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1993a). Cr, V, Fe and REE particularly have also a local origin and
EarlyCretaceoussediments .~. ~ were extracted from the black shalc during their metasomatic alter-
Emeraldmines ,~ ' ation at the same time as beryllium. Therefore, geochemical data
support a metallogenic model in which the Colombian emeralds
/.:::.:.:.:.:.:..~. .-....... Bogota'~ ..........j correspond to mesothermal deposits formed through water-rock
Pe~as Blancasi.J::/::::::/ ~ ::.:::/::::7.. 2,-,,-,L~)MBA interaction between hot basinaI brines and black shale.
CoscueziX!i:)~iiii~ ~ Unja f" ":~","~ <!::
o .............. :::/
Carbonate veins and emerald mineralization
I 300 m I
Thermochemical sulfate reduction and emerald
Fig. 3. The two-stage model of formation of the Colombian emer- precipitation
alds. Stage l is characterized by decollement plane within the black
shale series, hydrothermal fluid infiltration and wall-rock metaso- The emeraldiferous area are characterized by the synchron-
matic alteration. Albitite and fibrous calcite and pyrite veins are ous deposition of large quantities of pyrite (Fig. 2g). The
illustrated in Fig. 2a, e. Stratiform albitite layers of stage I are well isotopic and trace-element characteristics of the mineral-
preserved in the eastern mining districts (Chivor). Stage lI corre- izing fluids enforces the reduction of sedimentary marine
sponds to the mineralizing episode. Thrust-related folds syn- evaporitic sulphates to form pyrite. Hydrogen sulphide is
chronous to emerald deposition (Fig. 2b, d) characterize the western
emerald districts whereas stage I structures are better preserved in an intermediate product and the chemical reaction known
the eastern districts as thermochemical reduction of sulfate (TSR) is correla-
tively characterized by the oxidation of organic matter.
Ottaway et al. (1994) proposed a solution for TSR taken
from Orr (1975), [SO~ + 3 HzS = 4S + 2H20 + 2OH
and (2) 4S + 1.33(CH2) + 2.66H20 = 4H2S + 1.33CO2],
controlled by the kinematics of a thrust-fold system de- that needs a large volume of H z S at the start and produces
veloped in two stages (Fig. 3). Stage 1 is well preserved in native sulfur and an increase in pH (OH- is liberated by
the Chivor district; it is characterized by a horizontal the reaction). However, field observations preclude the use
shearing episode creating decollement levels at the limit of this reaction for two main reasons: (1) production of
between the black shale and an underlying conglomerate- native sulfur is possible only if iron has been eliminated
sandstone unit which represents a sharp mechanical from the system, as it is frequently observed in carbonate-
transition. High temperature brines (300 ~'C) of evaporitic rich oil reservoirs, but not in the black-shale series where
origin at this stage promote the albitization and calcitiza- chemical reactions yield very large quantities of pyrite; (2)
tion of the enclosing black shale (kaolin) along the decolle- native sulfur is not the product of TSR during the min-
ment planes and the development of the fibrous calcite eralizing process, but the result of pyrite oxidation
and pyrite extensional vein network. Stage 2 is the result through the intense meteoric alteration of the deposits
of a blocking of the horizontal shearing movement in the under the present-day equatorial climate. This also pro-
front zone. The resulting structure is a complex fold pat- duces dangerous fumerolic HzS emanations, partial altera-
tern characterized by propagation anticlines (Fig. 3) as tion of albitites (kaolin) and stratiform breccia (cenicero)
exposed for instance in the Muzo mines (Lopes 1995). into secondary native sulfur, kaolinite (Fig. 2h), and gyp-
Thrust faults are highly active at this stage; they develop sum, giving the soft aspect of rocks in many outcrops and
stratiform breccia (cenicero), folding and fracturing of explaining the confusion of Ottaway et al. (1994). We
363