2

1∂
∇ φ+ (𝛁. 𝑨) = −ρ
c ∂t
2
2
1 ∂ 𝑨 1 ∂𝜑
∇ A− 2 2
− 𝛁 𝛁. 𝑨 + = −𝑱
c ∂t c ∂t
 1 ∂φ
𝛁. 𝑨 + =0
c ∂t

2 1 ∂2 φ
 −∇ φ + =ρ
c2 ∂t2

2 1 ∂2 𝑨
 −∇ 𝑨 + =𝑱
c2 ∂t2

ξ(𝒓, t) = −S(𝒓, t)
  ξ 𝒓, t = dωe−iωt ξω 𝒓

 S 𝒓, t = dωe−iωt Sω 𝒓

2 2
∇ + k ξω 𝒓 = −Sω (𝒓) ω
(where k = )
c
where
Using ξω 𝒓 = ′
dx S 𝒓 ′ ′
G(𝒓, 𝒓 ) ; ∇2 + k2 G(𝒓, 𝒓′ ) = −δ3 (𝒓 − 𝒓′ )

1 𝒓 − 𝒓′ 𝒓 − 𝒓′
ξ 𝒓, t ~ d3 r ′ [αS 𝒓′, t − + β S 𝒓′, t +
𝒓 − 𝒓′ c c
 1 𝒓 − 𝒓′ 𝒓 − 𝒓′
ξ 𝒓, t ~ d3 r ′ [α S 𝒓′, t − + β S 𝒓′, t +
𝒓 − 𝒓′ c c
Type equation here.
Set β=0 Sources in the
′
𝒓 − 𝒓 future
𝑱 𝒓′ , 𝑡 −
3 𝑐
𝑨 𝒓, t ~ d r′
𝒓 − 𝒓′
𝒓, t
Sources in the
′
𝒓 − 𝒓 past
ρ 𝒓′ , 𝑡 −
3 𝑐
φ 𝒓, t ~ d r′
𝒓 − 𝒓′
 𝛁. 𝑨 = 0

∇2 φ(𝒓, t) ~ − ρ(𝒓, t)

2 ′
2
1 ∂ 𝑨(𝐫, t) 3 ′
𝑱 𝒓 ,𝑡
∇ 𝑨(𝐫, t) − 2 2
= −𝑱(𝐫, t) − 𝛁 d r (𝛁. ′
)
c ∂t 𝒓−𝒓
 ′ ′ ′
3 ′
𝑱 𝒓 ,t 3 ′
𝑱 𝒓 ,t 2 3 ′
𝑱 𝒓 ,t
𝛁x𝛁x d r ′
= 𝛁(𝛁. d r ) − ∇ d r
𝒓−𝒓 𝒓 − 𝒓′ 𝒓 − 𝒓′

3 ′ ′
1
= −𝛁 d r 𝑱 𝒓 ,t .𝛁 + 𝑱 𝒓, t
𝒓 − 𝒓′
′
3 ′ ′
𝑱 𝒓 ,t
=𝛁 𝑑 𝑟 (𝛁 . ′
) + 𝑱 𝒓, t
𝒓−𝒓
′
𝑱 𝒓 ,t ′
′ 𝑱 𝒓 ,t
𝑱 𝒓, t = 𝛁x𝛁x d3 r ′ 𝒓−𝒓′ −𝛁 𝑑 𝑟 3 ′
(𝛁 . 𝒓−𝒓′ )

Solenoidal/Transverse Current Irrotational/Longitudinal Current

  𝛻 2 φ(𝒓, t) ~ − ρ(𝒓, t)

2
2
1 𝜕 𝑨 𝐫, t 1 𝑱 𝒓′ , 𝑡
(∇ 𝑨 𝐫, t − 2 2
= −𝑱 𝐫, t − 2 𝛁 d3 r ′ 𝛁. = −𝑱 𝐫, t + −𝑱𝒍 𝐫, t )
c 𝜕t c 𝒓 − 𝒓′

 𝑨𝒕 𝐫, t ~ − 𝑱𝒕 𝐫, t
 ′
3 ′
ρ 𝒓 ,t
φ 𝒓, t = d r
𝒓 − 𝒓′

Potential at time t Source at time t

Causality Instantaneous
Coulomb
Interaction
𝑱 𝒓, t = 𝑱 𝒓, ω 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 ∂𝑨 𝒓, 𝑡
𝑬 𝒓, t = −𝛁φ 𝒓, t −
∂t
ρ 𝒓, t = ρ 𝒓, t 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

′ ′
𝒓 − 𝒓 𝒓 − 𝒓
𝑱 𝒓′ , t − ρ 𝒓′ , t −
𝑳 3 ′ 𝑐 3 ′ 𝑐
𝑬 𝒓, t = iω 𝑑 𝑟 − 𝛁 𝑑 𝑟
𝒓 − 𝒓′ 𝒓 − 𝒓′

′
𝒓 − 𝒓
𝑱𝒕 𝒓′ , t − ρ 𝒓 ′
,t
𝑐
𝑬𝑪 𝒓, t = iω 𝑑 3 𝑟 ′ 3 ′
− 𝛁 𝑑 𝑟
𝒓 − 𝒓′ 𝒓 − 𝒓′
 Retarded Green’s Function => Dr (𝒓 − 𝒓′ , t − t′)
2
1 ∂
(∇2 − 2 2 )Dr (𝒓 − 𝒓′ , t − t′)~ δ3 (𝒓 − 𝒓′)δ(t − t′)
c ∂t

′ 3 ′ ∂2 1
 Transverse Projection Operator=> 𝑷ij 𝒓, 𝒓 = δij δ 𝒓 − 𝒓 −
∂xi ∂x′j 𝒓−𝒓′

′ ∂2 1
 Longitudinal Projection Operator=> 𝑻ij 𝒓, 𝒓 ~
∂xi ∂x′j 𝒓−𝒓′
 Any Vector can be written as:-
𝑺 𝒓′
𝑺 𝒓 ~ − ∇2 d3 r′
𝒓− 𝒓′ 𝒓 − 𝒓′
𝑱 𝒓′ , 𝑡 −
𝑐
𝑨 𝒓, t ~ d3 r′
𝒓 − 𝒓′
𝑺 𝒓′ 𝑺 𝒓′
= 𝛁x𝛁x d3 r′ − 𝛁. (𝛁 d3 r′ )
𝒓 − 𝒓′ 𝒓− 𝒓′

𝑨 𝐫, t ~ d3 r′dt′Dr (𝒓 − 𝒓′ , t − t′) 𝑱 𝒓′ , 𝑡′
= d3 r′ 𝑻ij 𝒓, 𝒓′ 𝑺𝒊 𝒓′ 𝑒𝑗 + d3 r′𝑷ij 𝒓, 𝒓′ 𝑺𝒋 𝒓′ 𝑒𝑖
𝑨 = Dr 𝑱

𝑨t = 𝑷Dr 𝑱 = Dr 𝑱𝒕 𝑺𝑻 𝒓′ ~P𝑺 𝒓′
𝑺𝑳 𝒓′ ~𝑇𝑺 𝒓′
𝑨𝒕 𝐫, t ~ d3 r′ d3 r′′ dt′′ 𝑷ij 𝒓, 𝒓′ Dr 𝒓′ − 𝒓′′ , t − t′′ 𝑨𝒕 𝐫, t ~ d3 r′ d3 r′′ dt′′ Dr 𝒓′ − r, t − t′′

𝑱𝒋 𝑟′′, 𝑡′′ 𝑒𝑖 𝑷ij 𝒓′′, 𝒓′ 𝑱𝒋 𝑟′′, 𝑡′′ 𝑒𝑖

 ′ 𝒓 − 𝒓′
𝑱𝒕 𝒓 ,t − 𝑐 ρ 𝒓 ′
,t
𝑬𝑪 𝒓, t = iω 𝑑 3 𝑟 ′ 3 ′
− 𝛁 𝑑 𝑟
𝒓 − 𝒓′ 𝒓 − 𝒓′

′′ ′
3
𝑱𝒊 𝒓 , ω 𝑖𝜔 𝒓−𝒓′′ 𝜕 3 ′
ρi 𝒓 ,t
= iω 𝑑 r′′ ′
𝑒 − 𝑑 𝑟
𝒓−𝒓 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝒓 − 𝒓′

′′ 2
𝑱𝒊 𝒓 , ω ∂ 1
−iω d3 r ′ d3 r′′ 𝑒 𝑖𝜔 𝒓−𝒓′
𝒓 − 𝒓′ ∂xi ∂xj′ 𝒓′′ − 𝒓′
 Integrating the last term by parts we get

𝑖𝜔 𝒓−𝒓′
3 ′𝑒 3 ′ ∂ 1 𝜕 ′′
3rd term = iω d r d r 𝑱(𝒓 , ω)
𝒓−𝒓′ ∂x ′ 𝒓−𝒓′ 𝜕𝑥𝑗 ′′
i

𝑖𝜔 𝒓−𝒓′
2 2 𝑒 3
Using (∇ +𝜔 ) ~ − 𝛿 (𝒓 − 𝒓′ ) and
𝒓−𝒓′

∂ ′′ ′′
′′
𝑱 𝒓 , ω − iωρ 𝒓 , ω = 0
∂xj
We get
𝑖𝜔 𝒓−𝒓′ ′′ ′′
3 ′ 2𝑒 𝜕 3 ′′ ρ 𝒓 ,ω 𝜕 3 ′′ ρ 𝒓 ,ω
3rd term = d r ∇ { d r }+ d r
𝒓−𝒓′ 𝜕𝑥′𝑖 𝒓′′−𝒓′ 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝒓′′−𝒓′
 𝑬𝑪𝒊 𝒓, ω
′′
3
𝑱 𝒊 𝒓 , ω 𝑖𝜔 𝒓−𝒓′′ ∂ 3
ρ 𝒓′′, ω 𝑖𝜔 𝒓−𝒓′′
= iω d r′′ ′
𝑒 − d r′′ ′
𝑒
𝒓−𝒓 ∂𝑥𝑖 𝒓−𝒓

Taking the Fourier inverse

transform, we retrieve

𝑪 𝑳
𝑬 𝒓, t = 𝑬 𝒓, t
References :-

1) Classical Electrodynamics by J.D. Jackson

2) Introduction to Electrodynamics by D.J.

Griffiths

3) Causality in the Coulomb Gauge

O. L. Brill and B. Goodman
American Journal of Physics 35, 832 (1967)