Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocols

In 1949 the existing Geneva Conventions were re-written and a fourth was
added to expand the protection to include also civilians. The Geneva
Conventions have since been adopted by every country in the world and
therefore are universally applicable.
The Geneva Conventions adopted in 1949 are composed of 159 articles and
deal with the status and treatment of protected persons, with a distinction drawn
between the situation of foreigners on the territory of one of the conflicting
parties and that of civilians in occupied territory. Furthermore, it details the
obligations of the occupying authority with regards to the civilian population and
contains detailed provisions on humanitarian relief for populations in occupied
territories.
The first Geneva Convention protects wounded and sick soldiers on land during
war, but also for medical and religious personnel, medical units and medical
transports. The second Geneva Convention protects the wounded, sick and
shipwrecked military personnel at sea during war. This Convention replaced The
Hague Convention of 1907 for the Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of the
Principles of the Geneva Convention. The third Geneva Convention applies to
prisoners of war. This Convention replaced the Prisoners of War Convention of
1929. It establishes the principle that prisoners of war shall be released and
repatriated without delay after the cessation of active hostilities. The fourth
Geneva Convention provides protection to civilians, including in occupied
territory.
In 1977 governments adopted Protocols I and II to the Geneva Conventions.
The first Protocol covers international conflicts, whereas the second deals with
non-international conflicts, for example but not limited to civil wars. In 2005
Protocol III to the Convention was added. This was created to allow for an
additional distinctive emblem, the red crystal to be used, as the red cross and
red crescent emblems can be perceived as having cultural, religious or political
connotations.
In summary the following are some of the main points covered by the Geneva
Conventions:
o Soldiers who surrender are entitled to respect for their lives and integrity;
they should not be killed or injured.
o The wounded and sick must be cared for by the controlling force and the
emblem of the red cross, red crescent or red crystal must be respected.
o Captured combatants are entitled to respect for their lives, dignity,
personal rights and convictions. They must be protected and have the right to
receive relief.
o Non national civilians are entitled to respect for their lives, dignity,
personal rights and convictions.
o No punishment without trial and no one must be subjected to physical or
mental torture, corporal punishment or cruel or degrading treatment.
o Parties to a conflict and members of their armed forces do not have an
unlimited choice of methods and means of warfare. It is prohibited to employ
weapons or methods of warfare of a nature to cause unnecessary losses or
excessive suffering.
o Parties to a conflict must at all times distinguish between the civilian
population and combatants in order to spare civilian population and property.

APOLLO 11 (AS-506)

Lunar Landing Mission

Apollo 11 was the first manned mission to land on the Moon. The first steps by
humans on another planetary body were taken by Neil Armstrong and Buzz
Aldrin on July 20, 1969. The astronauts also returned to Earth the first samples
from another planetary body. Apollo 11 achieved its primary mission - to perform
a manned lunar landing and return the mission safely to Earth - and paved the
way for the Apollo lunar landing missions to follow.

Summary of Events
The Apollo 11 spacecraft was launched from Cape Kennedy at 13:32:00 UT on
July 16, 1969. After 2 hr and 33 min in Earth orbit, the S-IVB engine was
reignited for acceleration of the spacecraft to the velocity required for Earth
gravity escape.
Lunar-orbit insertion began at 75:50 ground elapsed time (GET). The spacecraft
was placed in an elliptical orbit (61 by 169 nautical miles), inclined 1.25 degrees
to the lunar equatorial plane. At 80:12 GET, the service module propulsion
system was reignited, and the orbit was made nearly circular (66 by 54 nautical
miles) above the surface of the Moon. Each orbit took two hours. Photographs
taken from lunar orbit provided broad views for the study of regional lunar
geology.
The lunar module (LM), with Astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin aboard, was
undocked from the command-service module (CSM) at 100:14 GET, following a
thorough check of all the LM systems. At 101:36 GET, the LM descent engine
was fired for approximately 29 seconds, and the descent to the lunar surface
began. At 102:33 GET, the LM descent engine was started for the last time and
burned until touchdown on the lunar surface. Eagle landed on the Moon 102 hr,
45 min and 40 sec after launch.
Immediately after landing on the Moon, Armstrong and Aldrin prepared the LM
for liftoff as a contingency measure. Following the meal, a scheduled sleep
period was postponed at the astronauts' request, and the astronauts began
preparations for descent to the lunar surface.
Astronaut Armstrong emerged from the spacecraft first. While descending, he
released the Modularized Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) on which the
surface television camera was stowed, and the camera recorded humankind's
first step on the Moon at 109:24:19 GET (pictured at left). A sample of lunar
surface material was collected and stowed to assure that, if a contingency
required an early end to the planned surface activities, samples of lunar surface
material would be returned to Earth. Astronaut Aldrin subsequently descended
to the lunar surface.
The astronauts carried out the planned sequence of activities that included
deployment of a Solar Wind Composition (SWC) experiment, collection of a
larger sample of lunar material, panoramic photographs of the region near the
landing site and the lunar horizon, closeup photographs of in place lunar
surface material, deployment of a Laser-Ranging Retroreflector (LRRR) and a
Passive Seismic Experiment Package (PSEP), and collection of two core-tube
samples of the lunar surface.
Approximately two and a quarter hours after descending to the surface, the
astronauts began preparations to reenter the LM, after which the astronauts
slept. The ascent from the lunar surface began at 124:22 GET, 21 hours and 36
minutes after the lunar landing. In transearth coast only one of four planned
midcourse corrections was required. The CM entered the atmosphere of the
Earth with a velocity of 36,194 feet per second (11,032 meters per second) and
landed in the Pacific Ocean.
penicilin
Penicillin (PCN or pen) is a group of antibiotics which include penicillin
G (intravenous use), penicillin V (use by mouth), procaine penicillin,
and benzathine penicillin (intramuscular use). Penicillin antibiotics were among
the first medications to be effective against many bacterial infections caused
by staphylococci and streptococci. They are still widely used today, though
many types of bacteria have developed resistance following extensive use.
About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin; however, up to
90% of this group may not actually be allergic.[2] Serious allergies only occur in
about 0.03%.[2] All penicillins are β-lactam antibiotics.
Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming.
[3]
People began using it to treat infections in 1942. [4] There are several
enhanced penicillin families which are effective against additional bacteria;
these include the antistaphylococcal penicillins, aminopenicillins and
the antipseudomonal penicillins. They are derived from Penicilliumfungi.[5]