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Inductive output tube (IOT) – a review
Article in Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications · August 2015

DOI: 10.1080/09205071.2015.1074874
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Meenu Kaushik & L.M. Joshi
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Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, 2015
Vol. 29, No. 15, 2027–2037, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09205071.2015.1074874

Meenu Kaushika,b* and L.M. Joshia,b
Downloaded by [Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute] at 21:15 28 September 2015
a
Microwave Tubes Division, CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute (CEERI),
Pilani, India; bAcademy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), New Delhi, India
(Received 17 April 2015; accepted 15 July 2015)
This study is all about the evolution of inductive output tube (IOT) and its
significance in the current scenario. The historical review with timeline is briefly
discussed. The basic design considerations and operating principle of IOT have been
described. This tube is opted for many applications these days over other conven-
tional vacuum tubes for various advantages. Initially used for television transmitters,
this tube is now well recognized for other industrial applications also which are dis-
cussed in the study. A comparative review of IOT over other conventional tubes is
also given wherever required. The current state of the art of the tube is described to
convey the present needs of the device.
Keywords: inductive output tube; klystrode; microwave tube; TV transmitter;
particle accelerator; amplifier
1. Introduction
Inductive output tube (IOT) is a vacuum tube which is capable of amplifying RF power
with high efficiency. IOT operates at UHF frequencies. The main advantage of UHF
transmission is the shorter wavelengths at higher frequencies. The size of transmission
and reception antennas is related to wavelength of the radio wave. The UHF antenna is
stubby and short. Smaller and less conspicuous antennas can be used with higher fre-
quency bands. The major disadvantage of UHF is its limited broadcast range, often
called line-of-sight between the TV station’s transmission antenna and customer’s
reception antenna.
Back in 1960s when, in Europe, UHF-TV was starting, broadcasting engineers were
surprised and delighted to be able to transmit a few kilowatts of a decent quality signal
with a klystron initially designed for troposcatter communications. All this changed
when political and military actions in the Middle East around 1970 caused huge
increase in oil prices which rapidly led to ever-increasing electricity prices resulting in
desirability of highly efficient klystrons. Its efficiency was improved by 50% over early
tubes by revision of RF section designs. But the energy price pressure went on increas-
ing as well. Due to improved electronic techniques, it became possible to pulse the
UHF-TV klystron so that beam current can be controlled. It improved the efficiency
but the circuitry became complex and expensive too. The search for an alternative
amplifier was initiated then. The UHF tetrode was examined having excellent efficiency
and adequate gain but limited power output because of the problems of power
dissipation within small volume. So, the researchers started looking for a device that
*Corresponding author. Email: mkceeri@gmail.com
© 2015 Taylor & Francis

2028 M. Kaushik and L.M. Joshi
may have combined properties of long life and reliability as klystron and small size
and efficiency as in tetrode. This drew attention to a device proposed by Mr. Andrew
Haeff in 1938.[1,2]
2. Major components of IOT

The schematic of IOT is shown in Figure 1 [3,4]. The major assemblies of an IOT are
the gun, anode, output gap, and collector, see [5,6]. Brief description of their functions
[4], is as follows:
Electron gun: The design of IOT gun is generally based on the conventional Pierce
gun approach. In IOT, the RF input voltage is applied between cathode and grid which
is positioned close to and in front of cathode. The electrons emitted from cathode are
modulated at the gridded gap which then pass through the RF output interaction
region.
The grid parameters are established in terms of radius of curvature, wire size, and
number and shape of apertures. One vital dimension is the cathode-to-grid separation.
This gap is crucial because parameters such as tube gain and linearity are sensitive to
it. Not only this distance is to be set accurately but also it should be maintained over
the design life of the tube. The IOT is to operate in a grounded anode mode. It also
has coils to produce magnetic field required to focus the electron beam.
Input cavity: The concept of quarter wave resonator has been adopted for IOT input
cavity. The input cavity is placed onto the electron gun such that the cathode-grid gap
acts as the interaction gap of the cavity where the modulation of beam takes place.
However, in this case, the inner wall of the cavity has to be connected between the
cathode and grid, the two electrodes, which are both at large negative potentials. Fur-
ther, it is necessary to maintain the outer wall of the cavity and its tuning mechanism
at ground potential.
Output cavity: As there are no intermediate cavities, the gain and bandwidth of an
IOT are moderate. To improve its performance in this area, output cavity system can be
modified from the conventional pillbox-type resonator structure to double gap or
extended interaction-type designs. A standard output coupler connects the cavity to the
output feeder system. Since RF voltages of the order of IOT beam voltage can be
Figure 1. Schematic of IOT.

Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications 2029
expected in the output cavity system, RF arc detector sensors are fitted in both the
cavities. Cooling arrangement of output cavity system is done.
3. Operating principle
In IOT, a gridded electron gun is used to emit electron beam of desired specifications.
The RF signal is applied between cathode and grid, which is positioned close to, and
in front of the cathode. The electron beam is thus density modulated within the gun
itself. A negative DC bias voltage relative to cathode potential is applied to the grid.
The cathode is held at less negative potential relative to grid and the density-modulated
beam is thus accelerated through an aperture in the grounded anode to the output sec-
tion. The field-free regions ensure that output interaction space is isolated from the
input space (grid-anode) and also from the collector. This is accomplished using proper-
ties of waveguide beyond cutoff. RF amplified output power is extracted via an output
system. Focusing of electron beam is desirable to overcome the natural tendency of the
beam to spread. One more function of magnetic field is to facilitate the passage of
beam through the anode aperture with minimum interception. Any interception here
would be a major detractor to conversion efficiency. The electron beam is dissipated in
a copper collector of traditional design either air-cooled or liquid-cooled depending on
the power level involved. However, with the trend to higher power, a combination of
air and water cooling is used. Generally, the cathode, grid, input cavity, and output
cavities are air-cooled. The collector is usually water-cooled (or a 50% water/glycol
mixture). Higher power amplifiers may also require water cooling of the IOT anode
and/or output cavity assemblies. IOT systems operate at high anode accelerating volt-
age. The anode and collector are at ground potential with respect to the cathode. The
small interior volume of the IOT requires that the tube to be protected from internal
arcs. This arc protection is accomplished by crowbar circuitry which monitors any shar-
ply increased cathode current and causes a spark gap to conduct the arc energy directly
to ground, diverting an arcing event from being absorbed by tube components.
4. Historical background and timeline

IOT, first proposed by Andrew Haeff in 1938, is a gridded UHF amplifier. He intro-
duced an IOT giving 10 W output at 500 MHz. In 1984, by D Priest and M Shrader
revived this important device with an aim to use it for UHF-TV amplifier system and
renamed it as Klystrode. They developed 775 MHz, 20 kW CW, and 32.30 kW pulsed
output for TV visual service.[7] In 1989, the numerical and theoretical analysis of
klystrode resonator and collector performance was presented using MAGIC code in [8].
In 1990, 850 MHz klystrode was designed in which the authors presented some cal-
culations on its efficiency specifically, on the design of the input cavity circuit and the
use of double buncher cavities to improve beam bunching.[9] In 1991, a 500 kW peak
power, 50 kW average, 425 MHz klystrode was developed at EIMAC division of
Varian, San Carlos, CA for space applications.[10,11] E2V limited, England, developed
their first IOT which is a 60 kW high-efficiency UHF amplifier tube which borrowed
maximum technology of UHF-TV klystrons, such as cavity structure and tube life. The
development began in 1989 and first tube entered into service in 1991. The double
tuned output cavity concept was used.[1] In 1993, a 250 kW CW, 267 MHz klystrode
was designed and built by Varians. Efforts were made to reduce the complexity of the
RF input circuit. CW power in excess of 250 kW and efficiencies in excess of 70%
were readily obtained with power gain in excess of 21 dB.[12] Los Almos, USA, in
1996, characterized a 267 MHz, 250 kW CW klystrode used as RF source for particle
accelerators.[13] E2V limited in 1997, discussed the need for a higher power IOT sys-
tem and described the development of a 55 kW visual plus 5.5 kW aural common
amplifier system, based on the successful lower power design. The use of IOT in digital
television has been recognized in the article, see [2]. The requirement of a 1.3 GHz RF
sources with 10 MW peak power and about 70% efficiency was projected for the
TESLA linear collider. As an alternative to the development of a Multi-Beam Klystron
(MBK), they investigated the feasibility of an IOT. Computer simulations were carried
out with the MAFIA CAD system by analyzing an existing Klystrode built by CPI and
simulation results were compared with experimental data. Based upon that experience,
a design strategy was discussed for the higher order mode (HOM) IOT.[14] In 2000,
CAD of 530 MHz, 30 kW output tube by Fedyaev et al. [15] Russia, was presented. In
2001, the design and performance of an IOT-based amplifier incorporating multistage
depressed collector (MSDC) technology was presented. The amplifier performance goal
was to provide an enhanced efficiency RF amplifier for the UHF digital television
broadcast market. The operational frequency of the amplifier is 470 MHz to 820 MHz.
The design emphasized simplicity to minimize upgrade requirements for existing digital
television transmitter designs and ensure a low cost IOT which is described in [16]. A
small signal model of IOT for predicting inter-modulation performance with an 8-VSB
digital TV signal was given in [17] in 2002. Communications and Power Industries,
(CPI), in 2003, developed a number of IOTs including a 50 kW CW IOT at 500 MHz
for industrial and scientific services. Testing of this IOT up to 120 h is reported in [18].
They also developed an L-band IOT around same time.[19] In 2005, E2V limited was
working on development of IOT’s required for the particle accelerator community for
CW RF power sources in the L-band frequency range. The article described develop-
ment of a new IOT for use in high-energy applications. A target specification of 16 kW
CW output power at an efficiency of 60% was set and this article presented its inter-
mediate results. The tube uses an electron gun geometry that minimizes transit time
effects in the cathode-to-grid gap.[20] In 2007, L-3 Communications developed a tech-
nology known as “Direct coupling system” to couple the power in input cavity to allow
IOTs to be adapted for service in wideband applications such as communications and
radar presented in [5]. In 2008, this company developed a wideband IOT (WBIOT)
which provided output power levels suitable for UHF radar with a 1 dB bandwidth
greater than 10%.[21] CPI again presented the design of a 200 MHz, 250 kW coaxial
inductive output tube. Of particular interest was the formation of a radial beam with a
cylindrical gridded gun and high-efficiency RF interaction in a coaxial output cav-
ity.[22] In 2009, E2V limited presented test results and performance data for CW opera-
tion of the IOTD2130 over a range of frequencies from 500 MHz to 800 MHz and
pulsed performance at a frequency of 402.5 MHz in [23]. Also, CPI & Calabazas Creek
Research, Inc. (CCR) jointly developed a 350 MHz, 200 kW CW, Multiple Beam IOT
(MBIOT). The device includes seven electron guns in a circular array. A single input
cavity drives the fields for all seven electron guns. RF power is generated in a single
output cavity. The device is predicted to achieve approximately 70% efficiency with
22 dB gain [24]. Lancaster University, UK, published a simple model of an IOT [3].
Some analytical calculations of efficiency and comparison with experimental data for
IOT were presented by Saratov State Technical University, Russia. These results
indicated that the theoretical formula obtained from the analytical calculation may be
useful for designing the klystrode tubes.[25] The results of designing and simulation of
MBK for powering up of linear accelerators are also presented by AV Galdetskiy. Due
to special design of input cavity and operation in class C, the tube is capable to
produce CW output power 100 kW with efficiency 80% and gain 30 dB at 1300 MHz
with beam of 24 kV, see [26]. CPI presented some simulation results of IOT in
MAGIC2D for analyzing the interaction processes. Simulations were performed to ana-
lyze three basic processes in an IOT: formation of bunched electrons beams from a
gridded electron gun, interaction between bunched beams and RF field in a resonator
and spent beam collection with a MSDC which are explained in [27]. U.S. Naval
Research Laboratory investigated the physics of the beam–wave interaction of the IOT
with the goal of achieving significantly higher power operation. The time-domain elec-
trostatic PIC code MICHELLE was used to model the cathode-grid-anode structure that
comprises the input cavity. Their investigation has led to the discovery of a mechanism
responsible for intra-bunch charge formation. Time-domain PIC results of this effect
were shown. Simulation results of the large-signal beam–wave interaction in the output
cavity using the code TESLA were also presented in [28]. In 2009, TESLA code for
simulating different RF amplifiers such as IOTs and MBKs has been introduced in
[29]. In 2010, formation of electron beam in cathode-grid region is discussed using
MAGIC2D in [30]. In 2011, CCR developed a 402.5 MHz, 140 kW IOT for using it
with proton accelerators. They have presented design of principal components of the
device, including the RF structure, electron gun, and magnetics in their paper [31]. The
design of IOT gun using beam optics analyzer has been described by the authors in
2012, see [32]. New models have been developed and implemented in the MICHELLE
Finite-Element Electrostatic Particle-in-Cell code1 in support of modeling RF photo-
cathodes and IOTs are described in [33]. The MBIOT has been proposed for UHF
applications requiring from 500 kW to 1 MW of average power.[34] CCR is completing
assembly of a 350 MHz, 200 kW CW MBIOT. The MBIOT will provide a new, high
power, RF source for accelerators and colliders. The target efficiency is 70% with a
predicted gain exceeding 22 dB. The IOT operates at 30 kV with an average current of
1.4 A.[35]
5. Salient features of IOT

Efficiency: IOT has very good efficiency because its beam current can be modulated
whenever required. Also losses due to interception of beam current at anode are negli-
gible due to magnetic focusing.[6]
Power gain and bandwidth: IOT has only two cavities – one input and another out-
put. As there are no such intermediate cavities, hence the gain and bandwidth is moder-
ate. However, to increase these parameters to certain extent, the output circuit can be
modified from the basic pillbox-type resonator structure.[1]
Linearity: In many tubes, sacrifice of efficiency is done for achieving adequate lin-
earity. But in IOT, using grid-biasing scheme, this trade off gets reduced. The linearity,
which is an important characteristic in UHF amplifiers, of IOTs is good at low and
medium signal levels, refer [6,36].
Ease of tuning: IOT can be tuned easily because it has only two cavities which can
be tuned separately and there is complete isolation, i.e., zero coupling of interaction
between input and output structures.
Life and reliability: Life of the IOT is determined by the life of its cathode, which
is governed by its operating current density and temperature. Reliability will be
determined ultimately by experience in the field. If catastrophic failures are avoided,

IOT can be expected to show excellent life.
6. Advantages over klystron and triode

There are several advantages of this device over the conventional microwave tubes. [37]
IOT vs. klystron:
•
Higher conversion efficiency.

• Smaller in size and lighter in weight.
• Lower input power requirements.
• Lower cooling requirements.
• Low magnetic field requirements.
• Collector size is reduced.
• Operating cost per annum is lower in TV transmitter.
IOT vs. Tetrode / Triode:
• Higher conversion efficiency.

• Higher efficiency at reduced drive power.
• Higher gain.
• Lifetime of tube much higher (failure rate of 3 tetrodes for each IOT reported).
• Operating cost per annum is low.
7. Challenges and limitations in designing of IOT

There are certain challenges in developing this device that need to be taken care of.[38]
There is a certain limit to which beam voltage can be applied due to occurrence of
voltage breakdown in vacuum. Hence, this limits the power output of this device. Cur-
rently, up to 70 kV DC has been reported. The higher beam voltage also increases the
cost and size of the power supply.
The grid and cathode impose limitations at much lower power levels. Cathode cur-
rent density is related to tube life and must be held down accordingly. The grid, if
intercepting, will be required to dissipate an amount of heat, due to the interception,
which is roughly proportional to power output.
Whatever material is used for the grid, there will be some upper limit of tempera-
ture, which determines its dissipation capacity and therefore, the power output of the
tube. This limit may be set by mechanical instability such as fracture or by excessive
thermionic emission of electrons, which would cause deterioration in performance.
One key issue that poses serious challenge is cathode-to-grid spacing. This spacing
must be reduced as the frequency is raised. For constant efficiency and power level,
d = k/f where, d is grid-cathode distance/spacing, k is a constant and f is the operating
frequency. As the signal frequency increases, it is necessary to decrease the grid width
and thickness to maintain the desired properties of grid. This process of size reduction
can be carried out only to the limit set by materials or fabrication techniques. The
highest attainable frequency is determined by it which is presently a few gigahertz
(1–2 GHz) depending on power level, see [7]. Evaporation of cathode material can
occur which condenses on grid and ultimately can alter the spacing between cathode
and grid which is a very sensitive parameter.
High drive power (~5 kW or more) is required to obtain sufficient gain. Usually,
the gain is lower in IOTs. Efficiency enhancement is always a challenge for any device.
The achieved efficiency till date is about 70 % which can be increased further by
depressing the collector at different potentials but still up to some limit. The depression
should be such that the secondary electrons are trapped efficiently.[39]
8. Applications areas
TV transmitters: Usually, IOT is widely used in TV service as an aural and visual chan-
nel amplifier. In aural service, it provides moderate power gain, high efficiency, and
longer life. In visual service, it offers greater overall efficiency. The life is longer
because of the cathode used having lower emission density, which results from high
voltage-low current operation. In IOT, the dc power input varies with the video signal
level.
Particle Accelerators: IOTs have been and currently are used on a number of
international high-energy particle accelerators such as Diamond, CERN, and LANSCE.
European Spallation Source (ESS), an accelerator division in Sweden, which is a multi-
disciplinary research center, has long-run projects and requires a number of RF sources
(IOTs, klystrons and tetrodes) at 352–704 MHz over a range of RF powers.[40]
9. State of the art

ESS is developing the most powerful linac that has been ever built. This linac requires
150 individual high power RF sources including (352 MHz/704 MHz, 2.8/1.5 MW
peak) klystrons, (704 MHz, 1.2 MW) IOTs, and (352 MHz, 400 kW peak) tetrodes.
The responsibility of procuring IOT for this program is being taken by ESS in collab-
oration with CERN, see [40,41].
CPI is one of the largest manufactures of vacuum electronics devices with extensive
expertise in IOT research and manufacture. They have developed many IOTs for both
scientific as well as broadcast applications.[42] The inventory of IOTs developed for
scientific applications mainly particle accelerators include CHK2800 W (460–805 MHz,
80 kW peak, 64% efficiency), VKL-9130 (1.3 GHz, 30/90 kW power av./peak), see
Figure 2, refer [43], VKP-9050 (500 MHz, 90 kW peak, 70% efficiency), VKP-9070
(650–805 MHz, 80 kW peak, 64% efficiency). Tubes developed for broadcast applica-
tions (470–806 MHz) include K275 W (Analog, 75 kW peak of sync (POS)), see
Figure 3 and [44], K290 W (Analog, 90 kW visual), K2D110 W (Digital, 110 kW
peak), K2D130 W (Digital, 130 kW peak). Currently, CPI is looking forward to
develop 352 MHz, 400 kW, η > 70%, 23 dB gain and 704 MHz, 1 MW, η > 65%,
23 dB gain, 5 kW drive power IOT’s which could be delivered to ESS in the future.
CCR is a research organization with extensive expertise in R&D of vacuum elec-
tronics. CCR in collaboration with CPI is nearing completion of a 350 MHz, 200 kW
CW MBIOT. This device is targeted for upgrade of the Advanced Photon Source
(APS) at Argonne National Laboratory but will be applicable for a broad range of
accelerator systems requiring RF power from 300 to 800 MHz.[45] The development
of MBIOT by CCR is described in one of their research papers [46].
E2V manufactures its own klystrons, IOTs, and water-cooled high-efficiency
Energy-Saving-Collector IOTs (ESCIOT), along with thyratrons which are used in
crowbar protection circuitry, for high power analog and digital UHF-TV transmit-
ters.[47] Klystrons have been used in analog television transmitters for decades, but
Figure 2. VKL-9130 IOT Amplifier (Courtesy CPI).
Figure 3. K275WK2 Series IOT amplifier (Courtesy CPI).

were superseded by E2V’s higher efficiency IOT in the 1980s. An IOT-powered

transmitter uses typically half the amount of electricity used by a klystron transmit-
ter.[48] Some IOTs manufactured by E2V are listed here which are to be used in the
output stage of transmitters in UHF television service (470–860 MHz). Notable analog
IOTs from E2V are ESCIOT5130 W (output power 66 kW vision + 6.6 kW aural),
IOTD3100 W (55 kW vision + 5.5 kW aural), and IOTD3130 W (77 kW
vision + 7.7 kW aural). E2V digital IOT’s are IOTD140R (42 kW peak), IOTD150R
(55 kW peak), IOTD3100 W (110 kW peak), and IOTD3130 W (135 kW peak).
L-3 Communications produces a number of IOTs for digital TV applications.[49]

The IOTD 85T and IOTD 130T are high-efficiency tubes and circuit assemblies capable
of operating in the UHF-TV frequency range of 470–810 MHz. These amplifiers are
designed for digital transmitters requiring up to 30 kW average/130 kW peak output in
8VSB digital service or up to 70 + 7 kW in common mode service. IOTD 50 is drop-in
replacement for the E2V 8303 and D250, 22 dB gain, 15/55 kW of average/peak power
output, ideal for low power installations where high peak power is not necessary. IOTD
85 is replacement for the E2V 8404 or D270, 22 dB gain, up to 20/85 kW of aver-
age/peak power. IOTD is drop-in replacement for the E2V 8505 or D2100, digital
transmitters for either 8 VSB or Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(COFDM) service, 22 dB gain, up to 25/110 kW of average/peak power. The IOTD
110P is a plug-in version of the IOTD 110 and is a direct replacement for the E2V
D2100. The IOTD130 is the highest power digital IOT by this manufacturers. With the
advent of digital television, the L-3 IOTD130 offers the broadcaster the ability to
operate at 130 kW peak power for greater viewing area coverage. The tube fits in a
standard size circuit assembly and typical original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
transmitter cabinet. This tube was formerly used in analog 70 + 7 kW service. The
IOTD 130D is designed as a direct replacement for the E2V D2130. L-3 Communica-
tions has developed IOT with large instantaneous bandwidth for radar and communica-
tions applications. As in conventional IOTs, this WBIOT provides high efficiency,
good linearity, and compact size through emission-gated modulation of the electron
beam at the cathode surface. The extended interaction output circuit can be configured
to meet required gain and bandwidth profiles.[50]
10. Conclusion
It is concluded that IOT has the potential of replacing some conventional tubes for
specific applications. It has many advantages such as higher efficiency, longer lifetime,
lightweight, and low cost which makes it an attractive device for use in various areas.
Firstly recognized as a useful device in television transmitters, IOTs are now preferred
in various other areas of applications such as particle accelerators. Presently, it is
desired to produce more IOTs at higher frequencies also to meet the requirements of
industrial applications. A variety of IOTs such as HOM-IOT, MB-IOT, and WB-IOT
have been developed already and a lot more are in demand for future accelerator
applications. So IOTs have an emerging future ahead.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Inductive output tube (IOT) – a review

Article in Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications · August 2015

Meenu Kaushik Lalit Mohan Joshi

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ISSN: 0920-5071 (Print) 1569-3937 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tewa20

Inductive output tube (IOT) – a review

Meenu Kaushik & L.M. Joshi

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Inductive output tube (IOT) – a review

*Corresponding author. Email: mkceeri@gmail.com

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

2. Major components of IOT

Figure 1. Schematic of IOT.

4. Historical background and timeline

5. Salient features of IOT

determined ultimately by experience in the ﬁeld. If catastrophic failures are avoided,

6. Advantages over klystron and triode

Higher conversion efﬁciency.

IOT vs. Tetrode / Triode:

• Higher conversion efﬁciency.

7. Challenges and limitations in designing of IOT

9. State of the art

Figure 2. VKL-9130 IOT Ampliﬁer (Courtesy CPI).

Figure 3. K275WK2 Series IOT ampliﬁer (Courtesy CPI).

were superseded by E2V’s higher efﬁciency IOT in the 1980s. An IOT-powered

L-3 Communications produces a number of IOTs for digital TV applications.[49]

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