User’s Guide - WARP3D Residual Stress-Strains

Appendix K

Modeling Residual Strains-Stresses

K.1 General
The treatment of residual strains-stresses (RSS) often represents a key challenge in fatigue-
fracture assessment of structural components. Sources of RSS may include: peening operations,
cold forming, thermally induced deformations from welding, other non-homogeneous thermal
loading, general strain incompatibility and transformation stresses from additive manufacturing
processes. Withers [1] presents an extensive review on many aspects of measuring and modeling
residual stresses-strains.
In WARP3D, RSS are effects that exist in a model prior to the introduction of one or more
cracks. These schemes exist to define/create RSS in a WARP3D model:
• The user inputs stress components (but not strains) for one or more elements using the
initial conditions command as described in Chapter 2,
• Eigenstrains are created at analysis startup via a combination of specified temperatures and
isotropic-anisotropic thermal expansion coefficients that vary spatially over the model,
• The user defines a thermo-mechanical loading history on the model that generates residual
inelastic deformations and corresponding residual stresses upon removal of the mechanical
and thermal loading. This approach is often termed process simulation, e.g., bead-by-bead
weld simulation, cold forming, peening, etc.
The initial conditions approach may provide a suitable approximation to capture residual stress
effects, for example, where code mandated residual (secondary) stresses (ASME, API . . . )
must be included in stress-intensity factor computations. Such stresses may have a simple
one-dimensional form and do not represent an equilibrium field when imposed on the model.
In more specific cases, residual stresses may be obtained from experimental measurements or
from computations using other codes to capture outcomes from certain physical processes, e.g.,
powder-based additive manufacturing. The residual stresses in these situations may have all six
components but still not define an equilibrium field, nor are residual stresses generally known
everywhere over the model. The values are transferred to the WARP3D model using the initial
conditions commands.
Eigenstrains define a complementary approach to user-defined residual stresses. Under
linear-elastic conditions the two approaches are interchangeable. See [4] for discussion and
references therein on principles of the eigenstrain concept applied to fracture mechanics mod-
eling.
In the third approach, WARP3D provides the capability to perform complex, thermo-
mechanical process simulation that generates both residual stresses and inelastic (plastic)
strains prior to introduction of one or more cracks. Residual stresses define an equilibrium
field in the unloaded model consistent with the displacement boundary conditions – eigen-
strains or user-defined residual stresses may also be included as part of the loading history.
As a consequence of the process simulation, material states (e.g., flow stress) may develop

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User’s Guide - WARP3D Residual Stress-Strains

strong spatial variation over the model that impacts subsequent behavior. A crack (or multiple
cracks) are introduced, further thermo-mechanical loading applied and with the possibility of
crack extension.
Common objectives of analyses to incorporate RSS effects include computation of the frac-
ture driving forces (K, J, CTOD) immediately upon introduction of a crack into the residual
field, and the further evolution of crack driving forces, primarily J and CTOD, with additional
thermo-mechanical loading.
Chapter 4 provides an extensive development of the J-integral for 3D applications to in-
clude effects of finite strains, inhomogeneous material properties, thermal and crack face load-
ing, inertia, strain-rate, and RSS. The computations employ a domain integral formulation to
evaluate the various contributions leading to point-by-point J-values along general 3D crack
fronts. With all the appropriate terms included, path (domain) independent or nearly path
independent values may be obtained for many types of simulations.

K.2 Initial-State Framework

To reflect inelastic deformations in the model prior to crack introduction, the J-integral pro-
cedures in WARP3D adopt a generalized form of the initial state framework (see Chapter 4
and key references [2,3]). Via commands described in Chapter 2 (Solution Parameters), users
request that the initial state option be set active at analysis startup and either then, or at
some later point in the simulation, set the load(time) step to establish the initial state (i.e.,
the stress-strain fields at completion of that step).
Using small-strains and ignoring inertia/crack-face loading contributions for clarity of pre-
sentation here, the domain integral for the initial-state framework then has the form

Z " #
1 ∂ui ∂q ∂q ∂εij
Jmean (Lc ) = σij −W − W,1 q + σij q dV (K.1)
Aq V ∂x1 ∂xj ∂x1 ∂x1
The work density, W , and strain terms, εij , have these adjustments for the initial state set by
the user to be at completion of step nis
∂εij ∂  total  
= εij − ε0ij n (K.2)
∂x1 ∂x1 is

 
ε0ij n = εij − εeij

(K.3)
is nis

W = W total − W p |nis (K.4)

where εeij denotes the elastic strains and W p denotes the plastic (non-recoverable) contribution
to the work density. Aq is the area under the q-function along crack front segment Lc (full
details in Chapter 4). Jmean denotes the mean value of J over front segment Lc in the standard
domain integral framework.
Equation (K.1) represents the most general form the J-integral without crack-face load-
ing and inertia terms. WARP3D computes this form when the user activates the initial-state
framework. Effects of thermal loading and inhomogeneous elastic/thermal (e.g., functionally
graded) material properties are captured. This form also captures contributions from differences

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in stress-strain fields predicted by flow and deformation plasticity theories although such differ-
ences in many monotonic loading situations remain negligible. The standard (Rice) J-integral
assumes the last two terms sum to zero and adopts a simpler form to include temperature
loading effects. Further, the standard J form sets W = W total in the second term. Chapter 4
provides an extensive discussion on these topics.
WARP3D also includes the last two terms of the integrand when the model has explicitly-
defined, functionally graded material properties. Simulations with functionally graded elas-
tic/thermal material properties require the last two terms (explicit partial derivatives) for path
independence even without the initial-state framework. Section 4.2.10 summaries in more detail
all contributions to the J-integral for solutions with and without the initial-state option.

K.3 Scenarios
The following subsections describe common scenarios that arise to incorporate RSS in analyses
for the purpose of computing values of the J-integral and how to employ features of WARP3D.

K.3.1 Linear-Elastic Materials with Residual Stress Initial Conditions

The residual stresses are input via the initial conditions commands. The crack may exist in the
model at time zero or be introduced using release constraints after the solution of (equilibrium)
step one. The solutions will be identical for both approaches. No use of the initial state concept is
required. J-values computed after step one and subsequent steps of imposed thermo-mechanical
loading will be path independent under the usual conditions of adequate mesh refinement.
Materials may have user-declared, functionally-graded elastic/thermal properties defined
via nodal values (Chapter 2, Material Definitions). WARP3D then automatically includes the
last two terms in Eq. (K.1) which also capture effects of applied thermal loading after step one.
In more common situations, elastic/thermal properties of materials are set directly in the
material definition commands (to define materials A, B, C, ... ; a model element is then assigned
one of these materials). The thermal properties for each material may be isotropic or general
anisotropic. When thermal loading is detected in the model, WARP3D assumes the thermal
properties are anisotropic/spatially varying and computes the corresponding contribution to J
using the simplified method described in Chapter 4 (the J6 term).

K.3.2 Nonlinear Materials with Residual Stress Initial Conditions

The residual stresses are input via the initial conditions command. The crack(s) should not
exist in the model at time zero. The defined loading for step one may be of vanishingly small
magnitude just to satisfy the solution consistency checks. The solution of load step one then
defines an equilibrium configuration consistent with the displacement boundary conditions and
the residual stresses – in rare instances the residual stress field may already be in equilibrium.
Inelastic deformations may occur during the solution for this step.
The crack is introduced after the solution for step one using the release constraints command
described Chapter 2 (Nodal Constraints). The number of steps specified over which to relax
reaction forces at formerly constrained nodes may impact the resulting strain-stress fields and
J-values. Similarly, releasing all crack-face nodes simultaneously or incrementally (to simulate
crack extension) likely will impact J-values. Both situations arise from strain-path dependency
of the nonlinear constitutive models, for example, J2 flow theory (see discussions in [2]).

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User’s Guide - WARP3D Residual Stress-Strains

The J-integral values at various crack-front locations are computed for the residual stress
effects alone after the solution of load step two (assuming only one step used for constraint
release).
Additional thermo-mechanical loadings may be imposed on the model as required with
J-integral computations requested after various steps in the continued simulation.
Because the initial-state option triggers computation of the last two terms in Eq. (K.1), no
special cases arise with functionally-graded materials, anisotropic thermal properties, etc.
The input should include these options under the nonlinear analysis parameters command
sequence

...
nonlinear analysis parameters
....
initial state option on
initial state step 1
...

K.3.3 Linear/Nonlinear Materials with Eigenstrains

The eigenstrain approach most often employs linear-elastic material properties but that is not
a requirement. The (incompatible) eigenstrains generate stresses which may cause plastic flow.
Eigenstrain solutions in WARP3D generally follow one of these approaches:
• spatially varying isotropic/anisotropic thermal expansion coefficients are defined on each
element using a convenient form of material property input for this specific purpose. See
Chapter 2 section on Anisotropic Thermal Expansion coefficients,
• isotropic values of the thermal expansion coefficient are defined at model nodes using the
functionally-graded property input. See Chapter 2 section on Nodal Values of Material
Properties. This scheme supports only isotropic values of the expansion coefficients at this
time.
Initial model loading then consists often of a simple, uniform temperature imposed on all nodes.
Linear-Elastic Materials
The crack may exist in the model at analysis startup or be created via release constraints. The
displacement, strain-stress fields are identical in both cases as are J-values. No initial-state
framework is required.
For the first scheme above, WARP3D computes the temperature contribution to the J-
values using term J6 as described in Chapter 4 which yields path independent (total) J-values.
The last two terms in Eq. (K.1) are set to zero. Severe discontinuities in the expansion coef-
ficients along the crack x1 direction will cause some path dependence. A smoother transition
restores path independence.
For the second scheme above, WARP3D sets J6 ≡ 0 and includes the last two terms of
Eq. (K.1) to capture both the temperature effects and the gradients of thermal expansion
coefficients (and possibly gradients of E, ν). Path independent values are also achieved provided
the mesh is sufficiently refined to represent the derivatives of W and εij . With evaluation of

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J including the last two terms, the path independence is less sensitive to discontinuities in
expansion coefficients.
Nonlinear Materials
For a model with an existing crack at analysis startup, eigenstrains may cause plastic flow in
load step 1. No initial state is required for this case. J-values are computed as described above
for each method to create the eigenstrains.
For a modeling scheme that introduces a crack after load step one (the equilibrium step),
activate the initial state framework and set load step one as the initial state (same procedure
as above for Nonlinear Materials with Residual Stress Initial conditions). If plastic flow occurs
from the eigenstrain during the equilibrium step, the initial state computations will reflect them
in the J computations. For a linear-elastic equilibrium step, the initial state has no effect.

K.3.4 Nonlinear Materials and Process Simulation

The crack(s) should not exist in the model at time zero. Execute a nonlinear simulation under
the desired loading history – mechanical + thermal + dynamic (if needed) – using any number
of load steps and analysis restarts as required. The loading history may include user-defined
residual stresses using initial conditions or eigenstrains. To simplify the present discussion, let
load step 650 be the last step of this loading history – under the assumption that this step
number may not be known before the simulation.
The crack(s) is introduced after the solution for step 650 using the release constraints
command described Chapter 2 (Nodal Constraints). The number of steps specified over which
to relax reaction forces at formerly constrained nodes may impact the resulting strain-stress
fields and J-values. Similarly, releasing all crack-face nodes simultaneously or incrementally (to
simulate crack extension) likely will impact J-values. Both situations arise from strain-path
dependency of the nonlinear constitutive models, for example, J2 flow theory (see discussions
in [2]).
The J-integral values at various crack-front locations are computed for effects of the RSS
field acting alone after the solution of load step 651 (assuming only one step used for constraint
release). Here it is assumed that externally imposed mechanical and thermal loadings are re-
duced to zero by the completion of load step 650. The magnitude of the incremental imposed
loading in step 651 may be vanishingly small just to satisfy internal consistency checking.
After solution for step 651, additional thermo-mechanical loadings may be imposed on the
model as required with J-integral computations requested after various steps in the continued
simulation.
Because the initial-state option triggers computation of the last two terms in Eq. (K.1),
no special cases arise with thermal loading, functionally-graded materials, anisotropic thermal
properties, etc.
Analysis restarts may be useful over the simulation history to review the evolving response
as a guide to setting subsequent imposed loading.
The initial model input should include

...
nonlinear analysis parameters

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...
initial state option on
...

In the example used here for illustration, the initial-state step of 650 may not be known at
analysis startup. Once it becomes known, use the command sequence

...
nonlinear analysis parameters
initial state step 650
...

which must be input before the solution begins for step 650.

K.3.5 References
[1] P. J. Withers. Residual stress and its role in failure. Reports on Progress in Physics, Vol. 70, pgs.
2211-2264, 2007. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/70/12/R04.
[2] Y. Lei, N.P O’Dowd, and G. A. Webster. Fracture mechanics analysis of a crack in a residual stress
field. International Journal of Fracture, Vol. 106, pgs. 195-216, 2000. doi.org/10.1023/A:1026574400858.
[3] W. A. Meith and M. R. Hill. Domain-independent values of the J-integral for cracks in three-
dimensional residual stress bearing bodies. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 69, pgs. 1301-1314,
2002. doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7944(02)00007-3.
[4] R. L. Ribeiro and M. R. Hill. A benchmark fracture mechanics solution for a two-dimensional eigen-
strain problem considering residual stress, the stress intensity factor, and superposition. Engineering
Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 163, pgs. 313-326, 2016. doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2016.06.007.

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