DIVINE GRACE F.

PABELLO GRADE 11 STEM A JULY 26, 2018

1. Plant hormones regularize the growth of plants. They occur in very small proportions within the
plant. These hormones help in regulation of the plant body by responding to the various signals from the
plant and environment. The hormones are regulated in different tissues during the different development
stages. There are five major hormones which are auxin, cytokinin, gibberellin, abscisic acid, and ethylene.

Auxin

This hormone is present in the seed embryo, young leaves, and apical buds' meristem.

Functions of Auxins

 Stimulation of cell elongation, cell division in cambium, differentiation of phloem and xylem,
root initiation on stem cuttings, lateral root development in tissue culture

 Delaying leaf senescence

 Suppression of lateral bud growth when supplied from apical buds

 Inhibition or promotion of fruit and leaf abscission through ethylene stimulation

 Fruit setting and growth induced through auxin in some plants

 Auxin can delay fruit ripening

 In Bromeliads, the auxin hormone promotes flowering

 Stimulation of flower parts, femaleness of dioecious flowers, and production of high

concentration of ethylene in flowering plants

Cytokinin

They are synthesized in roots and then transported to other parts of the plant.

Functions of Cytokinins

 Stimulation of cell division, growth of lateral buds, and apical dominance

 Stimulation of shoot initiation and bud formation in tissue culture

 Leaf cell enlargement that stimulates leaf expansion

  Enhancement of stomatal opening in some plant species

 Etioplasts converted into chloroplasts through stimulation of chlorophyll synthesis.

Ethylene

Ethylene is present in the tissues of ripening fruits, nodes of stems, senescent leaves, and flowers.

Functions of Ethylene

 Leads to release of dormancy state

 Stimulates shoot and root growth along with differentiation

 Leaf and fruit abscission

 Flower induction in Bromeliad

 Stimulation of femaleness of dioecious flowers

 Flower opening is stimulated

 Flower and leaf senescence stimulation

 Stimulation of Fruit ripening

Abscisic Acid

Abscisic acid is found mostly near leaves, stems, and unripe fruit.

Functions of Abscisic Acid

 Stimulation of closing of stomata

 Inhibition of shoot growth

 Inducing seeds for synthesizing storage of proteins

Gibberellin

Gibberellins are present in the meristems of apical buds and roots, young leaves, and embryo.
 Functions of Gibberellins

 Stimulates stem elongation

 Leads to development of seedless fruits

 Delays senescence in leaves and citrus fruits

 Ends seed dormancy in plants that require light for induction of germination

2. Humans affect soil biodiversity through their agricultural activities. The biodiversity of
plants and animals at large was changed when humans first started the domestication process
over 7000 years ago (Solbrig and Solbrig, 1994). By identifying a few seemingly more useful or
edible species, these ancient agriculturists began the selection process which still continues today
as farmers, researchers and companies look for more productive plants and animals. This process
necessarily involves a reduction and simplification of the immense biological diversity of nature,
at both the species and genetic level. However, farmers’ first activities had only little impact or
these impacts were limited on a geographic scale, because they used a few simple tools and
mostly organic inputs. There are still examples today of cultures that continue to practice this
small-scale, limited-impact agriculture (Denevan, 1995; Redford and Mansour, 1996).

Biodiversity is associated with a high diversity and stability of crops in a landscape. These can
provide forage and nesting ground for insects and larger animals. Biodiversity helps in regulating the
functioning of ecosystems by improving the variety and level of biological processes that help in
agricultural production. A diversity of goods can also help to meet demand of consumers, by providing a
range of good that often have higher nutritional value as crops that are cultivated in monocultures.
Although perennial crops are often associated with lower profits than annual crops, they play an important
role in maintaining the health of the overall ecosystem (including erosion protection). This means
including perennial crops in agricultural fields could be promoted by policies, so that farmers receive
more incentives to include living barriers, nitrogen fixing legumes and other perennial crops in their
farming system.
 Biodiversity is an important regulator of agro-ecosystem functions, not only in the strictly
biological sense of impact on production, but also in satisfying a variety of needs of the farmer and
society at large. In particular it increases resilience of agro-ecosystems and is as such a means for risk
reduction and adaptation to climate change. Agro-ecosystem managers, including farmers, can build
upon, enhance and manage the essential ecosystem services provided by biodiversity in order to work
towards sustainable agricultural production. This can be achieved through good farming practices which
follow ecosystem-based approaches designed to improve sustainability of production systems.
Agricultural practices that promote the use of biodiversity for an increased and more sustainable
production op crops include:

 Maintaining a high level of crop-genetic diversity, both on farm level as in seed

banks, which will help to increase and sustain production levels and nutritional
diversity throughout the full range of different agro-ecological conditions.
 Integrating, through ecosystem approach strategies, the planned biodiversity (crop
sequences and associations) that is maintained with the associated diversity (for
example, wild pollinators).
 Adopting production system management strategies, such as not disturbing soil,
maintaining mulch covers from crop residues and cover crops which increase the
biological activity and diversity of the production system.
 Considering the benefits of having fragmented land (riparian areas, forest land
within the agricultural landscape) on the agricultural yield, through improved
biological processes such as pollination.
 Improving the adaptation of good farming practices (i.e. pest management strategies,
etc.) which follow ecosystem-based approaches designed to improve the
sustainability and agricultural biodiversity of production systems.
 Aiming at producing commodities that meet the consumer needs for products that
are of high quality, safe and produced in an environmentally and socially
responsible way.