COMPONENT 1

(a) Discuss some of the micro skills that ESL students need in order to become efficient

readers.

OVERVIEW

One of the most vital points to keep in mind is that there is not one type of reading

comprehension but several according to one’s reasons for reading. Students will never read

efficiently unless they can adapt their reading speed and technique to their aim when reading.

By reading all texts in the same way, students would waste time and fail to remember points

of importance to them because they would soak up too much non-essential information.

However, in order to be a competent reader, students need to acquire certain techniques and

skills to help him comprehend a text faster and improved

In regards to that, as a short introductory, reading skills are specific abilities which enable a

reader:
 to read the written form as meaningful language

 to read anything written with independence, comprehension and fluency, and

 to mentally interact with the message.

Teaching reading can be an arduous task as it is often difficult to know how to

improve student skills. One of the most obvious, but I have found often unnoticed, points

about reading is that there are different types of reading skills.

 Skimming - reading rapidly for the main points

 Scanning - reading rapidly to find a specific piece of information

 Extensive - reading a longer text, often for pleasure with emphasis on overall meaning

 Intensive reading - reading a short text for detailed information

These different types of skills are used quite naturally when reading in a mother tongue.

Unfortunately, when learning a second or foreign language, people tend to employ only

"intensive" style reading skills. In some circumstances, students insist on

understanding every word and find it difficult to take my advice of reading for the general

idea, or only looking for required information. Students studying a foreign language often

feel that if they don't understand each and every word they are somehow not completing the

exercise.

In order to make students aware of these different types of reading styles, it is useful to

provide an awareness raising lesson to help them identify reading skills they already apply

when reading in their native tongues. Thus, when approaching an English text, students first

identify what type of reading skill needs to be applied to the specific text at hand. In this way

valuable skills, which students already possess, are easily transferred to their English reading.

In regard to that, here are five micro skills that ESL students need in order to become

efficient readers.

1. SKIMMING 

Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the

newspaper, you're probably not reading it word-by-word; instead you're scanning the text.

Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim

when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you

want to see if an article may be of interest in your research.

  

There are many strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first

and last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down the

page or screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider

reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when you're seeking

specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find

dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.

Moreover, skimming used to understand the "gist" or main idea. Skimming is used to

quickly gather the most important information, or 'gist'. Run the student eyes over the text,

noting important information. Use skimming to quickly get up to speed on a current business

situation. It's not essential to understand each word when skimming.

Examples of Skimming:

 The Newspaper (quickly to get the general news of the day)

 Magazines (quickly to discover which articles you would like to read in more detail)

 Business and Travel Brochures (quickly to get informed)

2. SCANNING 

Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or

dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're looking

for, so you're concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your

eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when
student first find a resource to determine whether it will answer their questions. Once

students scanned the document, students might go back and skim it.

When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or

the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different

font size, style, or colour. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin. Scanning is

used to find a particular piece of information. Run their eyes over the text looking for the

specific piece of information student need. Use scanning on schedules, meeting plans, etc. in

order to find the specific details student require. If student see words or phrases that you don't

understand, don't worry when scanning.

Examples of Scanning

 The "What's on TV" section of your newspaper.

 A train / airplane schedule

 A conference guide

3. INTENSIVE READING

Intensive Reading (IR) occurs when the learner is focused on the language rather than the

text. For example, the learner may be answering comprehension questions, learning new

vocabulary, studying the grammar and expressions in the text, translating the passage

(sometimes called 'careful reading'), or other tasks that involve the student in

looking intensively (inside) the text. Most often all the students read the same short text that

the teacher decided.

 The advantage of IR is that it focuses the learner on certain aspects of the language.

However, IR is usually done with difficult texts with many unknown words that require the

learner to use a dictionary. This means the reading is slow and that there are few

opportunities for the learner to learn to read smoothly, because she has to stop every few

seconds to work on something she can't understand.  This slows or prevents the development

of fluent eye movements that are so necessary to improve one's reading skill.

Even though IR is the most typically taught method of teaching reading.  Unfortunately

some teachers only know this method and believe that by teaching the vocabulary and

grammar that is all the learner needs.  This is not so, she also needs practice in reading and to

be trained in developing reading skills.

Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to extract specific information. It

includes very close accurate reading for detail. Use intensive reading skills to grasp the

details of a specific situation. In this case, it is important that you understand each word,

number or fact.

Examples of Intensive Reading

 A bookkeeping report

 An insurance claim

 A contract
4. EXTENSIVE READING

An extensive reading program was established for elementary level language learners at

the British Council Language Center in Sanaa, Yemen. Research evidence for the use of such

programs in EFL/ESL contexts is presented, emphasizing the benefits of this type of input for

students' English language learning and skills development. Practical advice is then offered to

teachers worldwide on ways to encourage learners to engage in a focused and motivating

reading program with the potential to lead students along a path to independence and

resourcefulness in their reading and language learning.

Extensive Reading (ER) is one of many things a learner needs to do when learning to

reading a second language. Typically ER involves reading massive amounts of very simple

material so that the learner can read smoothly, confidently and pleasurably. The focus is on

general comprehension, and not directly on language practice. Most of the reading is well-

within the learner's current competence, is out-of-class and done with simplified books called

Readers or Graded readers (sometimes Basal readers). ER is the corollary to learning to

speak. You learn to speak by speaking, so you learn to read by reading. This is sometimes

known as Graded reading. Note that all the students are reading different material, something

they want to read because the learners select what to read.

Another aspect of ER is that the learner should be reading a wide variety of texts such as

novels, mystery, poems etc. However, only doing ER may not benefit the learner as much as

if she were also doing Intensive Reading and practising the reading skills and learning

vocabulary independently.

In summary, the significance of Intensive Reading is:

  Students read as much as possible,  perhaps in and definitely out of the classroom.

 A variety of materials on a wide range of topics is available so as to encourage

reading for different reasons and in different ways.

 Students select what they want to read and have the freedom to stop reading material

that fails to interest them.

 The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information and general

understanding. The purposes are determined by the nature of the material and the

interests of the student.

 Reading is its own reward.  There are few or no follow-up exercises after reading.

 Reading materials are well within the linguistic competence of the students in terms

of vocabulary and grammar. Dictionaries are rarely used while reading because the

constant stopping to look up words makes fluent reading difficult.

 Reading is individual and silent, at the student's own pace, and, outside class, done

when and where the student chooses.

 Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower as students read books and other

material they find easily understandable.

 Teachers orient students to the goals of the program, explain the methodology, keep

track of what each student reads, and guide students in getting the most out of the

program.

 The teacher is a role model of a reader for the students -- an active member of the

classroom reading community, demonstrating what it means to be a reader and the

rewards of being a reader.

Basically, in Intensive Reading, students' reading was carefully monitored; formal and

informal records being kept both by the researcher, and by the students themselves. Reading
diaries and book reports were used, together with a card file system to document the program

and record both the titles read and students' written comments on the books. A wall chart

acted as a focal point for in-class reading, discussion and exchange of titles. Reader

interviews were conducted throughout the program, which ran for a period of six months over

the course of two semesters. Students became actively involved in running the class library;

tables were arranged and titles displayed attractively during the periods set aside for the

reading program. In summary, the importances of reading are:

1. It can provide 'comprehensible input'.

In his 1982 book, Krashen argues that extensive reading will lead to language acquisition,

provided that certain preconditions are met. These include adequate exposure to the language,

interesting material, and a relaxed, tension-free learning environment. Elley and Manghubai

(1983:55) warn that exposure to the second language are normally "planned, restricted,

gradual and largely artificial." The reading program provided in Yemen, and the choice of

graded readers in particular, was intended to offer conditions in keeping with Krashen's

model.

2. It can enhance learners' general language competence.

Grabe (1991:391) and Paran (1996:30) have emphasized the importance of extensive

reading in providing learners with practice in automaticity of word recognition and decoding

the symbols on the printed page (often called bottom-up processing). The book flood project

in Fiji (Elley & Manghubai: op cit.), in which Fijian school children were provided with

high-interest storybooks, revealed significant post treatment gains in word recognition and
reading comprehension after the first year, and wider gains in oral and written skills after two

years.

3. It increases the students' exposure to the language

The quality of exposure to language that learners receive is seen as important to their

potential to acquire new forms from the input. Elley views provision of large quantities of

reading material to children as fundamental to reducing the 'exposure gap' between L1

learners and L2 learners. He reviews a number of studies with children between six and

twelve years of age, in which subjects showed rapid growth in language development

compared with learners in regular language programs . There was a "spread of effect from

reading competence to other language skills - writing, speaking and control over syntax,"

(Elley 1991:404).

4. It can increase knowledge of vocabulary

Nagy & Herman (1987) claimed that children between grades three and twelve (US grade

levels) learn up to 3000 words a year. It is thought that only a small percentage of such

learning is due to direct vocabulary instruction, the remainder being due to acquisition of

words from reading. This suggests that traditional approaches to the teaching of vocabulary,

in which the number of new words taught in each class was carefully controlled (words often

being presented in related sets), is much less effective in promoting vocabulary growth than

simply getting students to spend time on silent reading of interesting books.

5. It can motivate learners to read

Reading material selected for extensive reading programs should address students' needs,

tastes and interests, so as to energize and motivate them to read the books. In the Yemen, this

was achieved through the use of familiar material and popular titles reflecting the local

culture (e.g.. Aladdin and His Lamp). Bell & Campbell (1996, 1997) explore the issue in a

South East Asian context, presenting various ways to motivate learners to read and explaining

the role of extensive reading and regular use of libraries in advancing the reading habit.

6. It can consolidate previously learned language

Extensive reading of high-interest material for both children and adults offers the

potential for reinforcing and recombining language learned in the classroom. Graded readers

have a controlled grammatical and lexical load, and provide regular and sufficient repetition

of new language forms (Wodinsky & Nation 1988).Therefore, students automatically receive

the necessary reinforcement and recycling of language required to ensure that new input is

retained and made available for spoken and written production.

7. It helps to build confidence with extended texts

Much classroom reading work has traditionally focused on the exploitation of shorts

texts, either for presenting lexical and grammatical points or for providing students with
limited practice in various reading skills and strategies. However, a large number of students

in the EFL/ESL world require reading for academic purposes, and therefore need training in

study skills and strategies for reading longer texts and books. Kembo (1993) points to the

value of extensive reading in developing students’ confidence and ability in facing these

longer texts.

8. It encourages the exploitation of textual redundancy

Insights from cognitive psychology have informed our understanding of the way the brain

functions in reading. It is now generally understood that slow, word-by-word reading, which

is common in classrooms, impedes comprehension by transferring an excess of visual signals

to the brain. This leads to overload because only a fraction of these signals need to be

processed for the reader to successfully interpret the message. Kalb (1986) refers to

redundancy as an important means of processing, and to extensive reading as the means of

recognizing and dealing with redundant elements in texts.

9. It facilitates the development of prediction skills

One of the currently accepted perspectives on the reading process is that it involves the

exploitation of background knowledge. Such knowledge is seen as providing a platform for

readers to predict the content of a text on the basis of a pre-existing schema. When students

read, these schemas are activated and help the reader to decode and interpret the message

beyond the printed words. These processes presuppose that readers predict, sample,

hypothesize and reorganize their understanding of the message as it unfolds while reading

(Nunan 1991: 65-66).

 With reference to research evidence, we now turn to the role of extensive reading

programs in fostering learners' progress in reading development and improvement.

5. CONCEPT MAPPING TECHNIQUES

A concept map is a kind of visualization, i.e. a graphical representation of some domain

knowledge in reading. More precisely, concept mapping is a technique to visualize

relationships between different concepts. Concepts are drawn nodes, e.g. boxes and relations

are drawn with so-called arcs, i.e. lines that are drawn between associated concepts. These

arcs are usually labelled (named), i.e. express the kind of relationship, for instance, "results

in". In addition arcs can be directional, i.e. one would use arrows instead of lines.

 A concept map is graphical representation of a person's (student's) knowledge of a

domain. (Alpert & Grueneberg, 2001).

 Concept maps are tools for organizing and representing knowledge. They include

concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes of some type, and relationships between

concepts or propositions, (indicated by a connecting line and linking word) between two

concepts. Linking words on the line specify the relationship between the two concepts.

(Concept Maps: What the heck is this?, retrieved 11:44, 9 August 2007 (MEST).)

 The arrangement of major concepts from a text or lecture into a visual arrangement.

Lines are drawn between associated concepts, and relationships between the connected

concepts are named. These concept maps reveal the structural pattern in the material and

provide the big picture. ( Diane Ehrlich retrieved 21:08, 3 July 2006 (MEST))

 Concept mapping is a technique for visualizing the relationships between different

concepts. A concept map is a diagram showing the relationships in between concepts.

 Concepts are connected with labelled arrows, in a downward-branching hierarchical

structure.

b) Write a lesson plan, where students can utilize at least two of these skills. The activities

that you incorporate in the lesson plan should be able to introduce the skills as well as

help them to apply the skills.

LESSON PLAN

Subject : English Language

Class : Form 3 A (45 students)

Duration : 2 period (60 minutes) Date: 12 June 2010

Level : Intermediate and above

Topic : Short Story-“Inspiring Stories”

Skills focus : Reading

Aim: Awareness rising about different reading skills and reading styles.

Activity: Discussion and identification of reading styles with follow-up identification activity

Level: Intermediate - upper intermediate.

Outline:

 Ask students about what types of reading they do in their own mother tongue(s).
 Write different categories of written material on board. i.e. magazines, novels,

newspapers, advertising, etc.

 Have students describe how they go about reading each kind of material.

You may want to prompt them by asking the following questions:

i. Do you understand every word you read when reading a novel?

ii. What kind of clues can the presentation of the material give?

iii. How much time do you spend reading the newspaper? Do you read every single

word?

iv. What kind of assumptions do you make when you read the first few lines, or a

headline? (i.e. Once upon a time....)

v. How much time do you spend reading the various types of materials?

 Based on students' answers to such questions, ask them to identify the type of skills

they are using in the various reading situations.

 Divide students into small groups and give them the skills summary and short

worksheet.

 Have students discuss their opinions about the various skills required for the listed

 Present various "real world" materials (i.e. magazines, books, scientific materials,

computer manuals etc.) and ask students to identify the necessary skills required.
Reading Styles 

Skimming - Reading rapidly for the main points

Scanning - Reading rapidly through a text to find specific information required

Extensive - Reading longer texts, often for pleasure and for an overall understanding

Intensive - Reading shorter texts for detailed information with an emphasis on precise

understanding.

Stage Teaching and learning activities Rationale

Set Induction 1. Teacher distributes a short story - To inform students that

(inspiring story) to students and asks they can use reading

(5 minutes)
a few questions regarding the techniques to skim for gist

information contained in the short and scanning for details as

story. The teacher asks the students when we read we do not

to read speedily for the main points. have to really read word

by word.
2. Teacher tells students that they are
- To inform students that
going to learn how to read efficiently
they can use the available
by using some of the effective
information to predict
reading techniques and predict
 outcomes that are obvious in a text. outcomes.

Presentation 1. Students are divided into groups - The teacher explains that

of 3. students are able to find

(20 minutes)
required information by
2. Teacher distributes Worksheet 1 –
skimming and scanning to
short story on “mr.sticky”.
get the without reading all
3. The students are asked to answer
of words in the text.
the question as quickly as possible.
- The teacher also explains
4. Discuss the answers with the
that, by given sufficient
students.
information, outcomes can

5. Teacher explains on the function be predicted.

of skimming and scanning for

comprehension as well as making

prediction.

Practice 1. In the same group, students are - Students can work together

given Worksheet 2 – “Flying” and provide input to come

(30 minutes)
out with the most possible
2. Based on the text, they can skim
outcomes.
and scan for information to help

them to predict what happen to the - students learn to cooperate

character in that particular story. and work together with each

 3. Teacher will monitor the groups as other.

they are trying to complete the task.

4. The students will write down their

answers on the manila paper and

present it in front of the class.

1. Teacher asks students what have - to make an overview of

they have learnt from the lesson. what the students have learnt
Closure
and also to embed moral
2. Teacher inculcates the moral value
(5 minutes)
value.
behind each story learnt.

-to encourage student for

further intensive and

extensive reading.

COMPONENT 2
 (a) Each student will write a 10-page literature review examining a particular claim in

psycholinguistics. Review topics may focus on:

 Immersion L2 Acquisition vs. Instructed L2 Acquisition.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Regardless of theoretical position, all second language acquisition (SLA) researchers

agree that input is essential for SLA. However, many studies find that input in the form of

positive evidence is not sufficient for successful SLA and that some focus on language form

is necessary. That is, learners may benefit from some type of form-focused instruction,

defined by Spada (1997) as consisting of “events which occur within meaning-based

approaches to L2 instruction in which a focus on language is provided in either spontaneous

or predetermined ways” (p. 73). Form-focused instruction has been proven effective in many

face-to-face classroom settings (R. Ellis, 2001, 2002; Lyster, 2004a, 2004b), but the advent of

computer-assisted instruction (CAI) has enticed many language programs to offer hybrid, or

technology-enhanced language courses, in which grammar instruction is offered via self-

instructional units online.

In such courses, the face-to-face portion of class time is reserved for learners to engage in

communicative activities in the L2. It has not been shown whether grammar instruction

involving explicit rule presentation and practice with feedback is effective as a form-focused

instructional technique in these hybrid delivery contexts. This study seeks to answer this

question, focusing on the instruction of one particularly problematic structure for native

English-speaking L2 learners of Spanish, Differential Object Marking, or a-personal.

1.2. A discussion of the particular issue or question supported with references and quotes from

published studies/research articles/scholarly articles/expert opinions .

 IMMERSION L2 ACQUISITION VS. INSTRUCTED L2 ACQUISITION

Learning a foreign language has its assets, and the younger a student is exposed to the

subject, the easier it is to learn. Immersion has been proven to be the most effective way of

learning another language. Many immersion programs start in the elementary schools, with

classroom time being dedicated to the foreign language anywhere between 50% and 90% of

the day. Learning a second or third language not only helps an individual’s personal mental

skills, but also aids their future job skills. Jean Piaget, a developmental psychologist, had a

theory that stated that when a child faces an idea that does not fit their understanding, it

“becomes a catalyst for new thinking”. As a new language is completely foreign to a child at

first, it fits perfectly as this “catalyst for new thinking”.

Language immersion is a method of teaching a second language (also called L2, or

the target language) in which the target language is used for instruction. Unlike a more

traditional language course, where the target language is simply the subject material,

language immersion uses the target language as a teaching tool, surrounding or "immersing"

students in the second language. In-class activities, such as math, science, social studies, and

history, and those outside of the class, such as meals or everyday tasks, are conducted in the

target language. Today's immersion programs are based on those founded in the 1960s

in Canada when middle-income English-speaking parents convinced educators to establish an

experimental French immersion program enabling their children 'to appreciate the traditions

and culture of French-speaking Canadians as well as English-speaking Canadians.

 On the other hand, instructed L2 acquisition, the present thematic issue focuses on the

role of interaction in instructed language learning contexts, in contrast to research on

conversational interaction in naturalistic settings. From this perspective, the goal of this

thematic issue is to address the effect of conversational interaction on acquiring a second

language and to bring insights for a better understanding of the potential benefits of

interaction in instructed language learning. Taking into account the interaction hypothesis,

which originated in the work by Long (1980, 1983, 1985), the papers in this issue describe

learners’ work through perceived or actual gaps in communication, report research supporting

the relationship between conversational interaction and language learning, and suggest

further research issues which may provide both teachers and researchers with new directions

in the future.

 APPROACHES TO THE TEACHING OF A SECOND OR FOREIGN LANGUAGE.

On the other hand, in instructed L2 acquisition, three general approaches to the

teaching of a second or foreign language and identify the learning theories that underpin

them. The three approaches are (a) the oral-situational approach, (b) the notional-

functional approach and (c) the task-based approach. These approaches have been chosen

because they are ‘mainstream’ and thus probably reflect the current practice of language

pedagogy in New Zealand. There are other approaches, e.g. various humanistic approaches

(Moskowitz, 1978), content-based language teaching (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989) and

the lexical approach (Lewis, 1993), which figure in the literature on language pedagogy and

also draw heavily on theories of language learning but which have not figured widely in
school-based language teaching. As it is unlikely that these alternative approaches will drive

language curricula in New Zealand, they are not considered here.

Second language acquisition (SLA) researchers do not agree how instruction can best

facilitate language learning. Given this lack of consensus, it might be thought unwise to

attempt to formulate a set of general principles for instructed language acquisition. However,

if SLA is to offer teachers guidance, there is a need to proffer advice, providing that it is

offered in the spirit of what Stenhouse (1975) called “provisional specifications.” The

principles described in this digest, therefore, are intended to provide teachers with a basis for

argument and for reflection and not as a set of prescriptions or proscriptions about how to

teach. They are designed to be general in nature and therefore relevant to teachers in a variety

of settings, including foreign and second language situations and content-based classrooms.

How can instruction best ensure successful language learning?

This is not an easy question to answer, both because there are many competing

theories offering very different perspectives on how instruction can promote language

learning and because the empirical research does not always afford clear cut findings. We

will endeavour to reflect the different theoretical viewpoints and findings in the review. To

do otherwise would be to misrepresent the current state of research in this field.

However, in order to avoid the pitfalls of complete relativity, we will attempt to

identify a number of general principles, based on theory and research, which we believe can

provide a guideline for designers of language curricula and for classroom teachers. In

proposing these principles we do not wish to adopt a positivist stance. We do not believe that

the research findings to date provide definitive specifications for language instruction. Rather

we wish to suggest, in line with Stenhouse’s (1975) arguments, that the principles be viewed
as ‘provisional specifications’ best operationalised and then tried out by teachers in their own

teaching contexts.

When we learn a language naturalistically, we do so by focusing primarily on what

we want to say (i.e., meaning) rather than on how we say it (i.e., form). Instruction needs to

cater to this capacity for learning naturally by creating contexts in which learners focus on

message content. A task-based approach to language teaching is perhaps the best way of

achieving this. In this approach, no attempt is made to design lessons around specific

linguistic teaching points. Instead, the teacher selects a series of communicative tasks

designed to create learning opportunities of a general nature. In task-based teaching, teacher

and students both function as communicators and view the second language as a tool for

communicating rather than as an object to be analyzed and studied. There are a number of

reasons why learners need to focus on meaning: In the eyes of many theorists (e.g., Long,

1996; Prabhu, 1987), only when learners are engaged in decoding and encoding messages in

the context of actual acts of communication are the conditions created for acquisition to take

place.

To develop true fluency in a second language, learners must have opportunities to

engage in real communication (DeKeyser, 1998). Engaging in activities focused on creating

meaning is intrinsically motivating for learners. When learners focus on meaning, they

develop both the skills needed for fluent communication and the vocabulary and grammar

needed to use the language effectively.

 IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT LANGUAGE PROCESS

Implicit knowledge at the same time is procedural, is held unconsciously, and can be

verbalized only if it is made explicit. It is accessed rapidly and easily and thus is available for

use in rapid, fluent communication. In the view of most researchers, competence in a second

language is primarily a matter of implicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is conscious and

declarative and can be verbalized. It is typically accessed through controlled processing when

learners experience some kind of linguistic difficulty in the use of the second language. Some

language learners rely primarily on their explicit knowledge. Given that implicit knowledge

underlies the ability to communicate fluently and confidently in a second language, this type

of knowledge should be the ultimate goal of any instructional program. How then can it be

developed? There are conflicting theories regarding this.

According to skill-building theory (DeKeyser, 1998), implicit knowledge arises out of

explicit knowledge when the latter is automatized through practice. In contrast, emergentist

theories (N. Ellis, 1998) see implicit knowledge as developing naturally out of meaning-

focused communication aided, perhaps, by some focus on form. Irrespective of these

different theoretical positions, there is consensus that learners need to participate in

communicative activity to develop implicit knowledge.

In order to make sense of the different positions relating to the teaching of explicit

knowledge it is necessary to consider two separate questions: Is explicit knowledge of any

value in and of itself? Is explicit knowledge of value in facilitating the development of

implicit knowledge? Explicit knowledge is arguably of value only if learners are able to

utilize this type of knowledge in actual performance. Again, there is controversy. Krashen
(1982) argues that learners can use explicit knowledge only when they “monitor” their

language use and that this requires them to be focused on form (as opposed to meaning) and

to have sufficient time to access their knowledge. However, it can also be argued that many

learners are adroit in accessing their explicit knowledge while communicating (Kormos,

1999).

Whether or not explicit knowledge has any value in and of itself, it may assist

language development by facilitating the development of implicit knowledge. While it is

useful to consider the relative contributions of input and output to acquisition, it is also

important to acknowledge that both occur in oral interaction and that this plays a central role

in second language acquisition. As Hatch (1978) famously put it, “One learns how to do

conversation, one learns how to interact verbally, and out of the interaction syntactic

structures are developed” (p. 404).

Thus, interaction is not just a means of automata zing what the learners already know

but also about helping them to acquire new language. According to the Interaction

Hypothesis (Long, 1996), interaction fosters acquisition when a communication problem

arises and learners are engaged in negotiating for meaning. The interaction modifications that

arise help to make input comprehensible, provide corrective feedback, and push learners to

modify their own output by repairing their own errors. According to sociocultural theory,

interaction serves as a form of mediation, enabling learners to construct new forms and

perform new functions collaboratively (Lantolf, 2000). According to this view, learning is

first evident on the social plane and only later on the psychological plane. In both theories,

social interaction is viewed as a primary source of learning.

 This involves consideration of what has become known as interface hypothesis, which

addresses whether explicit knowledge plays a role in second language acquisition. Three

positions can be identified. According to the no interface position (Krashen, 1981), explicit

and implicit knowledge are entirely distinct, and explicit knowledge cannot be converted into

implicit knowledge. The interface position (DeKeyser, 1998) argues that explicit knowledge

can become implicit knowledge providing learners have the opportunity for plentiful

communicative practice. The weak interface position (Ellis, 1993) claims that explicit

knowledge makes it more likely that learners will attend to the structure in the input, which

facilitates the processes involved in acquiring implicit knowledge. Language learning,

whether it occurs in a naturalistic or an instructed context, is a slow and laborious process.

Children acquiring their first language take between 2 and 5 years to achieve full grammatical

competence (Wells, 1985), during which time they are exposed to massive amounts of input.

The same is undoubtedly true of second language acquisition. If learners do not receive

exposure to the target language, they cannot acquire it. Krashen (1985) has argued that all

that is needed for successful acquisition is motivation and “comprehensible input”—input

that is made easy.

Thus, to ensure adequate access, teachers need to maximize use of the second

language inside the classroom. Ideally, this means that the second language needs to become

the medium as well as the object of instruction. Teachers also need to create opportunities for

students to obtain input outside the classroom. This can be achieved most easily by providing

extensive reading programs based on carefully selected graded readers suited to the level of

the students, as recommended by Krashen (1989). Also ideally, schools need to establish self-

access centers (i.e., rooms containing carefully selected language learning materials that

students can use on their own time). Successful foreign language learners seek out
opportunities to experience the language outside class time, but many students are unlikely to

make the effort unless teachers make resources available and provide learner training in how

to make effective use of the resources. If the only input students receive is in the context of a

limited number of weekly language lessons based on a course book, they are unlikely to

achieve high levels of second language proficiency.

3. A discussion of the particular issue or question supported with references and quotes

from published studies/research articles/scholarly articles/expert opinions.

One central issue in SLA theory-building is determining what types of linguistic input

are most beneficial for second language (L2) learners. On one hand, some researchers argue

that negative evidence, information regarding the impossibility of certain linguistic structures

in the language being acquired, is not necessary (and perhaps not consistently available) for

first language (L1) acquisition.

They maintain that Universal Grammar (UG) drives L1 acquisition solely on the basis of

exposure to positive evidence, or exemplars of possible utterances in the language, which are

present in all grammatical speech. However, research on L2 acquisition (especially in

immersion contexts) has suggested that positive evidence alone may not be sufficient for the

acquisition of certain L1-L2 contrasts or structures that are not present in the L1 (Trahey &

White, 1993; White, 1989, 1991); for discussion, see Lightbown (1998) and Long (1996).

That is, learners may benefit from some type of form-focused instruction. Following Sanz

and Morgan-Short (2004), form-focused instruction can involve providing learners with

explicit information before or during exposure to L2 input, by means of either grammatical

explanation or negative evidence in the form of corrective feedback (CF). Much research has
investigated the role of explicit grammatical explanation or rule presentation in SLA,

generally finding it beneficial (Alanen, 1995; Carroll & Swain, 1993; de Graaf, 1997;

DeKeyser, 1995; N. Ellis, 1993; Nagata, 1993; Nagata & Swisher, 1995; Robinson, 1996,

1997; Rosa & Leow, 2004a, 2004b).

As far as CF is concerned, in both cognitive psychology and SLA, feedback has been

directly linked to the process of hypothesis formation and testing, which has been shown to

facilitate restructuring and system learning (e.g., Rosa & Leow, 2004b; Rosa & O'Neill,

1999). Furthermore, Russell and Spada’s (2006) meta-analysis synthesizes the research on

CF to date, finding overall support for the effectiveness of explicit corrective feedback for L2

acquisition of morphosyntax, as does R. Ellis, Loewen, and Erlam’s (2006) review of studies.

This finding suggests that even if negative evidence is not crucial for acquisition of some

features of L2 grammar, it does facilitate SLA by speeding up the process of acquisition, as

does explicit grammatical explanation or rule presentation.

1.2 Your own commentary on the particular issue or question

In my own commentary, I found that the process of language learning can be very

stressful, and the impact of positive or negative attitudes from the surrounding society can be

critical. Indeed, earning a foreign language has its assets, and the younger a student is

exposed to the subject, the easier it is to learn. Immersion has been proven to be the most

effective way of learning another language. Many immersion programs start in the

elementary schools, with classroom time being dedicated to the foreign language anywhere

between 50% and 90% of the day.

 Learning a second or third language not only helps an individual’s personal mental skills,

but also aids their future job skills. Jean Piaget, a developmental psychologist, had a theory

that stated that when a child faces an idea that does not fit their understanding, it “becomes a

catalyst for new thinking”. As a new language is completely foreign to a child at first, it fits

perfectly as this “catalyst for new thinking”.

Thus, Second-language learners cannot learn from a steady diet of grammatical

instruction and practice. They need input that has two basic characteristics. First, it must be

comprehensible; so that learners can understand the sentences they see or hear. Second, input

must encode some referential meaning to which learners can respond. Thus, much corrective

feedback, most (if not all) pattern practice, and many explanations of grammatical concepts

are processed not as input for acquisition but as knowledge about the language (hence the

general findings cited previously).

Therefore,

In other words, learners need to hear and see language that is used to communicate

messages. Comprehensible and meaningful input though necessary for successful acquisition

is not sufficient to ensure it. Therefore, taking into account such general elemant of language

immersion and general principles of instructed L2 acquisition has been derived from my

understanding of SLA. I have drawn on a variety of theoretical perspectives, although

predominantly from what Lantolf (1996) refers to as the computational model of L2 learning.

I am aware that this model has its limitations and is open to criticism, in particular

that it is not socially sensitive because it fails to acknowledge the importance of social

context and social relations in the language learning process (see Block (2003) for an
extended critique along these lines). It would be clearly useful to attempt to formulate a set of

principles based on the broader conceptualisation of SLA of the kind advocated by Block

and others, but this was not my aim here. There will always be a need for a psycholinguistic

account of how learners internalize new linguistic forms and how they restructure their

linguistic knowledge in the process of acquisition.

Language use is not language acquisition, only a means to it. To my mind, the computational

model provides a solid foundation for developing a set of principles that articulate the

relationship between language use and acquisition. It also constitutes a metaphor that teachers

can easily relate to.

REFERENCES

1. Adams B C, Bell L C, Perfetti C A 1995 A trading relationship between reading skill and
domain knowledge in children’s text comprehension. Discourse Processes 20: 807–23.

2. Anderson R C, Reynolds R E, Shallert D L, Goetz E T 1977 Frameworks for

comprehending discourse. American Educational Research Journal 4: 367–81.

3. Frederiksen J R 1981 Sources of process interactions in reading. In: Lesgold A M, Perfetti

C A (eds.) Interacti_e Processes in Reading. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 361–86.

4. Garner R 1980 Monitoring of understanding: An investigationof good and poor readers’

awareness of induced miscomprehension of text. Journal of Reading Behaviour 12: 55–
63.

5. Oakhill J, Garnham A 1988 Becoming a Skilled Reader. Blackwell, New York.

6. Lado, R. (1957), Linguistics Across Cultures, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

7. Cook, V.J. (1969), 'The analogy between first and second language learning', IRAL, 7, 3,
207-216.

8. Carroll, Susanne, & Swain, Merrill. (1993). Explicit and implicit negative feedback: An
empirical study of the learning of linguistic generalizations. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 15, 357-386.

9. Ellis, Nick. (1993). Rules and instances in foreign language learning: Interactions of
explicit and implicit knowledge. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 5(3), 289-
318.

10. Ellis, Rod. (2002). Does form-focused instruction affect the acquisition of implicit
knowledge? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(2), 223-236.

11. Ellis, Rod, Loewen, Shawn, & Erlam, Rosemary. (2006). Implicit and explicit corrective
feedback and the acquisition of L2 grammar. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28,
339-368.

12. Allen, P., Swain, M., Harley, B., & Cummins, J. (1990). Aspects of classroom treatment:
Toward a more comprehensive view of second language education. In B. Harley, P.
Allen, J. Cummins & M. Swain (Eds.), the development of second language proficiency
(pp. 57-81). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

13. Block, D. (2003). The social turn in second language acquisition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
APPENDIX

WORKSHEET 1 – MR. STICKY

MR. STICKY

By Mo McAuley

No one knew how Mr. Sticky got in the fish tank.

     "He's very small," Mum said as she peered at the tiny water snail. "Just a black dot."

     "He'll grow," said Abby and pulled her pyjama bottoms up again before she got into bed.
They were always falling down.

In the morning Abby jumped out of bed and switched on the light in her fish tank.

     Gerry, the fat orange goldfish, was dozing inside the stone archway. Jaws were already
awake, swimming along the front of the tank with his white tail floating and twitching. It took
Abby a while to find Mr. Sticky because he was clinging to the glass near the bottom, right
next to the gravel.

     At school that day she wrote about the mysterious Mr. Sticky who was so small you could
mistake him for a piece of gravel. Some of the girls in her class said he seemed an ideal pet
for her and kept giggling about it.

That night Abby turned on the light to find Mr. Sticky clinging to the very tiniest, waviest tip
of the pond weed. It was near the water filter so he was bobbing about in the air bubbles.

     "That looks fun," Abby said. She tried to imagine what it must be like to have to hang on
to things all day and decided it was probably very tiring. She fed the fish then lay on her bed
and watched them chase each other round and round the archway. When they stopped Gerry
began nibbling at the pond weed with his big pouty lips. He sucked Mr. Sticky into his mouth
then blew him back out again in a stream of water. The snail floated down to the bottom of
the tank among the coloured gravel.

"I think he's grown a bit," Abby told her Mum at breakfast the next day.

     "Just as well if he's going to be gobbled up like that," her Mum said, trying to put on her
coat and eat toast at the same time.

     "But I don't want him to get too big or he won't be cute anymore. Small things are cute
aren't they?"

     "Yes they are. But big things can be cute too. Now hurry up, I'm going to miss my train."

At school that day, Abby drew an elephant. She needed two pieces of expensive paper
to do both ends but the teacher didn't mind because she was pleased with the drawing and
wanted it on the wall. They Sellotape them together, right across the elephant's middle. In the
corner of the picture, Abby wrote her full name, Abigail, and drew tiny snails for the dots on
the 'i's the teacher said that was very creative.

     At the weekend they cleaned out the tank. "There are a lot of algae on the sides," Mum
said. "I'm not sure Mr. Sticky's quite up to the job yet."

     They scooped the fish out and put them in a bowl while they emptied some of the water.
Mr. Sticky stayed out of the way, clinging to the glass while Mum used the special 'vacuum
cleaner' to clean the gravel. Abby trimmed the new pieces of pond weed down to size and
scrubbed the archway and the filter tube. Mum poured new water into the tank.

     "Where's Mr. Sticky?" Abby asked.

     "On the side," Mum said. She was busy concentrating on the water. "Don't worry I was
careful."

     Abby looked on all sides of the tank. There was no sign of the water snail.

     "He's probably in the gravel then," her mum said. "Come on let's get this finished. I've got
work to do." She plopped the fish back in the clean water where they swam round and round,
looking puzzled.

That evening Abby went up to her bedroom to check the tank. The water had settled
and looked lovely and clear but there was no sign of Mr. Sticky. She lay on her bed and did
some exercises, stretching out her legs and feet and pointing her toes. Stretching was good for
your muscles and made you look tall a model had said on the t.v. and she looked enormous.
When Abby had finished, she kneeled down to have another look in the tank but there was
still no sign of Mr. Sticky. She went downstairs.
 Her mum was in the study surrounded by papers. She had her glasses on and her hair
was all over the place where she'd been running her hands through it. She looked impatient
when she saw Abby in the doorway and even more impatient when she heard the bad news.

     "He'll turn up." was all she said. "Now off to bed Abby. I've got masses of work to catch
up on."

     Abby felt her face go hot and red. It always happened when she was angry or upset.

     "You've hoovered him up haven't you," she said. You were in such a rush you hoovered
him up."

     "I have not. I was very careful. But he is extremely small."

     "What's wrong with being small?"

     "Nothing at all. But it makes things hard to find."

     "Or notice," Abby said and ran from the room.

The door to the bedroom opened and Mum's face appeared around the crack. Abby
tried to ignore her but it was hard when she walked over to the bed and sat next to her. She
was holding her glasses in her hand. She waved them at Abby.

     "These are my new pair," she said. "Extra powerful, for snail hunting." She smiled at
Abby. Abby tried not to smile back.

     "And I've got a magnifying glass," Abby suddenly remembered and rushed off to find it.

     They sat beside each other on the floor. On their knees they shuffled around the tank,
peering into the corners among the big pebbles, at the gravel and the pondweed.

     "Ah ha!" Mum suddenly cried.

     "What?" Abby moved her magnifying glass to where her mum was pointing.

     There, tucked in the curve of the archway, perfectly hidden against the dark stone, sat Mr.
Sticky. And right next to him was another water snail, even smaller than him.

     "Mrs Sticky!" Abby breathed. "But where did she come from?"

     "I'm beginning to suspect the pond weed don't you think?"

     They both laughed and climbed into Abby's bed together, cuddling down under the duvet.
It was cosy but a bit of a squeeze.

     "Budge up," Mum said, giving Abby a push with her bottom.

     "I can't, I'm already on the edge."

     "My goodness you've grown then. When did that happen? You could have put an elephant
in here last time we did this." Abby put her head on her mum's chest and smiled.
WORKSHEET 2

Flying
by: Roger Dean Kiser

Once upon a time there was a little boy who was raised in an orphanage.

The little boy had always wished that he could fly like a bird. It was very difficult for him to
understand why he could not fly. There were birds at the zoo that were much bigger than he,
and they could fly.

"Why can't I?" he thought. "Is there something wrong with me?" he wondered.

There was another little boy who was crippled. He had always wished that he could walk and
run like other little boys and girls.

"Why can't I be like them?" he thought.

One day the little orphan boy who had wanted to fly like a bird ran away from the orphanage.
He came upon a park where he saw the little boy who could not walk or run playing in the
sandbox.

He ran over to the little boy and asked him if he had ever wanted to fly like a bird.

"No," said the little boy who could not walk or run. "But I have wondered what it would be
like to walk and run like other boys and girls."

"That is very sad." said the little boy who wanted to fly. "Do you think we could be friends?"
he said to the little boy in the sandbox.

"Sure." said the little boy.

The two little boys played for hours. They made sand castles and made really funny sounds
with their mouths. Sounds which made them laugh real hard. Then the little boy's father came
with a wheelchair to pick up his son. The little boy who had always wanted to fly ran over to
the boy's father and whispered something into his ear.

"That would be OK," said the man.

The little boy who had always wanted to fly like a bird ran over to his new friend and said,
"You are my only friend and I wish that there was something that I could do to make you
walk and run like other little boys and girls. But I can't. But there is something that I can do
for you."

The little orphan boy turned around and told his new friend to slide up onto his back. He then
began to run across the grass. Faster and faster he ran, carrying the little crippled boy on his
back. Faster and harder he ran across the park. Harder and harder he made his legs travel.
Soon the wind just whistled across the two little boys' faces.

The little boy's father began to cry as he watched his beautiful little crippled son flapping his
arms up and down in the wind, all the while yelling at the top of his voice,

"I'M FLYING, DADDY. I'M FLYING!"