DIGITAL ASSIGNMENT 1

DESIGN OF BRIDGES

Y V R A VISWANADH
REG.NO:17MST0039
PH.NO:8897189913
 AKASHI KAIKYO SUSPENSION BRIDGE

INTRODUCTION & HISTORY:

The Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, also known as pearl bridge, is a suspension bridge in
Japan that crosses the NAkashi Strait, it links Maiko in Kobe and Lwaya on Awaji Island as part
of the Honshu-Shikoku Highway.
Before the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge was built, ferries carried passengers across the
Akashi Strait in Japan. This dangerous waterway often experiences severe storms, and in 1955,
two ferries sank in the strait during a storm, killing 168 children. The ensuing shock and public
outrage convinced the Japanese government to develop plans for a suspension bridge to cross the
strait. The original plan called for a mixed railway-road bridge, but when construction on the
bridge began in April 1986, the construction was restricted to road only, with six lanes. Actual
construction did not begin until May 1986, and the bridge was opened for traffic on April 5, 1998.
The Akashi Strait is an international waterway that necessitated the provision of a 1,500m wide
shipping lane.
INTERESTING FACTORS:
• Total length - 3.910m (three spans), the central SPAN: 1990 meters.
• Opened on April 5, 1998, became the longest bridge of its kind in the world, surpassing
the Humber Bridge in the UK that has a central span of 1,410 meters.
• The bridge was designed by engineer Satoshi Kashima and built by Matsuo Bridge Co.,
responsible for building some of the most famous bridges to date, including the Akashi-
Kaikyo Bridge.
• It took two million workers ten years to construct the bridge, 181,000 tonnes of steel and
1.4million cubic metres of concrete.
• The steel cable used would circle the world seven times. It has six lanes and links the island
of Awaji and the mainland city of Kobe, a distance of four miles.
• Akashi strait is one of the world’s busiest shipping lanes with 1000 ships plying through it
daily.

At the time of completion, this bridge held 3 world records: -

1. It was the highest suspension bridge in the world(282,80m – 297,30m).

2. With the central span measuring almost 1.99m, it was the longest suspension bridge(3,911 m).
3. At a cost of $4.3 billion, it was the most expensive bridge project.
TIMELINE:
1959 - Ministry of Construction commenced highway study.
1970 - Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority founded.
1973 - Ministry of Construction approved construction plans.
1985 - Government decided to construct Akashi Kaikyo Bridge.
1986 - Geological study of construction site commenced.
1987 - Construction survey for tower foundation commenced.
1988 - On-site construction commenced.
1998 - Opened for traffic.
LOCATION:

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF SITE:

The Akashi Strait, connecting the bay Osaka and Harimanada, is about 4 miles wide. The segment
crossed by the bridge has a maximum depth of 110 meters and a maximum current speed of 4.5
meters per second. The Strait has been a productive fishing area since ancient times, and is an
important waterway, used by more than 1,400 boats a day. To ensure the safety of maritime traffic,
has been established by law, an international waterway 1,500 meters wide for safety of maritime
traffic.
Geologically the floor of the strait is composed of diluvial sediments and granite. Akashi side
strata consist of 40% of gravel of between 10-20 cm in diameter and Kobe side is a layer made of
hard unconsolidated muddy and sandy silt or sandstone.
The bridge was built under severe conditions, such as extremely strong currents Strait and tidal
depth, using the latest technologies developed for the construction of bridges. Japan experiment
one of the worst conditions on the planet. Floods, earthquakes, high tides and tsunamis.
The Japanese engineer familiar with the terrible weather conditions, placed the bridge deck on a
support frame formed by a complex network of triangular support below the road. The open
network of triangles gives rigidity to the bridge and also allow the wind to pass through the
structure.
CONSTRUCTION:
The construction phase was divided into 4 stages: -
Stage 1:- Construction of tower foundation AND ANCHORAGE FOUNDATION
Stage 2:- Construction of towers.
Stage 3:- Fixing of steel cables to towers.
Stage 4:- Placing the roadway.
CONSTRUCTION OF TOWER FOUNDATION:
The first problem faced was the erection of the towers in the bed of the Akashi strait. Due to the
enormous depth of 110m and presence of fast currents, the usual method of building foundation
by placing pre-cast concrete cylinders over each other was abandoned. So a new solution was
brought up. Two enormous steel moulds were built in the dry docks and were then towed to sea
and sunk at the precise location. The steel moulds were 70m tall, 80m wide and weighed
about15000 tonnes. The moulds were sunk by filling with seawater. But, the next problem
encountered was filling the mould with concrete. Since the mould contained seawater, concrete
could not set. So, the Japanese engineers invented a new type of super-concrete which hardened
in seawater.
FOUNDATION OF ANCHORAGE SYSTEM:
The side span length was determined to be 960m so that both anchorages were located near the
original shore lines, so it was easier to obtain the working yard by reclamation. The body of two
anchorages was designed to be a conventional gravity type. And many people could make easy
access due to the anchorage body is only a huge reinforced concrete structure. Also the shape of
anchorages were designed so as to lessen an oppressive feeling, and precast panels were used as
remaining form which had superior external appearance and pattern toavoid monotony of the
concrete surface. These panels could also raise the durability of the mass concrete cast in-situ.
On the other hand, two foundations were quite different by reflecting difference of the geological
condition. Especially, the one on Kobe side was the world’s largest foundation for a bridge with a
diameter of 85m and the bottom depth of 61m underground. The foundation was constructed safely
and surely by using underground slurry wall method. Various kinds of concrete, from the slurry
wall to inner concrete of foundation, were used. Precast concrete panels were installed considering
the esthetics of the outside walls.
High workable concrete was used for anchorage boy. On the other hand, the caisson had a
possibility to overturn from scouring due to the accelerated flow and horse shoe vortexes both
which were generated by presence of the caisson itself unless some countermeasures were taken,
because the Akashi straits had sea bottom covered with sand and gravel and its tidal current was
rapid. Accordingly, protection against the scouring with filter units and cobble stones laid on them
were placed.
CONSTRUCTION OF TOWERS:
The towers had to withstand not only the self-weight but also the load due to earthquakes. So it
was decided to construct the towers out of steel. They were built block by block; 90 blocks
constituted a tower. By this the second stage was completed. The towers were tested by placing a
dozen workers on the top and they were asked to sway. This was done to test the earthquake load.

BLOCK BY BLOCK CONSTRUCTION

FIXING OF STEEL CABLES TO TOWER:
The next stage consisted of fixing the cables onto the tower. 37,000 strands of wire were entwined
to constitute one cable. Super-strength steel wire was developed for this purpose. The cable was
threaded over the tower using a helicopter. The cable was lifted from Kobe threaded around the
first and second towers and the cable was tied at the Awaji end. The next stage involved the
construction and placing of the six lane roadway. The deck had to be strong to support traffic and
self-weight. It also had to be slender to allow wind to pass through it. The deck was made of steel
girder which was arranged in a triangular shape. For extra strength they gave a vertical stabilizer
throughout the length of the bridge. When wind blows, the vertical stabilizer balances pressure
below the roadway and reduces vibrations, which destroyed Tacoma. They also installed steel
mesh grating down the centre and along sides. This allows wind to pass right through the roadway
and stops the pressure building up.

PLACING THE ROADWAY:

The final phase consisted of placing the roadway but the earthquake at Kobe brought about a
change in plan. As a result of the earthquake the towers had moved sideways over a metre. This
stretched the bridge length a full metre. In order to increase the bridge length the engineers decided
to space out the anchor cables. The massive 100 ton steel sections of the roadway was carried out
by floating cranes and assembled.
STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS AND ITS COMPONENTS:
FOUNDATIONS:
Two main springs as an extension for laying the foundations of the towers were built with round
and flat, the largest with a diameter of 80m and the other 78m. Drawer descending method was
used for large profundad position and ocean currents in its construction. Each anchor requires, an
average of 350,000 tons of concrete.
Also, large deep foundation anchors were built on reclaimed land with many new technologies.
All foundations were well designed to cope with the strong earthquakes with a seismic design
method of new research, together with a new kind of concrete result of a mixture of different water
resistant cements and erosion. Test your ability is to have withstood the earthquake of January 17,
1995 with almost no incidents, just the displacement of 1m of the towers, that given the strength
of the movement can be considered minimal.

DAMPERS:
In the two main towers 20 mass dampers, TMDs, were placed, pivoting in the direction opposite
to the wind when it blows on one side of the bridge, dampers sway in the opposite direction,
effectively balancing the bridge and placed negating the influence of wind. In the bridge design
system strengthening beams with two hinges allow the structure to withstand winds of 290 km /
hour, earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 8.5 on the Richter scale and strong currents was also
applied. The bridge also contains pendulums which are designed to operate at the resonant
frequency of the bridge to dampen forces.
 Fig: Tuned dampers
TOWERS:
The two main supporting towers rise 282.8 meters above sea level, 297.30m to the end of the
anchor cable, the bridge can be expanded by the heat of up to 2 m in the course of a day. Steel
cables with a diameter of 112cm contain 36,830 lines of wire. The bridge is supported by two
cables basically the central section, considered the toughest in the world constructed.
SECTION TOWERS:
The primary tower is made of steel, and the shaft has a cruciform cross section which is insensitive
to wind-induced oscillation. However, tuned mass damper is installed within the shafts to suppress
oscillation is anticipated that during erection of the tower, and even at the stage of completing the
bridge. A shaft of the tower is divided into 30 levels and almost all levels are composed of 3 blocks.
Each block was made in factories and transported to the site and then hoisted by crane climbing
tower that had a lifting capacity of 160 tons. Articulating high tension bolts were used to connect
field.
A foundation of the main tower weight of 120,000 tn weighing bridge from the
main towers footbed transmitted. The footbed, 60 meters under water, was excavated by a dredger
bucket. To overcome the difficult conditions of the strait, including deepwater strong currents and
waves that caused vibration in the dredger during excavation, high-tech devices are used, such as
Remotely Operated Vehicle System.
The drawers are installed using the “method of adjustment”, which involved the manufacture of
the drawers in a factory, then towed to the site, submerging, and eventually, filling underwater
concrete. The circular-shaped drawer has no directional property, and thus makes them more stable
and easier to handle in strong currents of the Strait.
The construction of the stiffening beam, by the method of flat blocks, begins in the towers and
main anchors, where a floating crane was used to install six cell blocks in the towers, and 8 anchors.
CIRCULATION WAYS:
The 4km of the pathway for vehicles that crosses the Akashi Strait is divided into 6 lanes. Is
suspended and supported by the cables cover is held by its own weight, resulting in thousands of
steel beams positioned to form a triangular grid. It took 15 months to put the 280 beam sections.
As added reinforcement, below deck, a vertical stabilizer with a form like the fin of a plane
that runs through the center of the bridge and balances the pressure, both below and above
deck. A steel mesh was placed in the center and side rails to allow passage of the wind.

vertical stabilizer
MATERIALS
The main material used in the bridge superstructure is steel. Has also been used reinforced
concrete. For the foundation, underwater towers developed a new type of mixing a “concrete
submarine that is not broken” (a “non disintegration concrete).
LIGHTING
The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge-has a total of 1,737 light fixtures: 1084 for the main cables, 116 for the
main towers, beams and 405 to 132 for the anchors. In the main cables are placed three high
capacity lighting tubes, red, green and blue. The RGB model and computer technology contribute
in making a wide variety of combinations. A minimum of 28 patterns are used for special occasions
such as regional public holidays or commemorations.
CABLES
The length of the cables used in the bridge amounts to 300,000 kilometers, enough to circle the
earth 7.5 times. Steel cables with a diameter of 112cm contain 36,830 lines of wire.
CABLE SPECIFICATIONS:
• Method of construction: PS (Precast Strand) – ultimate tensile strength cable: approx.
62,500 tonnes
• Resistance to high tensile rope hanger approx. 560 tons – Material: galvanized steel wire
of high resistance

CABLE COMPOSITION
• Tensile cable: 180 kg / mm 2 – Cable diameter: 1122 mm (not including packaging
• Composition: 5.23 mm wire diameter * 127 / * 290 stranded wire / cable wire * 2 – Total
Number of Conductors: 36830
• Strand Length: 4,071m – 4,074m – Total cable length: 300,000 km
• Weight of main steel cable: 50,500 tons – suspension ropes, etc ashlar: 7,200 tons

BEAMS:
In beams were used 90.000tn reinforcement steel. Due to the large size of the bridge, the wind load
which must face is higher than that of any other existing bridge when construction was completed.
Using steel with high tensile strength for the beams made very strong yet lightweight, and thus
cheaper.
The reinforcing elements were prefabricated shaped panel were transported to the construction site
where they were erected into the interior of the anchorages and towers with floating cranes.
ARCHITECTURE:
The bridge has three spans. The central span is 1,991 m (6,532 ft), and the two other sections are
each 960 m (3,150 ft). The bridge is 3,911 m (12,831 ft) long overall. The central span was
originally only 1,990 m (6,529 ft), but the Kobe earthquake on January 17, 1995, moved the two
towers sufficiently (only the towers had been erected at the time) so that it had to be increased by
1 m (3.3 ft). The bridge was designed with a two-hinged stiffening girder system, allowing the
structure to withstand winds of 286 kilometres per hour (178 mph), earthquakes measuring to 8.5
on the Richter scale, and harsh sea currents. The bridge also contains pendulums that are designed
to operate at the resonance frequency of the bridge to damp forces. The two main supporting towers
rise 298 m (978 ft) above sea level, and the bridge can expand because of heating up to 2 metres
(7 ft) over the course of a day.

DESIGN CONCEPT:
The function of this bridge was to support the traffic load coming on the 6-lane freeway. But before
that the bridge had to carry its own self weight. The load coming on the bridge was distributed as
91% to support its own weight and only the remaining 9% was for traffic load. The basic concept
consisted of erecting two towers and passing steel cables through it. The girder was connected to
the cable by means of hangar cables.

MAIN DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

There were six main design conditions for the
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge:
1. The width of the straits is about 4 km, and its depth along the proposed bridge route reaches
about 110m.
2. The natural conditions are: The water depth at the main pier site is 45m, maximum tidal current
of 4.0 m/s and maximum wave height of 9.4m
3. The wind conditions are: basic wind speed for design was 46m/s which was defined as 10
minutes averaged speed at 10m above the water level with there turn period of 150 years and with
a reference wind speed against flutter of 78 m/s
4. The geological conditions are: The base rock beneath the straits is granite, on which Kobe
Formation (alternating layers of sand stone and mud-stone in the Miocene), Akashi formation
(semi consolidated sane an gravel layer in the late Pliocene and the early Pleistocene)
and the Alluvium layer are deposited.
5. The design earthquake: the one which occurs off the Pacific coast about 150 km away with the
magnitude of 8.5 or the ones which are expected within radius 300km with the return period of
150 years.
6. The social conditions are: a waterway with 1500m in the width and heavy sea traffic is
designated amid the straits, and lands on both shores are highly utilized. The bridge is for 6-lane
highway with the design speed of 100 km/h.

DIFFICULLTIES FACED:
A) DURING CONSTRUCTION:
EARTHQUAKE: When the earthquake struck Kobe, the epicenter was just 4 km from the bridge,
it was partly due to luck and partly due to the fore-sight of the engineers that the bridge did not
sustain serious damage. Since the roadway had not been constructed by then, the structure did not
have to suffer extensive losses that would have resulted from the possible collapse of the bridge.
Since the tower had been constructed of steel, they were flexible to the effect of earthquake. Also,
there were 20 shock absorbers within each tower. This helped to keep the tower in place after the
earthquake. After the earthquake, detailed surveying showed that the tower on the Awaji side had
shifted a meter apart due to the quake. It could have been more dangerous than this.
b) DURING MAINTAINACE:
1.Maintenance for underwater steel structures:
The engineers used the Laying-Down Caisson Method to construct the underwater foundations of
the bridge. By inspection, they found that there were hole corrosion on the body of caissons. To
solve this problem, they could use Electro Deposit Method, which is one of the countermeasures
for corrosion of underwater structures and covers surface of structure with the deposit bonded by
slight electric current, in order to protect the steel from hole corrosions.
2.Dry Air Injection System for main cables:
• Dry air injection system to keep the interior surface of the main cable out of water
 Fig: Dry air injection system
3. The non-destructive inspection for suspender rope:
A newly developed non0estructive inspection technique that used an electromagnetic method to
identify the degree of internal corrosion of the suspender ropes by comparing the amount of flux
between the intact cross section and corroded cross section. This could help to reduce the life
cycle cost of the ropes because they could realize the appropriate repair time and select the
adequate repair method by the calculation based on the data acquired by this method.

Fig: principle of magnetic flux method

NEW TECHNIQUES DEVELOPED FOR AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE:
1. When the usual method of constructing bridge foundation by laying concrete cylinders on top
of each other was not possible here due to the violent nature of the sea, engineers introduced a new
concept of casting the foundation in steel moulds.
2. Super-concrete was developed to aid the setting of cement in seawater. Since the foundation
moulds had been filled with seawater, this new type of material was required.
3. Super-strength steel wire was developed for the cable by changing the alloy proportions. This
super-strength cable was so strong that a 5mm thick wire could carry 3 family cars.
4. Truss Stiffening Girder and Deck
The truss stiffened girder was selected because the type was advantageous over stream lined box
girder from the viewpoints of securing aerodynamic stability and easiness of the erection to be
done on a strait where use of the beneath sea surface had been judged difficult.For precise
evaluation of the aerodynamic stability of such a long span bridge, it wasconsidered necessary to
conduct 3-dimensional test with aero-elastic bridge model in addition to the conventional 2-
dimentional test with rigid partial model. A boundary layer large wind tunnel in which a 40m long
model was accommodated was thus constructed to verify the safety of this bridge against wind
action. An outcome of this test was to establish flutter analysis method, which could calculate the
critical wind speed of flutter without depending on large sized wind tunnel test.

STIFFENED GIRDER AND DECK

Fig: free flow of wind without any obstruction

WIND TUNNEL TESTING

5. Bridge monitoring System:
To inspect the bridge, there were few various monitoring devices such as seismography,
anemometer, accelerometers have been installed and their data were robe recorded. The record
will be accumulated and analyzed to ensure the structural safety by monitoring behavior of the
bridge. They can also be used as a precious information about characteristic of long span bridge
and nature such as coherence and scale of the eddy of the gusty wind and on. In addition to the
system, GPS is introduced to monitor seasonal, daily and hourly behavior the bridge, which will
be governed mainly by temperature and the live load.

a)Left b) right of the bridge

References:
1. General information of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge by
http://homepage1.nifty.com/momotaroh/E_sub07_1
2. (html and Roads & Bridges magazine) http://www.roadsbridges.com/ Akashi-
Kaikyo-Bridge-article1145.
3. Bigg bigger biggest documentary-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oPkC6dHEv4Y&t=14s
 BOX GIRDER BRIDGE:
A box girder bridge is a bridge in which the main beams comprise girders in the shape of a
hollow box. The box girder normally comprises either prestressed concrete, structural steel, or
a composite of steel and reinforced concrete.

The box is typically rectangular or trapezoidal in cross-section. Box girder bridges are commonly
used for highway flyovers and for modern elevated structures of light rail transport. Although
normally the box girder bridge is a form of beam bridge, box girders may also be used on cable-
stayed bridges and other forms.

Structural Types

According to Raina it is possible to categorize bridges in six different types of superstructure

regarding the material which is made of.Materials commonly used for building the superstructure
of permanent bridges are:
• Reinforced Concrete

• Prestressed Concrete

• Masonry

• Steel

Mix of steel and reinforced concrete or mix of reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete

For each material there are possibilities of different kinds of sections.

1. Reinforced Concrete Superstructures can be simple span or continuous span; balanced

cantilever, arch or frame, typically utilized for short span bridges. Some parts may be precast.

• Solid Slab - Used for spans between 5 and 14 meters

• Slab and girder (T-beam bridges) - Used for spans between 14 and 25 meters

• Hollow box girder - Used for spans between 25 and 70 meters - Characterized by a high
torsional resistance, is suitable for curved paths.

2. Prestressed Concrete Superstructures can be simple, balanced or free cantilever, or

continuous span. It is possible to have segmental cast in situ or precast solutions. Prestressed
Concrete superstructures cover medium spans.

• Hollow slab - Used for spans between 10 and 25 meters

• Slab and girder (Girder bridges)

• Hollow box girder

3. Masonry superstructures have been associated with arch bridges in the past centuries. This
type of bridges is not of relevant importance for this study, which is relative to new bridges under
construction.

4. Steel Superstructure typically consists in a steel truss deck and covers long spans.

5. Composite superstructures can have the following deck types:

• Longitudinal plate girder and transverse beam girder with concrete slab
• Longitudinal and transverse beam girder with concrete slab

• Longitudinal box girder with concrete slab

The deck arrangement can be simple span or continuous span, or arch and covers medium and long
spans.

5. Special superstructure

• Cable stayed bridges

• Suspended bridges

The continuing expansion of highway network throughout the world is largely the result of
great increase in traffic, population and extensive growth of metropolitan urban areas. This
expansion has lead to many changes in the use and development of various kinds of bridges. The
bridge type is related to providing maximum efficiency of use of material and construction
technique, for particular span, and applications. As Span increases, dead load is an important
increasing factor. To reduce the dead load, unnecessary material, which is not utilized to its full
capacity, is removed out of section, this results in the shape of box girder or cellular structures,
depending upon whether the shear deformations can be neglected or not. Span range is more for
box bridge girder as compare to T-beam Girder Bridge resulting in comparatively lesser number
of piers for the same valley width and hence results in economy.

A box girder is formed when two web plates are joined by a common flange at both the top
and the bottom. The closed cell which is formed has a much greater torsional stiffness and strength
than an open section and it is this feature which is the usual reason for choosing a box girder
configuration.

Box girders are rarely used in buildings (box columns are sometimes used but these are axially
loaded rather than in loaded in bending). They may be used in special circumstances, such as when
loads are carried eccentrically to the beam axis

When tension flanges of longitudinal girders are connected together, the resulting structure is
called a box girder bridge”.
 Box girders can be universally applied from the point of view of load carrying, to their
indifference as to whether the bending moments are positive or negative and to their torsional
stiffness; from the point of view of economy.

Historical development and description of box girder:

The first box girder cross section possessed deck slabs that cantilevered out only slightly from
the box portion shown in figs a toe. With the prestressed concrete the length of cantilever could be
increased. The high form work costs caused a reduction in the number of cells fig (f, g, h). In order
to reduce the construction loads to minimum possible extent or to require only one longitudinal
girder in working states even with multiple traffic lanes.

It was only with the development of high strength prestressing steel that it became possible to
span longer distances. The first prestressed concrete bridges, most of I-cross sections were built
towards the end of the 1920’s.The great breakthrough was achieved only after 1945. “THE
SCLAYN” bridge over the river Maas, which was built by Magnel in 1948, was the first continuous
prestressed concrete box-girder bridge with 2 spans of 62.70m. In following years the ratio of
wages to material costs climbed sharply. This thereby shifted the emphasis of development of
Construction method. The box girder cross-section evolved structurally from the hollow cell-deck
bridge or T-beam Bridge. The widening of the compression zone that began as a structural
requirement at the central piers was in the extended throughout the entire length of bridge because
of advantages transverse load-carrying characteristics.

Evolution of Box Girder:

The spanning of bridges started with simple slabs. As the spans increased, the design depth of
slab is also increased. It is known that material near centre of gravity contributes very little for
flexure and hence can be removed. This leads to beam and slab systems. The reinforcement in
bottom bulb of beam provided capacity for tensile forces and top slab concrete, the capacity to
resist the compression. They formed a couple to resist flexure.

As the width of slab is increased more number of longitudinal girders are required resulting
in reduction of stiffness of beams in transverse direction and relatively high transverse curvature.
The webs of beams get opened out spreading radially from top slab. Under high transverse bending
these will no longer be in their original position. To keep it in their original position the bulbs at
bottom should be tied together which in-turn leads to evolution of box girder. Long spans with
wider decks and eccentric loading on cross-section will suffer in curvature in longitudinal and
transverse direction causing heavy distortion of cross-section. Hence the bridges should have high
torsional rigidity in order to resist the distortion of cross-section deck to a minimum.

Accordingly box girders are more suitable for larger spans and wider decks, box girders are to
be suitable cross-section. They are elegant and slender. Economy and aesthetics further lead to
evolution of cantilevers in top flanges and inclined webs in external cells of box girder. The
dimension of cell could be controlled by prestressing.

As the span and width increases the beams and bottom slabs are to be tied to keep the geometry
which in turn leads to evolution box girder.

Any eccentric load will cause high torsional stresses which will be counter acted by the box
section. The analysis of such sections are more complicated due combination of flexure, shear,
torsion, distortion. But it is more efficient cross-section. It is used for larger spans with wide cross-
section. It can be used for spans up to 150m depending upon the construction methods. Cantilever
method of construction is preferred most.

Advantages Associated with Box Girders:

• In recent years, single or multi-cell reinforced concrete box Girder Bridge have been
proposed and widely used as economic aesthetic solution for the over crossings, under crossings,
grade separation structures and viaducts found in modern highway system.

• The very large Torsional rigidity of the box girder‘s closed cellular section provides
structures beneath is more aesthetically pleasing than open-web type system.

• In case of long span bridges, large width of deck is available to accommodate prestressing
cables at bottom flange level.
• Interiors of box girder bridges can be used to accommodate service such as gas pipes, water
mains etc.

• For large spans, bottom flange could be used as another deck accommodates traffic also.

• The maintenance of box girder is easier in interior space is directly accessible without use
of scaffolding.

• Alternatively space is hermetically sealed and enclosed air may be dried to provide a non-
corrosive atmosphere.

• It has high structural efficiency which minimizes the prestessing force required to resist a
given bending moment, and its great Torsional strength with the capacity this gives to re-centre
eccentric live loads, minimizing the prestress required to carry them.

Disadvantages:

One of the main disadvantages of box decks is that they are difficult to cast in-situ due to the
inaccessibility of the bottom slab and the need to extract the internal shutter. Either the box has to
be designed so that the entire cross section may be cast in one continuous pour, or the cross section
has to be cast in stages.

Specifications:

It can cover a range of spans from 25 m up to the largest non-suspended concrete decks built; of
the order of 300 m. Single box girders may also carry decks up to 30 m wide. For the longer span
beams, beyond about 50 m, they are practically the only feasible deck section. Below 30m precast
beams or voided slab decks are more suitable while above 50ma single cell box arrangement is
usually more economic.

Single cell box-girder cast-in-situ are used for spans form 40m to 270m.The box arrangement is
done in order to give aesthetic appearance where the web of box will act as a slender appearance
when combined with a slim parapet profile. Single box arrangements are efficient for both the
longitudinal and transverse designs, and they produce an economic solution for mot medium and
long span structures. This type of deck is constructed span-by-span, using full-height scaffolding
or trusses, or as balanced cantilever using form travellers. This could be particularly important for
medium length bridges with spans between 40m and 55m. Such spans are too long for twin rib
type decks, and too short for cast-in-situ balanced cantilever construction of box girders, while a
total length of box section deck of less than about 1,000 m does not justify setting up a precast
segmental facility.

Haunches:

The uprights have to carry the same bending moment as the haunch, but with the benefit of a
compression force due to the weight of the roof. Thus they may be slightly thinner than the
haunches. Haunches are always economical. They provide the twin benefits of attracting moment
away from mid-span and then providing a greater lever arm to resist this moment economically.
Even very short haunches are valuable in reducing the hogging reinforcement.

General Design Principles:

Box girders are suitable for longer spans than I-girders and allow larger span to depth ratios. The
limits for competitiveness may vary due to local market conditions.
Steel or steel-concrete composite box girders are usually more expensive than plate girders because
they require more fabrication time. They have, however, several advantages over plate girders
which make their use attractive:
very wide flanges allow large span-to-depth ratios
· A neater appearance, since the stiffening can remain invisible in the box
· very good aerodynamic shape, which is equally important for large suspension or cable-
stayed bridges as is the torsional stiffness
· A very good adaptability to the most difficult conditions. Box girders are able to cross
greater torsional spans than flexural spans using piers with a single bearing.
· low noise emission and reduction on costs for corrosion protection
· easy handling.
Access holes in diaphragms:
Access is usually required through diaphragms, during construction and during service. A manhole
600 mm high is usually considered as a minimum. Tight corner radii should be avoided; if they
are necessary, stress concentration effects must be carefully considered.
Access into the box (for maintenance) should be either through the end diaphragm or through a
hole in the bottom flange or web. Access through the deck should be avoided, as it is difficult to
achieve permanently seals. Holes in the bottom flange can significantly reduce the flexural strength
of the cross section and the entire structure, especially if they are placed in the vicinity of
continuous supports in the effective width region where high negative moments develop, or in high
positive moment regions. Away from high moment regions, normal stresses due to flexure are
small and adding a hole in the bottom flange may be possible (mostly with extra strengthening
because of fatigue criteria). Web access holes can greatly reduce the shear resistance of the web,
which is made of relatively thin steel plates. Therefore, this alternative should only be considered
around midspan, where low shear forces and torsional moments exist.

Design :

The selection of a box girder form usually results in relatively thin plate panels (in terms of
thickness to width ratio) for the webs and bottom flanges (and for top flanges, in all-steel boxes).
Avoidance of local buckling in compression zones and in shear requires appropriate stiffening and
longitudinal stiffeners are often required. Although box sections offer high torsional stiffness,
internal cross frames are usually needed to prevent distortion (when one web is subject to greater
shear than the other, one diagonal dimension across the cell increases and the other decreases).
Bearings at supports are normally within the width of the bottom flange (rather than directly under
the webs) and an internal diaphragm is needed to transfer the reactions.
 When open-top boxes are used, they have very little torsional stiffness at the bare steel stage
and the narrow top flanges might be susceptible to lateral buckling (a later-torsional buckling mode
for the U-shaped section). It is therefore necessary to introduce some plan bracing to the top flange
(not necessarily over the full lengths of the spans) to restrict twist and slenderness for buckling.
Such bracing must avoid conflict with slab construction.

For any closed cell that requires internal access to construct it or to carry out inspection and
maintenance, Health and safety considerations require sufficiently large and well-placed openings
that an injured person could be quickly evacuated. All internal stiffening and diaphragms must
therefore be designed such that openings are big enough and that movement along the cell is
unimpeded.
Internal stiffening in a small steel box girder

References:

1. BS 5400-3:2000. Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Code of practice for design of
steel bridges. BSI
1. Hendy, C.R.; Iles, D.C. (2015) Steel Bridge Group: Guidance Notes on best practice in
steel bridge construction (6th Issue). (P185). SCI
2. Guidance Note 1.08, Box girder bridges
3. Iles, D.C. (2004) Design guide for composite box girder bridges. (P140). SCI
4. Iles, D.C. (2004) Design guide for steel railway bridges. (P318). SCI
5. Steel Bridges: A practical approach to design for efficient fabrication and construction,
2010, (Publication no. 51/10), BCSA
 GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE
INTRODUCTION:

San Francisco grew rapidly in the early 1900s, but the mile-wide Golden Gate Strait limited access
and development to the north. Traveling north to Marin County and the Redwood Empire beyond
required a lengthy trip by ferryboat.

In 1923, popular support to build a bridge across the strait united behind the slogan “Bridge
the Gate.” Bridge supporters convinced the California state legislature to create a special district,
the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, as the entity to finance, build, and operate such a
bridge. In 1928, the District was incorporated and included the counties of San Francisco, Marin,
Sonoma, Del Norte, and parts of Napa and Mendocino.

A bridge over the Golden Gate Strait was the ambition of Joseph B. Strauss, who overcame
many obstacles to secure official approvals and win public support. Strauss faced strong
opposition from ferry operators, conservationists, and even some in the engineering community.
He assembled and directed an outstanding team of engineers, architects, geologists, and
construction workers to design and build a bridge that set a world record for longest span (the
distance spanned between the towers) and united a growing metropolis.
DATA:

Length, Width, Height, Weight

• Total length of Bridge including approaches from abutment to abutment is 2,737 m.

• Total length of Bridge including approaches from abutment to abutment, plus the
distance to the Toll Plaza is 2,788 m.

• Length of suspension span including main span and side spans is 1.2 miles Length of
main span portion of suspended structure (distance between towers) is 1,280 m.

• Length of one side span is 343 m.

• Width of Bridge is 27 m.

• Width of roadway between curbs is 19 m.

• Width of sidewalk is 3 m.

• Clearance above mean higher high water is 67 m.

• Total weight of each anchorage is 60,000 tons.

• Original combined weight of Bridge, anchorages, and approaches is 894,500 tons.

• Total weight of Bridge, anchorages, and approaches is 894,500 tons.

Bridge Deflection, Load Capacity;

At mid span, the maximum downward deflection (or the distance the Bridge was built to move
downward) is 10.8 ft. (3.3. m). The maximum upward deflection is 5.8 ft. (1.8 m).

The maximum transverse deflection, at centre span is 27.7 ft (8.4 m).

Live load capacity per lineal foot is 4,000 lbs (1,814.4 kg).

As an example of how the Bridge is built to move, during the winter storms in 1982, the main
span bowed approximately 6 to 7 feet

The three maximum deflections noted above at the centre of the suspension bridge are due to the
following loading conditions:
1) The transverse deflection is due to a sustained transverse wind load. The maximum
transverse movement of 27.7 ft. is based on the maximum allowable longitudinal movement of
the wind locks at the support towers;

2) The maximum downward deflection is due to a condition with maximum live load on the
centre span, no live load on the side spans and maximum design temperature to elongate the
main cables; and

3) The maximum upward deflection is due to a condition opposite to condition 2 above,

with maximum live load on side spans, no live load on centre span and minimum design
temperature to shorten the cable length.

Main Tower Stats:

• The Golden Gate Bridge has two main towers that support the two main cables.

• The height of a tower above water is 746 ft. (227 m).

• The height of a tower above roadway is 500 ft. (152 m).

• Tower base dimension (each leg) is 33 ft. x 54 ft. (10 m x 16 m).

• The load on each tower from main cables is 61,500 tons (56,000,000 kg).

• The weight of both main towers is 44,000 tons (40,200,000 kg).

• Transverse deflection of towers is 12.5 in (0.32 m).

• Longitudinal deflection of towers (shoreward) is 22 in (0.56 m) and (channel ward) is 18

in (0.46 m).

• The south tower foundation depth below mean low water is 110 ft. (34 m).

• To build south tower pier to support the south tower, construction workers pumped 9.41
million gallons (35.6 million litres) of water out of the fender that was constructed first.
Suspender Rope (vertical ones) Stats;

The Golden Gate Bridge has 250 pairs of vertical suspender ropes that are spaced 50 feet apart
across both sides of the Bridge. Each suspender rope is 2-11/16 inches in diameter. All of the
ropes were replaced between 1972 and 1976, with the last rope replacement completed on May
4, 1976.

Concrete Quantities:

These are the quantities when the bridge was built (1933-1937). After the original concrete
roadway deck was replaced, the amount of concrete is now less than when the Bridge was built
by 25,000 cubic yards.

Structural Steel Quantities:

Improvement of the Golden Gate Bridge

To deal with this, the retrofit supercomputers are being used to simulate an earthquake's
effect on each part of the bridge, and a comprehensive vulnerability study of the bridge is
needed. The north and south approaches were determined to be vulnerable to collapse under a
major event because of the high support towers, which result in great ‘rocking’ force. The
signature span was also exposed to the possibility of significant damage. The connections from
the tower saddle to the main cable could sever, large longitudinal displacements could result in
adjacent spans striking the towers, the Fort Point arch could become unseated, and the
comparatively under reinforced south pylons flanking the arch span could sustain extreme
damage.

The seismic retrofit measures applied to the Bridge structures consist of various
methods of structural upgrades and include both the strengthening of structural components and
the modification of structural response of the structures so they can better respond to strong
motions without damage.

Three construction phases were established as follows:

• Phase 1 would retrofit the Marin (north) Approach Viaduct

• Phase 2 would retrofit the San Francisco (south) Approach Viaduct, San Francisco (south)
Anchorage Housing, Fort Point Arch, and Pylons S1 and S2

• Phase 3 would Main Suspension Bridge and Marin (north) Anchorage Housing

First phase

The major strengthening measures implemented on the Marin (north) Approach Viaduct
included the following:

1. Strengthening the existing foundations

2. Total replacement of the four supporting steel towers

3. Replacement and addition of top and bottom lateral bracing and strengthening vertical truss
members and truss connections

Second phase

It is the most complex part of this project in terms of construction and design. This phase
encompasses structural retrofit of many different types of structures of the south approach,
including the south approach viaduct, anchorage housing, Fort Point arch, and south pylons.
 Retrofit measures developed for each of these structures reflect their different behaviour
under seismic ground motions and their interaction at points of interface.

The steel support towers and bottom lateral bracing of the south approach viaduct will be
entirely replaced, seismic isolation bearings and joints will be installed at the roadway level. A
massive internal shear walls are constructed of the south anchorage housing. External and
internal steel plating will be added to south pylons walls. Addition of a new external concrete is
cover on the external surfaces of the pylons.

Third Phase

The third phase of the Golden Gate Bridge Seismic Retrofit Construction Project has been
separated into two sub phases as follows:

1. Phase 3A: Retrofit of the North Anchorage Housing and Pylon

2. Phase 3B: Retrofit of the Main Suspension Span, Main Towers, South Tower Pier and Fender

Phase 3 involves retrofitting the suspension portion of the bridge, which comprises a
1,280 m main span and two 343 m side spans. The signature span towers, which rise 227 m
above mean sea level, are made up of multicellular built-up members constructed of riveted steel
plates and angles and have a combined weight of approximately 40,300 Mg.

Phase 3 retrofit measures include replacing some of the top lateral bracing and
connection strengthening within the stiffening truss, installing viscous dampers to "cushion" the
towers from potential adjacent span impact, and adding stiffeners and strengthening connections
within the towers. Horizontal steel tendon prestressing at the bases of the piers, expansion joint
replacements, concrete fender repairs, and the strengthening and immobilization of the
connections between the tower saddle and the main cable are included in additional measures.
CHALLENGES FACED:

1.soil condition &construction of foundation on the side of south tower:

North tower -relatively on dry land but south tower(below fig) which is located at 1100 feet
deep water.
Remedy followed:

Removing rock and soil under water up to required depth using dredges and using cassions
pouring concrete under water (it happened at 1930’s----great challenge without sophisticated
machinery)
2.Saftey of the workers at that tremendous height -----wind

Special safety nets are placed at under the deck slab and special Personal protective equipments
are supplied to each of the workers and monitoring wind is taken place.

3.Maintaince of the bridge due to extreme condition ----special type paints are used and daily
monitoring team actively participating in checking and painting of bridge.

References:

1. THE STUDY ON SAN FRANCISCO GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE, Kei Fung Sameul,
Kwan, Architecture and Civil Engineering Department, University of Bath, Bath, UK

2. Construction history of Golden Gate Bridge,

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/wonder/structure/golden_gate.html

3. Construction timeline,

http://goldengatebridge.org/research/ConstructionTimeline.php

4. Bigg bigger biggest documentary- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-8xK3w4mvr4

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