UNIDAD 1

What is Formal Grammar?

Formal Grammar is a theory of Language that sees grammar as a set of

rules that helps us specify all the infinite possible grammar structures that
can be made in a specific language, having a distinction between
grammatical and ungrammatical structures.
Its concern is primarily with the FORMS of the grammatical structures,
their relationship to one another and their formal differences.
It analyses made-up sentences, the „ideal forms‟ that illustrate the
grammatical rules.

What is Functional Grammar?

Functional Grammar is a theory of language that sees language as a

system of communication. It analyzes grammar with the purpose of
discovering how it is organized to allow speakers make and exchange
meaning, seeing grammar as a resource to do so.
It focuses on the appropriateness of a form for a particular purpose in a
particular context.
It is concerned with the FUNCTIONS of structures and their constituents,
and their meaning in context; in other words, what the structures are for
and how they are used.
It analyzes structures from authentic texts used in the real word in specific
contexts.

Which are the different ranks within Grammar?

The different ranks are:

 Sentence: recognized in writing by an initial capital letter and a
final full stop;
 Clause: constituent of the sentence. Generally, clauses are joined
together by conjunctions;
 Group/Phrase: constituent of the clause or the sentence (when
the sentence has no clauses). It can be constituted by only one
word or a word and its expansion;
 Word: constituent of the group. Identified by spaces between
each word/unit (The lexical item, recognized as a single unit, can
have one or more words).
What is the difference between ‘phrase’ and ‘group’?

Even though a group and a phrase operate at the same rank, they are
different.
The phrase is a prepositional phrase made up of a preposition and a
prepositional object (completive or complement of the preposition; it is
an obligatory element) that is why the phrase is considered like a
miniclause and differs from the group, which is considered as an
expanded word. In other words, the words following a preposition in a
prepositional phrase are not an expansion of the preposition, but its
object.

What is ‘Embedding’?

Embedding is the process by which one unit is used as a constituent of

another unit at the same rank or at a lower one, that is, the unit is
embedded within the other unit. For example, a clause acting/
functioning as a constituent of a group.

What does the Experiential Meaning has to do with?

Experiential meaning has to do with the way language represents our

experience of the external world and the inner world (feelings and
thoughts). It answers the question “what does this sentence mean?”
It is concerned with how we talk about actions and happenings, people
and things involved and the circumstances.

What does the Interpersonal Meaning refer to?

Interpersonal meaning has to do with the ways in which we act upon

one another through language, by giving and requesting information,
getting people to do things or offering yourself. It also has to do with how
we express our judgments and attitude (likelihood, necessity, desirability,
etc.).

What is the Textual Meaning concerned with?

Textual meaning has to do with the ways in which a stretch of language

and its organization is related to its context, and referring to the context
to understand the meaning. It is important in the creation of coherence
in a text.
How can the Subject be identified?

The Subject can be identified:

 Adding a tag to the clause. The pronoun of the tag will refer back
to the subject of the clause. E.g.: The soldiers are returning, aren‟t
they?
 It is typically a Noun Group; and, but less common, it can be a
„That‟ clause, a „Wh-‟clause, a „To inf‟ clause, a „Ving‟ clause.
These five clauses are called „Nominal groups‟, because they are
clauses that function as groups but they are not embedded within
a Noun group, but function on their own.
 Pronouns in the special subject form (I, he, she, we, and they)
function as Subjects.
 Nouns that function as Subjects immediately precede the Finite in
Declarative Mood clauses.

How can a Finite be identified?

The Finite is identified:

 Adding a tag, which will use the same tense used by the finite of
the preceding clause.
 In a Verb group, the Finite is always the first element or constituent.
If the Verb group contains only one word, it may act as Finite as
well.
 It is marked for tense and also for number agreement with the
Subject, which means that its form changes according to the
number and person of the Subject (only visible in some verbs).

What are Non Finite clauses?

Nonfinite clauses are clauses which lack the function of the Finite.
 Verb forms „ing‟ and „To inf‟ are always non finite.
 Verb forms „V‟ (base form) and „V-ed‟ may be finite or nonfinite.
 Verbs w/ irregular Finite „-ed‟ forms have separate non finite forms.

What are Complements?

Complements are constituents that appear in clauses which have

Linking verbs (be, look, seem, have).
They can be realized by Noun groups and Nominal Groups, Adjective
groups and prepositional phrases.
How are Adjuncts typically realized?

Adjuncts are typically realized by Prepositional phrases and Adverb

groups. It is possible to omit them without affecting the clause.

What is a Predicator?

A Predicator is everything that constitutes the Verb group except the

Finite.
A nonfinite Verb group consists only of a Predicator, whereas a Finite
Verb group consists of a Finite and a Predicator.
Verb groups of only one word that are Finite realize Finite and Predicator
functions at the same time.

What are the three semantic categories in the system of Transitivity which
explain how phenomena of the real world are represented as linguistic
structures?

There are three semantics categories which explain in a general way

how phenomena of the real world are represented as linguistic
structures:
 Circumstances
 Process
 Participants

What meanings do circumstances realize and what are the probes for
each of these meanings? Mention them all and give examples.

They answer such questions as when, where, why, how many and what.
 UNIDAD 2

What is the difference between minor and major clauses?

Major Clauses have a predicator.

What is embedding?

A clause that has been shifted in rank, that has been brought lower in
rank to function within another clause as an elements of that clause or
within a group as a qualifier. They are marked by [[…]] Embedding is a
mechanism whereby an element comes to function within the structure
of a group, which itself is a constituent of a clause. They can neither be
supressed nor moved around.

What are the functions of embedded clauses?

Subject, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, object

complement, completive of a preposition, postponed subject, qualifier
within a group (noun group, adj group, adv group)

What are elliptical and non-elliptical clauses?

They are independent clauses in paratactic clause complexes, mainly,

but also finite dependent clauses in hypotactic clause complexes.
 Elliptical: one or more clause elements (subject, finite auxiliary,
process) can be omitted. This usually happens in the second clause
joined paratactically for reasons of economy.

 Non-elliptical: They are complete.

What is a clause complex?

One or more clause linked by tactic (parataxis and hypotaxis) and

logico-semantic relations (expansion and projection)

What is expansion?

It links processes by providing additional information.

What is elaboration?

The kind of relationship whereby the second clause says basically the
same as the first one only in more specific terms, using different words.
That is to say “parataxis (mainly) or hypotaxis (non-restrictive clauses)” In
includes four types: specification, restatement, exemplification, and
comment. Its notation symbol is an equal (=).

What is extension?

The second clause adds new info to the first one. “And, but, or”
relationships. Mainly paratactic. It is notated by a + (plus) symbol.

What is enhancement?

A clause expands another one by adding circumstantial meaning at the

level of the clause. Mainly hypotactic. It is notated by an x (ex) letter.

What is projection?

It links clauses by having one process projected through another either

by quoting (parataxis) or reporting (hypotaxis). Both, meaning (ideas)
and wordings (locutions) can be projected. A locution is marked with “(a
quotation mark) and idea is marked with „(a single quotation mark).
Projection occurs though mental and verbal processes.
 UNIDAD 3
What is nominalization?

Nominalization is an incongruent way of expressing processes, qualities

and logico-semantic relations that results from rankshift (the downranking
of a clause or the shift in rank of a clause for it to function as a NGp) and
transcategorization, i.e. the change in the category of certain words in
the clause (e.g. verbs, adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions) that
become nouns.

Nominalization serves to increase or extend the resources of the

language by turning some resources (clauses, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
conjunctions) into other resources (Ngps and nouns) for certain purposes.

The purposes for which resources are sometimes extended through

nominalization or, to put it differently, the uses of nominalization are:

 For technicality in specialized discourse, i.e. to create technical

terms

 For abstraction in written academic/ scholarly discourse (as

opposed to spoken commonsensical everyday discourse)

 For anticipation, transition and recapitulation in written discourse

(also written discourse to be said or read, like Ops)

What are extended and non-extended verbal groups?

Non-extended Vgps are those consisting of one element only (a lexical verb, as
in runs, asked), and extended VGps those consisting of one or more auxiliaries +
a lexical verb (as in “may have been running, has been running, was run over
by a car”, etc.)

What is the difference between simple and complex Verbal Groups?

On the one hand, simple VGps are made up of only one lexical verb and
they can be non-extended or extended: “he fought in the war”; “he has
fought in the war”; “he has been fighting in Afghanistan for two years”.
On the other hand, complex VGps are made up of two lexical verbs, the
first of which can be finite or non-finite and the second of which is always
non-finite. Again they can be non-extended or extended: “he managed
to convince her” (non-extended), “he has managed to convince her”,
“He has been trying to convince her for some time now” (extended)
What is the function of a prepositional phrase?

The PPhrase can function as qualifier within a NGp, an Adj Gp or an

AdvGp OR as Circumstance in a clause.

What is the difference between qualifiers and circumstances?

Since Qualifiers and Circumstances can both be realized by PPhrases, it

could sometimes be difficult to decide whether a PPhrase following a
Noun is to be interpreted as a Qualifier of that Noun or as a
Circumstance to a verb (of time, place, etc.). A test that can help is
trying to move the PP around in the Clause. If the PP is mobile, this means
it is not part of the structure of the NGp but part of the structure of the
Clause and thus a Circumstance.