Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Turner, D. B., "Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates," Washington, DC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1970.
143
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
, METERS
, METERS
144
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
⎛ Cu ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ max, m–2
⎝ Q ⎠
NOTE: Effective stack height shown on curves numerically.
⎛ Cu ⎞ 2 3
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ max = e [a + b lnH + c (lnH) + d(lnH) ]
⎝ Q ⎠
H = effective stack height, stack height + plume rise, m
Values of Curve-Fit Constants for Estimating (Cu/Q)max from H as a Function of Atmospheric Stability
♦
Constants
Stability a b c d
A –1.0563 –2.7153 0.1261 0
B –1.8060 –2.1912 0.0389 0
C –1.9748 –1.9980 0 0
D –2.5302 –1.5610 –0.0934 0
E –1.4496 –2.5910 0.2181 –0.0343
F –1.0488 –3.2252 0.4977 –0.0765
Adapted from Ranchoux, R.J.P., 1976.
♦ Turner, D. B., "Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates," Washington, DC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1970.
145
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
Cyclone
Cyclone Effective Number of Turns Approximation
Cyclone Collection (Particle Removal) Efficiency 1 ⎡ L ⎤
Ne = Lb + c ⎥ , where
1 H ⎢⎣ 2⎦
η= , where
(
1 + d pc d p )2 Ne = number of effective turns gas makes in cyclone,
H = inlet height of cyclone (m),
dpc = diameter of particle collected with 50% efficiency, Lb = length of body cyclone (m), and
dp = diameter of particle of interest, and Lc = length of cone of cyclone (m).
η = fractional particle collection efficiency. Cyclone 50% Collection Efficiency for Particle Diameter
0.5
⎡ 9µW ⎤
d pc =⎢ ⎥ , where
⎣ (
⎢ 2π N eVi ρ p − ρ g ) ⎥
⎦
dpc = diameter of particle that is collected with 50%
efficiency (m),
µ = viscosity of gas (kg/m•s),
W = inlet width of cyclone (m),
e Ne = number of effective turns gas makes in cyclone,
Vi = inlet velocity into cyclone (m/s),
ρp = density of particle (kg/m3), and
ρg = density of gas (kg/m3).
dp
Particle Size Ratio
dpc
146
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
147
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
k1 Lo
D= [ exp ( − k t ) − exp ( − k t ) ] + D
1 2 o
exp ( − k 2 t ) Multiple Limiting Substrates
k 2 − k1
µ
⎡ k2 ⎛ ( k − k1 ) ⎞ ⎤ = ⎡µ1 ( S1 ) ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣µ 2 ( S2 ) ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣µ 3 ( S3 ) ⎤⎦… ⎡⎣µ n ( Sn ) ⎤⎦
tc =
1
ln ⎢ 1 − Do 2 µm ⎣
⎜ ⎟⎥
k 2 − k1 ⎣ k1 ⎝ k1 Lo ⎠ ⎦
Si
where µi = for i = 1 to n
DO = DOsat – D, where K si + Si
D = dissolved oxygen deficit (mg/L),
Non-steady State Continuous Flow
k1 = deoxygenation rate constant, base e (days–1),
dx
t = time (days), = Dxo + ( µ − kd − D ) x
k2 = reaeration rate, base e (days–1), dt
Lo = initial BOD ultimate in mixing zone (mg/L ), Steady State Continuous flow
Do = initial dissolved oxygen deficit in mixing zone
(mg/L), µ = D with kd << µ
tc = time which corresponds with minimum Product production at steady state, single substrate
dissolved oxygen (days),
limiting
DOsat = saturated dissolved oxygen concentration
(mg/L), and X1 = YP / S ( So − Si )
DO = dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L).
where
Monod Kinetics—Substrate Limited Growth X1 = product (mg/L)
Continuous flow systems where growth is limited by one µm = maximum growth constant (hr–1) when
substrate (chemostat): x > > Ss, and
S Ks = saturation constant on half-velocity constant
µ = µ max , where
Ks + S [= concentration (mg/l) at µm/2].
f = flow rate (hr–1),
µ = specific growth rate (time–1),
Vr = culture volume (l),
µmax = maximum specific growth rate (time–1), D = dilution rate (flow f / reactor volume Vr; hr–1),
S = concentration of substrate in solution (mass/unit µi = growth rate with one or multiple limiting substrates
volume), and (hr–1),
Ks = half-velocity constant = half-saturation constant Si = substrate i concentration (mg/l),
(i.e., substrate concentration at which the specific So = initial substrate concentration (mg/l),
growth rate is one-half µmax) (mass/unit volume). YP/S = product yield per unit of substrate (mg/mg)
p = product concentration (mg/l).
x = cell number (g/l),
xo = initial cell number (g/l),
t = time (hr)
kd = death rate (hr–1)
♦ Davis, M.L. and S.J. Masten, Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science, McGraw-Hill,
2004. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Companies.
148
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
♦ Davis, M.L. and S.J. Masten, Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science, McGraw-Hill, 2004.
149
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
NA =
(
Dη4 3 C Aatm − C A fill ) , where POPULATION MODELING
L
Population Projection Equations
NA = gas flux of compound A, g/(cm2 ⋅ s)[lb ⋅ mol/ft2 ⋅ d)], Linear Projection = Algebraic Projection
C Aatm = concentration of compound A at the surface of the PT = P0 + k∆t, where
landfill cover, g/cm3 (lb ⋅ mol/ft3), PT = population at time T,
C A fill = concentration of compound A at the bottom of the P0 = population at time zero,
landfill cover, g/cm3 (lb ⋅ mol/ft3), and k = growth rate, and
L = depth of the landfill cover, cm (ft). ∆t = elapsed time in years relative to time zero.
Typical values for the coefficient of diffusion for methane Log Growth = Exponential Growth = Geometric Growth
and carbon dioxide are 0.20 cm2/s (18.6 ft2/d) and 0.13 PT = P0ek∆t
cm2/s (12.1 ft2/d), respectively. ln PT = ln P0 + k∆t, where
D = diffusion coefficient, cm2/s (ft2/d), PT = population at time T,
ηgas = gas-filled porosity, cm3/cm3 (ft3/ft3), and P0 = population at time zero,
3 3 3 3
η = porosity, cm /cm (ft /ft ) k = growth rate, and
∆t = elapsed time in years relative to time zero.
150
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
EPA Document "EPA/600/8–89/046" Soil Sampling Quality Assurance User's Guide, Chapter 7.
Confidence level: 1– (Probability of a Type I Error) = 1 – α = size probability of not making a Type I error
Power = 1– (Probability of a Type II error) = 1 – β = probability of not making a Type II error.
CV = (100 * s)/ x
CV = coefficient of variation
s = standard deviation of sample
x = sample average
Minimum Detectable Relative Difference = Relative increase over background [100 (µs –µB)/ µB] to be detectable with a
probability (1–β)
151
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
Number of samples required in a one-sided one-sample t-test to achieve a minimum detectable relative difference at confidence
level (1–α) and power of (1–β)
Coefficient of Confidence
Variation Power Level Minimum Detectable Relative Difference
(%) (%) (%) (%)
5 10 20 30 40
15 95 99 145 39 12 7 5
95 99 26 8 5 3
90 78 21 6 3 3
80 57 15 4 2 2
90 99 120 32 11 6 5
95 79 21 7 4 3
90 60 16 5 3 2
80 41 11 3 2 1
80 99 94 26 9 6 5
95 58 16 5 3 3
90 42 11 4 2 2
80 26 7 2 2 1
25 95 99 397 102 28 14 9
95 272 69 19 9 6
90 216 55 15 7 5
80 155 40 11 5 3
90 99 329 85 24 12 8
95 272 70 19 9 6
90 166 42 12 6 4
80 114 29 8 4 3
80 99 254 66 19 10 7
95 156 41 12 6 4
90 114 30 8 4 3
80 72 19 5 3 2
35 95 99 775 196 42 25 15
95 532 134 35 17 10
90 421 106 28 13 8
80 304 77 20 9 6
90 99 641 163 43 21 13
95 421 107 28 14 8
90 323 82 21 10 6
80 222 56 15 7 4
80 99 495 126 34 17 11
95 305 78 21 10 7
90 222 57 15 7 5
80 140 36 10 5 3
152
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
RISK ASSESSMENT
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Hazard Assessment
The MSDS indicates chemical source, composition,
The fire/hazard diamond below summarizes common hazards and health effects, first aid, fire-fighting
hazard data available on the MSDS and is frequently precautions, accidental-release measures, handling and
shown on chemical labels. storage, exposure controls and personal protection,
physical and chemical properties, stability and reactivity,
B toxicological information, ecological hazards, disposal,
transport, and other regulatory information.
A C The MSDS forms for all chemical compounds brought on
D site should be filed by a designated site safety officer. The
MSDS form is provided by the supplier or must be
developed when new chemicals are synthesized.
Position A – Hazard (Blue)
0 = ordinary combustible hazard Exposure Limits for Selected Compounds
1 = slightly hazardous Allowable Workplace
N Chemical (use)
Exposure Level (mg/m3)
2 = hazardous
3 = extreme danger 1 0.1 Iodine
4 = deadly 2 5 Aspirin
Position B – Flammability (Red) 3 10 Vegetable oil mists (cooking oil)
0 = will not burn 1,1,2-Trichloroethane
4 55
(solvent/degreaser)
1 = will ignite if preheated
Perchloroethylene
2 = will ignite if moderately heated 5 188
(dry-cleaning fluid)
3 = will ignite at most ambient temperature 6 170 Toluene (organic solvent)
4 = burns readily at ambient conditions
Trichloroethylene
7 269
Position C – Reactivity (Yellow) (solvent/degreaser)
0 = stable and not reactive with water Tetrahydrofuran
8 590
1 = unstable if heated (organic solvent)
2 = violent chemical change 9 890 Gasoline (fuel)
3 = shock short may detonate 10 1,590 Naphtha (rubber solvent)
4 = may detonate 1,1,1-Trichloroethane
11 1,910
(solvent/degreaser)
Position D – (White)
American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) 1996.
OXY = oxidizer
ACID = acid
ALKALI = alkali
Cor = corrosive
W = use no water
= radiation hazard
Flammable
Describes any solid, liquid, vapor, or gas that will ignite
easily and burn rapidly. A flammable liquid is defined by
NFPA and DOT as a liquid with a flash point below 100°F
(38°C).
153
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
Reactivity Group
No. Name
Acid, Minerals, 1
1 Non-Oxidizing
Acids, Minerals, 2
2 Oxidizing KEY
G 3
3 Acids, Organic H REACTIVITY
H H
CODE CONSEQUENCES
4 Alcohols & Glycols H 4
F P
H HEAT GENERATION
H H H 5
5 Aldehydes P F P F FIRE
H
G INNOCUOUS & NON-FLAMMABLE GAS
6 Amides H 6
GT GT TOXIC GAS GENERATION
Amines, Aliphatic &
H H H H 7
GF FLAMMABLE GAS GENERATION
7 Aromatic GT
E EXPLOSION
Azo Compounds, H H H H P POLYMERIZATION
8 H 8
Diazo Comp, Hydrazines G GT G G
S SOLUBILIZATION OF TOXIC MATERIAL
H H H
9 Carbamates G GT G
9 U MAY BE HAZARDOUS BUT UNKNOWN
H 10
10 Caustics H H H H
G
11 Cyanides
GT GT GT
G 11 EXAMPLE:
GF GF GF
H H H GF H
12 Dithiocarbamates GF GF GF GT U G 12 H HEAT GENERATION,
F F GT F FIRE, AND TOXIC GAS
H H
13 Esters H F G H 13 GT GENERATION
H
14 Ethers H F 14
15 Fluorides, Inorganic GT GT GT 15
16 Hydrocarbons, Aromatic H 16
F
H
H H H H
17 Halogenated Organics GT
F GT GF H 17
GT G
H H H
H H H H H
18 Isocyanates G
F
G P P G
P
G U 18
GT G
19 Ketones H H H H H 19
F G
Mercaptans & Other H H
20 GT F H H H 20
Organic Sulfides GF G
GT
Metal, Alkali & Alkaline GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF
21 H H H H H GT H GF GF GF 21
Earth, Elemental H H H H H H H E H H H
F F F F F H
Oxidizing Agents, H H H F H H H H H H
104 H H
F GT
H
F E F H H H H
F H F F
GT GT F F E F F F GT F 104
Strong GT H GT GT GT GT GT GE
H H GF H
105 Reducing Agents, H
F H GF H GF H H H H
F
H GF GF GF
F 105
Strong GF GF H GF G GT T H H H
GT F F E
106 Water & Mixtures H H G H GF GF
Containing Water G H GT 106
107 Water Reactive EXTREMELY REACTIVE! Do Not Mix With Any Chemical or Waste Material 107
Substances
154
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
CARCINOGENIC DOSE
RESPONSE CURVE.
Noncarcinogens
155
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
Exposure
Residential Exposure Equations for Various Pathways
Ingestion in drinking water
CDI = (CW)(IR)(EF)(ED) where ABS = absorption factor for soil contaminant (unitless)
(BW)(AT) AD = absorbed dose (mg/[kg•day])
Ingestion while swimming AF = soil-to-skin adherence factor (mg/cm2)
CDI = (CW)(CR)(ET)(EF)(ED) AT = averaging time (days)
(BW)(AT)
BW = body weight (kg)
Dermal contact with water
CA = contaminant concentration in air (mg/m3)
AD = (CW)(SA)(PC)(ET)(EF)(ED)(CF)
(BW)(AT) CDI = chronic daily intake (mg/[kg•day])
Ingestion of chemicals in soil CF = volumetric conversion factor for water
= 1 L/1,000 cm3
CDI = (CS)(IR)(CF)(FI)(EF)(ED)
(BW)(AT) = conversion factor for soil = 10–6 kg/mg
Dermal contact with soil CR = contact rate (L/hr)
AD = (CS)(CF)(SA)(AF)(ABS)(EF)(ED) CS = chemical concentration in soil (mg/kg)
(BW)(AT) CW = chemical concentration in water (mg/L)
a
Inhalation of airborne (vapor phase) chemicals ED = exposure duration (years)
CDI = (CA)(IR)(ET)(EF)(ED) EF = exposure frequency (days/yr or events/year)
(BW)(AT) ET = exposure time (hr/day or hr/event)
Ingestion of contaminated fruits, vegetables, fish and shellfish FI = fraction ingested (unitless)
CDI = (CF)(IR)(FI)(EF)(ED) IR = ingestion rate (L/day or mg soil/day or kg/meal)
(BW)(AT)
= inhalation rate (m3/hr)
PC = chemical-specific dermal permeability constant
(cm/hr)
SA = skin surface area available for contact (cm2)
Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume 1, Human Health Evaluation Manual (part A). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/540/1-89/002, 1989.
a
For some workplace applications of inhalation exposure, the form of the equation becomes:
Dosage =
( α )( BR )( C )( t )
( BW )
where
Dosage = mg substance per kg body weight
α = percent of chemical absorbed by the lungs (assume 100% unless otherwise specified)
BR = breathing rate of the individual (1.47 m3/hr for 2 hr or 0.98 m3/hr for 6 hr; varies some with size of individual)
C = concentration of the substance in the air (mg/m3)
BW = body weight (kg), usually 70 kg for men and 60 kg for women
t = time (usually taken as 8 hr in these calculations)
Based on animal data, one may use the above relations to calculate the safe air concentration if the safe human dose (SHD) is known, using the following
relationship:
SHD
C=
( α )( BR)( t )
156
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
Intake Rates
EPA Recommended Values for Estimating Intake
Parameter Standard Value
Average body weight, adult 70 kg
a
Average body weight, child
0–1.5 years 10 kg
1.5–5 years 14 kg
5–12 years 26 kg
Amount of water ingested daily, adult 2L
Amount of water ingested daily, child 1L
Amount of air breathed daily, adult 20 m3
Amount of air breathed daily, child 5 m3
Amount of fish consumed daily, adult 6.5 g/day
Contact rate, swimming 50 mL/hr
Inhalation rates
adult (6-hr day) 0.98 m3/hr
adult (2-hr day) 1.47 m3/hr
child 0.46 m3/hr
Skin surface available, adult male 1.94 m2
Skin surface available, adult female 1.69 m2
Skin surface available, child
3–6 years (average for male and female) 0.720 m2
6–9 years (average for male and female) 0.925 m2
9–12 years (average for male and female) 1.16 m2
12–15 years (average for male and female) 1.49 m2
15–18 years (female) 1.60 m2
15–18 years (male) 1.75 m2
Soil ingestion rate, children 1–6 years 200 mg/day
Soil ingestion rate, persons > 6 years l00 mg/day
Skin adherence factor, potting soil to hands 1.45 mg/cm2
Skin adherence factor, kaolin clay to hands 2.77 mg/cm2
Exposure duration
Lifetime (carcinogens, for non-carcinogens use actual exposure duration) 70 years
At one residence, 90th percentile 30 years
National median 5 years
Averaging time (ED)(365 days/year)
Exposure frequency (EF)
Swimming 7 days/year
Eating fish and shellfish 48 days/year
Exposure time (ET)
Shower, 90th percentile 12 min
Shower, 50th percentile 7 min
a
Data in this category taken from: Copeland, T., A. M. Holbrow, J. M. Otan, et al., "Use of probabilistic methods to understand the conservatism in California's
approach to assessing health risks posed by air contaminants," Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, vol. 44, pp. 1399-1413, 1994.
Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume 1, Human Health Evaluation Manual (part A). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/540/l-89/002, 1989.
157
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
TOXICOLOGY
Dose-Response Curves Sequential absorption-disposition-interaction of foreign
The dose-response curve relates toxic response (i.e., percentage compounds with humans and animals.
of test population exhibiting a specified symptom or dying) to
♦
the logarithm of the dosage (i.e., mg/kg-day ingested). A typical
dose-response curve is shown below. ELIMINATION
TOXICANT
100
TOXIC RESPONSE (PERCENT)
EXPOSURE ABSORPTION
ABSORPTION
DISPOSITION TISSUE DOSE
50
TD 10 TD 50
LOGARITHM OF THE DOSE
158
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
159
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
60
q = hydraulic loading (m3/m2 • min),
50
= (Qo + RQo )/Aplan (with recycle),
40 k = treatability constant; functions of wastewater and
30 medium (min−1); range 0.01−0.1; for municipal
wastewater and modular plastic media 0.06 min−1
20
@ 20°C,
10 kT = k2o(1.035)T−20,
0 n = coefficient relating to media characteristics;
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 modular plastic, n = 0.5,
TEMPERATURE ˚C × SLUDGE AGE, DAYS
R = recycle ratio = Qo / QR, and
VOLATILE SOLIDS REDUCTION IN AN AEROBIC
DIGESTER AS A FUNCTION OF DIGESTER LIQUID QR = recycle flow rate.
TEMPERATURE AND DIGESTER SLUDGE AGE [59].
♦ Tchobanoglous, G. and Metcalf and Eddy, Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and
Reuse, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1991.
160
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
161
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
162
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
163
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
Bed Expansion
Monosized Multisized n
Molecular Molecular Equivalent
Lo (1 − ηo ) xij Formulas Weight # Equiv per Weight
L fb =
⎛V ⎞
0.22 ∑
L fb = Lo (1 − ηo )
⎛ V ⎞
0.22
mole
1 − ⎜⎜ B ⎟⎟ CO32– 60.0 2 30.0
1− ⎜ B ⎟
⎝ Vt ⎠ ⎜ Vt ,i, j ⎟ CO2 44.0 2 22.0
⎝ ⎠ Ca(OH)2 74.1 2 37.1
0.22 CaCO3 100.1 2 50.0
⎛V ⎞
η fb = ⎜⎜ B ⎟⎟ , where Ca(HCO3)2 162.1 2 81.1
⎝ Vt ⎠ CaSO4 136.1 2 68.1
Ca2+ 40.1 2 20.0
Lfb = depth of fluidized filter media (m), H+ 1.0 1 1.0
VB = backwash velocity (m/s), Q/Aplan, HCO3– 61.0 1 61.0
Vt = terminal setting velocity, and Mg(HCO3)2 146.3 2 73.2
ηfb = porosity of fluidized bed. Mg(OH)2 58.3 2 29.2
MgSO4 120.4 2 60.2
Lo = initial bed depth Mg2+ 24.3 2 12.2
ηo = initial bed porosity Na+ 23.0 1 23.0
Na2CO3 106.0 2 53.0
OH– 17.0 1 17.0
Lime-Soda Softening Equations
SO42– 96.1 2 48.0
50 mg/L as CaCO3 equivalent = 1 meq/L
1. Carbon dioxide removal
Rapid Mix and Flocculator Design
CO2 + Ca (OH)2 → CaCO3(s) + H2O
2. Calcium carbonate hardness removal P γH L
G= =
Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 → 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O µVol tµ
3. Calcium non-carbonate hardness removal Gt = 104 − 105
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3(s) + 2Na+ + SO4–2 where
4. Magnesium carbonate hardness removal G = mixing intensity = root mean square velocity
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3(s) + gradient,
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H2O
P = power,
5. Magnesium non-carbonate hardness removal
Vol = volume,
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3(s) +
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2Na+ + SO42– µ = bulk viscosity,
6. Destruction of excess alkalinity γ = specific weight of water,
2HCO3– + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3(s) + CO32– + 2H2O HL = head loss in mixing zone, and
7. Recarbonation t = time in mixing zone.
Ca2+ + 2OH– + CO2 → CaCO3(s) + H2O
Reel and Paddle
CD APρf V p3
P = , where
2
CD = drag coefficient = 1.8 for flat blade with a
L:W > 20:1,
Ap = area of blade (m2) perpendicular to the direction of
travel through the water,
ρf = density of H2O (kg/m3),
Vp = relative velocity of paddle (m/sec), and
164
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
165
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (continued)
Vt =
( )
g ρp − ρ f d 2 εr 2 ∫ ∆P , where
18µ Jw =
8µδ
Approach velocity = horizontal velocity = Q/Ax, ε = membrane porosity,
Hydraulic loading rate = Q/A, and r = membrane pore size,
Hydraulic residence time = Vol/Q = θ. ∆P = net transmembrane pressure,
where
µ = viscosity,
Q = flow rate,
Ax = cross-sectional area, δ = membrane thickness, and
A = surface area, plan view, and Jw = volumetric flux (m/s).
Vol = tank volume.
166