Introduction to Tissue

Approximately 200 distinctly different types of cells compose the human body. These
cells are arranged and organized into four basic tissues that, in turn, are assembled to
form organs. When looking at tissue at a microscopic level, the ability to detect the
presence and location of the four basic tissues allows identification of the organ at which
you are looking. A basic knowledge of the general characteristics and cellular
composition of these tissues is essential in histology, which is the study of tissues at the
microscopic level. Tissues are groups of similar cells performing a common function.
There are four categories of tissues:

• Epithelial tissue
• Connective tissue
• Nervous tissue
• Muscle tissue

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue, or epithelium, has the following general characteristics:

• Epithelium consists of closely packed, flat cells. There is little intercellular

material.
• The tissue is avascular, or without blood vessels. Nutrient and waste exchange
occurs through neighboring connective tissues by diffusion.
• The upper surface of epithelium is free, or exposed to the outside of the body or to
an internal body cavity. The basal surface rests on connective tissue. A thin,
extracellular layer called the basement membrane forms between the epithelial
and connective tissue.
• Cell division in epithelium occurs readily to replace damaged cells.

There are two kinds of epithelial tissues:

• Covering and lining epithelium covers the outside surfaces of the body and lines
internal organs.
• Glandular epithelium secretes hormones or other products.

Epithelium that covers or lines

Epithelial tissues that cover or line surfaces are classified by cell shape and by the
number of cell layers. The following terms are used to describe these features:

Cell shape:

• Squamous cells are flat. The nucleus, located near the upper surface, gives these
cells the appearance of a “fried egg.”
 • Cuboidal cells are cube or hexagon shaped with a central, circular nucleus. These
cells produce secretions (sweat, for example) or absorb substances (digested food,
for example).
• Columnar cells are tall with an oval nucleus near the basement membrane. These
thick cells serve to protect underlying tissues or may function to absorb
substances. Some have microvilli, minute surface extensions, to increase surface
area for absorbing substances, while others may have cilia that help move
substances over their surface (such as mucus through the respiratory tract).
• Transitional cells range from flat to tall cells that can extend or compress in
response to body movement.

Number of cell layers:

• Simple describes a single layer of cells.

• Stratified describes epithelium consisting of multiple layers.
• Pseudostratified describes a single layer of cells of different sizes, giving the
appearance of being multilayered.

Names of epithelial tissues include a description of both their shape and their number of
cell layers. The presence of cilia may also be identified in their names. For example,
simple squamous describes epithelium consisting of a single layer of flat cells.
Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium describes a single layer of tall, ciliated cells
of more than one size. Stratified epithilieum is named after the shape of the outermost
cell layer. Thus, stratified squamous epithelium has outermost layers of squamous cells,
even though some inner layers consist of cuboidal or columnar cells. These and other
epithelial tissues are illustrated in Figure 1 .
 Figure 1Types of epithelial tissues.

Glandular epithelium
Glandular epithelium forms two kinds of glands:

• Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. For example,
the thyroid gland secretes the hormone thyroxin into the bloodstream, where it is
 distributed throughout the body, stimulating an increase in the metabolic rate of
body cells.
• Exocrine glands secrete their substances into tubes, or ducts, which carry the
secretions to the epithelial surface. Examples of secretions include sweat, saliva,
milk, stomach acid, and digestive enzymes.

Exocrine glands are classified according to their structure (see Figure 2 ):

• Unicellular or multicellular describes a single-celled gland or a gland made of

many cells, respectively. A multicellular gland consists of a group of secretory
cells and a duct through which the secretions pass as they exit the gland.

Figure 2Exocrine glands can be classified as either simple or compound and

according to tubular or alveolar structure.

• Branched refers to branching arrangement of secretory cells in the gland.

• Simple or compound refers to whether the duct of the gland (not the secretory
portion) does not branch or branches, respectively.
• Tubular describes a gland whose secretory cells form a tube, while alveolar (or
acinar) describes secretory cells that form a bulblike sac.

Exocrine glands are also classified according to their function (see Figure 3 ):

• In merocrine glands, secretions pass through the cell membranes of the secretory
cells.
 Figure 3Exocrine glands can be classified according to their function.

• In apocrine glands, a portion of the cell containing secretions is released as it

separates from the rest of the cell.
• In holocrine glands, entire secretory cells disintegrate and are released along with
their contents.

Connective Tissue
A summary of the various kinds of connective tissues is given in Figure 1 and Table 1 .
Some general characteristics of connective tissues follow.
Figure 1General characteristics of connective tissues.
 TABLE 1 Kinds of Connective Tissue
Tissue Type Cells Present Fibers Present Matrix Characteristics
Loose Connective Tissue:
areolar fibroblasts collagen elastic loosely arranged fibers in
macrophages reticular gelatinous ground substance
adipocytes mast
cells plasma cells
adipose adipocytes reticular closely packed cells with a
collagen small amount of gelatinous
ground substance; stores fat
reticular reticular cells reticular loosely arranged fibers in
gelatinous ground substance
Dense
Connective
Tissue:
dense regular fibroblasts collagen (some parallel-arranged bundles of
elastic) fibers with few cells and little
ground substance; great
tensile strength
dense regular fibroblasts collagen (some Irregularly arranged bundles
elastic) of fibers with few cells and
little ground substance; high
tensile strength
Cartilage:
hyaline (gristle) chondrocytes collagen (some limited ground substance;
elastic) dense, semisolid matrix
fibrocartilage chondrocytes collagen (some limited ground intermediate
elastic) between hyaline cartilage and
dense connective tissue
elastic chondrocytes elastic limited ground substance;
flexible but firm matrix
Bone (osseous
tissue):
compact (dense) osteoblasts collagen rigid, calcified ground
osteocytes substance with (canal
systems)
spongy osteoblasts collagen rigid, calcified ground
 Tissue Type Cells Present Fibers Present Matrix Characteristics
(cancellous) osteocytes substance (no osteons)
Blood &
Lymph
(vascular
tissue):
blood erythrocytes “fibers” are “matrix” is liquid blood
leukocytes soluble proteins plasma
thrombocytes that form during
clotting
lymph leukocytes “fibers” are “matrix” is blood plasma
soluble liquid
proteins that
form during
clotting

• Nerve supply. Most connective tissues have a nerve supply (as does epithelial
tissue).
• Blood supply. There is a wide range of vascularity among connective tissues,
although most are well vascularized (unlike epithelial tissues, which are all
avascular).
• Structure. Connective tissue consists of scattered cells immersed in an
intercellular material called the matrix. The matrix consists of fibers and ground
substance. The kinds and amounts of fiber and ground substance determine the
character of the matrix, which in turn defines the kind of connective tissue.
• Cell types. Fundamental cell types, characteristics of each kind of connective
tissue, are responsible for producing the matrix. Immature forms of these cells
(whose names end in blast) secrete the fibers and ground substance of the matrix.
Cells that have matured, or differentiated (whose names often end in cyte),
function mostly to maintain the matrix.
o Fibroblasts are common in both loose and dense connective tissues.
o Adipocytes, or flat cells, occur in loose connective tissue.
o Reticular cells resemble fibroblasts, but have long, cellular processes
(extensions). They occur in loose connective tissue.
o Chondroblasts and chondrocytes occur in cartilage.
o Osteoblasts and osteocytes occur in bone.
o Hemocytoblasts occur in the bone marrow and produce erythrocytes (red
blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (blood
platelets).
o In addition to the fundamental cell types, various leukocytes migrate from
the bone marrow to connective tissues and provide various body defense
activities.
 o Macrophages engulf foreign and dead cells.
o Mast cells secrete histamine, which stimulates immune responses.
o Plasma cells produce antibodies.
• Fibers. Matrix fibers are proteins that provide support for the connective tissue.
There are three types:
o Collagen fibers, made of the protein collagen, are both tough and flexible.
o Elastic fibers, made of the protein elastin, are strong and stretchable.
o Reticular fibers, made of thin collagen fibers with a glycoprotein coating,
branch frequently to form a netlike (reticulate) pattern.
• Ground substance. Ground substance may be fluid, gel, or solid, and, except for
blood, is secreted by the cells of the connective tissue.
o Cell adhesion proteins hold the connective tissue together.
o Proteoglycans provide the firmness of the ground substance. Hyaluronic
sulfate and chondroitin sulfate are two examples.
• Classification. There are five general categories of mature connective tissue:
o Loose connective tissue has abundant cells among few or loosely arranged
fibers and a sparse to abundant gelatinous ground substance.
o Dense connective tissue has few cells among a dense network of fibers
with little ground substance.
o Cartilage has cells distributed among fibers in a firm jellylike ground
substance. Cartilage is tough, but flexible, avascular, and without nerves.
o Bone has cells distributed among abundant fibers in a solid ground
substance containing minerals, mostly calcium phosphate. Bone is
organized in units, called osteons (Haversian system). Each osteon
consists of a central canal (Haversian canal), which contains blood vessels
and nerves, surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae) of hard matrix and
collagen fibers. Between the lamellae are cavities (lacunae) that contain
bone cells (osteocytes). Canals (canaliculi) radiate from the central canal
and allow nutrient and waste exchange with the osteocytes.
o Blood is composed of various blood cells and cell fragments (platelets)
distributed in a fluid matrix called blood plasma.
• Tissue origin. All mature connective tissues originate from embryonic connective
tissue. There are two kinds of embryonic connective tissues:
o Mesenchyme is the origin of all mature connective tissues.
o Mucous connective tissue is a temporary tissue formed during embryonic
development.

An epithelial membrane is a combination of epithelial and connective tissues

working together to perform a specific function. As such, it acts as an organ. There
are four principle types of epithelial membranes:

• Serous membranes line interior organs and cavities. The serous membranes that
line the heart, lungs, and abdominal cavities and organs are called the
pericardium, pleura, and peritoneum, respectively.
• Mucous membranes line body cavities that open to the outside of the body. These
include the nasal cavity and the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts.
 • Synovial membranes line the cavities at bone joints.
• The cutaneous membrane is the skin.

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue consists of two kinds of nerve cells:

• Neurons are the basic structural unit of the nervous system. Each cell consists of
the following parts (see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1A neuron is a basic structural unit of the nervous system containing a cell
body, dendrites, and an axon.

• The cell body contains the nucleus and other cellular organelles.
• The dendrites are typically short, slender extensions of the cell body that receive
stimuli.
• The axon is typically a long, slender extension of the cell body that sends stimuli.
• Neuroglia, or glial cells, provide support functions for the neurons, such as
insulation or anchoring neurons to blood vessels.

Muscle Tissue
There are three kinds of muscle tissues (see Figure 1 ):

• Skeletal muscle consists of long cylindrical cells that, under a microscope, appear
striated with bands perpendicular to the length of the cell. The many nuclei in
each cell (multinucleated cells) are located near the outside along the plasma
membrane. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and causes movements of the
body. Because it is under your conscious control, it is also called voluntary
muscle.
Figure 1Three kinds of muscle tissue exist: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and
smooth muscle.

• Cardiac muscle, like skeletal muscle, is striated. However, cardiac muscle cells
have single, centrally located nucleus, and the muscle fibers branch often. Where
two cardiac muscle cells meet, they form an intercalated disc containing gap
junctions, which bridge the two cells.
• Smooth muscle consists of cells with a single, centrally located nucleus. The cells
are elongated with tapered ends and do not appear striated. Smooth muscle lines
the walls of blood vessels and certain organs such as the digestive and urogenital
tracts, where it serves to advance the movement of substances. Smooth muscle is
called involuntary muscle because it is not under direct conscious control.