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Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens
Leo Tolstoy was one of the world’s pre-eminent writers Lewis Carroll was born, Charles Lutwidge Dodgson,
becoming famous through his epic novels War and on 27 January 1832. His family came from the North
Peace and Anna Karenina. of England and had strong connections with the
Towards the end of his life, Leo Tolstoy became Anglican church. His father was a strong
increasingly interested in a version of pacifist conservative in the Anglican church.
Christianity with support for a strand of Anarchist As a child, he showed prodigious intellectual capacities. He excelled at Maths
Communism. His exposition of pacifism and non- and was a great reader. After an unhappy few years at Rugby school, he
violence had a profound influence on others – most moved to Christ Church College where he studied Maths. With little work
notably Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King. and great natural talent, he gained a first in Honour Maths and was later
“The hero of my tale, whom I love with all the power of awarded a studentship. He spent the next 26 years teaching Maths at Christ
my soul, whom I have tried to portray in all his beauty, Church.
In many ways, teaching was not an ideal job for Carroll, who was afflicted the West of America. He ended up in Virginia City, Nevada where he briefly
with a stammer which made giving lectures difficult. Also, he found that worked as a miner before becoming a writer for the local Virginia City
many of his students were uninterested in his subject. Nevertheless, for newspaper.
those interested, Carroll would devise difficult mathematical puzzles and By 1865, he had his first major publishing success – “The Celebrated
questions of logic. He could easily lose himself in complex mathematical Jumping Frog of Calaveras County“. This was a humorous tall tale which
problems. Throughout his life, he sought to suggest solutions for many brought him much success. The popular acclaim for this first publishing
issues from rules for postage to rules for tennis tournaments and betting success led to further travelling opportunities including a tour of Europe and
rules. the Middle East. This journey gave him material for his humorous travel
In 1856, Henry Liddell and his family moved to Christ Church for Henry to diary – ‘The Innocents Abroad’ (1869). Humour was an important element
work as Dean. Carroll became close to the Liddell family and their children. in Twain’s writings and speeches.
He would often take the three sisters, Lorina, Edith and Alice on boating “Humor is the great thing, the saving thing. The minute it crops up, all our
expeditions around the River Thames and Nuneham Courtney. It was on one hardnesses yield, all our irritations and resentments flit away and a sunny
of these expeditions, that he first gained inspiration for the ‘Alice in spirit takes their place.” (1899)
Wonderland’ Story. Twain’s quick wit helped to make him one of the most famous Americans of
Christ Church College, Oxford, photo Tejvan his generation.
Carroll was quite shy at the prospect of publishing, however, he was “Always acknowledge a fault. This will throw those in authority off their
encouraged by Alice Liddell. Also when he showed the manuscript to his guard and give you an opportunity to commit more.”
friend and mentor George MacDonald, he received more encouragement to ― Mark Twain
publish. In 1870, Mark Twain married Olivia Langdon. Olivia came from a wealthy
The book was a great commercial success and earned Carroll a significant and liberal NY family, who cultivated a wide circle of liberal and progressive
sum of money. The Alice In Wonderland stories were pioneering in offering activists. Through his wife, he met people such as Harriet Beecher Stowe and
a nonsensical childhood fantasy tale – quite different to the more pious utopian socialist William Dean Howells. It was a very different society to the
Victorian tales of morality. The story revolves around a seven-year-old Alice, conservative slave state of Missouri where he had been brought up. He also
who falls asleep in a meadow and plunges down a rabbit hole. There, Alice became friendly with Helen Keller; Twain was instrumental in helping to
enters a fantasy world of bizarre and wonderful characters such as the Mat finance Keller’s education and was deeply impressed by her courage in
Hatter and the Cheshire Cat. Though seen as a children’s book at the time. It overcoming her deafblindness.
influenced many later literary figures such as W.H. Auden, Bertrand Russell Twain noted that he became more radical as his life progressed. He said that
and Virginia Woolf. Its humour can be seen in books such as Catch 22. after an initial spell of enthusiasm for imperialism he became very
In the middle of writing these fantasy stories, Carroll also wrote two suspicious of imperialist motives, e.g., he was critical of American
mathematical works Condensation of Determinants (1866) and An intervention in the Philippines. Twain became vice-president of the
Elementary Treatise on Determinants (1867); these established his American Anti-Imperialist League in 1901 until his death in 1910.
reputation as a significant mathematician. It is ironic that the great logical Twain was also a staunch supporter of abolition and black emancipation. He
mind of Carroll invented a world of Alice in Wonderland where logic failed said that Lincoln’s Proclamation ‘Not only set the black slaves free but set
to apply. the white man free also.’
His last major work was The Hunting of the Snark (1876) a nonsensical The early works of Twain were generally light-hearted and humorous.
poem which many have tried to decipher. However, as his writing and life developed, his books and articles
“He had bought a large map representing the sea, increasingly became more serious and focused on the pressing social issues
Without the least vestige of land: facing America.
And the crew were much pleased when they found it to be “I have no color prejudices nor caste prejudices nor creed prejudices. All I
A map they could all understand.” care to know is that a man is a human being, and that is enough for me; he
– Fit the Second: The Bellman’s Speech can’t be any worse.”
But, Carroll himself wrote: “I’m very much afraid I didn’t mean anything Harper’s Magazine, Sept. 1899
but nonsense!” With the same deft touch and comic turn, Twain became a satirist on the
Despite writing under a pseudonym, Carroll was still taken aback by the cruelties and injustice of mankind and gave vent to his deeply held beliefs.
publicity generated by his books. Apart from a short visit to Germany he It is Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn which are considered Twain’s
remained at Christ Church throughout his life. greatest achievements. Hemingway later wrote that:
Lewis Carroll became interested in the new activity of photography and took “All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain
many portraits of friends, developing a dark room in Tom Quad, Christ called, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.”
Church. These photographs included photos of naked children, usually girls. After working briefly for the Buffalo Express newspaper, Twain took his
Opinions have differed, on the sexuality of Carroll, but it is worth noting family and three daughters to live in Hartford, Connecticut. The family lived
taken similar photos were quite common in Victorian England. there for 17 years, and this gave Mark Twain a firm base to devote himself to
He remained a bachelor throughout his life. It was expected that as a Senior writing. It was here that he wrote his best-known books – The Adventures of
student at Christ Church, Carroll would become ordained as a priest in the Tom Sawyer (1876), and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1864) As his
Anglican church. However, Carroll requested to avoid being made a priest. fame and profile grew, Twain gained a substantial income through his
Though this was against college rules of the time, it was allowed for Carroll. writing. However, unfortunately, he lost a small fortune through a misplaced
His relationship with the Anglican church remained uncertain. Towards the investment in the Paige typesetting machines. He is estimated to have lost
end of his life, he took an interest in new religious movements such as $300,000 before it was made obsolete by the newly developed Linotype.
Theosophy. Though he remained a quiet reserve outwardly, he never the Combined with money lost through his own publishing house, Twain faced
shared the same enthusiasm for the High church that his father and bankruptcy but was saved with the help of financier Henry Rogers. Twain
contemporaries at Christ Church did. then worked hard – undertaking a worldwide lecture tour to pay off his
Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “Biography of Lewis Carroll”, Oxford, UK debts in full.
www.biographyonline.net, Published 22nd Jan 2011. Last updated 22 Feb Despite a successful writing career and worldwide fame – which included an
2018. honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford – Twain suffered
depression from painful personal tragedies. At an early age, Twain lost his
first son. But, it was the death of his daughter, Sudsy, in 1896, which brought
about an onset of real depression. This was further complicated by the death
Oscar Wilde alive through his scintillating repertoire of wit and biting humour.
“Relations are simply a tedious pack of people, who haven’t got the remotest
knowledge of how to live, nor the smallest instinct about when to die.”
Oscar Wilde is one of the most iconic figures from late – Algernon, Act I
Victorian society. Enjoying a meteoric rise to the top of “Thirty-five is a very attractive age. London society is full of women of the
society, his wit, humour and intelligence shine through very highest birth who have, of their own free choice, remained thirty-five
his plays and writings. However, due to his sexuality, he for years.”
suffered the indignity and shame of imprisonment. For a – Lady Bracknell, Act III
long time, his name was synonymous with scandal and Wilde was not an overtly political commentator, but through his plays, there
intrigue. However, with changing social attitudes, he is is an underlying critique of social norms that are illumined for their
remembered with greater affection for his biting social absurdities.
criticism, wit and linguistic skills. Wilde remains a fascinating character; someone who lived life to the full,
“To get back my youth I would do anything in the world, except take experiencing both the joy and tragedy of society’s vacillating judgements.
exercise, get up early or be respectable.” With the distance of over a century, it is easier to judge Wilde for his unique
– Oscar Wilde contributions to literature rather than through the eyes of Victorian moral
Short biography Oscar Wilde standards. His quotes have become immortal a fitting tribute to a genius of
Oscar Wilde was born on 16 October 1854 in Dublin, Ireland. His parents the witticism
were well known and attracted a degree of gossip for their extravagant “I am so clever that sometimes I don’t understand a single word of what I am
lifestyles. In 1864, his father Wille Wilde was knighted for his services to saying.”
medicine. -Oscar Wilde
As Stephen Fry wrote of Oscar Wilde.
Oscar Wilde proved to be a student of great talent. He was awarded a “What of Wilde the man? He stood for Art. He stood for nothing less all his
scholarship to Trinity College Dublin. Here he studied the classics, in life. He is still enormously underestimated as an artist and a thinker.. Wilde
particular developing an interest in the Greek philosophers and the was a great writer and a great man.”
Hellenistic view of life. From Trinity College, he won a scholarship to Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “Biography of Oscar Wilde”, Oxford, UK
Magdalen College, Oxford University. He enjoyed his time in Oxford and was www.biographyonline.net, 22nd Nov. 2006. Last updated 8 February 2018.
able to develop his poetic sensibilities and love of literature. He also became
more conscious of his bisexual nature. For his increasingly “feminine” style
dress he often received stick from more “traditional” Oxford students. He
was a brilliant scholar, but also increasingly rebellious. In one academic
year, he got rusticated for turning up to College three weeks after the start of
term. Thus, after a while, he lost interest in pursuing an academic career in Virginia Woolf
Oxford and moved to London. It was in London that he was able to skillfully Virginia Woolf was a British modernist writer. She
enter into high society, soon becoming well known as a playwright and noted was a prominent figure in inter-war literary circles
wit. Oscar Wilde became famous throughout London society. He was one of and a member of the Bloomsbury Group.
the early “celebrities” – in some respects, he was famous for being famous.
His dress was a target for satire in the cartoons, but Wilde didn’t seem to She was born in London, in 1882. Her father, Sir
mind. In fact, he learnt the art of self-publicity and seemed to revel in it, at Leslie Stephen, was a notable historian, author and
least up until his trial in 1898. editor of the Dictionary of National Biography. Her
mother Julia Stephen was also well connected in
On 18 February 1895, the Marquess of Queensbury (who devised the cultural circles and acted as a model for the Pre-
Queensbury’s rules for boxing) left a calling card accusing Wilde of sodomy. Raphaelite artists and photographers.
Wilde initiated a private libel against Queensbury for defamation. Virginia was educated at her Kensington home by her
Queensbury was arrested and so hired a private detective to find evidence parents with her step-brothers and stepsisters. She
that Wilde was involved in homosexual behaviour with young men. At the later took lessons at the Ladies’ department of Kings
trial, Wilde defended himself with his usual wit and flippancy, but the College, London. Her brothers went to Cambridge, and although Virginia
counsel for the Marquees William Carson Esq. was able to provide factual resented not being able to study at Cambridge, through her brothers, she
evidence and testimonies of male prostitutes who were willing to testify later became involved in the circle of Cambridge graduates.
against Wilde. Realising he had miscalculated, Wilde dropped his libel case When Virginia was 13, the death of her mother left a profound mark on her,
but became liable for the financial cost (which left him bankrupt) and she had a nervous breakdown. This nervous breakdown was the
Shortly, after the case ended, a warrant was issued for Wilde’s arrest under beginning of a lifetime of mood swings – manic depression and she
Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 – which outlawed frequently sought treatment for her mental instability but struggled to find
homosexuality – even between consenting adults. any cure.
Oscar Wilde’s trial gripped the nation, the subject matter a source of intense These mood swings made social life more difficult, but she still became
gossip and speculation in the press. The trial moved to a quick conclusion friendly with some of the leading literary and cultural figures of the day,
and Wilde was found guilty. For his “crime” of homosexual acts, Wilde was including Rupert Brooke, John Maynard Keynes, Clive Bell and Saxon
given the maximum jail sentence of two years hard labour in Wandsworth Sydney-Turner. These group of literary figures became known as the
and then Reading Gaol. It is no understatement to say this experience deeply Bloomsbury Group.
shocked and affected the previously ebullient Wilde. During this time she had an active correspondence with suffragettes such as
In some respects he never really recovered; on his release, he left for Paris Mrs Fawcett, Emily Pankhurst and others. Although she never took part in
where he lived in comparative anonymity. However, he retained his wit and the activities of the suffragettes she wrote her clear support for the aims of
continued to write, heavily influenced by his chastening experiences. Of female emancipation.
these post gaol writings, his poem “Ballad of Reading Gaol” is perhaps the In 1912, Virginia married writer and critic Leonard Woolf, and though he
most well known, illustrating a new dimension to Wilde’s writing. was poor, the marriage was happy. Leonard was Jewish, and she was rather
I never saw a man who looked proud of his Jewishness – even though she has been accused of some anti-
With such a wistful eye Semitism in her works – often depicting Jews in a stereotypical way. The
Upon that little tent of blue couple were both appalled by the rise of fascism in the 1930s, and they were
Which prisoners call the sky, both on Hitler’s list of undesirable cultural figures.
And at every drifting cloud that went Virginia developed a love of literature from an early age, she had free access
With sails of silver by. to her father’s library, and was an avid reader. She began working as a
I walked, with other souls in pain, journalist, writing articles for the Times Literary Supplement in the early
Within another ring, 1900s. By 1915, she had written her first novel. – The Voyage Out. In 1917,
And was wondering if the man had done Virginia and Leonard founded the Hogarth Press which published her novels
A great or little thing, and later works by other writers, such as T.S.Eliot and Lauren van der Post.
When a voice behind me whispered low, She was considered a modernist author, for her experimentation in stream
“That fellow’s got to swing.” of consciousness writing, reminiscent of the period. Often her novels were
From: Ballad of Reading Gaol based on quite ordinary, even banal situations. But, she sought to explore
Although Wilde couldn’t return to his previous level of writing he developed the underlying psychological and emotional motives of the characters
new capacities, whilst retaining his sharp intellect. As Jonathon Fryer involved. She explored ideas of sexual ambivalence (she herself had a brief
commented on Oscar Wilde’s final part of life he was. lesbian affair with Vita Sackville-West,) shell shock from First World War,
“beaten but not bowed, still a clown behind a mask of tragedy.” and the rapid changes of society.
The Life of Wilde was turbulent and volatile – never short of incident. It Her three most important novels were Mrs. Dalloway (1925), To the
reflected his own inner paradoxes and revolutionary views. In some ways, he Lighthouse (1927) and The Waves (1931)
was both a saint and sinner at the same time. Rightly or wrongly Wilde is She was considered an important feminist writer and in A Room of One’s
remembered as much for his life as his writings. However he himself said. Own (1929), she discussed women’s writing in an economic and social
“I have put my talent into writing, my genius I have saved for living.” underpinning.
His writings reflect in part his paradoxical view of life, suggesting things “A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction.”
were not always as they appeared. As his biographer, Richard Ellman said of A Room of One’s Own (1929)
Wilde. During the Second World War, she became increasingly depressed, due to a
combination of the blitz and the return of her mental demons. Fearing she unusually specialised interest in languages. He enjoyed studying languages
was going mad again, she took her own life, filling her pockets with stones especially Greek, Anglo Saxon, and later at Oxford, Finnish.
and jumping into the River Ouse. Although a scholar at King Edward VI school, he initially failed to win a
Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “Biography of Virginia Wolf”, Oxford, scholarship to
UK. www.biographyonline.net 3 Feb. 2013.
Virginia Woolf – A Room of One’s Own Oxford. This was partly due to falling in love with his childhood sweetheart
Edith. On finding out about this romance, his guardian Father Francis
Virginia Woolf – A Room of One’s Own at Amazon Morgan, prohibited John from seeing Edith until he was 21 and no longer
under his care. Father Morgen made John promise not to see Edith, and
Virginia Woolf Quotes John reluctantly agreed to his request. John faithfully waited until his 21st
A Room of One’s Own (1929) birthday, and on this date, he renewed his contact with Edith and
The beauty of the world which is so soon to perish, has two edges, one of successfully persuaded her to marry him. It is a testament to his belief in
laughter, one of anguish, cutting the heart asunder. faithfulness and honesty that he was willing to wait several years to meet his
Ch. 1 (p. 17) wife; such sentiments of nobility frequently appear in his writings; for
Have you any notion how many books are written about women in the example, the magnificent love story of ‘Beren and Luthien’ (The Silmarillion
course of one year? Have you any notion how many are written by men? Are 1977).
you aware that you are, perhaps, the most discussed animal in the universe? J.R.R.Tolkien in Oxford
Ch. 2 (p. 26)
Women have served all these centuries as looking-glasses possessing the From an academic point of view, his separation from Edith seemed to do the
magic and delicious power of reflecting the figure of man at twice its natural trick, and a year later he won an exhibition at Exeter College, Oxford where
size. he would study classics. John did not particularly shine in this subject and
Ch. 2 (p. 35) grew to enjoy the pleasures of University life, though his meagre income
I would venture to guess than Anon, who wrote so many poems without made it difficult to keep up with the spending habits of more affluent
signing them, was often a woman. students. Uninspired by the classics, John was able to switch to his real love
Ch. 3 (p. 51) – English literature. He was a competent scholar, but a lot of his time was
Very often misquoted as “For most of history, Anonymous was a woman.” spent researching other languages in the Bodleian library. It was here in
For it needs little skill in psychology to be sure that a highly gifted girl who Oxford that he became fascinated with Finnish, a language which would
had tried to use her gift for poetry would have been so thwarted and form the basis for Quenya; a language he would later give to his Elves. His
hindered by other people, so tortured and pulled asunder by her own love of languages remained with Tolkien throughout his life; in particular, he
contrary instincts, that she must have lost her health and sanity to a began developing his own languages, a remarkable undertaking. In fact, he
certainty. later commented that languages lied at the heart of his Middle Earth
Ch. 3 (p. 51) creations. Tolkien said the stories existed to provide an opportunity to use
Literature is strewn with the wreckage of men who have minded beyond the languages. Devotees of the book may not agree, but it does illustrate the
reason the opinions of others. profound importance he attached to the use of language.
Ch. 3 (p. 58) J.R.R.Tolkien and the First World War
The history of men’s opposition to women’s emancipation is more At the outbreak of the First World War, J.R.R. Tolkien decided to finish off
interesting perhaps than the story of that emancipation itself. his degree before enlisting in 1916. Joining the Lancashire Fusiliers, he made
Ch. 3 (p. 72) it to the Western Front just before the great Somme offensive. At first hand,
Lock up your libraries if you like; but there is no gate, no lock, no bolt that J.R.R. Tolkien witnessed the horrors and carnage of the “Great War”; he lost
you can set upon the freedom of my mind. many close friends, tellingly he remarked “By 1918 all but one of my close
Ch. 4 (p. 90) friends were dead”. J.R.R. Tolkien survived, mainly due to the persistent re-
The Waves (1931) occurrence of trench fever, which saw him invalided back to England. He
But look – he flicks his hand to the back of his neck. For such gesture one rarely talked about his experiences directly, but the large-scale horrors of
falls hopelessly in love for a lifetime. war will undoubtedly have influenced his writings in some way. Perhaps the
p. 30 imagery for the wastelands of Mordor may have had a birth in the muddy
Here on this ring of grass we have sat together, bound by the tremendous horrors of the Western Front.
power of some inner compulsion. The trees wave, the clouds pass. The time It was back in England, in 1917, that J.R.R Tolkien began working on his epic
approaches when these soliloquies shall be shared. We shall not always give – “The Silmarillion“. The Silmarillion lies at the heart of all Tolkien’s
out a sound like a beaten gong as one sensation strikes and then another. mythology, it is a work he continually revised until his death in 1973. The
Children, our lives have been gongs striking; clamour and boasting; cries of Silmarillion makes hard reading, in that, it is not plot driven, but depicts the
despair; blows on the nape of the neck in gardens. history of a universe, through an almost biblical overview. It moves from the
pp. 39-40 Creation of the Universe to the introduction of evil and the rebellion of the
The Death of the Moth and Other Essays (1942) Noldor. It is in The Silmarillion that many roots from the Lord of the Rings
Once you begin to take yourself seriously as a leader or as a follower, as a stem. It gives the Lord of the Rings the impression of a real epic. It becomes
modern or as a conservative, then you become a self-conscious, biting, and not just a story, but also the history of an entire world and peoples.
scratching little animal whose work is not of the slightest value or Writing the Hobbit
importance to anybody. Initially, J.R.R Tolkien’s writings on The Silmarillion were known by very
The Moment and Other Essays (1948) few. He found his time absorbed in teaching and other duties of being a
‘If you do not tell the truth about yourself you cannot tell it about other professor. He also found time to write important papers on medieval
people. literature. These included seminal works on, Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight, and Beowulf. In 1945, he was given the Merton professorship and
gained additional duties of teaching and lecturing.
Granite and Rainbow (1958)
The extraordinary woman depends on the ordinary woman. It is only when The Hobbit
we know what were the conditions of the average woman’s life … it is only It was sometime after 1930 that Tolkien gained an unexpected inspiration to
when we can measure the way of life and the experience of life made possible start writing the Hobbit. It was whilst marking an examination paper that he
to the ordinary woman that we can account for the success or failure of the jotted in the margins of a paper the immortal words; “In a hole in the ground
extraordinary woman as a writer. lived a hobbit.” Unlike the Silmarillion, The Hobbit was a simple fairy tale
“Women and Fiction” and adventure for children. Hinting at evil things, it still ends in a happy
ending for all and is primarily concerned with a triumph of good over evil. In
the course of the next few years friends, including C.S. Lewis, read his
manuscript and gave good reviews. In the course of time, the publisher Allen
J.R.R Tolkien and Unwin were sent a copy. Rayner, the 10-year-old son of Mr Unwin, gave
a glowing reference and the Hobbit was published in 1937 to great
commercial success.
J R R Tolkien
J.R.R. Tolkien and C.S. Lewis
(1892 – 1973) English author, philologist and poet. J.R.R.Tolkien was good friends with C.S. Lewis and together they were key
Tolkien was best known for his fantasy creations of members of the ‘Inklings’ an informal Oxford literary club, where writers
Middle-Earth – writing The Hobbit, and the epic met together to read out poetry and short stories. Tolkien had a strong
trilogy ‘The Lord of the Rings’. The Lord of the Catholic faith throughout his life; he often discussed religion with C.S.Lewis.
Rings made him one of the best selling authors of Lewis later said that his conversations with Tolkien were a key factor in his
the Twentieth Century, spawning a new genre of decision to embrace Christianity. However, their relationship cooled over the
fantasy. years. There was a little friction over C.S.Lewis relationship with Joy
Davidson, but they remained firm friends and C.S.Lewis was always a stout
Early life J.R.R. Tolkien literary defender of Tolkien’s work. (Though Tolkien was somewhat less
J.R.R. Tolkien was born in 1892, Bloemfontein, South Africa. After three enthusiastic about the work of C.S.Lewis.)
years in South Africa, he returned to England with his Mother Mabel; Lord of the Rings
unfortunately, his father died one year later, leaving him with little memory Due to the success of The Hobbit, Allen and Unwin encouraged J.R.R.
of his father. His early childhood was, by all accounts, a happy one; he was Tolkien to write a sequel. Thus, over a period of many years, J.R.R. Tolkien
brought up in the Warwickshire countryside (many regard this idealised began writing The Lord of the Rings. This soon became quite different to
upbringing as the basis for the Shire in Lord of the Rings). The Hobbit, both in scope and dimension. Putting its roots into the
In 1904, when John was just 12, his mother Mabel died from diabetes characters and history of The Silmarillion, it became an epic of
leaving a profound mark on him and his brother. After his mother’s passing, unprecedented depth. No longer was Tolkien writing a simplistic adventure
he was brought up by the family’s Catholic priest, Father Francis Morgen. story; in The Lord of the Rings, the triumph of good over evil is no longer so
From an early age, J.R.R. Tolkien was an excellent scholar, with an complete. Even with the mission’s success, there is no obvious happy ending.
There is a feeling of permanent change – nothing can remain as it is. As well reluctant and unwilling convert. But, felt compelled to accept the evidence of
as being a fascinating storyline, the book deals with many issues of how faith. In his book, “Surprised by Joy” he writes that he came to Christianity:
people respond to certain choices and the influence of power and ego. It can “kicking, struggling, resentful, and darting his eyes in every direction for a
be read in many ways, but it does offer an underlying moral and spiritual chance to escape.”
dimension, which is inherent in the development of the story. C.S.Lewis became an influential apologist for Christianity through
Due to the sheer scope and length of the book, the publishers Allen and publications such as the “Screwtape Letters”. He concentrated on a more
Unwin were wary of publication. They worried about whether it would be a universal form of Christianity seeking to avoid the sectarianism that was
commercial success. Eventually, they decided to publish the book, but split it common in his native Northern Ireland. He rarely made any specific
up into six sections; they also offered no payment to J.R.R Tolkien, until the reference to a particular denomination of Christianity but sought to
book moved into profit. The first edition was published in 1954 and soon reinforce the underlying Christian values shared by all Christian faiths.
became a good seller. However, it was in 1965 when the book was published However, he always remained an Anglican and, to the disappointment of
in America, that it really took off becoming an international bestseller. Tolkien, he never converted to Roman Catholicism.
Somehow the book managed to capture the mood of the 1960s His Christian beliefs also influenced his more popular works such as the
counterculture, and it became immensely popular on American campuses. “Chronicles of Narnia”. Though he also includes ideas of Roman and Celtic
Tolkien became a household name, and The Lord of the Rings would soon myths, there are underlying Christian notions of sacrifice and Christ-like
become renowned as the most popular book of all time. actions. Lewis began writing The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe during
Although the book has received the most powerful popular acclaim, it has the Second World War. He was partly inspired by three evacuee children
not always received the same commendation from the literary world. In who came to stay in his home in Risinghurst (a suburb of Oxford). Lewis said
1972, Oxford University conferred on Tolkien the honorary degree of Doctor the experience of the evacuee children gave him a new perspective on the joy
of Letters. This was not for his writing, but his researches on linguistic of childhood. Lewis also remarked he had had an image of a Faun since he
studies. Tolkien, however, would have taken no offence at this award. For was about 16.
Tolkien, his linguistic studies were as important if not more so than his “The Lion all began with a picture of a Faun carrying an umbrella and
fictional literary endeavours. parcels in a snowy wood. This picture had been in my mind since I was about
He did not particularly enjoy the fame that came from his literary success, sixteen. Then one day, when I was about forty, I said to myself: ‘Let’s try to
and in 1968 he moved to Poole to gain a little more privacy. Speaking of his make a story about it.”
own simple tastes he described his similarity to hobbits. The seven book in the series were published one per year from 1950 to 1956.
“I am in fact a Hobbit (in all but size). I like gardens, trees, and They soon became a publishing success and have become a very influentials
unmechanized farmlands; I smoke a pipe, and like good plain food genre of children’s books.
(unrefrigerated), but detest French cooking; I like, and even dare to wear in After the Second World War, C.S.Lewis became increasingly close to Joy
these dull days, ornamental waistcoats. I am fond of mushrooms (out of a Gresham – a Jewish convert to Christianity who divorced her alcoholic
field); have a very simple sense of humour (which even my appreciative husband (the writer, William Gresham.) Joy later moved to Oxford and the
critics find tiresome); I go to bed late and get up late (when possible). I do two gained a civil marriage contract enabling Joy to live in the UK. C.S.Lewis
not travel much.” very much enjoyed the company of Joy, finding an ideal partner to share his
– Letter to Deborah Webster (25 October 1958) intellectual and spiritual interests. Joy Gresham died from cancer in 1957.
Their love story has been romanticised in the popular film – “Shadowlands.”
His wife Edith died in 1971, and J.R.R. Tolkien died a couple of years later in C.S.Lewis died a few years later in 1963 from renal failure. His death
1973. After his death, his creations gained increased popularity and sales. occurred on the same date as the assassination of J.F. Kennedy.
Even before the release of The Lord of the Rings films, the book, “Lord of the Since his death, his books and influence have continued to grow. He has
Rings” was often voted as best-loved books of all time. His son, Christopher been rated as one of the top English writers of all time and his books have
Tolkien, carefully went through all his manuscripts, and published been translated into numerous languages.
posthumously several histories of middle earth, encompassing various early
drafts of stories and histories.
Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “Biography of J.R.R. Tolkien”, Oxford, UK.
www.biographyonline.net, Published 1st Feb 2009. Last updated 30th
January 2017.
Ernest Hemingway
Ernest Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was
an American author and journalist whose unique,
understated writing style had a strong influence on
C.S. Lewis 20th-century fiction and culture.
Hemingway lived through the major conflicts of
Europe during the first half of the Twentieth-Century.
C.S. Lewis was an author, essayist and His war experiences led to powerful accounts, which
Christian apologist. He is best known for described the horrors of modern war. Two major books include; A Farewell
his children’s classic series – The to Arms (1929) – about the First World War, and For Whom the Bell Tolls
Chronicles of Narnia. (1940) – about the Spanish Civil War. Many of his books are considered
Clive Staples Lewis was born on 29 classics of American literature.
November 1898 and lived until 22
November 1963. He was born in Belfast, Hemingway was born in Oak Park, Illinois. After leaving school, he worked
North Ireland into a Protestant Ulster as a journalist for the Kansas City City Star. However, after a few months, he
family. Throughout his life, he retained enlisted with the Red Cross to volunteer as an ambulance driver. He was
strong roots to Ireland. He sought out the sent to the Italian front where he saw the horrors of the trench war. In 1918,
company of the Irish and took an active he was seriously wounded from mortar fire, and he was sent home to
interest in Celtic literature and myths. He recuperate. He was awarded the Italian Silver Medal of bravery for helping
was a keen admirer of the works of an Italian soldier – despite his injuries. He later wrote a fictional book, based
W.B.Yeats, at a time when he was on his experiences in the 1929 novel – A Farwell to Arms. The main
relatively unknown in England. character in the book is an ambulance driver who becomes disillusioned with
Lewis was educated at a variety of private tuition and public schools such as the war.
Malvern in Worcestershire. His time in public school was not particularly After recovering from his injuries, he moved to Chicago and then Paris,
happy, and he later wrote in disparaging times of how schoolboys were where he spent much of the inter-war years. He worked as a correspondent
mistreated. However, in 1916, Lewis was offered a scholarship at University for the Toronto Star and became acquainted with many modernist writers,
College, Oxford University. He proved an excellent student, ultimately, such as James Joyce, Gertrude Stein and Ezra Pound who lived in Paris at
gaining a triple first (the top classification in three different degrees). In the time.
1917, his university life was interrupted as he volunteered to join the British “If you are lucky enough to have lived in Paris as a young man, then
army in the First World War. He was transferred to the Somme valley where wherever you go for the rest of your life, it stays with you, for Paris is a
he took part in trench warfare. moveable feast.”
In the last months of the war, he was injured by a shell and was sent home to – Ernest Hemingway, A Moveable Feast
recuperate from his injuries. During his period of convalescence, he became In 1937, he went to Spain to cover the Spanish Civil war. He advocated
increasingly friendly with Mrs Moore – the mother of a close army friend international support for the Popular Front – who were fighting the fascist
Edward ‘Paddy’ Moore. He remained very close to Mrs Moore, often regime led by Franco. He later wrote a book – For Whom the Bell Tolls
referring to her as his mother until her death in the 1940s. (1940), which captures the struggles and brutality of the Spanish civil war.
On returning to Oxford, C.S.Lewis completed his degrees before taking up a During the Second World War, he continued to work as a foreign
post teaching English at Magdalen College, Oxford from 1925 to 1954. He correspondent. He was present at the Normandy landings and the liberation
was a prolific writer and formed a close friendship with other Oxford fellows of Paris.
such as J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, and Owen Barfield. They formed In the 1950s, Hemingway was involved in two plane crashes which left him
an informal group known as the ‘Inklings’. They would meet at pubs in severely injured and in pain for the rest of his life. He was awarded the
Oxford such as ‘The Eagle and Child’ where they would read parts of their Pulitzer Prize in 1953, and in October 1954, Hemingway was awarded the
novels. He encouraged Tolkien as he wrote his epic ‘The Lord of the Rings.’ Nobel Prize in Literature for:
C.S.Lewis and Christianity “his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in The Old
Lewis was brought up in the Protestant Church of Ireland, but as a teenager, Man and the Sea, and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary
he said he lost his faith – turned off by boring church services and the style.”
problem of evil in the world. However, after returning to Oxford in the post- Hemingway’s style had some similarities to other modernist writers. It was a
war period, he became increasingly perplexed by the existence of God and reaction against the more elaborate, turgid style of the nineteenth century.
Christianity. After many evening chats with friends such as J.R.R.Tolkien Hemingway’s writing was direct and minimalist – often leaving things
and Hugo Dyson, C.S.Lewis finally converted to belief in God (theism) in unstated, but at the same time profoundly moving for bringing the reader
1929 and became a Christian in 1931. C.S. Lewis later wrote he felt a into the heart of the story and experience.
“All good books are alike in that they are truer than if they had really and have become a classic literary account of this period. As well as the
happened and after you are finished reading one you will feel that all that social implications, Steinbeck also captured a poignant reference to a
happened to you and afterwards it all belongs to you: the good and the bad, mystical element of American farming land. The tragedy of the Great
the ecstasy, the remorse and sorrow, the people and the places and how the Depression heightened the missed opportunities to enable the American
weather was. If you can get so that you can give that to people, then you are a dream of cultivating the most fertile soil of the country.
writer.” Steinbeck’s subtle political commentary was also controversial. The book,
– Ernest Hemingway The Grapes of Wrath, was banned by the Kern County board of supervisors
Hemingway termed his style the Iceberg theory. from 1939-41. Steinbeck was an active supporter of the FDR’s Liberal New
“If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit Deal and had strong contacts with left-wing writers and labour union
things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will figures. In 1967, he went to Vietnam and wrote strongly in support of the
have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated war, which many felt was compromising his earlier liberal ideas. Steinbeck
them. The dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it complained of government harassment because of his political views,
being above water. A writer who omits things because he does not know arguing J. Edgar Hoover of the FBI encouraged the tax authorities to harass
them only makes hollow places in his writing.” him.
—Ernest Hemingway in Death in the Afternoon In 1942, he divorced his first wife and remarried, Gwendolyn Conger, they
Hemingway said the facts float above the water, but the structure is kept out had one child – John Steinbeck IV. During the Second World War, Steinbeck
of sight. Behind the minimalist prose is a great effort, but the result is wrote a novel inspired by the spirit of resistance to German occupation –
simplicity, immediacy and clarity. The Moon is Down (1942). He also served as a war correspondent; he saw
In 1959 he moved from Cuba to Ketchum Idaho. However, tragically action in the Mediterranean and North Africa. In 1944, he was wounded
tormented by the pain of the plane crashes, he committed suicide in the after a munitions explosion and returned home.
summer of 1961. After the war, he visited the Soviet Union with renowned photographer,
He was married four times. Robert Capa. He published his experiences in ‘A Russian Journal‘ it was a
“There are events which are so great that if a writer has participated in them rare American insight into post-revolutionary Russia.
his obligation is to write truly rather than assume the presumption of In 1948, Steinbeck experienced a period of mental depression after a close
altering them with invention.” friend, Ed Ricketts died in a motor accident, and his second wife insisted on
– Ernest Hemingway – Preface to The Great Crusade (1940) by Gustav divorce shortly after. Ricketts had encouraged much of Steinbeck’s writing
Regler during his most productive period in the late 1930s.
Selected list of works by Hemingway Steinbeck remarried for the third time in 1950. In 1952, he wrote his last
• Indian Camp (1926) great masterpiece, East of Eden
• The Sun Also Rises (1926) “And this I believe: that the free, exploring mind of the individual human is
• A Farewell to Arms (1929) the most valuable thing in the world. And this I would fight for: the freedom
• The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber (1935) of the mind to take any direction it wishes, undirected. And this I must fight
• For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940) against: any idea, religion, or government which limits or destroys the
• The Old Man and the Sea (1951) individual. This is what I am and what I am about.”
• A Moveable Feast (1964, posthumous) — John Steinbeck, East of Eden
• True at First Light (1999) In 1962, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. The Nobel
Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “Ernest Hemingway Biography”, Oxford, UK. Committee cited his great works Of Mice and Men, The Grapes of Wrath
www.biographyonline.net. 11th Feb 2013. Last updated 15 February 2018. and a recent novel ‘The Winter of Our Discontent‘. Steinbeck was typically
modest, questioning whether he really deserved it.
John Steinbeck
John Steinbeck (1902 – 1968) was an American writer best known for his After 1962, he didn’t write any more novels until his death in 1968.
novels about the social consequences of the Great Depression in America. Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “Biography of John Steinbeck“, Oxford, UK
His most famous works include Of Mice and Men (1937), The Grapes of www.biographyonline.net, 22 January 2013. Last updated 8 February 2018.
Wrath (1939) and East of Eden (1952). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature in 1962.
“The writer is delegated to declare and to celebrate man’s proven capacity for
greatness of heart and spirit—for gallantry in defeat, for courage,
compassion and love. In the endless war against weakness and despair, these
are the bright rally flags of hope and of emulation.”
George Orwell
—Steinbeck, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech 1962
George Orwell, (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950)
has proved to be one of the twentieth century’s
John Steinbeck most influential and thought-provoking writers.
His relatively small numbers of books have created
intense literary and political criticism. Orwell was
John Steinbeck was born on 27th February 1902 a socialist, but at the same time, he did not fit into
in Salinas, California. His family were any neat ideology. He is best known for his novels
descendants of German immigrants and lived in “1984” and “Animal Farm” – which both warn about the dangers of a
a small rural town. Steinbeck had a comfortable totalitarian state. Completed just after the Second World War, they touched
but modest upbringing. In the summer, he spent a chord because of contemporary fears over the growing influence of state
his time working on the nearby ranches to help control. He was foremost a political writer, but for Orwell, his object was not
with the harvest and earn money. His work on to promote a certain point of view but to arrive at the truth; exposing the
the farms gave him an insight into the life of hypocrisy and injustice prevalent in society.
migrant workers, and his experiences would Orwell’s Early life
later provide material for his greatest works. Orwell was born Eric Blair on 25 June 1903, in Motihari, Bihar, in India.
Steinbeck studied at Salinas High school, and then went to Stanford Shortly after his birth, he was taken by his mother back to Oxfordshire,
University in Palo Alto. Despite staying there for five years, he left without a England. His family were financially poor, but an aspiring middle-class
degree. In 1925, he left university and sought to establish himself as a writer family. Orwell described it as ‘lower-upper-middle-class’ – a reflection of the
in New York. However, he was unable to make a career for himself and he importance he felt the English attached to class labels.
was forced to support himself doing odd jobs. In 1928, discouraged, With his family unable to afford fees to a proper public school, he was
Steinbeck returned to California where he got a job as a caretaker in Tahoe educated at St Cyprian’s in Eastbourne, which served as a preliminary
city. Despite working full time, in 1929, he was able to get his first novel, Cup crammer to gaining a scholarship for public schools like Eton. In a later
of Gold, published. essay “Such, Such were the Joys” he was scathing of his time at St Cyprian’s
However, after a few years, Steinbeck received some financial support from noting how difficult it was to be happy in such a mean-spirited environment.
his father, this allowed him to give up his full-time job. Steinbeck was able to Aged 14, he was able to move to Eton, where he had better memories
devote more time to writing from his father’s cottage in Pacific Grove, because of the greater intellectual stimulation. However, the awareness of
Monterey, California. He also married Carol Henning in 1930. being much poorer than many of his school friends remained. He left Eton
In 1935, the novel ‘Tortilla Flat‘ was published to critical acclaim. The novel with firmly held “middle class” values but at the same time a sense of unease
was set in Monterey after World War One and portrays a bunch of homeless with his social position.
and classless men who reject the social mores of society. This novel was his After school, he was unable to afford university, and for want of a better
first major breakthrough and gave him the financial income and confidence option, Orwell took a job with the Burmese civil service. It was here in
to pursue writing other novels. Burma, that Orwell would begin to assert his independence from his
This period led to some of his most productive writing years. In particular, privileged upbringing. Revealingly, Orwell later told how he found himself
his short book ‘Of Mice and Men‘ (1939)and the epic novel – The Grapes of rooting for the local population, and despising the imperial ideology which
Wrath (1939) established his reputation as one of the pre-eminent modern he represented. He resigned from his position in 1927. In an essay Shooting
American writers. the Elephant he describes he feelings on Burma:
Of Mice and Men was a short story about two migrant workers, George “Theoretically and secretly of course, I was always for the Burmese and all
Milton and the mentally retarded Lennie Small who seek employment against the oppressors, the British. As for the job I was doing I hated it more
during the Great Depression. The Grapes of Wrath is a deeper discussion of bitterly than I can perhaps make clear” (1)
the social, economic and cultural implications of the Great Depression. It It was in the nature of George Orwell to try and see a situation from other
focuses on a family of poor tenant farmers and their difficulties during the people’s point of view. He was unhappy at accepting the conventional social
Great Depression; it offers a sympathetic account of migrant workers and is wisdom. In fact, he grew to despise his middle-class upbringing so much he
critical of capitalism. The Grapes of Wrath became the best selling book of decided to spend time as a tramp. He wanted to experience life from the
1939, and it led to Steinbeck being awarded the Pulitzer Prize for fiction. view of the gutter. His vivid experiences are recorded in his book “Down and
Both books captured the despair and personal cost of the Great Depression, out in Paris and London”. No longer could Orwell be described as a
“Champagne Socialist”; by living with the poorest and underprivileged, he perished in the Holocaust. During the Second World War her family were
gained a unique insight into the practical workings of working class ideas forced to hide from the Gestapo, and in the cramped conditions, she kept a
and working-class politics. diary of her experiences and thoughts. After the war, her father Otto Frank
The Road to Wigan Pier discovered her diary and, struck by her maturity and depth of
In the middle of the great depression, Orwell undertook another experience feeling, published it – originally under the title ‘Diary of A Young Girl‘ –
travelling to Wigan; an industrial town in Lancashire experiencing the full later as “Diary of Anne Frank”. Anne Frank’s diary has become one of the
effects of mass unemployment and poverty. Orwell freely admitted how, as a most famous records of the Holocaust and has helped to give a human story
young child, he was brought up to despise the working class. He vividly tells behind the dreadful Holocaust statistics.
how he was obsessed with the idea that the working classes smelt: “It’s difficult in times like these; ideals, dreams and cherished hopes rise
“At a distance.. I could agonise over their sufferings, but I still hated them within us, only to be crushed by grim reality. It’s a wonder I haven’t
and despised them when I came anywhere near them.” (2) abandoned all my ideals, they seem so absurd and impractical. Yet I cling to
The Road to Wigan Pier offered a penetrating insight into the condition of them because I believe, in spite of everything, that people are truly good at
the working classes. It was also a right of passage for Orwell to live amongst heart.”
the people he had once, from a distance, despised. The Road to Wigan Pier – Anne Frank 21 July 1944
inevitably had a political message, but characteristically of Orwell, it was not Anne Frank was born on 12 June 1929 in Frankfurt, Germany, In 1933 (the
all pleasing to the left. For example, it was less than flattering towards the same year as the Nazi’s rise to power) her family moved to Holland, where
Communist party. This was despite the book being promoted by a mostly her father ran a successful business.
Communist organisation – The Left Book club. However, after the fall of Holland to the Nazi’s in 1940, the Jewish
Orwell and the Spanish Civil War population experienced ever increasingly repressive measures.
It was fighting in the Spanish Civil war that Orwell came to really despise “After May 1940…the trouble started for the Jews. Our freedom was severely
Communist influences. In 1936, Orwell volunteered to fight for the restricted by a series of anti-Jewish decrees: Jews were required to wear a
fledgeling Spanish Republic, who at the time were fighting the Fascist forces yellow star; Jews were required to turn-in their bicycles; Jews were
of General Franco. It was a conflict that polarised nations. To the left, the forbidden to ride trams or in cars, even their own…Jews were forbidden to
war was a symbol of a real socialist revolution, based on the principles of go to theatres, cinemas or any other forms of entertainment; Jews were
equality and freedom. It was for these ideals that many international forbidden to use swimming pools, tennis courts, hockey fields or any other
volunteers, from around the world, went to Spain to fight on behalf of the athletic fields…You couldn’t do this and you couldn’t do that, but life went
Republic. Orwell found himself in the heart of the Socialist revolution in on…”
Barcelona. He was assigned to an Anarchist – Trotskyist party – P.O.U.M. – Anne Frank 20 June 1942
More than most other left-wing parties, they believed in the ideal of a real
Marxist revolution. To members of the P.O.U.M, the war was not just about Finally, to escape arrest, Otto Frank took his family into forced hiding,
fighting the Fascist menace but also delivering a Socialist revolution for the behind one of his business premises in the heart of Amsterdam. Her family
working classes. In his book, “Homage to Catalonia” Orwell writes of his were later joined by the Van Pels family who were also trying to avoid arrest.
experiences; he notes the inefficiency with which the Spanish fought even Anne’s diary tells of the difficulties of living in a confined space with so many
wars. He was enthused by the revolutionary fervour of some of his party people. The atmosphere was at times suffocating, but despite the hardships
members; however, one of the overriding impressions was his perceived and challenges of her situation, she also expressed her optimism and
betrayal of the Republic, by the Stalinist backed Communist party. positive view of life and a natural joie de vivre.
“the Communists stood not upon the extreme Left, but upon the extreme “I long to ride a bike, dance, whistle, look at the world, feel young and know
right. In reality this should come as no surprise, because the tactics of the that I’m free, and yet I can’t let it show. Just imagine what would happen if
Communist parties elsewhere” (3) all eight of us were to feel sorry for ourselves or walk around with the
Unwittingly he found himself engaged in a civil war amongst the left, as the discontent clearly visible on our faces. Where would that get us?” (December
Soviet Union backed Communist party turned on the Trotskyite factions like 24, 1943) – Anne Frank
P.O.U.M. In the end, Orwell narrowly escaped with his life, after being shot Unfortunately, on August 4th, 1944 (with the Allies closing in on a retreating
in the throat. He was able to return to England, but he had learnt at first Germany army), an anonymous source gave a tip off to the German secret
hand how revolutions could easily be betrayed; ideas that would later shape police. The families were arrested and sent on the last convoy train to
his seminal work “Animal Farm.” Auschwitz. After surviving the selection process (most people under 15 were
sent straight to the gas chambers), Anne was selected to be sent to Bergen-
Orwell at the BBC Belsen concentration camp. It was here that Anne contracted typhoid fever
During the Second World War, Orwell was declared unfit for active duty. He and she died in March 1945, just one month before the camp was liberated
actively supported the war effort from the start. (He didn’t wait for the by the advancing Allied armies.
Soviet Union to enter like some communists.) He also began writing for the Except for her father Otto, all her family died in various concentration
left-leaning magazine ‘The Tribune’ which was associated with the left of the camps. After the war, Otto returned to the place where they had hidden for
Labour Party. Orwell was appointed editor and was enthusiastic in two years. It was here that he found Anne’s diary and he decided to try and
supporting the radical Labour government of 1945, which implemented a get it published.
national health service, welfare state and nationalisation of major industries. Her diary was published in 1947 and, following a glowing article by Jan
However, Orwell was not just focused on politics, he took an active interest Romein in the newspaper Het Parool, became a best seller with people
in working class life and English culture. His short essays investigated fascinated by her writing and what she managed to convey in the most
aspects of English life from fish and chips to the eleven rules of making a difficult of situations.
good cup of tea. Her book has become an important symbol of how innocent people can
Orwell described himself as a secular humanist and could be critical of suffer from intolerance and persecution.
organised religion in his writings. However, he had a fondness for the social Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan “Diary of Anne Frank”, Oxford,
and cultural aspect of the Church of England and attended services www.biographyonline.net, 2nd Feb 2017.
intermittently.
Barnhill. Jura
He married Eileen O’Shaughnessy in 1936 and in 1944, they adopted a three-
week old child – Richard Horatio. Orwell was devastated when Eileen died
and sought to remarry – seeking a mother for his young son. He asked
several women for their hand in marriage, with Sonia Branwell accepting in
J.K.Rowling
1949 – despite Orwell’s increasingly poor health. Orwell was a heavy smoker Short Biography J K Rowling
and this affected his lungs causing bronchial problems. In the last years of J.K Rowling was born in Chipping Sodbury,
his life, he moved to a remote farm on the Scottish island of Jura to July 31st, 1965. Her childhood was generally
concentrate on his writings. Orwell passed away on 21 January 1950. His happy, although she does remember getting
friend David Astor helped him to be buried at Sutton Courtenay churchyard, teased because of her name, “Rowling” – She
Oxfordshire. recalls often getting called “Rowling pin” by
The two great novels of Orwell were “Animal Farm” and “1984”. Animal her less than ingenious school friends. J.K.
Farm is a simple allegory for revolutions which go wrong, based primarily on Rowling says she never really warmed to her
the Russian revolution. 1984 is a dystopian nightmare about the dangers of a own name, although, she does remember
totalitarian state which gains complete control over its citizens. having a fondness for the name Potter from
quite an early age. J.K.Rowling studied at St
Michael’s Primary School in Gloucestershire,
before moving to Chepstow, South Wales at
Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “Biography of George Orwell”, Oxford, the age of nine.
www.biographyonline.net 3 Feb. 2013. Last updated 4 Feb 2018. From an early age, J.K. Rowling had the ambition to be a writer. She often
Articles tried her hand at writing, although little came from her early efforts. Aged
• The Socialism of George Orwell six she wrote a book about a rabbit with measles. After her mother praised
• George Orwell Quotes her effort. Rowling replied ‘well get it published then.’ She admits it was a
References ‘Bit of an odd thing for a child of six to think. I don’t know where it came
• George Orwell, “Shooting an elephant”, George Orwell selected writings from…”
(1958) p.25 In her own autobiography, she remembers with great fondness, when her
• George Orwell, “Road to Wigan Pier” (Harmondswith) 1980 p.130 good friend Sean became the first person to give her the confidence that one
George Orwell, Homage to Catalonia 1959 p.58 day she would be able to make a very good writer.
“he was also the only person who thought I was bound to be a success at it,
Anne Frank which meant much more to me than I ever told him at the time” (1)
Sean was also the owner of a battered old Ford Anglia, which would later
appear in one of the Harry Potter series as a flying car.
Anne Frank (1929-45) was a young Jewish girl who After finishing school, her parents encouraged her to study French at the
her 2nd husband Neil Murray; J.K.Rowling has three children, two with
University of Exeter. She slightly regretted choosing French, saying she husband Neil.
would have preferred to study English. However, it was her parents wish Wealth of J.K.Rowling
that she study something “ more useful” than English. In 2017, according to Forbes, her estimated wealth stands at $650 million, it
After having spent a year in Paris, J.K.Rowling graduated from university would be higher but she has donated substantial sums to charity. The global
and took various jobs in London. One of her favourite jobs was working for Harry Potter brand is estimated to be worth £7 billion.
Amnesty International; the charity, which campaigns against human rights Charity Work of J.K.Rowling
abuses throughout the world. Amnesty International, is one of the many J.K.Rowling has contributed considerable sums to charities she supports.
charities, which J.K.Rowling has generously supported since she attained a This includes:
new found wealth. • Anti-Poverty. She is President of the Charity – One Parent Families
It was in 1990 that J.K.Rowling first conceived of the idea about Harry • Multiple sclerosis. She has contributed money to the research and
Potter. As she recalls, it was on a long train journey from Manchester to treatment of Multiple Sclerosis, which her mother suffered from.
London when she began forming in her mind, the characters of the series. At • Lumos – helping institutionalised children in Eastern Europe
the forefront, was a young boy, at that time not aware that he was a wizard. Political Views
The train was delayed for over four hours, but she didn’t have a pen and was She has publically supported the Labour party. In 2008, she donated £1
too shy to ask for one nothing, million to the Labour party, saying she felt vulnerable families would be
“To my immense frustration, I didn’t have a pen that worked, and I was too better off under a Labour government. She describes her political hero as
shy to ask anybody if I could borrow one.” Robert F.Kennedy.
But she remembers being very enthusiastic, and excited about the ideas Religious Views
which were filling her mind. J.K.Rowling states that she considers herself a Christian, and attends a local
On arriving at her flat in Clapham Junction, she began work on writing the Church of Scotland congregation. She said, that unlike other members in her
book immediately, although, it would take several years to come to fruition. family, she often had a deep interest in religion, and would go to churches
It was also in December of 1990 that J.K.Rowling lost her mother, who died alone. However, she also says that although she believes in God, at times she
of Multiple Sclerosis. J.K.Rowling was very close to her mother, and she felt doubts her faith.
the loss deeply. Her own loss gave an added poignancy to the death of Harry “I feel very drawn to religion, but at the same time I feel a lot of uncertainty.
Potter’s mother in her book. She says her favourite scene in the I live in a state of spiritual flux. I believe in the permanence of the soul.”
Philosopher’s Stone is, The Mirror of Erised, where Harry sees his parents in – J.K.Rowling (2008, interview in El Pais – a Spanish Newspaper)
the mirror. More facts about J.K. Rowling
In 1991, J.K.Rowling left England to get a job as an English teacher in Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “Biography J.K. Rowling”, Oxford,
Portugal. It was here that she met her first husband, Jorge Arantes – and UK. www.biographyonline.net – 12th Dec. 2016, Last Updated. 6th
together they had a child Jessica. However, after a couple of years, the November 2017.
couple split after a fierce argument; where by all accounts J.K.Rowling was
thrown out of the house.
In Dec 1993, Rowling returned to the UK, moving to Edinburgh where she
tried to finish her first book. She was surviving on state benefits and
bringing up her daughter as a single parent. She would often go to
Edinburgh cafes to work on the book whilst her child had a nap.
William Blake
Eventually, she finished her first copy of the Philosopher’s Stone’, and sent it
off to various agents. She found an agent, Christopher, who spent over a year
William Blake (November 28, 1757 – August 12,
trying to get a publisher. It was rejected by 12 major publishing houses. But,
1827) was an English poet, painter, and
eventually, a quite small publisher, Bloomsbury agreed to take the book on.
printmaker.
The editor Barry Cunningham also agreed to pay her an advance of £1500.
William Blake was one of England’s greatest
The decision to take on the book was, in large part, due to his eight-year-old
poets. He combined a lofty mysticism,
daughter’s enthusiastic reception of the first chapter (However she was
imagination and vision with an uncompromising
advised to continue her training as a teacher because she was told writers of
awareness of the harsh realities of life.
children’s books don’t tend to get very well paid.)
“Tyger, Tyger, burning bright
“There’s always room for a story that can transport people to another place. “
In the forests of the night,
– J.K.Rowling [1]
What immortal hand or eye
Within a few weeks of publication, (1996) book sales really started to take
Could frame thy fearful symmetry?”
off. The initial print run was of only 1,000 – 500 of which went to libraries.
– William Blake – The Tyger (from Songs of Experience)
First editions are now said to be worth up to £25,000 each. She also received
As a young boy, Blake recalls having a most revealing vision of seeing angels
a grant from the Scottish arts council, which enabled her to write full time.
in the trees. These mystical visions returned throughout his life, leaving a
After the books initial success in the UK, an American company Scholastic
profound mark on his poetry and outlook. William Blake was also
agreed to pay a remarkable £100,000 for the rights to publish in America. In
particularly sensitive to cruelty. His heart wept at the site of man’s
1998, Warner Bros secured the film rights to the books, giving a seven-figure
inhumanity to other men and children. In many ways he was also of radical
sum. The films have magnified the success of the books, making Harry
temperament, rebelling against the prevailing orthodoxy of the day. His
Potter into one of the most recognisable media products. Under the close
anger and frustration at the world can be seen in his collection of poems
guidance of J.K.Rowling, the films have sought to stay close to the original
“Songs of Experience”
plot; also at J.K.Rowling’s request all the actors are British and are filmed in
“How can the bird that is born for joy
Britain.
Sit in a cage and sing?
On the 21st December 2006, J.K.Rowling finished her final book of the
How can a child, when fears annoy,
Harry Potter Series – “Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows“. The book
But droop his tender wing,
was released in July 2007, becoming one of the fastest selling books of all
And forget his youthful spring!”
time. J.K.Rowling has said the book is her favourite, and it makes her both
– William Blake: The Schoolboy
happy and sad. She has said she will continue writing but there is little
But as well as writing poetry that revealed and exposed the harsh realities of
chance of continuing the Harry Potter Series. She has published a dictionary
life, William Blake never lost touch with his heavenly visions. Like a true
of things related to Hogwarts and Harry Potter, that were never published in
Seer he could see beyond the ordinary world and glimpsed the light of the
other books.
beyond.
Since the end of her Harry Potter series, she says she has finished some
“To see a world in a grain of sand
short stories, she also hinted on the Oprah Winfrey Show in 1st October
And heaven in a wild flower
2010, that an 8th book in the Harry Potter series is a possibility.
Hold infinity in the palm of your hand
On 27 September 2012, Rowling released the ‘Casual Vacancy’ an adult novel
And eternity in an hour.”
– to mixed reviews. In 2013, The Cuckoo’s Calling was published. Initially,
This poem from Auguries of Innocence is one of the most loved poems in the
the author was stated as being Robert Galbraith. But, this was a pseudonym
English language. Within four short lines he gives an impression of the
used by J.K.Rowling. After her authorship was discovered, sales went
infinite in the finite, and the eternal in the transient.
through the roof.
Short Bio of William Blake
J.K.Rowling and Media
William Blake was born in London, where he spent most of his life. His
J.K.Rowling has sought to protect her children from media intrusion. In
father was a successful London hosier and attracted by the Religious
2011, she gave testimony to the Leverson enquiry about how unscrupulous
teachings of Emmanuel Swedenborg. Blake was first educated at home,
reporters sought to intrude into her family’s privacy. After her books became
chiefly by his mother. Blake remained very close to his mother and wrote a
best-sellers, reporters would often be camped outside her home. J.K.
lot of poetry about her. Poems such as Cradle Song illustrate Blake’s fond
Rowling said:
memories for his upbringing by his mother:
“However, as interest in Harry Potter and myself increased, my family and I
Sweet dreams, form a shade
became the target of a different kind of journalistic activity. The effect on
O’er my lovely infant’s head;
me, and our family life, truly cannot be overstated. We were literally driven
Sweet dreams of pleasant streams
out of the first house I had ever owned (which faced almost directly onto the
By happy, silent, moony beams.
street) because of journalists banging on the door, questioning the
Sweet sleep, with soft down
neighbours and sitting in parked cars immediately outside the gate. Old
Weave thy brows an infant crown.
friendships were tested as journalists turned up on their doorsteps, and
Sweep sleep, Angel mild,
offered money for stories on me. “(J.K.Rowling’s Testimony to Leveson
Hover o’er my happy child.
Enquiry Nov 2011.)
– William Blake
After finding a letter from a journalist in her child’s satchel, she remarked:
His parents were broadly sympathetic with his artistic temperament and
“It’s very difficult to say how angry I felt that my 5-year-old daughter’s
they encouraged him to collect Italian prints. He found work as an engraver,
school was no longer a place of complete security from journalists.”
joining the trade at an early age. He found the early apprenticeship rather
J.K.Rowling currently lives in Scotland, on the banks of the river Tay, with
boring, but the skills he learnt proved useful throughout his artistic life.
During his lifetime Blake never made much money. It was only after his William and Mary had five children, though three died early.
death Lake District, North Windermere, near Grasmere
In 1807, he published another important volume of poetry “Poems, in Two
that his genius was fully appreciated. His engravings and commissioned Volumes“, this included famous poems such as; “I Wandered Lonely as a
work drew enough money to survive, but at times he had to rely on the Cloud”, “My Heart Leaps Up”, “Ode: Intimations of Immortality.”
support of some of his close friends. Because of Blake’s temperaments he I wandered lonely as a cloud
was not always suited to maintaining friendships. On one occasion he got That floats on high o’er vales and hills,
into trouble with the authorities for forcing a soldier to leave his back When all at once I saw a crowd,
garden. He faced the possibility of jail, but through being his own defence A host, of golden daffodils;
counsel, he was able to gain acquittal. Blake was very much a free spirit who – W. Wordsworth – I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud
readily spoke his mind, so much so that some acquaintances thought he was In 1813, he received an appointment as Distributor of Stamps for
mad. Westmorland; this annual income of £400 gave him greater financial
The esteemed poet, William Wordsworth, said on the death of Blake: security and enabled him to devote his spare time to poetry. In 1813, he
“There was no doubt that this poor man was mad, but there is something in family also moved into Rydal Mount, Grasmere; a picturesque location,
the madness of this man which interests me more than the sanity of Lord which inspired his later poetry.
Byron and Walter Scott.” “My heart leaps up when I behold
Blake died on August 12 1827, he was buried in an unmarked grave in a A rainbow in the sky:
public cemetery and Bunhill Fields. After his death his influence steadily So was it when my life began;
grew through the Pre-Raphaelites and later noted poets such as T. S. Eliot So is it now I am a man;
and W. B. Yeats. So be it when I shall grow old,
Or let me die!”
(1802)
Percy Bysshe Shelley the purpose of securing their own. It is therefore just, only so far as it exists
by their consent, useful only so far as it operates to their well-being.”
“Declaration of Rights” (1812), article 1
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) –
English Romantic poet Shelly was also an early advocate of vegetarianism as a way to extend
Shelley was an influential English romantic sympathy to all life forms.
poet, famous for his lyrical poetry and In 1822, with Byron and Leigh Hunt, Shelly started a left-wing journal called
idealistic radical political thought. Shelley The Liberal. However, shortly after setting up the journal, Shelley’s life was
was also generous in his support and tragically cut short, when he was caught up in a sudden storm on the Italian
encouragement of fellow poets; he was a key coast.
figure in the development of English His body was later washed up on shore near Viareggio. A statue of Shelley’s
romantic poetry. washed up body was commissioned by his daughter in law and the statue by
“Till the Future dares Edward Onslow Ford stands as a memorial to Shelley at University College,
Forget the Past, his fate and fame shall be Oxford University.
An echo and a light unto eternity!” Shelley Statue – University College, Oxford
Percy Bysshe Shelley – Adonais (1821) In 1820, Shelley wrote a poem on the concept of his own cenotaph
Short Bio of Shelley I silently laugh at my own cenotaph,
Shelley was born into a minor aristocratic And out of the caverns of rain,
family. His father, Sir Timothy Shelley, Like a child from the womb, like a ghost from the tomb,
I arise and unbuild it again.
was a Whig Member of Parliament. For schooling, Shelley was sent to Syon The Cloud (1820)
House and later Eton College. At an early age, Shelley developed unorthodox Despite being a scourge of the British political establishment during his life,
views and attitudes, which often caused him to be bullied by classmates. His he eventually was given a memorial in Poet’s Corner at Westminster Abbey.
unhappy life in school institutions caused him to withdraw into reading and
made him even more independently minded.
Shelley at Oxford and Views on Religion
In 1810, Shelley went to University College, Oxford. It was widely held that John Keats
he rarely attended formal lectures; instead preferring to read his own John Keats was an influential Romantic poet, who
selection of books. It was at Oxford that he published his first poetry and has become one of the most widely respected and
novel Zastrozzi (1810). In the following year, he wrote another novel and a loved British poets.
pamphlet ‘The Necessity of Atheism‘. In this pamphlet, Shelley questioned “Beauty is truth, truth beauty, — that is all
the existence of God and the role of Christianity. Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.”
“If he is infinitely good, what reason should we have to fear him?” – John Keats, Ode on a Grecian Urn.
“If he is infinitely wise, why should we have doubts concerning our future?” Short Bio John Keats
Percy Bysshe Shelley – The Necessity of Atheism (1811)
Shelley also questioned the supremacy of the Church of England as the John Keats was born 31 October 1795 in Central
religion of the UK. At the time, this criticism of Church and God was London. His parents were middle class but didn’t
considered unacceptable. have the funds to send him to a top public school.
After refusing to repudiate the pamphlet Shelly was expelled from Oxford in Instead, Keats was sent to John Clarke’s school in Enfield. The school was
March 2011. quite progressive and gave Keats an opportunity to learn both classic
“Here I swear, and as I break my oath may Infinity Eternity blast me, here I literature and also Renaissance literature such as Spenser.
swear that never will I forgive Christianity!” When he was young, Keats lost both his father (aged 8) and later his mother
Letter to Thomas Jefferson Hogg (1811-01-03) (aged 14). Orphaned at an early age, Keats and his siblings were looked after
Yet, like William Blake, Shelley held the inspiration of Christianity, Jesus by their grandmother. It also placed the family in a difficult financial
Christ, in great veneration. He contended that the teachings and life of Jesus situation – Keats would struggle with money throughout his life.
had been misrepresented by the Christian Church. Having finished school, Keats took an apprenticeship at Guy’s Hospital,
“Jesus Christ represented God as the principle of all good, the source of all London in October 1815. In the early nineteenth century, the job of a
surgeon was very challenging; in the absence of anaesthetic and modern “Poetry should be great and unobtrusive, a thing which enters into one’s
technology, there was only a limited amount doctors could do to ease the soul, and does not startle it or amaze it with itself, but with its subject.”
condition of patients. This suffering of patients and people was a theme – Letter to John Hamilton Reynolds (February 3, 1818)
Keats would later incorporate into his poetry. The poetry of Keats is wide-ranging and includes some of the most
It was hoped that this medical training would give Keats a secure career and memorable lines in English poetry. His most famous poems such as the Odes
financial income. However, in 1816, despite making good progress, Keats are famous for their lyrical perfection in their poetic invocation of beauty.
told his guardian that he couldn’t become a surgeon and felt compelled to try But, Keats, in poems such as Endymion, also wrote challenging poetry
and make a career as a poet. It was a decision that his guardians failed to striving to challenge established currents of thought and question why
understand because, at the time, there was little hope of making money from things were.
writing poetry. “None can usurp this height…
However, Keats was introduced to some of the leading literary figures of the But those to whom the miseries of the world
day, such as Leigh Hunt, Percy Shelley and poet John Hamilton Reynolds. Are misery, and will not let them rest.”
This enabled him to publish his first collection of poems, but they were not a Keats, “The Fall of Hyperion: A Dream”, Canto I, l. 147 (1819)
critical success and sold very few copies.
From 1817, John spent considerable time nursing his brother Tom, who was
suffering from tuberculosis. In 1818, they went on a walking tour of northern
England and Scotland. His brother’s conditions deteriorated, and, weakened
by cold himself, it is likely that John Keats contracted the ‘family disease’ of
tuberculosis.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Despite the difficulty of his nursing his dying brother and suffering a series Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25, 1803 – April 27,
of financial difficulties, Keats began his most prolific period of writing. 1882) was an American essayist, lecturer, and
Based on the edge of Hampstead Heath he composed five of his six odes. poet, who was a leading figure of the
My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains Transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th
My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, century. He was seen as a champion of
Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains individualism, liberty and freedom of thought.
One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk: He was a prolific essayist and speaker, giving
’Tis not through envy of thy happy lot, over 1,500 public lectures in the US. Nicknamed
But being too happy in thine happiness,— the Sage of Concord—he became the leading
That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees, intellectual figure of the United States.
In some melodious plot Early life
Of beechen green, and shadows numberless, Ralph Waldo Emerson was born in Boston in
Singest of summer in full-throated ease. 1803, the son of a Unitarian Minister. His father
First stanza of “Ode to a Nightingale”, May 1819 died when he was young (8 years old) and he had
Around this time, he also met with the great poet William Wordsworth and to support his education through doing part time
Charles Lamb. jobs. In October 1817, he went to Harvard, where he served as class poet, but
In 1818, his great work Endymion was published, however, many reviews he didn’t stand out as a student graduating in the middle of his class. After
were highly critical of Keat’s ‘immaturity’, it was labelled by some, including graduation, he went to Florida, seeking warmer climates for his delicate
Byron as ‘Cockney Poetry’ – suggesting the poet used uncouth language. The health.
edition sold very few copies, leaving both Keats and the publisher with a Emerson worked as a schoolmaster and later as a pastor in Boston’s Second
feeling of shame. Despite this critical failure, Keats gave an indication he Church. However, he gradually moved away from the religious and social
strove only for genius. He did retain a faith in his poetry. As he writes: beliefs of his contemporaries, formulating and expressing the philosophy of
“I was never afraid of failure; for I would sooner fail than not be among the Transcendentalism in his 1836 essay, Nature. Following this ground-
greatest.” breaking work, he gave a speech entitled ‘The American Scholar’ in 1837,
Letter to James Hessey (October 9, 1818) which Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. considered to be America’s “Intellectual
Despite the support of some literary friends, this critical review left a Declaration of Independence”.
profound mark on Keats. Throughout his short life, he felt he had been a ” We will walk on our own feet; we will work with our own hands; we will
failure, unable to leave any lasting mark on poetry. On his deathbed, he speak our own minds. The study of letters shall be no longer a name for pity,
would later write scathing letters saying perhaps he should have sold out to for doubt, and for sensual indulgence. The dread of man and the love of man
mammon (money) rather than pursue the purity of his poetic journey. In his shall be a wall of defence and a wreath of joy around all. A nation of men will
last letter to Shelley, he writes bitterly: for the first time exist, because each believes himself inspired by the Divine
“…A modern work it is said must have a purpose, which may be the God – an Soul which also inspires all men.” – Emerson, ‘The American Scholar‘
artist must serve Mammon – he must have “self concentration” selfishness When he was just 18, Emerson married Ellen Louisa Tucker, but she
perhaps. .. ”(16 August 1820) [link] tragically died just two years later – an event which shook the young
In this last letter, Keats also describes his personal view: Emerson. Around this time, he became more uncertain over the religious
“My imagination is a Monastery and I am its Monk.” beliefs of the church he worked as a pastor. He was unsatisfied with the
(16 August 1820) [link] Communion and the method of worship. To Emerson, it seemed too dry.
John Keats and Fanny Browne Several years later in 1838, he was invited to Harvard Divinity School, where
In 1818, he first came into contact with Frances (Fanny) Brawne. She was 18 he gave a famous address claiming that early Christianity had ‘deified’ Christ
at the time, and a close friendship arose between them. However, the and as a result, he discounted the miracles in the Bible (a similar approach
relationship was overshadowed by Keats’ nursing of his brother Tom; also to the Jefferson Bible). This radical approach was heavily criticised by
the lack of finance meant that Keats had no realistic chance of being able to members of the establishment.
marry. They wrote many intimate letters, in which Keats often bared his soul Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first, then revised
and the depth of his feeling: them for print. His first two collections of essays – ‘Essays: First Series’ and
“My love has made me selfish. I cannot exist without you — I am forgetful of ‘Essays: Second Series’, published respectively in 1841 and 1844 – represent
every thing but seeing you again — my Life seems to stop there — I see no the core of his thinking, and include such well-known essays as ‘Self-
further. You have absorb’d me.” Reliance’, ‘The Over-Soul’, ‘Circles’, ‘The Poet and Experience’. Together
The relationship was also cut short by the aggravation of Keat’s tuberculosis. with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-
By September 1820, Keats was very fragile from the effects of the disease. He 1840s Emerson’s most fertile period.
was advised to move to warmer climes, and so with the help of friends, he Emerson also was instrumental in encouraging other American writers. Walt
was booked on a ship to Italy. However, after a rough sea journey, Keats’ Whitman sent his innovative poetry “Leaves of Grass” to Emerson. Emerson
health failed to improve; within a few months of arriving in Italy, he died wrote a glowing five-page review – and this was influential in helping
from the disease that had claimed his mother and brother. Whitman’s career. He was also very close to Henry David Thoreau – he
The last months were a period of great turmoil and difficulty. Often denied, considered Thoreau to be his best-friend. Emerson was an influential figure
even a small quantity of opium to ease the physical pain, Keats was racked in the movement of Transcendentalism. Evolving out of European
with a feeling of insufficiency relating to the negative reviews his poetry had Romanticism, it was a philosophy which developed its own outlook, which
received. combined both mysticism with a belief in rationality and scientific outlook.
Keats was buried in a cemetery in Rome, with the simple inscription on his Emerson was firmly against slavery. After 1844, despite disliking being in
tombstone ” Young English poet – Here lies one whose name was writ in the public limelight, he became more involved in the anti-slavery movement.
water.” In 1859, he gave a speech praising the fiery abolitionist John Brown.
Keats had died at the age of 25, after a period of just six years writing poetry. “The South calls slavery an institution… I call it destitution… Emancipation
During his lifetime, he was a commercial and critical failure, selling only is the demand of civilization”. (Emerson January 31, 1862)
around 200 copies of books. He supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and expressed disappointment
However, within a few years of his death, his reputation was to sharply rise – when the civil war seemed to be about preserving the union rather than the
becoming one of Britain’s best-loved poets. abolition of slavery. However, on meeting Lincoln in 1862, Emerson warmed
In particular, the Cambridge Apostles and Lord Tennyson (who became a to Lincoln and after his assassination, Emerson gave a warm tribute to his
popular Poet Laureate) admired the poetry of Keats and this helped make beloved President.
him known to more people. Pre-Raphaelite painters such as Millais and Towards the end of his life, his memory began to fail him, and he retreated
Rossetti were inspired by Keats’ imagery and used some of his poetic images from public life, concentrating on writing poetry. In April 1882, Emerson
in their paintings. By 1848, Richard Milnes had written the first biography of was found to be suffering from pneumonia, and he died shortly after.
Keats.
In the Twentieth Century, many poets such as Wilfred Owen, W.B. Yeats and
T.S. Eliot said Keats was a key literary inspiration.
The Twentieth Century also saw considerable interest in the letters of Keats.
Keats devoted many letters to the subject of poetry – offering a unique
discussion of the role and importance of poetry.
Walt Whitman
money to buy a home in Camden. In the simple two-story clapboard house,
Walt Whitman (1819 – 1892) American poet Whitman spent his declining years working on additions and revisions to a
who linked the Transcendentalist poets with the new edition of the book and preparing his final volume of poems and prose,
more realistic style of the Twentieth Century. Good-Bye, My Fancy (1891). After his death on March 26, 1892, Whitman
Whitman Magnus opus was Leaves of Grass, a was buried in a tomb he designed and had built on a lot in Harleigh
groundbreaking new style of poetry. Cemetery.