DRAMA
Drama: narrative pedagogy and socially
challenged children
Melanie Peter
Melanie Peter, Senior Lecturer in Education and
Early Childhood at Anglia Ruskin University, argues
that the ability to engage in narrative stems from
early interactive play formats and is essential for
perceiving patterns and sequences in life – the
fabric of social understanding. Developing themes
set out in her earlier work, this article presents a
rationale and developmental model for drama as
narrative pedagogy. Whether narrative impairment
is a cause or consequence of their difficulties, hard-
to-reach or socially challenged children – exempli-
fied by those with autism – characteristically show a
limited spontaneous play repertoire, which neces-
sarily hampers their development. However,
through a play-tutoring approach in drama, espe-
cially by the teacher-in-role, significant gains may
be noted. Melanie Peter uses case studies to illus-
trate an emerging triad of competencies that con-
tribute to enhancing social understanding: more
effective communication, greater sensitivity in
interaction and creative problem-solving. The gen-
erative pedagogical dimensions support a develop-
mental framework for using drama to explore
cultural values and issues embedded in stories,
towards greater narrative identity and more effec-
tive participation in a social world.
Key words: drama, play, pedagogy, autism, case
studies.
Introduction
Kierkegaard’s claim that ‘life is lived forwards but under-
stood backwards’ provides the essential premise on which
this article is based. Reflecting on experience and learning
about life ‘one step removed’ is a characteristic of drama-
in-education work, first popularised in the mid-1970s by
Dorothy Heathcote and Gavin Bolton. Rather than being
associated with performance, drama became known as a
classroom methodology – a learning medium through which
to explore social and moral issues and engage in investiga-
tive problem-solving through spontaneous role-taking with a
‘living through’ quality. There is currently a revival of inter-
est in drama-in-education in mainstream education for its
analytical potential and for the purpose of promoting mean-
ingful, integrated learning contexts across the curriculum.
However, drama as a learning medium is still under-used in
specialist settings and with children with learning difficul-
© 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2009 NASEN. Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ,
UK and 350 Main St, Malden, MA, 02148, USA.
ties. Drama can seem to be a challenging way of teaching,
especially with idiosyncratic, unpredictable and seemingly
remote children. It can seem beyond their capabilities too, as
it all hinges on children’s developing ability to use narrative
form. However, rather than wait for an elusive ‘magic point’
at which children are deemed ‘ready’ to engage, drama can
provide the actual contexts in which narrative ability can be
learned. My professional experiences over many years indi-
cate that even the most hard-to-reach children may gain
significant benefits from drama. Latterly, my research with
profoundly socially challenged children on the autistic spec-
trum has illuminated what makes drama unique – and, since
it has been successful for these children, analysis of the
generative conditions that underpin this success may inform
drama as pedagogy for everyone. This may provide a ratio-
nale for using drama as a learning medium: to achieve a
more integrated, coherent approach to planning and teaching
across the curriculum for all.
Narrative development and play tutoring
The term ‘narrative’ is commonly associated with story: an
account of a series of events causally and temporally related,
and infused with social meanings. For very young children,
cultural stories may be their earliest experiences of morality
and cultural values; for example, good/bad, frightening/safe
(Gilligan, 1982; Whitehead, 1997). Narrative in the social
domain is a way of engaging with and evaluating cultural
meanings. Grove (2006) explains how in personal narratives
shared in conversation, we go beyond simply recounting a
familiar narrative routine (for example, going to the shops):
we highlight perhaps a significant moment in an anecdote
and invite our audience to share a perspective on this, based
on our own value system (‘You’ll never guess what hap-
pened to me today on the way to the shops! . . . What do you
think of that?’). Narrative ability is thus instrumental for the
development of social relationships and for acquiring a
sense of identity through positioning oneself within shared
experiences and events (Lawler, 2002).
Ability to engage in narrative requires sensitivity to pattern-
ing, sequencing and the ‘framing’ of experience (Bruner &
Feldman, 1993). Across cultures, this is learned in early
interactive play formats, such as peek-a-boo games, that
have a predictable structure and provide opportunities for
establishing joint meanings and reciprocal patterning
through turn-taking. Bruner and Feldman (1993) contend
that children with autism fail to engage in this ‘cultural
framing’ in infancy, and then fail to use this template as the
basis for recognising patterns and sequences, which consti-
tutes the fabric of social understanding. This impaired
narrative ability would help to explain their difficulties
in anticipating routines, coping with changes, offering
comment and chatting, and in understanding intentions and
consequences. It is a moot point as to whether this difficulty
with narrative is a cause or a consequence of autism; either
way, it will interfere with early forms of play and all subse-
quent make-believe activities, and therefore learning in
which joint narratives are developed (Jordan, 2001). It is
possible, however, to structure drama in a way to recapture
the characteristics of these ritualistic early play formats, to
include those participants at early stages of learning (Peter,
1994, 2003).
In typical development, the predictable framework of early
social play formats is gradually adjusted by the adult or
more able play partner, and infants engage in more
complex flexible play sequences using toys and shared
objects of attention. In time, in role play, children explore
human experience, and the realm of different perspectives,
motivations, intentions and consequences, to create increas-
ingly complex social narratives. Similarly, drama work may
be organised using a range of conventions derived from
theatre, to enable activity to be differentiated according to
children’s developing abilities to engage in make-believe
and the drama form, and to challenge latent play potential
and social understanding.
Bruner (1986) identifies the significance of narrative for
developing holistic thinking, distinguishing between this
creative, flexible, intuitive mode, and a paradigmatic mode
that is logical, analytical and sequential. Smilansky (1968)
clarifies early sociodramatic play (that is, the conscious
enactment of social routines) from more mature themed
fantasy play that involves projection into imaginary sce-
narios. Singer and Singer (1990) map these onto Bruner’s
(1986) paradigmatic and narrative modes of thinking, in
order to show the importance of both types of role play for
all-round development. In the context of developing drama,
this means that the practitioner needs to work towards
extending children’s understanding and use of make-
believe, and to go beyond simple re-enactments based on the
rehearsal of life skills (a common use of drama with people
with learning difficulties). They too may be supported into
contexts that project into ‘what if ’ and ‘as if ’, and chal-
lenged to resolve problems in analogous real-life situations
in the drama.
Research has shown a correlation between the amount and
complexity of role play in very young typically developing
children and their social competence (Fein, 1984; Connolly
& Doyle, 1984; Howes, 1983). A particular influence
appears to be their home background and exposure to play-
tutoring that commonly occurs between peers – younger and
older, experienced and less experienced players. Dunn’s
(1988, 1991) studies indicate the significance of warm
family relationships and highly emotional interaction
between siblings, with children as young as 18 months
engaging in role play, supported by their older brothers and
10 British Journal of Special Education · Volume 36 · Number 1 · 2009
sisters. In role play, children collaborate on two levels, the
real and the fictional, as they explore social meanings such
as different social roles and perspectives; how responses
may be construed; possible consequences in terms of social
behaviour; how to manage themselves and their emotions in
situations; and cultural conventions and possibilities. In
play, children consciously stretch themselves, and allow
themselves to be extended by a more able player, beyond
their current abilities. Thus play becomes development itself
(Vygotsky, 1978).
Play tutoring is also a key feature of drama-in-education,
whereby children’s spontaneous play behaviour is chal-
lenged by the teacher, extended and reflected upon. It
follows that a developmental apprenticeship approach, using
drama that initially recaptures the characteristics of ritualis-
tic early play formats, could make explicit the narrative
process. This enables a narrative sense of self to emerge
through children learning about various social roles and the
likely effect of responses in interactions, signalled by the
teacher-in-role. Children can be supported to make links
between the implications of play behaviour and real life, so
that play contexts may be used as a vehicle for learning.
Increasingly challenging ways of using the drama form may
provide contexts for exploring key moments, possibilities
and consequences; some conventions are more demanding
than others in terms of group working and sophistication, the
complexity of the social narrative and the potential use of
drama for developing social understanding.
Play tutoring and drama as pedagogy
There are three aspects to play tutoring and drama work
(Sherratt & Peter, 2002) which together distil into meaningful
experience, and which can inform the use of drama as a
powerful learning medium and teaching tool. The first aspect
is the importance of harnessing children’s affective engage-
ment – the pleasurable ‘feel good’ factor from involvement
with others, and a growing awareness of oneself and others as
they explore cultural conventions and learn appropriate
responses. Findings from neuroscience provide support for
the use of drama by highlighting the significance of emotional
engagement and its links with cognition, with memorable
learning contexts more likely to be favourably edited and
etched on the brain (Iveson, 1996). It is plausible too that
when children engage in playful activity, the brain slips out of
gear as in other mental states such as daydreaming (Hobson &
Stickgold, 1994); this may prompt neurochemical release and
pathways becoming passable that may have been previously
obscured (Sherratt & Peter, 2002). It follows that repeated
drama opportunities will strengthen this kind of brain activ-
ity, supporting the development of more flexible thought
patterns. Engagement with the drama context will also trigger
mirror neurons that are sensitive to human action (Rizzolati,
Fogassi & Gallese, 2006) and are known to be fragmented in
autism (Ramachandran & Lindsay, 2006); this is significant,
as its physicality could help to repair a possible bridge to
learning by imitation.
Figure 1 provides a basic illustration of the ‘amygdala loop’:
when we respond to experience, a ‘gut reaction’ is triggered
© 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2009 NASEN
Figure 1: The amygdala loop
FRONTAL
LOBES
CORTEX – Executive
functioning
– ‘Thinking
brain’
AMYGDALA
– ‘Emotional
brain’
and in a split second we cognitively rationalise our affective
feeling response and translate this into an appropriate nar-
rative course of action (Damasio, 2003). In people with
autism, neuroscience has revealed that there is impairment
of the amygdala – that part of the brain responsible for the
initial evaluation of meaning (Ramachandran, 2003) – and
so they compensate by using analytical, logical thinking
processes; hence the appeal of rule-based approaches.
However, it follows that drama as an enlivening experience
targets the under-functioning of the amygdala, which could
address this primary disconnectedness in autism. This would
then provide a coherent and relevant rather than fragmented
learning context, especially if it incorporates elements that
have personal salience for the individuals concerned (a
‘special interest’, such as a favourite toy or colour, used as a
prop or item of costume).
A second pedagogical consideration is the need to provide
an appropriate level of cognitive challenge. In typical
development, children will spontaneously seek this in role
play as they create shared meanings, and explore social
boundaries and conventions. Those at earlier stages of
learning may acquire understanding of representation
through being explicitly tutored in play contexts by an
adult or older peer as to how one object may be used to
stand for another. Likewise, drama work with blatant,
explicit creation of shared meanings may support even
severely affected children with autism; for example,
explaining that we will draw knobs on a cardboard box and
pretend it is a television set.
A third pedagogical dimension is the complexity of the
teaching context – the play narrative. In role play, there are
pivotal moments that impel further action; this hangs on a
moment of tension that involves intentions and conse-
quences. Again, in play tutoring contexts, this may be explic-
itly revealed and talked through. Without developing this
narrative dimension, children’s play becomes stuck: they
remain within the familiar and known, and their repertoire of
social understanding will be limited, as exemplified by the
limited spontaneous play behaviour of children with autism.
© 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2009 NASEN
However, in tutoring contexts such as drama, participating in
role-play sequences based on analogous real-life social nar-
ratives may unlock children’s latent potential, and support
developing social competence even in those with autism.
This will happen as they consciously adjust their behaviour
towards their play partner in different scenarios, using ana-
lytical, logical thinking processes. Engaging in imaginative
themed fantasy play within drama may further facilitate
more creative and flexible thought, and thus deeper social
understanding: their level of engagement increases as they
take on a persona, and are caught up in the emotionality of
the dramatic tension, responding intuitively (not just analyti-
cally) in the situation, and relating to others in narrative
form and in different social roles. An important proviso,
however, is that they are then enabled afterwards to make
links between the fictitious drama and real-life situations.
A rationale for drama as narrative pedagogy from autism
Jordan (1999) reminds that there is no such thing as ‘autistic
behaviour’: diagnosis is based purely on the coincidence of
the observable. The implication is that in certain situations
(such as drama), the autism may appear to lift, with indica-
tors of improved social competencies (Sherratt & Peter,
2002). This means inverting Wing’s (1996) diagnostic triad
of impairments for autism – difficulties in communication,
difficulties in social interaction and rigidity of thought.
Instead, evidence may be apparent in the form of more
flexible thinking (creative problem-solving, choice-making),
effective communication and sharing of ideas, and more
intuitive sensitivity in interaction. This is illustrated in the
close analysis of the teaching and responses of participants
in the case study below, first documented in a paper (Peter &
Sherratt, 2003) presented at an inaugural international con-
ference on autism, co-ordinated by the Tamana Association
in New Delhi.
The following drama lesson was carried out in a group
containing three boys at Key Stage 2. These were all pro-
foundly socially challenged children on the autistic spectrum,
compounded by their severe learning difficulties. The lesson
uses a narrative framework termed a Prescribed Drama Struc-
ture (PDS) that harnesses features of early interactive play
formats (Peter, 1994, 1995), including a predictable narrative
framework (a play sequence with understood key moments,
clearly marked by the adult working in role on the inside of
the drama); a shared focus of interest (a regular member of
staff in role and familiar objects as props), turn-taking
(opportunities to listen, watch and regulate behaviour); inter-
action within make-believe (for the timing of utterances and
movements); imitation and reinforcement of appropriate
responses; and reciprocal involvement of players.
Example: PDS based on Where’s My Teddy? by Jez
Alborough (Walker Big Book, 1992)
This PDS was designed to explore meanings embedded in
the final illustration of a popular children’s picture story
book. The main protagonist (a little boy called Eddy) is
portrayed as wide-eyed, tucked up safely in bed, having had
a traumatic encounter with a giant bear in the woods while
British Journal of Special Education · Volume 36 · Number 1 · 2009 11
looking for his lost teddy. The PDS explores implications
inferred from the visual text, and seeks to identify possible
embedded meanings. For the purposes of this session, dra-
matic licence was taken with the final illustration, whereby
Eddy was understood to have had a broken night’s sleep and
therefore was reluctant to get up for school. Eddy’s mother
(teacher-in-role as a plausible forgotten character) needs
help to get Eddy (played by a support member of staff)
through his personal care routine. The drama hinges on a
‘look out behind you’ game (a ritualistic narrative), framed
by a repeated ditty between each task:
Wake up Eddy [wash your face]
Wake up Eddy [wash your face]
Wake up Eddy [wash your face]
You’ll be late for school
Each time, Eddy falls asleep again behind his mother’s back,
much to her (exaggerated) exasperation. Each child per-
formed two tasks, utilising real objects as props (for
example, a hairbrush, a flannel, a cup) with staff supporting
as necessary. At the end of this process, Eddy is ready for
school, resplendent in his red T-shirt.
The three boys were not known to me before this lesson
took place. This in itself may have added to their intrigue
and subconsciously facilitated a shared focus of joint atten-
tion. Significantly too, perhaps, it meant that I was not
affected by prior conceptions of their possible limitations
in terms of challenging their latent play potential.
However, it was apparent on entering the school hall that
these boys were profoundly challenged in their social
behaviour. Staff outnumbered the boys in a ratio of two to
one, and they had no peer interaction; the boys were some-
what agitated at this change from their regular routine,
rushing to the edges of the room and flapping their hands.
Their limited communication skills suggested that they
were functioning at a pre-verbal level, with some compre-
hension of single words and ability to follow basic instruc-
tions to sit with the group.
Level of language is closely aligned with ability to engage in
symbolic representation and to sustain elements in a play
sequence. Use of a PDS, therefore, would enable the boys to
extend their understanding of cause and effect in the social
domain (‘I can carry out this action and this will be the
result’), with the predictable structure affording opportuni-
ties to consolidate their understanding of this basic social
narrative. The turn-taking structure would also support basic
training in groupwork. Following a rousing introductory
name song to bring the group together and provide an oppor-
tunity to focus on me as a new teacher, the boys appeared to
settle. Joe relaxed on a beanbag placed within the circle of
chairs, while Carl and Norman sat independently, strategi-
cally flanked by members of staff. Throughout the activity,
the spontaneous gasps and applause of staff suggested that
the play responses of the boys exceeded previous attain-
ments and their expectations (this was confirmed afterwards
in evaluative conversation). The lesson proceeded without
disruption for just over half an hour.
12 British Journal of Special Education · Volume 36 · Number 1 · 2009
The three boys with autism all concentrated throughout,
even ignoring a member of staff who was using a large
hand-held camcorder. They showed indicators of sustained
positive affective engagement; their disposition seemed to
reflect a state of receptiveness for social contact and encoun-
ter. Carl made sustained eye contact with both teachers-in-
role; he also engaged in social referencing with a member of
staff on several occasions, and experimented with this use of
gaze with a visitor. Joe watched intently for the duration
of the lesson, sitting on the beanbag independently; he
responded positively to interaction directed towards him (for
example, by shaking a proffered hand) and, unusually for
him, accepted support to relate to the teacher-in-role as
Eddy. Norman beamed throughout the session; he verbalised
enthusiastically in response to the strategic use of questions
and complied willingly with tasks.
The drama also supported the cognitive development of the
three boys, and there were indications of their emergent
representational understanding. Each revealed latent play
capabilities to relate to objects functionally, and used these
within the make-believe. Carl put a cup to his lips and
pretended to drink; Joe likewise applied a hairbrush to his
head. Norman pretended to eat cereal from an empty bowl,
announcing that he was ‘spooning papa-pops’ [coco-pops].
Their emerging understanding of symbolic transformations
was also apparent: Joe appeared to understand object sub-
stitution (Eddy’s bed improvised by a table top) and laid his
head down on the pillow; Carl appeared fascinated by Eddy
in bed, returning repeatedly to peer at him, indicating his
grasp of a familiar member of staff as an ‘other’. Norman
demonstrated the ability to accept imaginary appearance/
disappearance, calling out ‘all gone’ as Eddy replaced his
spoon in the empty cereal bowl.
Each of the three boys also showed initiative and creative
responses within the make-believe that represented new nar-
rative departures in their own terms. Joe imitated brushing
Eddy’s hair, and only needed light guidance to apply a towel
to Eddy. At the end of the lesson, Carl spontaneously took
the flannel from the tray and applied it to Eddy as if washing
his face. Norman related immediately to the make-believe,
calling out to Eddy, ‘Hallo – what’s your name?’ He also
consistently offered comment, drawing the attention of
nearby staff by saying, ‘look, look, Annie, look, apron,
apron, fast asleep!’ when Eddy dozed off again. He showed
clear grasp of the ‘game of theatre’ (Bolton, 1992) calling
out ‘oh no’ as Eddy fell asleep again.
Despite their severe autism, all three boys seemed to be
liberated by the play structure: Norman began to verbalise
contributions to the drama, and Joe and Carl (both at a
pre-verbal stage) were captivated by the ‘as if’ context,
which appeared to trigger an impulse to play. Grove and Park
(2001) regard this urge to share a social experience as the
basis for all communication. Significantly, their play
responses became more fluent the second time each boy was
required to perform a task in relation to the teacher-in-role.
This could not have been imitated learning, as the actual task
differed (for example, on the first occasion, Joe was required
© 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2009 NASEN
to brush Eddy’s hair, but on the second occasion to dry his
hands). Carl’s play shifted from being prompted to engage
perfunctorily in a socio-dramatic script from real life (pre-
tending to drink from a real cup, and then applying this to
another in giving Eddy a drink); the security of the ritual
drama framework may have enabled him then to engage in
embryonic role-taking (Fein, 1984; Harris, 2000) when at
the end of the lesson he spontaneously took a flannel and
wiped Eddy’s face. This perspective shift took him beyond
organising himself in his notional role (in which he himself
was caught up in an ‘other’ experience), to a level where he
was beginning to organise himself in the light of the attitudes
and perspectives of the role responses of another.
Following this initial lesson, the teaching staff subse-
quently repeated this activity several times, which helped
consolidate the boys’ understanding of the predictable
social narrative. When I returned a few weeks later, all
three boys made notable new departures. Norman sponta-
neously seized props and items of costume and engaged in
sustained independent socio-dramatic play (acting out
washing up), and drew the attention of others, indicating
his latent social orientation. Joe responded with demon-
strable confidence and engagement, making eye contact
throughout, to the delight of staff as he had been very
withdrawn latterly. Carl seized items to extend the play
scenario (using a cloth to wipe the windows), opting to
join the group rather than sit remotely as he had at the start
of the session.
The success of the lessons, as evidenced above in the boys’
developing social competencies, can be attributed to the
integration of the three pedagogical dimensions indicated
earlier. Together these facilitated coherent, meaningful
learning: appropriate cognitive interest, affective engage-
ment and narrative structure (see Figure 2).
Interest
The first lesson was pitched at an appropriate cognitive level,
using content perceived as relevant by the boys. Real objects
within their regular experience were used for their usual
Figure 2: Drama: coherent learning through imagined
experience
Exploring social roles and
possibilities in play
narratives
CREATIVITY
structure
SOCIAL
UNDERSTANDING
interest affect
COMMUNICATION SENSITIVITY
Making and sharing Engaging in emotionally
cultural meanings and resonant interaction and
representations salient experience
© 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2009 NASEN British Journal of Special Education · Volume 36 · Number 1 · 2009
purpose (such as a cup, a spoon, a hairbrush). The PDS also
supported the development of their representational under-
standing, with the children painstakingly involved in adapt-
ing the classroom environment to construct the make-
believe bedroom and to create fictional characters (helping
teachers into role with items of costume). They were intro-
duced to a new symbolic departure: a familiar item (a table)
was used flexibly as a prop and acquired a new meaning (a
bed), with the blanket, pillow and Eddy’s costume (pyjamas)
helping to make this explicit. Importantly, new meanings
were developed within the group experience: representa-
tional understanding was shared with others, with everyone
knowing the same ‘code’.
Affect
Secondly, the teachers-in-role responded with an emotional
intensity and immediacy which necessarily prompted aware-
ness of an ‘other’ in a meeting of minds (Trevarthen, 1979)
– one of the foundations of a sense of ‘relatedness’ and of
embryonic theory of mind (Oates, 1994). The teachers-in-
role provided security by soaking up and responding contin-
gently to a range of the boys’ reactions. In the same way that
caregivers intuitively exaggerate their responses to amplify
meanings to infants, the attitude and commitment of the
teachers-in-role seemed to trigger emotional mechanisms in
those children with autism that enabled otherwise impotent
processes to function. Their attention was riveted rather than
distracted by the surroundings, crucially focused on the
interaction. This was helped by distinct markers (such as
the use of visually attractive items of costume) to make clear
the pretence and awareness of ‘another’, but these were not
so elaborate that they distracted from the essential meanings
being expressed through the role.
Structure
The turn-taking game had key moments, which the boys
learned to recognise and anticipate: the repeated ditty that
framed the pretence, and the peak of tension/excitement as
Eddy fell asleep again, with the significance of this being
highlighted by the exasperated reaction of his mother. The
PDS was used pivotally to extend the children’s play, by
adjusting the challenges for individuals within the familiar
narrative (for example, the number of personal care items
presented from which to choose, and the degree of adult
support offered). A future departure might open up the pre-
dictable narrative to the group through an unexpected
outcome, or by ‘tweaking’ one of the other key moments.
(Perhaps one morning Eddy is not feeling well. What could
they do? Do they show possible latent empathy to comfort
Eddy? Do they show initiative and awareness of a possible
social narrative through taking appropriate action?)
Drama as narrative pedagogy for all
Over time, ownership for the direction of a drama may be
handed increasingly to the children. The extent to which the
drama is pre-planned or given shape in process will depend
on the children’s growing understanding and confidence in
using the drama form, and the teacher’s confidence in han-
dling, shaping and challenging play responses. Teachers will
need to extend themselves in negotiating with the children in
13
process, and in their familiarity with a range of options
(conventions derived from theatre) for organising the drama
towards shaping the unfolding narrative to focus on an
emerging learning area. Working in a fully open-ended way
– that is, negotiating all decisions and directions of the
drama from the outset – is not necessarily best. The teacher
may have in mind a very clear learning area to explore, and
therefore would need to pre-plan a flexible route by which to
provide a ‘focusing lens’ (Neelands, 1984).
The power of drama is its double edge, which Boal (1979)
termed ‘metaxis’: doing it and watching oneself doing it at
the same time. This ‘holding in mind more than one world’
necessarily demands flexibility, and strengthens brain archi-
tecture. Drama offers a metaphorical device for exploring a
range of perspectives, and analytical potential for under-
standing why people think and behave as they do. The use of
role protects participants emotionally from failure, through
action happening ‘one step removed’ from them. Drama may
bring about a change of view either directly through role in
the lesson, or retrospectively, through reflecting afterwards
out of role. Bolton and Heathcote (1999) consider this aspect
of drama – the self-spectatorship – a major contributory
factor for captivating children’s cognitive engagement: the
children realise that what appears to be about something else
is really about them.
Bolton and Heathcote (1999) also highlight two other sig-
nificant dynamics that contribute to the potency of drama
as a learning medium, both of which are linked in particu-
lar to the use of the teacher-in-role. The first is the provi-
sion of an energising, irresistible shared learning context –
the affective engagement feels real in a context that is
experienced as realistic even though it is fictitious. The
second is the tension between a vested interest in an initial
point of view and a contra-position (often presented by the
teacher-in-role) which propels the narrative forward. This
research with children with autism helps to explain Bolton
and Heathcote’s far-reaching claims for drama’s scope. In
particular, the emotional significance of the teacher-in-role
for drawing children in (Hobson, 2002), in the same way
that caregivers in early play interaction infuse the activity
with melodrama, humour, suspense, warmth and excite-
ment. This is the foundation for eliciting intuitive
responses, with the enhanced emotional encounters pro-
moting direct, if embryonic, awareness of another’s mental
state and ‘theory of mind’ (Oates, 1994). This has pro-
found implications for developing social imagination, a
process that requires the ability to take on board a repre-
sentation of others’ mental states, but without necessarily
sharing them (Harris, 1989).
The teacher-in-role will need to attune sensitively, modulat-
ing levels of emotional arousal to precipitate engagement.
This may be achieved through infusing high energy through
an authority figure, or a more oblique, less invasive encoun-
ter, perhaps with a low-status character in need of their help.
It is the use of dramatic tension that will enable children to
engage with the values embedded in the unfolding narrative
– the ‘moral impulse’ (Winston, 1998). The reaction of sup-
14 British Journal of Special Education · Volume 36 · Number 1 · 2009
porting adults who are present at key moments may be
crucial for some children in signalling appropriate meanings
and triggering a response. Whether drama is being devel-
oped from a known literary text or from an imaginary theme,
the emerging narrative will necessarily reflect the morality
of the prevailing culture. Drama in education enables chil-
dren to explore this, and to re-examine a story’s idea, with
topics and issues being revisited over time using increas-
ingly sophisticated conventions derived from theatre. These
enable children to ‘play’ with the narrative and come to an
understanding of the story’s possibilities and the art form
used to create it (Booth, 2000).
A drama based on a fictional literary text may explore a key
moment in the story where a character (the teacher-in-role)
may be under tension, facing a problem or dilemma. The
children (as themselves, but caught up in the fictional
context) may be impelled to help resolve the situation. This
may entail deviating subsequently from the storyline and
creating a new narrative; this is crucial in teaching children
to understand that things can be different and that they can
be instrumental in causing that to be so. Table 1 illustrates
the kind of challenges needed in order to engage children in
drama over time, from earliest encounters to performance
work. These challenges need to address their cognitive
engagement in developmentally relevant morals and values,
their associated affective engagement with the issues, and
appropriate narrative structures towards resolving a related
problem. This is achieved by organising the drama in dif-
ferent ways using conventions derived from theatre. At
more sophisticated levels, this may demand collaboration
and sharing or presenting ideas to others (see DfES, 2004,
2005).
For example, in a drama based on the traditional story of ‘Jack
and the Beanstalk’, the teacher-in-role as Jack’s mother could
present her perspective on the course of events: she is des-
perately worried about her son who has climbed up the
beanstalk. This would enable children (notionally in role as
‘Jack’s friends’) to engage at a deeper level with possible
embedded issues, rather than being preoccupied simply with
acting out the superficial storyline. Teachers-in-role can
provide a pretext for the children taking action (could they
help find Jack, and then explain to him appropriate ‘stranger
danger’ strategies?). This can empower children in a drama
convention popularised by Dorothy Heathcote (Wagner,
1976), known as the ‘mantle of the expert’ (the children
effectively are elevated to a position of possessing vital
knowledge and information, which they then utilise towards
achieving an outcome). Depending on the task, this can be
extended as a child-led approach to curriculum planning and
delivery, exploiting the natural links between subject areas
and children’s enthusiasm and motivation over weeks, driven
by a sense of urgency and purpose (for example, designing a
‘Missing’poster for Jack, exploring concepts of big and small
or growing their own beanstalk).
Conclusion
Drama is capable of motivating even hard-to-reach children,
and developing their essential creativity at the core of their
© 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2009 NASEN
 Table 1: Exploring cultural narratives through drama

Drama forms in which to

Social cognition Affective engagement Narrative understanding experience tension and
(morals and values) (emotions, empathy) (structure) explore meanings Examples
Reactive: Courage ‘Feel good’/‘feel bad’ Sense of agency Prescribed drama Carrying out a job to
Attending Empowerment of Happy/sad Social causality: action structures (PDS) help desperate Snow
(experiencing the individual Scared/safe and consequence Rituals White (teacher-in-role)
drama) Teacher-in-role with her housework
Active: Caring for others Worried/relieved Problems can be solved (low status or use of Showing an act of
Responding (imitating Caring for our world Angry/calm and content with physical effort and negative role) friendship to lonely

© 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2009 NASEN

possibilities) Helping Upset/cheered up co-operation Cinderella
Initiating Saving Bereft/restored Others have needs and Tiptoeing past sleeping
(adult supporting) Respect and regard Bored/occupied rights too (turn-taking) giant (teacher-in-role)
Lonely/together
Interactive: Perseverance Tricked/justice Problems may need Teacher-in-role Remonstrating with Red
Sustaining (short, then Quick-wittedness Deceived/restored negotiation (high status) Riding Hood
longer, play New connections Cheated/exploited A positive solution can Movement (teacher-in-role) for
sequences based on Risk taking Betrayed/supported often be found ‘Living through’ a simple causing anxiety
familiar social Good/bad secrets Irritated/soothed narrative Instructing RRH on how
scripts) Stranger danger Embarrassed/confident Mantle-of-the-expert to stay safe
Advising Snow White on
how to be assertive
Proactive Persuasiveness Mixed feelings Dilemmas Open-ended PDS Guarding Jack’s (stolen)
Creating complex, Trust Guilty/atoning Problems aren’t Structured play treasures from up the
flexible imaginary Taking responsibility Temptation/resisting straightforward – may Teacher-led improvisation beanstalk against
play sequences Loyalty Desperation/hopeful require anticipation of Freeze frame/ potential procurement
Honour Struggle/reward outcome, persuasion, fast-forward/flashbacks (for example, from
Assertiveness Revenge/regard planning Teacher-in-role teacher-in-role as
Unfair/fair There may be several (vague role, agent) tramp, police officer)
possible outcomes Conscience alley Advising Jack on what to
do with the gold
Presenting/devising a Money/power are mirages Creating shared ‘truths’ Rehearsed pairs/group Presenting a possible
play sequence to Integrity – telling lies through organising improvisation consequence if Jack
communicate a Honesty pays ‘frames’ into a Tableau, narration keeps the gold (tableau
meaning to others Love wins through narrative Thought-tracking or group improvisation)
Using paradox, irony to Hot-seating, forum Scene to show life under
convey meaning theatre Queen Cinderella

British Journal of Special Education · Volume 36 · Number 1 · 2009

Physical theatre, mime

15
difficulties. Rather than wait for a mythical point at which
children may be deemed ‘ready for drama’, it is possible to
develop social understanding using an apprenticeship
approach for all (teacher and pupils) that harnesses play,
which is the natural way that children learn. This approach
builds upon features of early interactive play formats, with
the teacher-in-role as a powerful catalyst, shaping the direc-
tion of the drama in order to offer a reflective window on
experience. This should be based on identifying the genera-
tive conditions to support a ‘triad of competencies’:
improvements in children’s communication (of shared
meanings), their sensitivity (empathy) and creativity
(problem-solving). Pedagogical implications are that all
three dimensions need to be appropriately addressed (cog-
nitive, affective and narrative structure) at all levels of drama
activity, in order to underpin potentially powerful, memo-
rable, meaningful and coherent learning experiences.
Neelands (1992) posits how drama also offers a sense of
coherence through the effect of creating ‘real life’ demands
and situations for the learner, which provides relevance to
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Address for correspondence:
Dr Melanie Peter
Faculty of Education
Anglia Ruskin University
Rivermead Campus
Chelmsford
Essex CM1 1SQ
Email: melanie.peter@anglia.ac.uk
Article submitted: October 2007
Accepted for publication: September 2008
17