History of the Philippines

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The history of the Philippines is believed to have begun with the arrival of the first
humans[1][2][3] using rafts or boats at least 67,000 years ago as the 2007 discovery of Callao
Man suggested.[4] Negrito groups first inhabited the isles. Groups ofAustronesians later migrated to
the islands.
Scholars generally believe that these social groups eventually developed into various settlements or
polities with varying degrees ofeconomic specialization, social stratification, and political
organization.[5] Some of these settlements (mostly those located on major river deltas) achieved such
a scale of social complexity that some scholars believe they should be considered
early states.[6] This includes the predecessors of modern-day population centers such
as Maynila, Tondo, Pangasinan, Cebu, Panay, Bohol, Butuan,Cotabato, Lanao, and Sulu[2] as well
as some polities, such as Ma-i, whose possibly location are still the subject of debate among
scholars.[7]
These polities were either influenced by the Hindu-
Buddhist[8] Indian religion, language, culture, literature and philosophy from India through many
campaigns from India including the South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I,[9] Islam
from Arabia or wereSinified tributary states allied to China. These small maritime states flourished
from the 1st millennium.[10][11] These kingdoms traded with what are now called China, India, Japan,
Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia.[12] The remainder of the settlements were
independent barangays allied with one of the larger states.
The first recorded visit by Europeans is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan. He sighted Samar
Island on March 16, 1521 and landed the next day on Homonhon Island, now part of Guiuan,
Eastern Samar.[13] Spanish colonization began with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi's
expedition on February 13, 1565 from Mexico. He established the first permanent settlement
in Cebu.[14] Much of the archipelago came under Spanish rule, creating the first unified political
structure known as the Philippines. Spanish colonial rule saw the introduction of Christianity,
the code of law and the oldest modern university in Asia. The Philippines was ruled under the
Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain. After which, the colony was directly governed by Spain.
Spanish rule ended in 1898 with Spain's defeat in the Spanish–American War. The Philippines then
became a territory of the United States. U.S forces suppressed a Philippine Revolution led by Emilio
Aguinaldo. The United States established the Insular Government to rule the Philippines. In 1907,
the elected Philippine Assembly was set up with popular elections. The U.S. promised independence
in the Jones Act.[15] The Philippine Commonwealth was established in 1935, as a 10-year interim
 step prior to full independence. However, in 1942 during World War II, Japan occupied the
Philippines. The U.S. military overpowered the Japanese in 1945. The Treaty of Manila in
1946 established an independent Philippine Republic.

Contents

 1Timeline
 2Prehistory
o 2.1The Jade culture
o 2.2The Sa Sa Huỳnh Culture
o 2.3Timeline of Iron age
 3Pre-colonial period (900 AD to 1565)
o 3.1Initial recorded history
o 3.2The Polity of Tondo
o 3.3Caboloan (Pangasinan)
o 3.4The Nation of Ma-i
o 3.5The Kedatuan of Madja-as
o 3.6The Rajahnate of Cebu
o 3.7The Rajahnate of Butuan
o 3.8The Sultanate of Sulu
o 3.9The Sultanate of Maguindanao
o 3.10The Sultanate of Lanao
o 3.11The Bruneian Empire and the expansion of Islam
 4Spanish settlement and rule (1565–1898)
o 4.1Early Spanish expeditions and conquests
o 4.2Spanish settlement during the 16th and 17th centuries
o 4.3Spanish rule during the 18th century
 4.3.1British invasion (1762–1764)
 4.3.2Spanish rule in the second part of the 18th century
o 4.4Spanish rule during the 19th century
o 4.5Philippine Revolution
 5American rule (1898–1946)
o 5.1Philippine–American War
o 5.2The Tagalog, Negros and Zamboanga Cantonal Republics
o 5.3Insular Government (1901–1935)
o 5.4Commonwealth
o 5.5World War II and Japanese occupation
 5.5.1Military
 5.5.2Home front
 6Postcolonial Philippines and the Third Republic (1946–1965)
o 6.1Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946–1948)
o 6.2Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953)
o 6.3Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957)
o 6.4Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961)
o 6.5Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965)
 6.5.1Land Reform Code
 6.5.2Maphilindo
 7Marcos era
o 7.1Martial law
 o 7.2Fourth Republic
 8Fifth Republic (1986–present)
o 8.1Administration of Corazon Cojuangco Aquino (1986–1992)
o 8.2Administration of Fidel Valdez Ramos (1992–1998)
o 8.3Administration of Joseph Ejercito Estrada (1998–2001)
o 8.4Administration of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2001–2010)
o 8.5Administration of Benigno Simeon Aquino III (2010–2016)
o 8.6Administration of Rodrigo Roa Duterte (2016–present)
 9See also
 10Notes
 11References
 12Further reading
 13External links

Timeline[edit]
Main article: Timeline of Philippine history
Prehistory[edit]
Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines
Docking station and entrance to theTabon Cave Complex Site in Palawan, where one of the oldest human
remains was located.

Discovery of stone tools and fossils of butchered animal remains in Rizal, Kalinga described in a
2018 article in Nature has pushed back evidence of early hominins in the country to as early as
709,000 years.[16] Still, the earliest archeological evidence for man in the archipelago is the 67,000-
year-old Callao Man of Cagayan and the Angono Petroglyphs in Rizal, both of whom appear to
suggest the presence of human settlement prior to the arrival of the Negritos and Austronesian
speaking people.[17][18][19][20][21]
There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos. F. Landa
Jocano theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally.[citation needed] Wilhelm
Solheim's Island Origin Theory[22] postulates that the peopling of the archipelago transpired via trade
networks originating in the Sundaland area around 48,000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide-scale
migration. The Austronesian Expansion Theory states that Malayo-Polynesians coming from Taiwan
began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC, displacing earlier arrivals.[23][24]
The Negritos were early settlers, but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably
dated.[25] They were followed by speakers of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, a branch of
the Austronesian language family, who began to arrive in successive waves beginning about 4000
BC, displacing the earlier arrivals.[26][27] Before the expansion out of Taiwan, recent archaeological,
linguistic and genetic evidence has linked Austronesian speakers in Insular Southeast Asia to
cultures such as the Hemudu, its successor the Liangzhu[28][29] and Dapenkeng in Neolithic
China.[30][31][32][33][34] During this neolithic period, a "jade culture" is said to have existed as evidenced by
tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000
BC.[35][36] The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas
in insular and mainland Southeast Asia. These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range
communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies.[37]

The Ifugao/Igorot people utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over
2000 years ago.

By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had developed into four distinct kinds of
peoples: tribal groups, such as the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongots and the Mangyan who depended
on hunter-gathering and were concentrated in forests; warrior societies, such as
the Isneg and Kalinga who practiced social ranking and ritualized warfare and roamed the plains; the
petty plutocracy of the Ifugao Cordillera Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges of Luzon;
and the harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while
participating in trans-island maritime trade.[38] It was also during the first millennium BC that early
metallurgy was said to have reached the archipelagos of maritime Southeast Asia via trade with
India[39][40]
Around 300–700 AD, the seafaring peoples of the islands traveling in balangays began to trade with
the Indianized kingdomsin the Malay Archipelago and the nearby East Asian principalities, adopting
influences from both Buddhism and Hinduism.[41][42]
The Jade culture[edit]

Metal lingling-o earrings fromLuzon.

Existence of a "Jade culture" in the Philippines is evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely

crafted jade artifacts found at a site in Batangas province.[35][36]
Jade artifacts are made from white and green nephrite and dating as far back as 2000–1500 BC,
have been discovered at a number ofarcheological excavations in the Philippines since the 1930s.
The artifacts have been both tools like adzes[43] and chisels, and ornaments such as lingling-o
earrings, bracelets and beads.
Nephrite, otherwise known as Jade, is a mineral widely used throughout Asia as ornaments or for
decorative purposes. The oldest jade artefacts in Asia (6000 BC) were found in China where they
were used as the primary hardstone of Chinese sculpturing. In 3000 BC, jade production in the
Hongsan and Liangzhu cultures of China reached its peak. During this period, the knowledge of jade
craftsmanship spread across the sea to Taiwan and eventually to the Philippines. The artefacts
discovered in several sites in the Philippines were made from nephrite. Nephrite excavated in the
Philippines were of two types: white nephrite and green nephrite.[44]
The Sa Sa Huỳnh Culture[edit]
The factual accuracy of part of this article is disputed. The dispute is
about the existence of a Sa Huỳnh presence in the Philippines aside from the
presence of their trade products. Please help to ensure that disputed statements
are reliably sourced. See the relevant discussion on the talk page. (October
2017)(Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Asia in 200 BC, showing Sa Huỳnh cultures in southeast Asia

The Sa Huỳnh culture centred on present-day Vietnam, showed evidence of an extensive trade
network. Sa Huỳnh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold andgarnet;
most of these materials were not local to the region, and were most likely imported. Han dynasty-
style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Sa Huỳnh sites.
Conversely, Sa Sa Huỳnh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites
inCentral Thailand, Taiwan (Orchid Island), and in the Philippines, in the Palawan, Tabon Caves.
One of the great examples is the Kalanay Cave in Masbate; the artefacts on the site in one of the
"Sa Huyun-Kalanay" pottery complex sites were dated 400BC–1500 AD. The Maitum
Anthropomorphic Pottery in the Sarangani Province of southern Mindanao is c. 200 AD.[45][46]
Timeline of Iron age[edit]

Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age

Pre-colonial period (900 AD to 1565)[edit]

Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1521)
 Idjang
Maynila
Kedatuan of Madja-as
Rajahnate of Butuan
Sultanate of Sulu
Ma-i
Kedatuan of Dapitan
Sultanate of Maguindanao
Rajahnate of Cebu
Namayan
Tondo
Sultanate of Lanao
Igorot Plutocracy
Cainta
Caboloan
Ibalon
Samtoy
Chiefdom of Taytay
Locations of pre-colonial polities, kingdoms and sultanates in the Philippine archipelago

Initial recorded history[edit]

 Piloncitos, a type of gold nugget withBaybayin Ma characters. Used as one of the early currencies
along with gold rings

During the period of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire, Indian
culture spread to Southeast Asia and the Philippines which led to the establishment ofIndianized
kingdoms.[47][48] The end of Philippine prehistory is 900,[49] the date inscribed in the oldest
Philippine document found so far, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. From the details of the
document, written in Kawi script, the bearer of a debt, Namwaran, along with his children Lady
Angkatan and Bukah, are cleared of a debt by the ruler of Tondo. From the
various Sanskrit terms and titles seen in the document, the culture and society of Manila Bay
was that of a Hindu–Old Malay amalgamation, similar to the cultures of Java, Peninsular
Malaysia and Sumatra at the time.
There are no other significant documents from this period of pre-Hispanic Philippine society and
culture until the Doctrina Christiana of the late 16th century, written at the start of the Spanish
period in both native Baybayin script and Spanish. Other artifacts with Kawi script and baybayin
were found, such as an Ivory seal from Butuan dated to the early 11th century[50] and
the Calatagan pot with baybayin inscription, dated to the 13th century.[51]

Tagalog royal couple belonging to the Maginooclass

In the years leading up to 1000, there were already several maritime societies existing in the
islands but there was no unifying political state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago.
Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomous barangays(settlements ranging
in size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competingthalassocracies ruled
by datus, wangs, rajahs, sultans or lakans.[52] or by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty
plutocrats". States such as the Kingdom of Maynila, the Kingdom of Taytay
in Palawan (mentioned by Antonio Pigafetta to be where they resupplied when the remaining
ships escaped Cebu after Magellan was slain), the Chieftaincy of Coron Islandruled by fierce
warriors called Tagbanua as reported by Spanish missionaries mentioned by Nilo S.
Ocampo,[53] Namayan, the Kingdom of Tondo, the Sinitic wangdom of Pangasinan, the nation
of Ma-i, the Kedatuans of Madja-as and Dapitan, the Indianized rajahnates
of Butuan and Cebu and the sultanates ofMaguindanao, Lanao and Sulu existed alongside the
highland societies of the Ifugao and Mangyan.[54][55][56][57] Some of these regions were part of the
Malayan empires of Srivijaya, Majapahit and Brunei.[58][59][60]
The Polity of Tondo[edit]
Main article: Tondo (historical polity)
Since at least the year 900, this thalassocracy centered in Manila Bay flourished via an active
trade with Chinese, Japanese, Malays, and various other peoples in Asia. Tondo thrived as the
capital and the seat of power of this ancient kingdom, which was led by kings under the title
"Lakan" which belongs to the caste of the Maharlika, who were the feudal warrior class in
ancient Tagalog society. They ruled a large part of what is now known
as Luzon from Ilocos to Bicol from possibly before 900 AD to 1571, becoming the largest pre-
colonial Philippine state. The Spaniards called them Hidalgos.[61][62]
The people of Tondo had developed a culture which is predominantly Hindu and Buddhist, they
were also good agriculturists, and lived through farming and aquaculture. During its existence, it
grew to become one of the most prominent and wealthy kingdom states in pre-colonial
Philippines due to heavy trade and connections with several neighboring nations such as China
and Japan.

The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, c. 900 CE. The oldest known historical record found in the
Philippines, which indirectly refers to the polity of Tondo

Due to its very good relations with Japan, the Japanese called Tondo as Luzon, even a famous
Japanese merchant, Luzon Sukezaemon, went as far as to change his surname from Naya to
Luzon. In 900 AD, the lord-minister Jayadewa presented a document of debt forgiveness to
Lady Angkatan and her brother Bukah, the children of Namwaran. This is described in the
Philippines' oldest known document, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.[63]
Caboloan (Pangasinan)[edit]
Main article: Caboloan
Pangasinan or Feng-chia-hsi-lan in Chinese records, was a sovereign Prehispanic
Philippine state, notable for having traded with the Kingdom of Ryukyu, Japan and was a
tributary state to Ming Dynasty. The Chinese records of this kingdom began when the first
tributary King (Wang in Chinese), Kamayin, sent an envoy offering gifts to the Chinese
Emperor.[64] The state occupies the current province of Pangasinan. It was locally known
the Luyag na Kaboloan (also spelled Caboloan), with Binalatongan as its capital, existed in the
fertile Agno River valley. It flourished around the same period,
the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires arose in Indonesia which had extended their influence to
much of the Malay Archipelago. Urduja, a legendary woman warrior, is believed to have ruled in
Pangasinan around the 14th century. The Luyag na Kaboloan expanded the territory and
influence of Pangasinan to what are now the neighboring provinces of Zambales, La
Union, Tarlac, Benguet, Nueva Ecija, and Nueva Vizcaya. Pangasinan enjoyed full
independence until the Spanish conquest.
In the sixteenth century Pangasinan was called the "Port of Japan" by the Spanish. The locals
wore native apparel typical of other maritime Southeast Asian ethnic groups in addition to
Japanese and Chinese silks. Even common people were clad in Chinese and Japanese cotton
garments. They also blackened their teeth and were disgusted by the white teeth of foreigners,
which were likened to that of animals. Also, used porcelain jars typical of Japanese and Chinese
households. Japanese-style gunpowder weapons were also encountered in naval battles in the
area.[1] In exchange for these goods, traders from all over Asia would come to trade primarily for
gold and slaves, but also for deerskins, civet and other local products. Other than a notably
more extensive trade network with Japan and China, they were culturally similar to other Luzon
groups to the south.
The Nation of Ma-i[edit]
Main article: Ma-i
Around 1225, the nation of Ma-i, a pre-Hispanic Philippine island-state centered
in Mindoro,[65] flourished as an entrepôt, attracting traders and shipping from the Kingdom
ofRyukyu to the Empire of Japan.[66] Chao Jukua, a customs inspector in Fukien province, China
wrote the Zhufan Zhi ("Description of the Barbarous Peoples"[67]), which described trade with this
pre-colonial Philippine state. Its people were noted for their honesty and trustworthiness in
trade.[68]
The Kedatuan of Madja-as[edit]
Main article: Madja-as

Images from the Boxer Codex illustrating an ancient kadatuan ortumao (noble class)Visayan couple.
 A royal couple of the Visayans.

A Visayan princess.

During the 11th century several exiled datus of the collapsing empire of Srivijaya[69] led
by Datu Puti led a mass migration to the central islands of the Philippines, fleeing from Rajah
Makatunao of the island of Borneo. Upon reaching the island of Panay and purchasing the
island from Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they established a confederation of polities and named it
the Kedatuan of Madja-ascentered in Aklan and they settled the surrounding islands of
the Visayas. This confederation reached its peak under Datu Padojinog. During his reign the
confederations' hegemony extended over most of the islands of Visayas. Its people consistently
made piratical attacks against Chineseimperial shipping.[70]
The Rajahnate of Cebu[edit]
Main article: Rajahnate of Cebu
Trading at Port of Sugbu, Chinese, Anamese, Cambodian, Europeans and Arabs entered and traded at
the Cebu Port. Gold, cotton, and slaves were bartered in exchange of silk, porcelain, beads, and other
metals. Traders paid tribute to the Rajah of Cebu.

The Rajahnate of Cebu was a classical Philippine state which used to exist on Cebu island prior
to the arrival of the Spanish. It was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise known as Rajamuda
Lumaya, a minor prince of the Hindu Chola dynasty which happened to occupy Sumatra-
Indonesia. He was sent by the maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces to subdue
the local kingdoms but he rebelled and established his own independent Rajahnate instead. This
rajahnate warred against the 'magalos' (Slave traders) of Maguindanao and had an alliance with
the Rajahnate of Butuan and Indianized Kutai in South Borneo, before it was weakened by the
insurrection of Datu Lapu-Lapu.[71]
The Rajahnate of Butuan[edit]
Main article: Rajahnate of Butuan

Rajahnate of Butuan

The Butuan Ivory Seal, displayed at the National Museum of the Philippines. The Kawi script lettering says "But-
wan" and the smaller lettering (similar toBaybayin) says "Bu-wa" (diacritics for the "Wan/Ban" in Kawi and
"Bu/Ba" in the smaller letters have worn off).

A silver strip excavated from the 1970s in Butuan inside of a wooden coffin. The characters display a Hindu-
Buddhist influence, probably a form of early writing in the Philippines. (c. 14th–15th century).

By year 1011, Rajah Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of the Indianized Rajahnate of Butuan, a
maritime-state famous for its goldwork[72] sent a trade envoy under ambassador Likan-shieh to
the Chinese Imperial Court demanding equal diplomatic status with other states.[73] The request
being approved, it opened up direct commercial links with the Rajahnate of Butuan and the
Chinese Empire thereby diminishing the monopoly on Chinese trade previously enjoyed by their
rivals, Tondo and the Champacivilization.[74] Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate is given
by the Butuan Silver Paleograph.[75]
The Sultanate of Sulu[edit]
Main article: Sultanate of Sulu
The official flag of the Royal Sultanate of Sulu under the guidance of Ampun Sultan Muedzul Lail Tan
Kiramof Sulu.

In 1380, Karim ul' Makdum and Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab trader born in Johore,
arrived in Sulu from Malacca and established the Sultanate of Sulu by converting its previous
ruler, the Hindu king, Rajah Baguinda, to Islam and then marrying his daughter. This sultanate
eventually gained great wealth due to its diving for fine pearls.[76]
The Sultanate of Maguindanao[edit]
Main article: Sultanate of Maguindanao

The bust of Sultan Muhammad Kudarat of Maguindanao at Rizal Park.

The Sultanate of Maguindanao rose to prominence at the end of the 15th century, Shariff
Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and he
subsequently married Paramisuli, an Iranun Princess
from Mindanao, and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao.[77] It ruled most parts of
Mindanao and continued to exist prior to the Spanish colonization until the 19th century. The
Sultanate also traded and maintained good relations with the Chinese, Dutch, and the
British.[78][79]
The Sultanate of Lanao[edit]
Main article: Confederation of sultanates in Lanao
The Sultanates of Lanao in Mindanao, Philippines were founded in the 16th century through the
influence of Shariff Kabungsuan, who was enthroned as first Sultan of Maguindanao in 1520.
Islam was introduced to the area by Muslim missionaries and traders from the Middle East,
Indian and Malay regions who propagated Islam to Sulu and Maguindanao. Unlike in Sulu and
Maguindanao, the Sultanate system in Lanao was uniquely decentralized. The area was divided
into Four Principalities of Lanao or the Pat a Pangampong a Ranao which are composed of a
number of royal houses (Sapolo ago Nem a Panoroganan or The Sixteen (16) Royal Houses)
with specific territorial jurisdictions within mainland Mindanao. This decentralized structure of
royal power in Lanao was adopted by the founders, and maintained up to the present day, in
recognition of the shared power and prestige of the ruling clans in the area, emphasizing the
values of unity of the nation (kaiisaisa o bangsa), patronage (kaseselai) and fraternity
(kapapagaria). By the 16th century, Islam had spread to other parts of the Visayas and Luzon.
The Bruneian Empire and the expansion of Islam[edit]
Main article: Bruneian Empire

Prior to the usage of the Arabic stylemerged with Modernist style common inmosque architecture in
the Philippines today, the mosques of the Philippines used to be the vernacular hut-style and Pagoda-
style, which were common until the late 19th century.

During the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521, the Islamized Bruneian Empire decided to
break the Dynasty of Tondo's monopoly in the China trade by attacking Tondo and defeating
Rajah Gambang and then establishing the State of Selurong (Kingdom of Maynila) as a
Bruneian satellite-state.[3][80] A new dynasty under the Islamized Rajah Salalila[81] was also
established to challenge the House of Lakandula in Tondo.[82] In addition to establishing the
satellite state of Manila, Sultan Bolkiah also married Laila Mecana, the daughter of Sulu Sultan
Amir Ul-Ombra to expand Brunei's influence in both Luzon and Mindanao. Furthermore, Islam
was further strengthened by the arrival to the Philippines of traders and proselytizers from
Malaysia and Indonesia.[83]
Concurrent with the spread of Islam in the Philippine archipelago, was the rise of
the Lucoes who were the people of Luzon. They rose to prominence by participating in trading
ventures and military campaigns in Myanmar, Malacca and East Timor[84][85][86] where they were
employed as traders and mercenaries.[87][88][89]
Around 1563 AD, at the closing stages of the precolonial era, the Kedatuan of
Dapitan in Bohol achieved prominence and it was known to a later Spanish missionary, Alcina,
as the "Venice of the Visayas", because it was a wealthy, wooden and floating city-state in the
Visayas. However, this kedatuan was eventually attacked and destroyed by soldiers from
the Sultanate of Ternate, a state made up of Muslim Papuan people. The survivors of the
destruction, led by their datu, Pagbuaya, migrated to northern Mindanao and established a new
Dapitan there. Eventually, in vengeance against the Muslims and Portuguese allied to the
Ternateans, they aided the Spanish in the conquest of Muslim Manila and in the Spanish
expeditions to capture Portuguese Ternate. There was also a simmering territorial conflict
between the Polity of Tondo and the Bruneian vassal-state, the Islamic Rajahnate of Maynila, to
which the ruler of Maynila, Rajah Matanda, sought military assistance against Tondo from his
relatives at the Sultanate of Brunei.[90] The Hindu Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu also endured
slave raids from, and waged wars against the Sultanate of Maguindanao.[91]Simultaneous with
these slave-raids, was the rebellion of Datu Lapu-Lapu of Mactan against Rajah Humabon of
Cebu.[92] The sparse population and the multiple states competing over the limited territory and
people of the islands simplified Spanish colonization by allowing its conquistadors to effectively
employ a strategy of divide and conquerfor rapid conquest.

Spanish settlement and rule (1565–1898)[edit]

Main article: History of the Philippines (1521–1898)
Early Spanish expeditions and conquests[edit]
Main article: Spanish-Moro Conflict

Ferdinand Magellanarrived in the Philippines in 1521.

Parts of the Philippine Islands were known to Europeans before the 1521 Spanish expedition
around the world led by Portuguese-born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan (the Portuguese
conquered Malacca City in 1511 and reached Maluku Islands in 1512 ). Magellan landed on the
island called Homonhon, claiming the islands he saw for Spain, and naming them Islas de San
Lázaro.[93] He established friendly relations with some of the local leaders especially with Rajah
Humabon and converted some of them to Roman Catholicism.[93] In the Philippines, they
explored many islands including the island of Mactan. However, Magellan was killed during
the Battle of Mactan against the local datu, Lapu-Lapu.
Old Spanish Chart of the Philippine Islands

Over the next several decades, other Spanish expeditions were dispatched to the islands. In
1543, Ruy López de Villalobos led an expedition to the islands and gave the name Las Islas
Filipinas (after Philip II of Spain) to the islands of Samar and Leyte.[94]The name was then
extended to the entire archipelago later on in the Spanish era.

A late 17th-century manuscript by Gaspar de San Agustin from the Archive of the Indies, depicting López
de Legazpi's conquest of the Philippines

European colonization began in earnest when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpiarrived
from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first European settlements in Cebu. Beginning with just five
ships and five hundred men accompanied by Augustinian monks, and further strengthened in
1567 by two hundred soldiers, he was able to repel the Portuguese and create the foundations
for the colonization of the Archipelago. In 1571, the Spanish, their Latin-American recruits and
their Visayan allies attacked and occupied the kingdom of Tondo as well as Maynila, a vassal-
state of the Brunei Sultanate, establishing Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies.[95][96]
 Monument in Lapu-Lapu City, Cebuin the Philippines.

Legazpi built a fort in Maynila and made overtures of friendship to Lakan Dula, Lakan of Tondo,
who accepted. However, Maynila's former ruler, the Muslim rajah, Rajah Sulayman, who was a
vassal to the Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to Legazpi, but failed to get the support of
Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and Pangasinan settlements to the north. When Tarik
Sulayman and a force of Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim warriors attacked the Spaniards in
the battle of Bankusay, he was finally defeated and killed.
In 1578, the Castilian War erupted between the Christian Spaniards and Muslim Bruneians over
control of the Philippine archipelago. On one side, the newly Christianized Non-Muslim Visayans
of the Kedatuan of Madja-as and Rajahnate of Cebu, plus the Rajahnate of Butuan (which were
from northern Mindanao), as well as the remnants of the Kedatuan of Dapitan had previously
waged war against the Sultanate of Suluand Kingdom of Maynila, then joined the Spanish in the
war against the Bruneian Empire and its allies, the Bruneian puppet-state of Maynila and Sulu
which had dynastic links with Brunei. The Spanish and its Visayan allies assaulted Brunei and
seized its capital, Kota Batu. This was achieved as a result in part of the assistance rendered to
them by two noblemen, Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had traveled to
Manila to offer Brunei as a tributary of Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his
brother, Saiful Rijal.[97] The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei,
Pengiran Seri Lela would indeed become the Sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the
new Bendahara. In March 1578, the Spanish fleet, led by De Sande himself, acting as Capitán
General, started their journey towards Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spaniards,
1,500 Filipino natives and 300 Borneans.[98]The campaign was one of many, which also included
action in Mindanao and Sulu.[99][100]
 Miguel López de Legazpi

The Spanish succeeded in invading the capital on April 16, 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri
Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar
were forced to flee to Meragang then to Jerudong. In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the
conquering army away from Brunei. The Spanish suffered heavy losses due to
a cholera or dysentery outbreak.[101][102] They were so weakened by the illness that they decided
to abandon Brunei to return to Manila on June 26, 1578, after just 72 days. Before doing so, they
burned the mosque, a high structure with a five-tier roof.[103]
Pengiran Seri Lela died in August–September 1578, probably from the same illness that had
afflicted his Spanish allies, although there was suspicion he could have been poisoned by the
ruling Sultan. Seri Lela's daughter, the Bruneian princess, left with the Spanish and went on to
marry a Christian Tagalog, named Agustín de Legazpi of Tondo and had children in the
Philippines.[104]
In 1587, Magat Salamat, one of the children of Lakan Dula, along with Lakan Dula's nephew and
lords of the neighboring areas of Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan,
were executed when the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587–1588 failed[105] in which a planned grand
alliance with the Japanese Christian-captain, Gayo, and Brunei's Sultan, would have restored
the old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the execution of
Magat Salamat (the crown-prince of Tondo).[106] Thereafter, some of the conspirators were exiled
to Guam or Guerrero, Mexico.
Spanish power was further consolidated after Miguel López de Legazpi's complete assimilation
of Madja-as, his subjugation of Rajah Tupas, the Rajah of Cebu and Juan de Salcedo's
conquest of the provinces of Zambales, La Union, Ilocos, the coast of Cagayan, and the
ransacking of the Chinese warlord Limahong's pirate kingdom in Pangasinan.
The Spanish also invaded Northern Taiwan and Ternate in Indonesia, using Filipino warriors,
before they were driven out by the Dutch.[107]
The Spanish and the Moros of the sultanates of Maguindanao, Lanao and Sulu also waged
many wars over hundreds of years in theSpanish-Moro conflict, not until the 19th century did
Spain succeed in defeating the Sulu Sultanate and taking Mindanao under nominal suzerainty.
The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of
the Reconquista, a centuries-long campaign to retake and rechristianize the Spanish homeland
which was invaded by the Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Spanish expeditions into the
Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero-Islamic world conflict[108] that included a rivalry with
the Ottoman Caliphate which had a center of operations at its nearby vassal, the Sultanate of
Aceh.[109]
Spanish settlement during the 16th and 17th centuries [edit]

The sketch of the Plaza de Roma Manila by Fernando Brambila, a member of the Malaspina
Expedition during their stop in Manila in 1792.

Bahay na bato, a typical Filipino urban house during the colonial era

The "Memoria de las Encomiendas en las Islas" of 1591, just twenty years after the conquest of
Luzon, reveals a remarkable progress in the work of colonization and the spread of
Christianity.[110] A cathedral was built in the city of Manila with an episcopal palace, Augustinian,
Dominican and Franciscan monasteries and a Jesuit house. The king maintained a hospital for
the Spanish settlers and there was another hospital for the natives run by the Franciscans. In
order to defend the settlements the Spaniards established in the Philippines, a network of
military fortresses called "Presidios" were constructed and officered by the Spaniards, and
sentried by Latin-Americans and Filipinos, across the archipelago, to protect it from foreign
nations such as the Portuguese, British and Dutch as well as raiding Muslims
and Wokou.[111] The Manila garrison was composed of roughly four hundred Spanish soldiers
and the area of Intramuros as well as its surroundings, were initially settled by 1200 Spanish
families.[112] In Cebu City, at the Visayas, the settlement received a total of 2,100 soldier-settlers
from New Spain.[113] At the immediate south of Manila, Mexicans were present at Ermita[114] and
at Cavite[115][116][117] where they were stationed as sentries. In addition, men conscripted from Peru,
were also sent to settle Zamboanga City in Mindanao, to wage war upon Muslim
pirates.[118] There were also communities of Spanish-Mestizos that developed
in Iloilo,[119] Negros[120] and Vigan.[121]Interactions between native Filipinos and immigrant
Spaniards, Latin-Americans and their Spanish-Mestizo descendants eventually caused the
formation of a new language, Chavacano, a creole of Mexican Spanish. Meanwhile, in the
suburb of Tondo, there was a convent run by Franciscan friars and another by the Dominicans
that offered Christian education to the Chinese converted to Christianity. The same report
reveals that in and around Manila were collected 9,410 tributes, indicating a population of about
30,640 who were under the instruction of thirteen missionaries (ministers of doctrine), apart from
the monks in monasteries. In the former province of Pampanga the population estimate was
74,700 and 28 missionaries. In Pangasinan 2,400 people with eight missionaries. In Cagayan
and islands Babuyanes 96,000 people but no missionaries. In La Laguna 48,400 people with 27
missionaries. In Bicol and Camarines Catanduanes islands 86,640 people with fifteen
missionaries. Based on the tribute counts, the total founding population of Spanish-Philippines
was 667,612 people,[122] of which: 20,000 were Chinese migrant traders,[123] 16,500 were Latino
soldier-colonists sent from Peru and Mexico,[124] 3,000 were Japanese residents,[125] and 600
were pure Spaniards from Europe,[126] there was also a large but unknown number of Indian
Filipinos, the rest were Malays and Negritos. They were under the care of 140 missionaries, of
which 79 were Augustinians, nine Dominicans and 42 Franciscans.[127]

Maria Clara gown

The fragmented and sparsely populated[128] nature of the islands made it easy for Spanish
colonization. The Spanish then brought political unification to most of the Philippine archipelago
via the conquest of the various small maritime states although they were unable to fully
incorporate parts of the sultanates of Mindanao and the areas where the ethnic groups and
highland plutocracy of the animist Ifugaoof Northern Luzon were established. The Spanish
introduced elements of weste