stratal units,
units, fromfrom the the
sediment-supply controls.
sediment-supply controls. Hubbard's
Hubbard's (1988)(1988)article
article isis smallest
smallest megascopic
megascopic unit, unit, the the lamina,
lamina, to to the
the largest
largest
excellent for
excellent for its
its description
description ofof sequence-stratigraphic,
sequence-stratigraphic, unit
unit considered
considered in in this
this book,
book, the the sequence.
sequence. With With the the
basin-analysis procedures,
basin-analysis procedures, and and for
for its
its use
use of
of tectoni-
tectoni- exception
exceptionof of the
the lamina,
lamina, each each of of these
these units
units isis aageneti-
geneti-
cally enhanced
cally enhanced sequences
sequences to to describe
describe andand date
date basin
basin cally related
cally related succession
successionof of strata
strata bounded
bounded by by chronos-
chronos-
development. However,
development. However, we we feel
feel that
that there
there isis aa much
much tratigraphically significant
tratigraphically significant surfaces.
surfaces. Correlation
Correlation of of
stronger interrelationship
stronger interrelationship than than he he recognized
recognized these
these bounding
bounding surfaces surfaces provides
provides aa high-resolution
high-resolution
between eustasy
between eustasy andand tectonism
tectonism in in controlling
controlling sedi-sedi- chronostratigraphic framework
chronostratigraphic frameworkfor forfacies
facies analysis
analysis and and
ment type
ment type and
and distribution
distribution within
within thethe basin.
basin. prediction of
prediction of rock
rock types
types at at aaregional
regionalto to reservoir
reservoirscale. scale.
Although tectonism is
Although is the
the dominant
dominant control
control in in Sequences are
Sequences are thethe fundamental
fundamental stratal stratal units
units of of
determining the
determining the shape
shape ofof the
the basin,
basin, the
the rate
rate ofof sedi-
sedi- sequence stratigraphic
sequence stratigraphicanalysis.
analysis.A Asequence
sequenceboundary
supply, and
ment supply, and possibly
possibly eveneven thethe longer-term,
longer-term, is
is aa chronostratigraphically
chronostratigraphicallysignificant significantsurface; surface;itit sepa-
sepa-
second-order arrangement
second-order arrangement of of sequences,
sequences, we we believe
believe rates all
rates all of
of the
the rocks
rocks above
above the the boundary
boundary from from allall of
of the
the
eustasy controls
that eustasy controls the
the timing
timing and and distribution
distribution of of rocks
rocksbelow.
below. In In most
most cases,
cases, the the rocks
rocks above
abovethe the bound-
bound-
higher-frequency third-
higher-frequency third- and
and fourth-order
fourth-order sequences.
sequences. ary
ary have
have no no physical
physical or or temporal
temporal relationship
relationship to to the
the
rocks below.
rocks below. Although sequence sequence boundaries do do notnot
EXPLORATION APPLICATION
EXPLORATION APPLICATION form
form instantaneously,
instantaneously, they probably probably form form in in from
from aa
AND PLAY
AND PLAY TYPESTYPES few thousand to
few to about
about ten thousand years, years, and and so so
form
form very
very rapidly
rapidly in
in geologic
geologic terms.
terms. For
For these
these reasons,
reasons,
The stratigraphic
The stratigraphic concepts
concepts we we document
document in in this
this
pro- recognition of sequence is critical
critical for
for accu-
accu-
recognition of sequence boundaries is
have broad application
book have application to to exploration
exploration and and pro-
duction. The
The concepts
concepts provide
provide techniques for chrono-
for chrono- rate
rate facies
facies interpretations
interpretations and
and correlations.
correlations.
duction.
stratigraphic correlation
stratigraphic correlation ofof well
well logs
logs that
that result
result in in (1)
(1) sequence boundary is
A sequence is aa better surface surface for for thethe
more accurate
accuratesurfaces
surfacesfor
for mapping
mapping and and facies
faciescorrela-
correla- regional
regional correlation
correlation of
of time
time and
and facies
facies than
than is
is aa trans-
trans-
more
tion, and
tion, and (2) higher-resolution chronostratigraphy
(2)higher-resolution chronostratigraphy for for gressive
gressive surface.
surface. This This is is true
true primarily
primarily becausebecause the the
improved definition
definition ofof plays,
plays, especially
especially stratigraphic
stratigraphic timing
timing of
of the
the formation
formation of
of aa sequence
sequence boundary is is not
not
improved
traps. affected by variations
affected variations in in sediment
sediment supply; supply; conversely,
conversely,
traps.
the
the timing
timing of
of the
the formation
formation of
of aa transgressive
transgressive surface,
surface,
The concepts
The concepts also
also provide
provide techniques
techniques for for lithostrati-
lithostrati-
at
at the
the top
top of
of aa regressive
regressive unit,
unit, is
is controlled
controlled strongly
strongly by
graphic correlation
graphic correlation ofof well
well logs,
logs, thereby
thereby yielding
yielding (1) (1)aa
sediment
sediment supply.
supply. Temporal
Temporal and
and spatial
spatial changes
changes in
in the
the
more effective
more effectivemethod for for evaluating
evaluating sandstone
sandstone conti-
conti-
directions in reservoirs,
reservoirs, superior
superior to rate and distribution of sediment
to rate sediment entering entering a basin are are
nuity and trend directions
common.
common. Furthermore, the sequence sequence boundary is is
conventional correlation
conventional correlation methods using sandstone or
shale tops, (2) (2) improved methods
methods for for predicting accompanied
accompanied usually by regionalregional erosion
erosion onlap
and onlap
shale
reservoir, source,
potential reservoir, source, and sealing
sealing facies away that control
facies away control facies
facies distribution.
distribution. The The transgressive
transgressive sur- sur-
from the well, and (3) (3) an
an alternative
alternative to to exploration
exploration face
face is
is marked by slight slight erosion
erosion and no no onlap.
onlap.
from
Sequences
Sequences are are composed
composed of parasequences and sys- sys-
concepts such
concepts such asas offshore-bar
offshore-bar reservoirs-resulting
reservoirs-resulting in
tems
tems tracts.
tracts. Parasequence
Parasequence boundaries are are most useful
useful
more accurate
more accurate trend prediction.
prediction.
for local correlation of time time and facies facies within the
Finally, these
Finally, these concepts
concepts provide tools tools for
for looking
looking at at for local
chronostratigraphic framework framework of individual individual
mature basins in fresh
mature fresh ways
ways that result in (1) (1)definition
definition
sequences.
sequences. Parasequences stack
stack to
to form
form aggrada-
aggrada-
types, opening up
of new play types, up heavily
heavily drilled
drilled basins
tionat
tional, progradational,
progradational, and retrogradational parase-
parase-
for new exploration,
for exploration, (2)(2)improved ability
ability to
to define
define and
locate subtle,
subtle, but potentially
potentially profitable,
profitable, stratigraphic
stratigraphic quence
quenee sets.
sets. Parasequence
Parasequence sets
sets generally coincide coincide
locate
traps, (3)
traps, (3) re-evaluation
re-evaluation of producing fields fields to to extend with the systems systems tracts tracts within the sequence sequence in
lives and increase
increase reserves,
reserves, and (4) (4) a more
more inte-
inte- shallow-marine
shallow-marine to
to nonmarine facies. facies. They
They are less
are less evi-
evi-
their lives
dent in deeper-water facies facies of the basin-floor
basin-floor and
stratigraphic framework
grated stratigraphic framework for for risking
risking new plays.plays.
slope fans. Systems tracts provide aa high degree degree of
Figure 40
Figure 40 summarizes stratigraphic- and slope fans. Systems tracts
summarizes potential stratigraphic- of
structurallstratigraphic-play types
combination structural/stratigraphic-play types asso-
asso- facies
facies predictability
predictability away
away from
from well
the well bore
bore out-
or out-
combination
two crop sequence. This This predictability
predictability is is espe-
espe-
crop within the sequence.
ciated with the sequences
ciated sequences and parasequences on on two
cially
cially important for for analyzing
analyzing reservoir,
reservoir, source,
source, and
different basin margins:
different margins: a margin with a shelf break, break,
referred to in Figure 40 as as a shelf-edge-type
shelf-edge-type margin,margin, seal
seal facies
facies within a basin or a field. field.
Three
Three systemssystems tracts are are recognized in the ideal ideal
and a ramp-type margin.
margin.
type-1 sequence:
type-1 sequence: lowstand, transgressive, and high- high-
stand systems
systems tracts.tracts. TheThe lowstand systems tract is is
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS composed of a basin-floor basin-floor fan, fan, a slopeslope fan,fan, and a low- low-
Sequence stratigraphy provides a powerful powerful meth- stand wedge. wedge. On the shelf the most conspicuous conspicuous com- com-
odology for for analyzing time and rock relationships in ponent of the lowstand wedge is is the incised
incised valley.
valley. A
 RAMP-TYPE MARGIN

FOUND IN: • CRATONIC BASINS ON CONTINENTAL CRUST

SHELF-EDGE TYPE MARGIN
• CONTINENTAL-MARGIN BASINS ON ATTENUATED CONTINENTAL CRUST

FOUND IN: CONTINENTAL-MARGIN BASINS ON ATTENUATED CONTINENTAL TO OCEANIC CRUST • LACUSTRINE BASINS ON CONTINENTAL OR ATTENUATED CONTINENTAL CRUST

I
7 7
-- 9
I

3
SEQUENCE 2
BOUNDARIES
SEOUENCE
BOUNDARIES
2
4

NO. PLAY TYPE RESERVOIR-FACIES TYPE POTENTIAL SEAL EXAMPLES

1 UPDIP PINCH OUT BEACH OR DELTAIC COASTAL-PLAIN FALL RIVER

SANDSTONES MUDSTONES SANDSTONE, POWDER

2 INCISED VALLEY BRAIDED-STREAM OR SHELF

RIVER BASIN

YEGUA. MIOCENE;
D SUBMARINE·FAN
SANDSTONES

ESTUARINE SANDSTONES MUDSTONES GULF OF MEXICO;

MUDDY, POWDER RIVER
BASIN
o SLOPE MUDSTONES AND THIN
TURBIDITE SANDSTONES

SMALL, ISOLATED FANS WITHIN

3 SHELF ONLAP BEACH, DELTAIC. ESTUARINE, SHELF WOODBINE, THE SLOPE
OR SUBTIDAL TO TIDAL-FLAT MUDSTONES TUSCALOOSA;

4 BASINALLY RESTRICTED
SANDSTONES

DELTAIC SANDSTONES SLOPE/BASIN

GULF OF MEXICO
o SHALLOW-MARINE
SANDSTONES

5
ONLAP

SUBMARINE FAN SUBMARINE-FAN. TURBIDITE

MUDSTONES

SLOPE/BASIN PLEISTOCENE,
D SHELF MUDSTONES

SANDSTONES MUDSTONES GULF OF MEXICO

FLUVIAl/ESTUARINE INCISED
6 LOWST AND WEDGE SMALL. AREALLY RESTRICTED SLOPE/BAIN YEGUA. VALLEY SANDSTONES
FANS - COMPOSED OF THIN MUDSTONES GULF OF MEXICO

7 DOWNDIP PINCH OUT

TURBIDITE SANDSTONES

DELTAIC, BEACH, OR
SUBTIDAL SANDSTONES
SHELF
MUDSTONES
PARKMAN SANDSTONE,
SHANNON SANDSTONE.
o COASTAL·PLAIN SANDSTONES
AND MUDSTONES

ORGANIC RICH SHALES, CARBONATES,

INEED STRUCTURAL TILTI POWDER RIVER BASIN
GLAUCONITES, VOLCANIC ASHES
8 TRUNCATION BEACH OR DELTAlC SHELF WILCOX, GULF OF
SANDSTONES MUDSTONES MEXICO; SUSSEX.
POWDER RIVER BASIN

9 FAULT CLOSURE 1.2. OR 3 ABOVE SHELF PLIOCENE, PLEISTOCENE;

MUDSTONES GULF OF MEXICO

Figure 4~Play types along shelf-edge and ramp-type margins.

52 Acknowledgments

large proportion of hydrocarbons

hydrocarbons produced from from sili-
sili- ley reviewed the manuscript.
manuscript. Their constructive
constructive criti-
criti-
ciclastic rocks comes out of the lowstand systems tract.
ciclastic tract. expression. PR.
cisms resulted in a greater clarity of expression. P.R.
transgressive systems tract is composed of back-
The transgressive back- Vail, J. Hardenbol,
Vail, Hardenbol, H.W.
H.W. Posamentier,
Posamentier, A.D. Donovan,
stepping parasequences, which can also contain Zelt, S.R.
F.B. ZeIt, S.R. Morgan, S.M.
S.M. Kidwell,
Kidwell, J.R. Suter, N.!.
N.I.
hydrocarbon reserves.
hydrocarbon reserves. The transgressive
transgressive systems tract James have freely
Corbett, and D.P. James freely shared with us
can also be very thin, and its top can be a condensed observations about sequence
their thoughts and observations sequence stra-
section. The highstand systems tract is composed of
section. grateful for these conversations.
tigraphy. We are grateful conversations. We
aggradational to progradational parasequence sets.
aggradational thank E. Mutti for sharing with us his views of
Typically, the highstand systems
Typically, systems tract is truncated sig-
sig- sequence stratigraphy.
sequence stratigraphy. B. Trujillo carefully
carefully turned the
nificantly by the overlying sequencesequence boundary.
boundary. Most senior author's drawings into polished figures. figures.
type-1 sequences
type-l sequences consist of a well-developed
well-developed low- geologists from
Finally, we thank the hundreds of geologists
transgressive systems tract,
stand systems tract, a thin transgressive Exxon Company, U.S.A. and Exxon affiliate compan- compan-
shale-dominated and truncated highstand sys-
and a shale-dominated sys- ies around the world who have attended our schools schools
Type-2 sequences
tems tract. Type-2 sequences are composed of shelf- shelf- years. Their questions and healthy skepticism
over the years.
margin, transgressive,
margin, transgressive, and highstand systems tracts. tracts. have improved the concepts and techniques of
experience, type-2
In our experience, type-:! sequences
sequences are not common sequence stratigraphy immeasurably.
sequence immeasurably.
siliciclasticstrata.
in siliciclastic strata.
Type-1 sequences
Type-l sequences occur with a high frequency from REFERENCES
the Pleistocene back, at least, to the Pennsylvanian.
Pennsylvanian. Anderson, E.
Anderson, E. J., P. W.
W. Goodwin,
Goodwin, and T. H. H. Sobieski,
Sobieski, 1984,
1984, Episodic
High-frequency sequences
High-frequency sequences are interpreted to form form in accumulation and the origin of formationformation boundaries in the Hel- Hel-
derberg Group of New York State: State: Geology,
Geology, v.v. 12, p. 120-123.
120-123.
response to sea-level
sea-levelcycles of 100,000
100,000to 150,000
150,000years.
years. D. O., 1970, Depositional topography and major marine
Asquith, D.O.,
Asquith,
High-frequency sequences stack to form sequence environments, Late Cretaceous,
environments, Cretaceous, Wyoming:
Wyoming: AAPG Bulletin,
which, in turn, form composite sequences.
sets, which, sequences. Many v. 54, p. 1184-1224.
1184-1224.
Aubrey, W.W. M., 1989, Mid-Cretaceous
Mid-Cretaceous alluvial-plain
alluvial-plain incision related
sea-level cycles on the Exxon Global
of the third-order sea-level southeastem Colorado Plateau: Geological Society
to eustasy, southeastern Society of
Cycle Chart (Haq(Haq et a1.,
al., 1988)
1988)may have resulted in the Bulletin, v. 101, p. 339-443.
America Bulletin, 339-443.
deposition of composite sequences sequences composed of A. W.,
Bally, A. W., 1980, Basins and subsidence-a
1980, Basins subsidence-a summary,
summary, American
Geodynamics Series,
Geophysical Union Geodynamics 1, p. 5-20.
Series, v. 1, 5-20.
sequence sets. The recognition of composite A. W., 1982, Musings
Bally, A. Musings over sedimentary basin evolution:evolution: Phil-
Phil-
sequences is critical
sequences critical for providing a regional frame-
frame- Transactionsof the Royal Society of London,
osophical Transactions London, v. A305,
depocenters, where
work for tying the stratigraphy of depocenters, p. 325-338.
p.325-338.
Balsley, J. K., and J. c. C. Horne, 1980, Cretaceous wave-dominated
1980, Cretaceous
sequences are best expressed,
high-frequency sequences expressed, to time- systems: Book Cliffs, east central
delta systems: central Utah, a field
field guide:
guide: pri-
low-sediment supply.
equivalent areas of low-sediment supply. The recogni-
recogni- vately published, 161 161 p.
tion ofof high-frequency sequences is essential for Baum, G. G. R,
R., and P. R R. Vail, 1988, Sequence stratigraphic
1988, Sequence stratigraphic concepts
outcrops, Gulf and Atlantic
applied to Paleogene outcrops, Atlantic basins, K.
C. K.
basins, in C.
developing accurate reconstructions of sea-level Wilgus et al., eds., Sea-level
Wilgus Sea-level changes:
changes: an integrated
integrated approach:
approach:
change through time and for developing developing a detailed Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists
Society of Economic Mineralogists Special
Special
picture of reservoir, source, and seal distribution Publication 42, p.
Publication 309-327.
p. 309-327.
Boyd, R,R., J. Suter,
Suter, and S. S. Penland, 1988, Implications of modem
1988, Implications
stratigraphic unit. Finally, if our contention
within a stratigraphic sedimentary environments for sequence
sedimentary stratigraphy, in D. P.
sequence stratigraphy, P.
sequences are significant compo-
that high-frequency sequences Jamesand
James andD. A. Leckie,
D. A. Leckie, eds., Sequences,
Sequences, stratigraphy,
stratigraphy,sedimen-
sedimen-
siliciclastic strata is correct, there is a fourth-
nents of siliciclastic tology: surface and subsurface:
tology: subsurface: Canadian Society of PetroleumPetroleum
Geologists Memoir 15,
Geologists 15, p. 33-36.
33-36.
order cyclicity superposed on the third-order cyclicity Brown, 1. L. F.,
F., and W. L. Fisher, 1977, Seismic-stratigraphic
W. 1. Seismic-stratigraphic interpre-
interpre-
predicted by the Exxon Global Cycle Chart (Haq (Haq et al., depositional systems:
tation of depositional systems: examples
examples from
from Brazil rift and
1988).This will have an impact on vertical-facies inter-
1988). pull-apart basins, Payton, ed., Seismic
basins, in C. E. Payton, Seismic stratigraphy-
stratigraphy-
applications to hydrocarbon
applications hydrocarbon exploration:
exploration: AAPG Memoir 26, p.
pretation in siliciclastic
siliciclasticstrata because facies
facies continuity 213-248.
213-248.
across these high-frequency boundaries.
may not exist across Genetic units in delta
1971, Genetic
Busch, D. A., 1971, deltaprospecting,
prospecting, AAPG Bulle-Bulle-
Recognition of the units in the stratal hierarchy,
Recognition 55, p. 1137-1154.
tin, v. 55, 1137-1154.
Busch, D. A., 1974, Stratigraphic traps in sandstones-exploration
1974, Stratigraphic sandstones-exploration
including sequences
including sequences and parasequences,
parasequences, is based only techniques, AAPG Memoir 21,
techniques, 164 p.
21,164
on the physical relationships of the strata. These rela- Busch, R. M., and H. B. Rollins, 1984, Correlation
Busch, Correlationof carboniferous
carboniferous
tionships are determined from core, core, outcrop, well-log, hierarchy of transgressive-regressive
strata using a hierarchy transgressive-regressiveunits: Geol- Geol-
ogy, v.
ogy, v. 12, p. 471-474.
471-474.
data. Application of sequence
or seismic data. sequence stratigraphy Busch, R R. Mo,
M . ,RR. R. Barrett, and T.
R. West, F. J. Barrett, T.R. Barrett, 1985, Cyclo-
1985, Cyclo-
to stratigraphic
stratigraphic analysis proceeds, in many basins, transgressive-regressive units, in
hierarchy of transgressive-regressive
thems versus hierarchy
independently of inferred regional or global deposi- deposi- interpretations of late
Recent interpretations late Paleozoic cyclothems:
cvclothems: Guidebook
tional mechanisms.
mechanisms. for Society of df Economic
Economic Paleontologists and Lnd Mineralogists,
Mineralogists, Mid-
Mid-
Continent Section, 11-13, p. 141-153.
Section, October 11-13, 141-153.
Campbell, C. C. v., Lamina, larninaset,
V., 1967, Lamina, laminaset, bed and bedset: Sedi-
bedset: Sedi-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS mentology, v.
Campbell, C.
Campbell,
8, p. 7-26.
v. 8,
C. V., 1979,
7-26.
1979, Model for beach shoreline
shoreline in.Galiup
in ,Gallup Sand-
Sand-
The authors thank Exxon Production Research Com- (Upper Cretaceous)
stone (Upper Cretaceous) of northwestern New Mexico: Mexico: New
Mexico Bureau of Mines Mines and Mineral Resources
Resources Circular 164,
pany for permission to publish this book. Paul 32 p.
32p.
Weimer, Tom Moslow, Loomis, and Keith Shan-
Moslow, Karen Loomis, Cloetingh, S., 1986, Intraplate
Cloetingh, Intraplate stresses:
stresses: a new tectonic
tectonic mechanism
 References 53

for relative fluctuations of of sea level: Geology, v. 14, p. 617-620.

617-620. Gould, H. R., R., 1970, The Mississippi delta complex, in J. I?P. Morgan,
Cloetingh, S., 1988, IntraplateIntraplate stresses: a tectonic cause for third- ed., Deltaic sedimentation:
sedimentation: Economic Paleontologists and Min-
apparent sea level?, in C.K. Wilgus et al.,
order cycles in apparent aI., eds., eralogists Special Publication Number Number 15, p. 3-31.
integrated approach: Society of
Sea-level change: an integrated of Econonic Grabau, A. W., w., 1932,
1932, Principles of of stratigraphy: New York, S. G.
Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 42, Seiler, 1185
1185 p.
p.19-29.
p. 19-29. Hale, L. A,, A., and F. R. Van De Graaff, 1964, Cretaceous stratigraphy stratigraphy
DeGraw, H. M., 1975, The Pierre-Niobraraunconformity
Pierre-Niobrara unconformity in western and facies patterns-northeastern Utah and adjacent areas, in E. F.
Nebraska, In in W. G. E. Caldwell, ed., The Cretaceous system in Sabatka, ed., Guidebook to the geobgy and mineral resources of of
western interior of
the western of North
North America:
America: Geological Association of of the Uinta basin: Intermountain Association of of Petroleum Geolo-
Canada Special Publication 13, pp.. 589-606. 589-606. gists Thirteenth Annual Field Conference, September 16-19, 16-19,
Dresser, H. H. W.,w., 1974, Muddy Sandstone-Wind River basin: Wyo- p. 115-138.
p.115-138.
ming Geological Association Earth Science Science Bulletin, v. 7, p. 5-70. Hallam, A,, A., 1984, Pre-Quaternary sea-level changes: Annual
Dunbar, C. O., 0., and
andJ. J. Rogers, 1957, Principles of of stratigraphy:
stratigraphy: New Reviews, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Sciences, v. 12, p. 205-243.
205-243.
York, John Wiley and Sons, 356 p. Haq, B. U., J. Hardenbol, and P. P. R. Vail, 1987,
1987, Chronology of of fluctu-
MeL. D., A. Hallam, and E. K. Walton, 1967,
Duff, P. McL. 1967, Cyclic sedi- ating sea levels since the Triassic:Triassic: Science,
Science, v. 235, p. 1156-1167.
1156-1167.
mentation: Developments in Sedimentology, v. 10, New York, Haq, B. U., J. Hardenbol, and P. R. Vail, 1988, Mesozoic and Ceno-
Elsevier, 28 p. zoic chronostratigraphy
chronostratigraphy and cycles of of sea-level change, in C.K. C.K.
Einsele, G., and A. Seilacher, eds., 1982, Cyclic and event stratifica- Wilgus et al., aI., eds., Sea-level change: an integratedintegrated approach:
Springer-Verlag, 536 pp..
tion: New York, Springer-Verlag, Society of of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special
Elliott, T., 1974,
1974, Abandonment facies of of high-constructive lobate Publication 42, p. 71-108.71-108.
deltas, with an example from the Yoredale series: Proceedings of Harms, J. C., c., 1966,
1966, Stratigraphic traps in a valley fill, western
Association, v. 85, part 3, p. 359-365.
the Geologists Association, 359-365. Nebraska: AAPG Bulletin, v. 50, p. 2119-2149. 2119-2149.
Fisher, W. L., and andJ. J. H. McGowen, 1967, Depositional systemsin systems in the Heezen, B. C., c., M. M. Tharp, and M. Ewing, Ewing, 1959, The floors of the
Wilcox Group of of Texas and their relationship to occurrence of of oil oceans, I. 1. The North Atlantic: Geological Society Society of America
and gas: Transactions of of the Gulf Coast Association of of Geologi-
Geologi- Special Paper 65,122 65, 122 p.
Societies, v. 17,
cal Societies, 105-U5.
17, p. 105-125. Hubbard, R. J., 1988, 1988, Age and significance
significance of of sequence boundaries
Fisk, H. N., 1944, Geological investigation of the alluvial alluvial valley of on Jurassic and Early Cretaceous rifted continental margins:
the lower Mississippi river: Vicksburg, Mississippi, U. S. Army AAPG Bulletin, v. 72, p. 49-72. 49-72.
Corps of of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission, 78 p. Jervey, M. T., 1988, 1988, Quantitative geological modeling of siliciclastic siliciclastic
Fisk, H. N., 1961, 1961, Bar-finger sands of of the Mississippi delta, in J. A. rock sequences and their seismic expressions, in C. K. K. Wilgus et
Peterson and J. C. Osmond, eds., eds., Geometry of Sandstone al.,
aI., eds., Sea level changes: an integrated approach: Society Society of
Bodies:
Bodies: AAPG Special Publication, p. 29-52. Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Mineralogists Special Publication
Flemming, B. W., w., 1981, Factors controlling sediment dispersal along 42, p. 47-69.
47-69.
the southeastern African continental margin: Marine Geology, Kamola, D. L., and Jj.. D. Howard, 1985,
Kamola, 1985, Back barrier and shallow
V. 42, p.
v. p. 259-277.
259-277. marine depositional facies, facies, Spring Canyon Member, Blackhawk
T. D., 1.
Fouch, I.-D., T. F. Lawton, D. D. J. Nichols, W. D. Cashion, and W. W. A. Formation: Society
Formation: Society of Economic
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralo- Mineralo-
Cobban, 1983, 1983, Patterns and timing of synorogenic sedimenta- gists Midyear Meeting Field Guides, p. 10-35 10-35through 10-67.10-67.
tion in Upper Cretaceous rocks rocks of central and northeast Utah, in Kidwell, S.
Kidwell, S. M., 1989,
1989, Stratigraphic condensation of marine trans-
M. W.
M. W. Reynolds and E. D. Dolly, eds., eds., Mesozoic paleogeography
paleogeography gressive records: origin of major shell deposits in the Miocene of
of west-central United States, Rocky Mountain Section: Section: Society
Society Maryland: The Journal Geology, v.
journal of Geology, v. 97, p. 1-29.
1-29.
of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Rocky Mountain Krumbein, W. c., Sloss, 1963,
C., and L. L. Sloss, 1963, Stratigraphy and Sedimen-
Paleogeography Symposium 2, p. 305-336. 305-336. tation, San Francisco, W. W. H.
H. Freeman and Co., 660 p.
Frazier,
Frazier, D. E., 1967,1967, Recent deltaic
deltaic deposits of the Mississippi river: Loutit, T. S.,
Loutit,T. S., J.j. Hardenbol, P. R. R. Vail, and G, G . R. Baum, 1988, Con- Con-
their development and chronology: Transactions of the Gulf sections: the key to age determination and correlation of
densed sections:
Coast Association
Association of Geological Societies,Societies, v. 17,
17, p.
p. 287-315.
287-315. continental margin sequences, in C. C. K.
K. Wilgus et aI.,
al., eds.:
eds.: Soci-
Soci-
Frazier,
Frazier, D. E., 1974.1974. Depositional episodes:
episodes: their relationship to the ~aleontolo~ists
ety of Paleontologists special Publication
and Mineralogists Special Publication 42,
Quaternary stratigraphic framework in the northwestern por- 183213.
p.183-213.
p.
tion of the Gulf basin: Bureau of Economic Economic Geology Geological ailo or^, W. M.,
Mallory, M., ed., 1972, 1972, Atlas of the Rocky Mountain region: region:
Circular 74-1,
74-1, University of Texas Texas at Austin, 28 28 p. Rocky Mountain AssociationAssociation of Geologists,
Geologists, 331331 p.
Frazier,
Frazier, D.D. E., andA.
and A. Osanik, 1967, 1967,Recent peat deposits-Louisiana
deposits-Louisiana Miall, A. D., 1986,
1986, Eustatic sea level changes interpreted from seis- seis-
coastal plain, inE.
coastalplain, in E. C.
C. DapplesandM.
Dapples and M. E. E. Hopkins, eds.,
eds., Environ-
Environ- stratigaphy: a critique of the methodology with particular
mic stratigraphy:
ments of coal coal deposition:
deposition: Geological
Geological Society
Society of America Special
Special reference to the North Sea Jurassic Jurassic record: AAPG Bulletin, v. v. 70,
70,
Paper 114,85
114,85 p. p. p. 131-137.
p.131-137.
Galloway, W.
Galloway, W. E., 1989a,
1989a, Genetic stratigraphic sequences in basin Middleton, G. G. v., 1973, Johannes
V., 1973, Johannes Walther's law of the correlation
correlation of
analysis I:I: architecture and genesis genesis of flooding-surface
flooding-surface bounded facies: Geological Society
facies: Society of America Bulletin,
Bulletin, v. 84, p. 979-988.
v. 84, 979-988.
depositional units: AAPG Bulletin, Bulletin, v.
v. 73,
73, p. 125-142.
125-142. Mitchum, R. R. M., 1977,1977, Seismic
Seismic stratigraphy
stratigraphy and global
global changes of
Galloway, W.
Galloway, W. E., 1989b,
1989b, Genetic stratigraphic sequences
sequences in basin level, Part 1:
sea level, 1: Glossary of terms used in seismic seismic stratigraphy,
stratigraphy,
analysis II: 11: application to northwest Gulf of Mexico Cenozoic Cenozoic in C.C. E.
E. Payton, ed., Seismic
Seismicstratigraphy-applications to hydro-
basin: AAPG Bulletin, v. 73, p. 143-154. 143-154. exploration: AAPG Memoir 26,
carbon exploration: 26, p. 205-212.
205-212.
Gary,
Gary, M.,
M., R. McAfee,
McAfee, Jr., Jr., and C.C. L. Wolf, eds.,
eds., 1972,
1972, Glossary of Mitchum, R. R. M"
M., P. P. R.
R. Vail, and S.S. Thompson, III, 111,1977, Seismic stra-
1977, Seismic stra-
geology:
geology: American
American Geological Washington, D.C., 805
Geological Institute, Washington, 805 tigraphy and global global changes of sea level, Part 2: 2: the depositional
p.
P. sequence as a basic unit for for stratigraphic analysis,
analysis, in C.C. E.
E. Pay-
Pay-
Gill,
Gill, J. R., andand W. W. A.A. Cobban,
Cobban, 1966,
1966, The
The Red Bird section
section of thethe ton, ed., Seismic
ton, Seismic stratigraphy applications
applications to to hydrocarbon
Upper Cretaceous
Cretaceous Pierre Pierre Shale
Shale in Wyoming:
Wyoming: United States States Geo-
Geo- exploration: AAPG
exploration: AAPG Memoir 26, 26, p,
p . 53-62.
53-62.
logical
logical Survey Professional
Professional Paper 393-A,
393-A, 73 p.
73 p. Murray, G.
Murray, G. E.,
E., 1961,
1961, Geology
Geology of the Atlantic
Atlantic and
and Gulf coastal
coastal prov-
Gill, J. R., and
Gill, and W. Hail, Jr.,
W. J. Hail, 1975, Stratigraphic sections
Jr., 1975, sections across
across ince of North America:
ince America: New York, York, Harper and Bros.,
Bros., 692
692 p.
p.
Cretaceous Mancos
Upper Cretaceous Mancos Shale-Mesaverde
Shale-Mesaverde Group boundary, E., 1985,
Mutti, E., 1985, Turbidite
Turbidite systems
systems andand their relations
relations to
to depositional
eastern
eastern Utah and western Colorado: Colorado: Oil
Oil and GasGas Investigation sequences, in G. G. G.G. Zuffa,
Zuffa, ed.,
ed., Provenance of arenites, NATO- NATO-
chart OC-68.
OC-68. ASI series: Reidel
AS1series: Reidel Publishing Company,
Company, p, p. 65-93.
65-93.
Goldhammer, R. R. K., P.P. A. Dunn, and L. L. A.
A. Hardie, 1987,
1987, High
High fre-
fre- Mutti, E.,
Mutti, E., G.
G. P.
P. Allen, and j.J. Rosell,
Allen, and Rosell, 1984,
1984, Sigmoidal
Sigmoidal cross
cross stratifica-
stratifica-
quency glacio-eustatic
glacio-eustatic sealevel
sealevel oscillations
oscillations with Milankovitch
Milankovitch sigmoidal bars:
tion and sigmoidal bars: depositional features
features diagnostic
diagnostic of tidal
tidal
characteristics recorded in
characteristics in Middle
Middle Triassic
Triassic platform carbonates sandstones, abstract,
sandstones, abstract, 5th European Regional Regional Meeting
Meeting of Sedi-Sedi-
in northern Italy:Italy:American Journal
Journalof Science,
Science, v.v. 287,
287, p.
p. 853-892.
853-892. mentology: International Association
mentology: Association of Sedimentologists,
Sedimentologists, Mar- Mar-
Goodwin, P. P. w.,
W., and E. E. J. Anderson,1985,
Anderson,l985, Punctuated aggrada- aggrada- seille, p.
seille, p. 312-313.
312-313.
tional
tional cycles:
cycles:a general hypothesis of episodic episodic stratigraphic accu-accu- Mutti, E., j.J. Rosell,
Mutti, Rosell, G. G. P.
P. Allen,
Allen, F.F. Fonnesu, and and M.
M. Sgavetti,
Sgavetti, 1985,
1985,
mulation:
mulation: Journal
Journalof of Geology,
Geology, v. v. 93,
93, p. 515-533.
515-533. The Eocene
The Eocene Baronia
Baronia tide-dominated delta-shelf system system in in the
the
 54 References

Ager basin, in Field trip guidebook of the VI European meeting phism in the Upper Cretaceous Cretaceousof of central and eastern Utah: Utah: Geo-
Geo-
of the International Association Association of Sedimentologists, Lerida, Lerida, logical Association
logical Association of America Memoir 39, p. 55-81. 55-81.
Spain,
Spain, excursion 13, 13, p.p. 579-600.
579-600. Stone, W.
Stone, W. D., 1972,
1972, Stratigraphy and exploration of the Lower Cre- Cre-
Parkinson, N., C. C. Summerhayes, 1985, 1985, Synchronous global taceous Muddy Formation, northern Powder River basin, Wyo- Wyo-
sequence boundaries: AAPG Bulletin, Bulletin, v.v. 69, p. 685-687.
685-687. ming and Montana: The Mountain Geologist, Geologist, v. 355-378.
v. 9, p. 355-378.
Payton, C C. E., ed., 1977,1977, Seismic
Seismic stratigraphy-applications to hydro- Suter, J. R., and H. 1.
Suter, L. Berryhill, Jr., Jr., 1985,
1985, Late Quaternary shelf- shelf-
carbon exploration: AAPG Memoir 26, v. 11, 11,516
516 p. margin deltas, Northwest Gulf of Mexico: Mexico: AAPG Bulletin, v. 69,
Pfaff, B.
Pfaff, B. J.,
J., 1985,
1985, Facies
Facies sequences and the evolution of fluvial fluvial sedi- p. 77-91.
p.77-91.
mentation in the Castlegate Sandstone, Sandstone, Price Canyon, Utah: Utah: Suter, J.1. R.,
Suter, R., H. H. 1.L. Berryhill, and S. S. Penland, 1987, 1987, Late
Late Quaternary
Society of Economic
Society Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Mineralogists Midyear sea-level fluctuations and depositional sequences, southwest
sea-level southwest
Meeting Field Guides, Guides, p, p. 10-7
10-7through 10-32. 10-32. Louisiana continental shelf,
Louisiana shelf, in D. Nummedal
Numrnedal et aI., al., eds., SeaSea
Phillips, J., 1836,
Phillips, 1836, The geology
geology of Yorkshire,
Yorkshire, II, 11, The Mountain Lime- Lime- level fluctuation and coastal
level coastal evaluation:
evaluation: SocietySociety of Economic
Economic
District: London, Murray,
stone District: Murray, 253 253 p. Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 41,
Pitman, W
Pitman, W. C, C., III,
111, and X. Golovchenko,
Golovchenko, 1983, 1983, The effect of sealevelsealevel p. 199-219.
p.199-219.
change on the shelfedge and slope of passive margins, in D. D. J. Swift, D. J.J. P.,
Swift, P., P. M. Hudelson,
Hudelson, R. R. 1. L. Brenner, and P. P.Thompson,
Stanley and G. G. T.
T. Moore,
Moore, eds.,eds., The shelfbreak:
shelfbreak: critical
critical interface
interface 1987, Shelf construction in a foreland basin: storm beds, shelf
1987,
on continental margins: margins: Society
Societyof Economic
Economic Paleontologists and sandbodies, and shelf- slope depositional sequences in the
Mineralogists Special
Mineralogists Special Publication
Publication 33, p, p. 41-58.
41-58. Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Group, Group, Book Cliffs, Cliffs, Utah: Sedi-
Utah: Sedi-
Plafker, G.,
Plafker, G., 1965,
1965, Tectonic
Tectonic deformation associated with the 1964 1964 mentology, v.
mentology, v. 34, 423-457.
34, p. 423-457.
Alaska earthquake:
Alaska earthquake: Science Science v. v. 148, 1675-1687.
148, p. 1675-1687. Thorne, J. R., and A. A. B.B. Watts,
Watts, 1984,
1984, Seismic
Seismic reflectors
reflectors and uncon-
Plafker, G.,
Plafker, G., and J.J. C. C. Savage,
Savage, 1970,1970, Mechanism of the Chilean earth- formities at passive continental margins: Nature, v. v. 311,
311,
quake of May
quake May 21 21and
and 22,22,1960: Geological Society
1960: Geological Societyof America Bul- Bul- p. 365-368.
p.365-368.
letin,
letin, v. 81, 81, p.
p. 1001-1030.
1001-1030. Udden, J.J. A., A,, 1912,
1912, Geology
Geology and mineral resources of the the Peoria
Peoria
Posamentier, H.
Posamentier, H. W., and and P. P. R.
R. Vail,
Vail, 1988,
1988, Eustatic
Eustatic controls
controls on clastic
clastic Quadrangle, Illinois: Illinois:U. U. S.
S. Geological
Geological Survey Survey Professional
Professional Paper
11-sequenceand systems
deposition II-sequence systemstract models, in
tract models, C. K. Wilgus
in C. Wilgus 506,103 p.
506,103 p.
etal.,
et eds., Sea-level
a!., eds., Sea-levelchanges:
changes: an an integrated
integratedapproach: Societyof
approach: Society of Vail, P.P. R.,
R., 1987,
1987, Seismic
Seismic stratigraphy
stratigraphy interpretation using sequence
EconomicPaleontologists and
Economic and Mineralogists
Mineralogists SpecialSpeaal Publication
Publication stratigraphy. Part 1:
stratigraphy. 1: seismic
seismic stratigraphy
stratigraphy interpretation proce- proce-
42,
42, p. p. 125-154.
125-154. dure, in
dure, in A.A. WW. Bally,
Bally, ed.,
ed., Atlas
Atlas of of seismic
seismic stratigraphy,
stratigraphy, v. v. 1:
1:
Posamentier, H.
Posamentier, H. w.,
W., M.M. T. T. Jervey,
Jewey, and and P.l? R
R. Vail,
Vail, 1988,
1988, Eustatic
Eustatic con-
con- AAPG Studies
AAPG Studies in in Geology
Geology27, p. p. 1-10.
1-10.
trols on
trols on clastic
clastic deposition
deposition I-conceptual framework, in
I-conceptual framework, C. K.
in C. K. Vail, P.P. R,
Vail, R., R R. M.
M. Mitchum,
Mitchum, and and S.S. Thompson, III, 111,1977, Seismicstra-
1977, Seismic stra-
Wilgus et
Wilgus et a!.,
al., eds.,
eds., Sea-level
Sea-level changes:
changes: an an integrated
integrated approach:
approach: tigraphy and
tigraphy and global
globalchanges
changes of of sea
sea level,
level, part 3: 3: relative
relative changes
changes
Society of
Society of Economic
Economic Paleontologists
Paleontologists and and Mineralogists
Mineralogists Special Special of sea
of sea level
levelfrom
from coastal onlap, in
coastalonlap, in C.
C. W.
W. Payton, ed., ed., Seismic
Seismicstra-
stra-
Publication 42,
Publication 42, p. 109-124.
p. 109-124, tigraphy applications
tigraphy applications to to hydrocarbon exploration:
exploration: AAPGAAPG Mem- Mem-
Rainwater, E.
Rainwater, E. H.,
H., 1967,
1967,Resume
Resume of of Jurassic
Jurassic to to Recent
Recent sedimentation
sedimentation oir 26,
oir 26, p.p. 63-97.
63-97.
history of
history of Gulf
Gulf of of Mexico
Mexico basin:
basin: Transactions
Transactions of of the
the Gulf
Gulf Coast
Coast Vail, R., R.
Vail, P.P. R., R. M.M. Mitchum,
Mitchum, T. H. Shipley,
T. H. Shipley, and and R.R. T.T. Buffler,
Buffler, 1980,
1980,
Associationof
Association of Geological
Geological Societies,
Societies,v. v. 17,
17, p.
p. 179-210.
179-210. Unconformities in
Unconformities in the
the North
North Atlantic:
Atlantic: Philosophical
Philosophical Transac-
Transac-
Reading, H.
Reading, H. G.,G., 1978,
1978, Sedimentary
Sedimentary environments
environments and and facies:
facies: NewNew tions of
tions of the
the Royal
Royal Society
Societyof of London,
London, A A294,
294, p.p. 137-155.
137-155.
York, Elsevier
York, ElsevierPress,Press, 557557p. p. Vail, P.P. R,
Vail, R., and
and R. R. G.
G. Todd,
Todd, 1981,
1981,North
North Sea SeaJurassic
Jurassicunconformities,
unconformities,
Renard, M.,
Renard, M., 1986,
1986, Pelagic
Pelagic carbonate
carbonate chemostratigraphy
chemostratigraphy (Sr, (Sr, MM9,~ , chronostratigraphy and
chronostratigraphy and sea-level
sea-levelchanges
changes fromfromseismic
seismicstratigra-
stratigra-
18 13
0Ols, , Cc13): MarineMicropaleontology,
): Marine Micropaleontology,v. v. 10,
10, p.
p. 117-164.
117-164. phy, Proceedings
phy, Proceedings of of the
the Petroleum
Petroleum Geology Geology Continental
Continental Shelf,
Shelf,
Ryer, T.
Ryer, T. A., 1983, Transgressive-regressive
A., 1983, Transgressive-regressive cycles cycles andand the
the occur-
occur- Northwest Europe,
Northwest Europe, p. p. 216-235.
216-235.
rence of
rence of coal
coal inin some
some Upper
Upper Cretaceous
Cretaceous stratastrata ofof Utah:
Utah: Geology,
Geology, Vail, R., J.J. Hardenbol,
Vail, P.P. R, Hardenbol, and and R. R. G.
G. Todd,
Todd, 1984,
1984,Jurassic
Jurassicunconformi-
unconformi-
v.V.11;
11;p. p. 207-210.
207-210. ties, chronostratigraphy
ties, chronostratigraphy and and sea-level
sea-levelchanges
changes from
fromseismic stra-
seismic stra-
Sarg, J.J.E,
Sarg, F,,1988,
1988,Carbonate
Carbonatesequence stratigraphy, in
sequence stratigraphy, C. K.
in C. K. Wilgus
Wiguset et tigraphy and
tigraphy biostratigraphy, in
and biostratigraphy, in J.J. S.
S. Schlee,
Schlee, ed.,
ed., Inter-regional
Inter-regional
al., eds.,
a!., eds., Sea-level
Sea-levelchanges:
changes: an an integrated
integrated approach:
approach: Society
Societyof of unconformities and
unconformities and hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon accumulation:
accumulation: AAPG AAPG Memoir
Memoir
Economic Paleontologists
Economic Paleontologists and and Mineralogists
Mineralogists SpecialSpecialPublication
Publication 36, p.
36, p. 129-144.
129-144.
42,
42, p.p . 155-181.
155-181. Van De
Van De Graaff,
Graaff, F.F. R., 1970, Depositional
R., 1970, Depositional environments
environments and and petrol-
petrol-
Sears, J.J. D.,
Sears, D., C. C. B.B. Hunt,
Hunt, and and T.
T. A.
A. Hendricks,
Hendricks, 1941, 1941, Transgressive
Transgressive ogyof
ogy of the
the Castlegate
Castlegate Sandstone:
Sandstone: University
University of of Missouri,
Missouri,Colum-
Colum-
and regressive
and regressive Cretaceous
Cretaceous deposits
deposits in in southern
southern San SanJuan basin,
Juanbasin, bia, Ph.
bia, Ph. D. D. dissertation,
dissertation, 120 120p.p.
New Mexico:
New Mexico: U. U. S.
S. Geological
Geological SurveySurvey Professional
Professional Paper Paper 193193F,F, Van Wagoner,
Van c.,
Wagoner, J.J. C., 1985, 1985,Reservoir
Reservoirfaciesfaciesdistribution
distribution as as controlled
controlled
p.101-121.
p. 101-121. by sea-level
by sea-level change,
change, abstract:
abstract: Society
Societyof of Economic
Economic Paleontolo-
Paleontolo-
Shanley,K.
Shanley, K. W., and P.P. J.J. McCabe,
W., and McCabe, 1989, 1989,Predicting
Predicting fluvial
fluvialarchitec-
architec- gists and
gists and Mineralogists
Mineralogists Mid-Year
Mid-Year Meeting,
Meeting, Golden,
Golden, Colorado,
Colorado,
ture through
ture through sequence
sequence stratigraphy:
stratigraphy: Turonian-Campanian
Turonian-Campanian August 11-14,
August 11-14,p. p. 91-92.
91-92.
strata, Kaiparowits
strata, Kaiparowits Plateau, Plateau, Utah,
Utah, U.S.A.,
U.S.A., abstract,
abstract, Fourth
Fourth Van Wagoner,J.J. C,
Van Wagoner, C., H.
H. W.W. Posamentier,
Posamentier, R. M. Mitchum,
R. M. Mitchum, P.P. R. Vail,
R. Vail,
InternationalFluvial
International Fluvial Conference,
Conference, Barcelona,
Barcelona,Spain. Spain. J.J. F.F. Sarg,
Sarg, T. T. S.
S. Loutit,
Loutit, and and J.J. Hardenbol,
Hardenbol, 1988, 1988,AnAn overview
overview of of
Shepard, EF.P.,
Shepard, P., 1973,
1973,Submarine
Submarinegeology, geology, Third
Third edition:
edition: NewNew York,
York, sequencestratigraphy
sequence stratigraphy and andkeykeydefinitions,
definitions, ininC. C. W.
W.Wilgus
WilgusetetaI.,al.,
Harper and
Harper andRow,Row, 557 557p. p. eds., Sea
eds., Sealevellevelchanges:
changes: an an integrated
integrated approach:
approach:Society
Societyof of Eco-
Eco-
Shurr, G.
Shurr, G. W.,
W., and
and J.J. Reskind,
Reskind, 1984, 1984,Stratigraphic
Stratigraphic framework
framework of of the
the nomicPaleontologists
nomic Paleontologists and and Mineralogists
MineralogistsSpecial SpecialPublication
Publication42, 42,
Niobrara Formation
Niobrara Formation (Upper (Upper Cretaceous)
Cretaceous) in in North
North and and South
South p. 39-45.
p.39-45.
Dakota, in
Dakota, D.F.F. Stott
inD, Stottand andD. D.J.J.Glass,
Glass, eds.,
eds., The
TheMesozoic
Mesozoicof of mid-
mid- Van Wagoner, J.J. C,
Van Wagoner, and RR . M.
C., and M. Mitchum,
Mitchum, 1989, 1989, High-frequency
High-frequency
dle North
dle North America:
America: Canadian
Canadian Society
Societyof of Petroleum
Petroleum Geologists
Geologists sequences and
sequences and their
their stacking
stacking patterns,
patterns, abstract:
abstract: 28th
28th Interna-
Interna-
Memoir9,9, p.
Memoir p. 205-219.
205-219. tional Geological
tional Geological Congress,
Congress, Washington,
Washington, D. D. c.,
C., July
July 9-19,
9-19,
Sloss, 1.
Sloss, L., 1950,
L. 1., 1950, Paleozoic
Paleozoic stratigraphy
stratigraphy in in the
the Montana
Montana area: area: p. 3-284.
p.3-284.
AAPGBulletin,
AAPG Bulletin,v.v.34, 34,p. p.423-451.
423-451. Walker, RR. G.,
Walker, G., 1984,
1984,General
General introduction:
introduction:facies, facies, facies
facies sequences
sequences
Sloss,1.
Sloss, L.1.,L., 1963,
1963,Sequences
Sequencesin inthe
thecratonicinterior
cratonic interiorof of North
North Amer-
Amer- and facies
and models, inin R.
facies models, G. Walker,
R. G. Walker, ed., ed., Facies
FaciesModels,
Models, second
second
ica:Geological
ica: GeologicalSociety Societyof of America
AmericaBulletin,
Bulletin,v.v. 74, 74, p. 93-114.
p.93-114. edition: Geological
edition: Geological Society
Society of of Canada,
Canada, Geoscience
Geoscience Canada,
Canada,
Sloss,1.
Sloss, L.1.,L.,1979,
1979,Global
Globalsealevel
sealevelchange:
change:aaviewview fromfromthe craton,inin
thecraton, Reprint Series
Reprint Series1,1,p.p. 1-9.
1-9.
J.J. S.
S. Watkins
Watkins et et a!.,
al., eds.,
eds., Geological
Geological and and geophysical
geophysical investiga-
investiga- Walther,J.,
Walther, J., 1894,
1894,Einleitung
Einleitung in in die
dieGeologie
Geologieals alshistoriche
historiche Wissens-
Wissens-
tions of
tions of continental
continental margins:
margins: AAPG AAPG MemoirMemoir29, 29, p.
p. 461-467.
461-467. chaft:Jena,
chaft: Jena,Verlag
Verlagvonvon Gustav
GustavFisher,
Fisher, 33vols.,
vols., p.
p. 987-993.
987-993.
Sloss,1.
Sloss, L.1.,L., 1988,
1988,Forty
Fortyyears
years of of sequence
sequencestratigraphy:
stratigraphy:Geological
Geological Wanless, H.
Wanless, H. R.,R., 1950,
1950,LateLate Paleozoic
Paleozoiccycles cyclesof of sedimentation
sedimentationin in the
the
Societyof
Society AmericaBulletin,
of America Bulletin, v. v. 100,
100,p.
p. 1661-1665.
1661-1665. United States,
United States, 18th
18thInternational
International Geological
GeologicalCongress:
Congress: London,
London,
Sloss, 1.
Sloss, L. 1.,
L., W.W. C. C. Krumbein,
Krumbein, and and E.E. C.
C. Dapples,
Dapples, 1949,1949,Integrated
Integrated 1948,Report
1948, Report4,4, p, p .17-28.
17-28.
analysis, inin CC. R.
facies analysis,
facies R. Longwell,
Longwell, ed., ed., Sedimentary
Sedimentary facies- facies- Watts,A.
Watts, A.B.,B., 1982,
1982,Tectonic
Tectonicsubsidence,
subsidence, flexure,flexure,andandglobal
globalchanges
changes
geologic history:
geologic history: Geological
Geological Society
Society of of America
America MemoirMemoir 39, 39, of sea
of sealevel:
level:Nature,
Nature, v.v. 297,
297, p. 469-474.
p.469-474.
p. 91-124.
p.91-124. Weimer, R.
Weimer, I.,1983,
R. J., 1983,Relation
Relationof ofunconformities,
unconformities, tectonism,
tectonism, and andsea-
sea-
Spieker, E.E. M.,
Spieker, 1949, Sedimentary
M., 1949, Sedimentary facies facies andand associated
associated diastro-
diastro- level changes,
level changes, Cretaceous
Cretaceous of of the
the Denver
Denver basinbasin andand adjacent
adjacent
 References
References 55
55

areas, in
areas, inM.M. W.W. Reynolds
Reynolds and and E.
E. D.
D. Dolly,
Dolly, eds.,
eds., Mesozoic
Mesozoicpaleo-
paleo- Williams, D.
Williams, D. G.,
G., 1984,
1984, Correlation
Correlation of of Pleistocene
Pleistocene marine
marine sediments
sediments
geography of
geography of west-central
west-central United
United States:
States: Rocky
Rocky Mountain
Mountain Sec- Sec- of the
of the Gulf
Gulf of
of Mexico
Mexicoand andother
other basins
basins using
using oxygen
oxygenisotope
isotope stra-
stra-
tion, Society
tion, Society of of Economic
Economic Paleontologists
Paleontologists and and Mineralogists
Mineralogists tigraphy, in
tigraphy, N. Healy-Williams,
in N. Healy-Williams, ed., ed., Principles
Principles of of Pleistocene
Pleistocene
RockyMountain
Rocky Mountain Paleogeography Symposium 2,2, p.
Paleogeography Symposium p. 359-376.
359-376. stratigraphy applied
stratigraphy applied toto the
the Gulf
Gulf ofof Mexico:
Mexico: International
International Human
Human
Weimer, R.
Weimer, J., 1984,
R. J., 1984,Relations
Relationsof of unconformities,
unconformities, tectonics,
tectonics, and
and sea-
sea- ResourcesDevelopment
Resources Development Corporation,
Corporation, Boston,
Boston, p.p. 65-118.
65-118.
level changes,
level changes, Cretaceous
Cretaceous of of western
western interior U.S.A., in
interior U.S.A., in J.J. S.
S. Wilson, J.J . L.,
Wilson, L., 1975,
1975,Carbonate
Carbonate facies
faciesinin geologic
geologic history:
history: New
New York,
York,
Schlee, ed.,
Schlee, ed., Interregional
Interregional unconformities
unconformities and and hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon Springer-Verlag,471
Springer-Verlag, 471p. p.
accumulation: AAPG
accumulation: AAPG Memoir
Memoir 36, 36, p.
p . 7-35.
7-35. Wright,R.,
Wright, R., 1986,
1986,Cycle
Cyclestratigraphy
stratigraphyas asaapaleogeographic
paleogeographictool:tool:Point
Point
Weimer, R.
Weimer, J., 1988,
R.J., 1988,Record
Recordofof sea-level
sea-levelchanges,
changes, Cretaceous
Cretaceousof of west-
west- Lookout Sandstone,
Lookout Sandstone, southeastern
southeastern San SanJuan
Juanbasin,
basin, New
New Mexico:
Mexico:
e m interior,
ern interior, U. S. A.,
U. S. C. K.
A,, inin C. K. Wilgus
Wilgus et et aI.,
al., eds.,
eds., Sea-level
Sea-level GeologicalSociety
Geological Societyof
of America
America Bulletin,
Bulletin, v.v. 97,
97, p.
p. 661-673.
661-673.
changes: an
changes: an integrated
integrated approach:
approach: Society
Societyof of Economic
Economic Paleon-
Paleon- Young, R.
Young, R. G.,
G., 1955,
1955, Sedimentary
Sedimentary faciesfacies and
and intertonguing
intertonguing in in the
the
tologistsand
tologists and Mineralogists
Mineralogists Special
SpecialPublication
Publication42, p. 285-288.
42, p. 285-288. Upper Cretaceous
Upper Cretaceousof of the
the Book
Book Cliffs,
Cliffs,Utah-Colorado:
Utah-Colorado: Geological
Geological
Weller,J.J. M.,
Weller, M., 1930,
1930,Cyclical
Cyclicalsedimentation
sedimentation of of the
the Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian per- per- Societyof
Society of America
America Bulletin,
Bulletin,v. 66, p.
v. 66, p. 177-202.
177-202.
iod and
iod and its its significance:
significance:Journal
Journalof of Geology,
Geology, v. v. 38, p. 97-135.
38, p. 97-135.
Wheeler, H.
Wheeler, H. E.,E., 1958,
1958, Time
Time stratigraphy:
stratigraphy: AAPGAAPG Bulletin,
Bulletin, v.
v. 42,42,
p. 1047-1063.
p.1047-1063.