2 Regular

Surfaces

2-1. Introduction
In this chapter, we shall begin the study of surfaces. Whereas in the first
chapter we used mainly elementary calculus of one variable, we shaIl now
need some knowledge of calculus of several variables. Specifically, we need
to know some facts about continuity: and differentiability of functions and
maps in R2 and RJ. What we need can be found in any standard text of
advanced calculus, for instance, Buck Advanced Ca/culus; we have inc1uded
a brief review of some of this material in an appendix to Chap. 2.
In Seco2-2 we shall introduce the basic concept of a regular surface in
RJ. In contrast to the treatment of curves in Chap. 1, regular surfaces are
defined as sets rather than maps. The goal of Seco2-2 is to describe some
criteria that are helpful in trying to decide whether a given subset of RJ is a
regular surface.
In Seco2-3 we shall show that it is possible to define what it means for a
function on a regular surface to be differentiable, and in Seco 2-4 we shall
show that the usual notion of differential in R2 can be extended to such func-
tions. Thus, regular surfaces in RJ provide a natural setting for two-dimen-
sional calculus.
Of course, curves can also be treated from the same point of view, that is,
as subsets of RJ which provide a natural setting for one-dimensional calculus,
We shall mention them briefíy in Seco2-3.
Sections 2-2 and 2-3 are crucial to the rest of the book. A beginner may
find the proofs in these sections somewhat difficult. If so, the proofs can be
omitted on a first reading.

51
52 Regular Surfaces

In Seco2-5 we shall introduce the first fundamental form, a natural instru-

ment to treat metric questions (lengths of curves, areas of regions, etc.) on a
regular surface. This will become a very important issue when we reach Chap.
4.
Sections 2-6 through 2-8 are optional on a first reading. In Seco 2-6, we
shall treat the idea of orientation on regular surfaces. This wí11 be needed
in Chaps. 3 and 4. For the benefit of those who omit this section, we shall
review the notion of orientation at the beginning of Chap. 3.

2-2. Regular Surfaces,'

Inverse Images of Regular Valuest

In this section we shall introduce the notion of a regular surface in R3. Rough-
Iy speaking, a regular surface in R3 is obtained by taking pieces of aplane,
deforming them, and arranging them in such a way that the resulting figure
has no sharp points, edges, or self-intersections and so that it makes sense to
speak of a tangent plane at points 'of the figure. The idea is to define a set
that is, in a certain sense, two-dimensional and that also is smooth enough
so that the usual notions of calculus cjú;. be extended to it. By the end of Seco
2-4, it should be completely cJear that the following definition is the right one.

DEFINITION 1. A subset S e R3 is a regular surface if, for eacñ p E S,

there exists a neighborhood V in R 3 and a map x: U -> V n S 01 an open set
U e R2 onto V n S e R3 such that (Fig. 2-1)

l. X is differen tiab le. This means that if we write

x(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)), (u, v) E U,

the functians x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v) have continuous partial derivatives
01 all orders in U.
2. x is a homeomorphism. Since x is continuous by condition 1, this
means that x has an inverse x-¡: V n S -> U which is continuous;
that is, x-¡ is the restriction 01 a continuous map F: W e R3 -> R2
defined on an open set W containing V n S.
3. (The regularity condition.) For each q E U, the differential
dxq: R 2 -> R 3 is one-to-one.t

We shaJl explain condition 3 in a short while.

[Proofs in this seetion may be omitted on a first reading,

¡In italic context, letter symbols are roman so they can be distinguished from the sur-
rounding text.
 ~:
r
I
p~vns

f;>1t
\
/'
,-
I '"
:Cx(u. V), y(u~ ;), z(u. V))
1
I
I

/.o~------------------y
--\---t------il--<- u

Figure 2-1

The mapping X is called a parametrization or a system o/(local) coordinates

in (a neighborhood of) p. The neighborhood V n S of p in S is called a coor-
dinate neighborhood.

To give condition 3 a more familiar form, let us compute the matrix ofthe
linear map dx, in the canonical bases el = (l, O), ez = (O, 1) of R2 with
coordinates (u, v) and /1 = (1, 0, O),J.z = (O, 1,0)./3 = (O,0, 1) of R3, with
coordinates (x, y, z). •..'..
Let q = (UD' VD). The vector el is tangent to the curve u ---+ (u, VD) whose
image under X is the curve

u~ (x(u, VD)' y(u, VD)' z(u, VD».

This image curve (called the coordinate curve V = VD) lies on S and has at
x(q) the tangent vector (Fig. 2-2)

aX ay aZ) _
( au' Tu' au - au '
ax

where the derivatives are computed at (UD' VD) and a vector is indicated by its
components in the basis UI '/Z./3}' By the definition of differential (appendix
to Chap. 2, Def. 1),

Similarly, using the coordinate curve u = Uo (image by X of the curve

V ---+ (uo, v), we obtain

dx () z aX ay aZ) ax
. q e = ( av' av' av = av'
 v u = Uo

--:r--,;t---'-+---- __ u

Figure 2-2

Thus, the matrix of the linear map dx; in the referred basis is

Condition 3 of Def. 1 may now be expressed by requiring the two column

vectors of this matrix to be linearly independent; or, equivalently, that the
vector product ax/au 1\ ax/av *
O; or, in still another way,' that one of the
minors of order 2 of the matrix of dxq, that is, one of the Jacobian determi-
nants
ax ax
a(x, y) au av a(y, z) a(x, z)
a(u, v) = ay ay a(u, v)' a(u, v)'
au av

be different from zero at q.

Remark l. Definition 1deserves a few comments. First, in contrast to our

treatment of curves in Chap. 1, we have defined a surface as a subset S of
R3, and not as a map. This is achieved by covering S with the traces of
parametrizations which satisfy conditions 1, 2, and 3.
Condition 1 is very natural if we expect to do some differential geometry
on S. The one-to-oneness in condition 2 has the purpose of preventing self-
Regular Surfaces 55

intersections in regular surfaces. This is clearly necessary if we are to speak

about, say, the tangent plane at a point p E S (see Fig. 2-3(a». The continuity
oí the inverse in condition 2 has a more subtle purpose which can be fully
u'nderstood only in the next section. For the time being, we shall mention
that this condition is essential to proving that certain objects defined in terms
of a parametrization do not depend on this parametrization but only on the
set S itself. Finally, as we shall show in Seco2.4, condition 3 will guarantee
the existence of a "tangent plane" at all points of S (see Fig. 2-3(b».

h7
~
(b)

Figure 2-3. Some situations to be avoided in the definition of a regular surface.

Example 1. Let us show that the ,!;Initsphere

S2 = {(x,y,Z) E R3;X2 +y2 + Z2 = 1}

is a regular surface.
We first verify that the map X¡: U e R2 --+ R3 given by

X¡(x, y) = (x, y, +";1 - (x2 + y2», (x,y) E U,

where R2 = {(x, y, z) E R3; Z = O} and U = {(x, y) E R2; X2 + y2 < 1}, is

a parametrization of S2. Observe that xI( U) is the (open) part of S2 above the
xy plane.
Since x2 + y2 < 1, the function +";1 - (X2 + y2) has continuous
partial derivatives of all orders. Thus, XI is differentiable and condition 1
holds.
Condition 3 is easily verified, since

a(x, y) = 1
a(x,y)- .

To check condition 2, we observe that XI is one-to-one and that xl¡ is

the restriction of the (continuous) projection n(x, y, z) = (x, y) to the set
xl(U). Thus, xII is continuous in xl(U).
56 Regular Surfaces

We shall now cover the whole sphere with similar parametrizations as

follows. We define X2: U e R2 ---+ R3 by

xlx,y) = (x,y, ---/1 - (X2 + y2»,

check that X2 is a parametrization, and observe that xl(U) U x2(U) covers
S2 minus the equator

{(x, y, z) E R3; x2 + y2 = 1, z = O}.

Then, using the xz and zy planes, we define the parametrizations

X3(x, z) = (x, +--/1 - (x2 + Z2), z),

x4(x, z) = (x, ---/1 - + Z2), z),
(x2
xs(y, z) = (+--/1 - (y2 + Z2),y, z),
x6(Y, z) = (- --/1 - (y2 + Z2), y, z),
which, together with XI and X2, cover S2 completely (Fig. 2-4) and show that
S2 is a regular surface.
..
"

Figure 2-4

For most applications, it is convenient to relate parametrizations to the

geographical coordinates on S2. Let V = {(O, (O); O < 0< n, O < (O < 2n}
and let x: V ---+ R3 be given by

x(O, (O) = (sin O cos (O, sin O sin (O, cos O).

Clearly, xU:') e S2. We shaJl prove that X is a parametrization of S2. e is

Regular Surfeces 57

Figure 2-5

usually called the colatitude (the complement of the latitude) and rp the
longitude (Fig. 2-5).
It is clear that the functions sin O cos rp, sin O sin rp, cos O have continuous
partial derivatives of all orders; hence, x is differentiable. Moreover, in order
that the Jacobian determinants

a(x, y) _ cos O sin O

a(O, rp) - ,

a~y, z) = sin- O cos rp,

ao,rp) •
a(x, z) ••.-: 2 O .
a(O, rp) =·s~n SInrp

vanish simultaneously, it is necessary that

This do es not happen in V, and so conditions 1 and 3 of Def. 1 are satisfied.

Next, we observe that given (x, y, z) E S2 - e, where e is the semicircle

e= [(x,y, z) E S2;y = o, x > O},

O is uniquely determined by O = cos-I z, since O < O < n. By knowing O,
we find sin rp and cos rp from x = sin O cos rp, y = sin O sin rp, and this
determines rp uniquely (O < rp < 2n). It follows that x has an inverse x".
To complete the verification of condition 2, we should prove that x-I is
continuous. However, since we shall soon prove (Prop. 4) that this veriñca-
tion is not necessary provided we already know tha t the set S is a regular sur-
face, we shall not do that here.
We remark that xCV) only omits a semicircle of S2 (including the two
poles) and that S2 can be covered with the coordinate neighborhoods of two
parametrizations of this type.
58 Regular Surfaces

In Exercise 16 we shall indicate how to cover S2 with another useful set

of coordinate neighborhoods.

Example 1 shows that deciding whether a given subset of R3 is a regular

surface directly from the definition may be quite tiresome. Before going into
further examples, we shall present two propositions which will simplify this
task. Proposition 1 shows the relation which exists between the definition of a
regular surface and the graph of a function z = f(x, y). Proposition 2 uses
the inverse function theorem and relates the definition of a regular surface
with the subsets of the form f(x, y, z) = constant.

PROPOSITION 1. 1f f: U ---> R is a di./Jerentiable function in an open

set U of R2, then the graph of f, that is, the subset of R? given by (x, y, f(x, y))
for (x, y) E U, is a regular surface.

Proof: It suffices to show that the map x: U ---> R3 given by

x(u, v) = (u, v, f(u, v»

is a parametrization of the graph whose coordinate neighborhood covers
every point of the graph. Condition, r is clearly satisfied, and condition 3
also offers no difficulty since a(x, y)¡a(u, v) = 1. Finally, each point (x, y, z)
of the graph is the image under x of the unique point (u, v) = (x, y) E U.
x is therefore one-to-one, and since x-1 is the restriction to the graph of f
of the (continuous) projection of R3 onto the xy plane, x-1 is continuous.
Q.E.D.

Before stating Prop. 2, we shall need a definition.

DEFINITION 2. Given a differentiable map F: U e RD ---> Rm defined in

an open set U of R n we say that p E U is a critical point of F if the differential
dFp: RD ---> Rm is not a surjective (or onto) mapping, The image F(P) E Rm
of a critical point is cal/ed a critical value of F. A point o} R m which is no! a
critical value is cal/ed a regular value of F.

The terminology is evidently motivated by the particular case in which

f: U c: R ---> R is a real-valued function of a real variable. A point Xo E U
is critical if f'(xo) = 0, that is, if the differential df'¿ carries al! the vectors in
R to the zero vector (Fig. 2-6). Notice that any point a $. f(U) is trivial!ya
regular value off
If f: U c: R3 ---> R is a differentiable function, then df; applied to the
vector (1,0, O) is obtained by calculating the tangent vector at f(p) to the
curve
x - f(x, Yo, zo)·
Regular Surfaces 59

y =f(x)
Critical f(x)
value o I _
__ L
I
dfx I (v) I
I
I
I
I
Regular f(x I ) -------..,------
value I
I W x
o Xo
Critical point

Figure 2·6

It follows that

and analogously that

dfiO, 1, O) = t; dfiO,O, 1) = J;

We conclude that the matrix of df, ~)he basis (1,0, O), (O, 1, O),(0,0, 1) is
given by

Note, in this case, that to say that df', is not surjective is equivalent to
saying that f" = fy = fz = O at p. Hence, a E f( U) is a regular value of
f: U e R3 - R if and only iff",fy, and j", do not vanish simultaneously at
any point in the inverse image

f-l(a) = {(x,y, Z) E U: f(x,y, z) = a}.

PROPOSITION 2. Jf f: U e R3 --+ R is a differentiable function and

a E f(U) is a regular value off, then f-I(a) is a regular surface in R3.

Proa! Let p = (xo, Yo, zo) be a point of f-I (a). Since a is a regular value
off, it is possible to assume, by renaming the axis if necessary, thatj', at '* °
p. We define a mapping F: U e R3 - R3 by

F(x, y, z) = (x, y, f(x, y, z),

and we indicate by (u, V, r) the coordinates of a point in R3 where F takes its

values. The differential of F at p is given by
· 60 Regular Surfaces

whence

We can therefore apply the inverse function theorem (cf. the appendix to
Chap. 2), which guarantees the existence of neighborhoods V of p and W of
F(p) such that F: V --> W is invertible and the inverse F:! : W --> Vis differ-
entiable (Fig. 2-7). It follows that the coordinate functions of r:', i.e., the
functions

x = u, y = V, z = g(u, V, t), (u, v, t) E W,

rl(a)n V
f=a

~' ~,<
i.>",.
..1f+ili:T.4i."· :
w

~"'
I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
l'
,.
.•
F
~
I
:
I

: F(p):
1.. I I

:
I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I
1: : I y 1: I I V

o I I I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I

X V V u
V V
Figure 2-7

are differentiable. In particular, z = g(u, v, a) = h(x, y) is a differentiable

function defined in the projection of V onto the xy planeo Since

F(f-l(a) n V) = W n f(u, v, r): t = aJ,

we conclude that the graph of h is ¡-lea) n V. By Prop. 1, ¡-I(a) n V is a

coordinate neighborhood of p. Therefore, every p E ¡-lea) can be covered
by a coordinate neighborhood, and so ¡-l(a) is a regular surface. Q.E.D.

Remark 2. The proof consists essentialIy of using the inverse function

theorem "to solve for z" in the equation fi», y, z) = a, which can be done
in a neighborhood of p if¡z(p) '*
O. This fact is a specia1 case ofthe general
implicit function theorem, which follows frorn the inverse function theorem
and is, in fact, equivalent to it.
Regular Surfaces 61

Example 2. The ellipsoid

is a regular surface. In fact, it is the set 1-1 (O) where

I(x, y, z) =
x2
"2
a
+ .t:
2
Z2
b + "2 -
e
1

is a differentiable function and Ois a regular value off This follows from the
fact that the partial derivatives 1,,:.-= 2x/aZ, Iy = 2y/b2, Ir = 2z/c2 vanish
simultaneously only at the point (O,O,O), which does not belong to 1-1(0).
This example includes the sphere as a particular case (a = b = e = 1).

The examples of regular surfaces presented so far have been connected

subsets of R3. A surface S c: R3 is said to be connected if any two of its points
can be joined by a continuous curve in S. In the definition of a regular surface
we made no restrictions on the connectedness of the surfaces, and the follow-
ing example shows that the regular surfaces given by Prop. 2 may not be con-
nected.

Example 3. The hyperboloid of (wo' sheets -x2 - y2 + Z2 ,,; 1 is a

regular surface, since it is given by $':= 1-1 (O),where Ois a regular value of
I(x, y, z) = _x2 - y2 + Z2 - 1 (Fig~ 2-8). Note that the surface S is not
connected; that is, given two points in two distinct sheets (z > Oand z < O)
it is not possible to join them by a continuous curve lX(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t))
contained in the surface; otherwise, z changes sign and, for some to, we have
z(t o) = O, which means that lX(t o) if. S.

Incidentally, the argument of Example 3 may be used to prove a property

of connected surfaces that we shall use repeatedly. Jf f: S c: R3 --+ R is a
nonzero continuous function defined on a connected surface S, then f does not
change sign on S.
To prove this, we use the intermedia te value theorem (appendix to Chap.
2, Prop. 4). Assume, by contradiction, that I(p) > O and I(q) < O for
some points p, q E S. Since S is connected, there exists a continuous curve
IX: [a, b] --+ S with lX(a) = p, lX(b) = q. By applying the intermediate value
theorem to the continuous functionj" o IX: [a, b] --+ R, we find that there exists
e E (a, b) wíth j" o IX(C) = O; that is,jis zero at IX(C), a contradiction.

Example 4. The torus T is a "surface" generated by rotating a circle SI

of radius r about a straight line belonging to the plan e of the circle and at a
distance a > r away from the center of the circle (Fig. 2-9).
62 Regular Surfaces

Figure 2-8. A nonconnected surface:

--y¡ - xl + zl = 1.

Let S' be the circle in the yz plane with its center in the point (O, a, O).
Then SI is given by (y - a)l +
Zl = r2, and the points of the figure T ob-
tained by rotating this circle about the z axis satisfy the equation

Therefore, T is the inverse image of rl by the function

This function is differentiable for (x, y) "* (O, O), and since

a¡ a¡_ 2y(..jXl + yl - a)
az=2z, ay- ..jX2+y2 '

a¡ 2x(..jx2 + y2 - a)
ax = ..jx2 + y2 '

r2 is a regular value of f It foIlows that the torus T is a regular surface.

Proposition 1 says that the graph of a differentiable function is a regular

surface. The foIlowing proposition provides a local converse of this; that is,
any regular surface is locally the graph of a differentiable function.
 ~--y

Figure 2-9

PROPOSITION 3. Let S e R 3 be a regular surfaee and p E S. Then there

exists a neighborhood V of p in S such that V is the graph of a differentiable
funetion whieh has one of the following three forms; z = f(x, y), y = g(x, z),
x = h(y, z).

Proof. Let x: U e R2 -> S be a parametrization of S in p, and write

x(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v», (u, v) E U. By condition 3 of Def 1, one
of the Jacobian determinants
•.. '.
a(x, y) a(y~,z) a(z, x)
a(u, v)' a(u~ v)' a(u, v)

is not zero at X-I(p) = q.

Suppose first that (a (x, y)¡a(u, v»(q) "* 0, and consider the map n o x:
U -> R2, where n is the projection n(x, y, z) = (x, y). Then no x(u, v) =
tx(u, v), y(u, v», and, since (a(x, y)¡a(u, v»(q) "* 0, we can apply the inverse
function theorem to guarantee the existence of neighborhoods VI of q, V2 of
no x(q) such that n o x maps VI diffeomorphically onto V2 (Fig. 2-10). It fol-
lows that tt restricted to x( VI) = Vis one-to-one and that there is a differenti-
able inverse (n o X)-I: V2 -> Vl' Observe that, since x is a homeomorphism,
Vis a neighborhood of p in S. Now, if we compose the map (a o x)"": (x,y)->
(u(x, y), v(x, y» with the function (u, v) ---+ z(u, v), we find that Vis the graph
of the differentiable function z = z(u(x, y), v(x, y» = f(x, y), and this settles
the first case.
The remaining cases can be treated in the same way, yielding x = h(y, z)
and y = g(x, z). Q.E.D.

The next proposition says that if we already know that S is a regular

surface and we have a candidate x for a parametrization, we do not have to
 64 Regular Surfaces

- x

11

Figure 2·10

check that x-¡ is continuous, provided that the other conditions hold. This
remark was used in Example 1.

PROPOSITION 4. Let p E S be a point o/ a regular surface S and let

x: U e R2 ~ R3 be a map with p E x(U) e S such that conditions 1 and 3
of Dei. 1 hold. Assume that X is one~~~-one. Then x-1 is continuous.
"
Proof. Let q E xCV). Because S ís a regular surface, there exists a neigh-
borhood W e S of q such that W is the graph of a differentiable function
over, say, an open set V of the xy planeo Let N = x-1 (W) e U and set h =
1r o x: N ~ V, where 1T(X,y,Z) = (x,y). Then dh =
tt o dx is nonsingular at
x-1 (q) = r. By the inverse function theorem, there exists a neighborhood
n e N such that h: n~ h(n) is a diffeomorphism. Notice that x(!}) is an
open set in S and that, restricted to xC!}),x-1 = h-1 o 1T is a composition
of continuous maps. Thus x-1 is continuous in q. Since q is arbitrary, x-1
is continuous in x(n). Q.E.D.

Example S. The one-sheeted cone e, given by

is not a regular surface. Observe that we cannot conclude this from the fact
alone that the "natural" parametrization

is not differentiable; there could be other parametrizations satisfying Def. 1.

To show that this is not the case, we use Prop. 3. If e were a regular
surface, it would be, in a neighborhood of (O, 0, O) E e, the graph of a
Regular Surfaces 65

dilferentiable function having one of three forms: y = h(x, z), X = g(y, z),
z = f(x, y). The two first forms can be discarded by the simple fact that the
projections of e over the xz and yz planes are not one-to-one. The last form
would have to agree, in a neighborhood of (0,0, O), with z = +,Jx2 y2. +
Since z = +,Jx2 + y2 is not dilferentiable at (O, O), this is impossible.

Example 6. A parametrization for the torus T of Example 4 can be given

by (Fig. 2-9)

x(u, v) = «r cos u + a) cos v, (r cos U + a) sin v, r sin u),

where O < u < 2n, < v < 2n. °
Condition 1 of Def. 1 is easily checked, and condition 3 reduces to a
straightforward computation, which is left as an exercise. Since we know that
T is a regular surface, condition 2 is equivalent, by Prop. 4, to the fact that x
is one-to-one.
To prove that x is one-to-one, we first observe that sin u = zlr; also, if
+
,Jx2 y2 < a, then n/2 < u < 3n/2, and if ,Jx2 y2 > a, then either +
O < u <n/2 or 3n/2 < u < 21t. Thus, given (x, y, z), this determines u,
° < u < 2n, uniquely. By knowing u, X, and y we find cos v and sin v. This
determines v uniquely, °
< v < 2n. Thus, x is one-to-one.
It is easy to see that the torus can .be covered by three such coordinate
neighborhoods. •..'.

EXERCISESt

l. Show that the cylinder ((x, y, z) E Rl; x2 + y2 = I] is a regular surface, and

find parametrizations whose coordinate neighborhoods cover it.
2. Is the set ((x, y, Z) E Rl; Z = O and x2 + y2 ~ 1J a regular surface? Is the set
[(x, y, Z) E Rl; Z = O, and x2 + y2 < 1J a regular surface?
3. Show that the two-sheeted cone, with its vertex at the origin, that is, the set
[(x, y, z) E Rl; x2 + y2 - Z2 = O}, is not a regular surface.

4. Let ft», y, z) = Z2. Prove that O is not a regular value of f and yet that ¡-J (O) is
a regular surface.
*5. Let P = [(x, y, z) E Rl; X = y} (a plane) and let x: U e R2 ----+ R3 be given by

x(u, v) = (u + v, u + v, uv),
where U = [(u, v) E R2; U > e], Clearly, x( U) e P. Is X a parametrization of
P?

tThose who have omitted the proofs in this section should also omit Exercises 17-19.
66 Regular Surfaces

6. Give another proof of Prop. 1 by applying Prop. 2 to h(x, y, z) = [(x, y) - z.

7. Let[(x, y, z) = (x +y +z - 1)2.
a. Locate the critical points and critical values off
b, For what values of e is the set[(x, y, z) = e a regular surface?
c. Answer the questions of parts a and b for the function[(x, y, z) = xyz2.

8. Let x(u, v) be as in Def. 1. Verify that dxq: R2 ---4 R3 is one-to-one if and only if

ax 1\ aX;f:: O.
au av
9. Let V be an open set in the xy plane. Show that the set
(x, y, z) E R3; Z = O and (x, y) E V}

is a regular surface.
10. Let e be a figure "8" in the xy plane and let S be the cylindrical surface over e
(Fig. 2-11); that is,

S = [(x, y, z) E R3;(X,y) E e}.

Is the set S a regular surface?

-.'
-.. "

Figure 2-11

11. Show that the set S = (x, y, Z) E R3; Z = x2 - y2} is a regular surface and
check that parts a and b are parametrizations for S:
a. x(u, v) = (u + v, u - v, 4uv), (u, v) E R2.
*b. x(u, v) = (u cosh v, u sinh v, u2), (u, v) E R2, 11;f:: O.
Which parts of S do these parametrizations cover?
12. Show that x: U e R2 ---4 R3 given by

X(u, v) = (a sin u cos v, b sin u sin v, e cos u), a, b, c;f:: O,

where O < u < n, O < v < 2n, is a parametrization for the ellipsoid

Describe geometrically the curves u = const. on the ellipsoid.

 Regular Surface$ 67

*13. Find a parametrization for the hyperboloid of two sheets {(x, y, z) E R3;
-x2 - y2 + Z2 = 1).
14. A half-line [0, (0) is perpendicular to a line E and rotates about E from a given
°
initial position while its origin moves along E. The movement is such that
when [O, (0) has rotated through an angle 8, the origin is at a distance
d = sin2(8/2) from its initial position on E. Verify that by removing the line E
from the image of the rotating line we obtain a regular surface. lf the movement
were such that d = sin(8/2), what else would need to be excluded to have a
regular surface?
*15. Let two points p(t) and q(t) move with the same speed, p starting from (O, 0, O)
and moving along the z axis and q starting at (a, 0, O), a =1= 0, and moving par-
allel to the y axis. Show that the line through p(t) and q(t) describes a set in R3
given by y(x - a) + zx = O. Is this a regular surface?
16. One way to define a system of coordinates for the sphere S2, given by
x2 + y2 + (z - 1)2 = 1, is to consider the so-called stereographic projection
n: S2 ,...,{N} -- R2 which carries a point p = (x, y, z) of the sphere S2 minus
the north pole N = (O, 0, 2) onto the intersection of the xy plane with the
straight line which connects N to p (Fig. 2-12). Let (u, v) = n(x, y, z), where
(x, y, z) E S2 ,...,(N} and (u, v) E xy planeo
8. Show that n-1 : R2 -- S 2 is given by

4u
..
x = u~
.
+ v2 + 4'
4v
y = u2
,
+ v2 + 4'
2(u'2 + v2)
z= .
u +v +4
2 2

Figure 2-12. The stereographic projection.

 68 Regular Surfaces

b. Show that it is possible, using stereographic projection, to cover the sphere

with two coordinate neighborhoods.
17. Define a regular curve in analogy with a regular surface. Prove that
a. The inverse image of a regular value of a differentiable function

f: U e R2 --t R

is a regular plane curve. Give an example of such a curve which is not con-
nected.
b. The inverse image of a regular value of a differentiable map

is a regular curve in RJ. Show the relationship between this proposition and
the classical way of defining a curve in RJ as the intersection of two surfaces.
*c. The set e = {(x, y) E R2; x2 = yJ) is not a regular curve.

*18. Suppose that f(x, y, z) = u = const., g(x, y, z) = v = const.,

hi», y, 'z) = w = const.,
describe three families of regular surfaces and assume that at (xo, Yo, zo) the
Jacobian -...••

a(f, g, h) =F O
a(x, y, z) .

Prove that in a neighborhood of (xo, Yo, zo) the three families will be described
by a mapping F(u, v, w) = (x, y, z) of an open set of RJ into RJ, where a local
parametrization for the surface of the family f(x, y, z) = u, for example, is
obtained by setting u = const. in this mapping. Determine F for the case where
the three families of surfaces are

f(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + Z2 = U = const.; (spheres with center (O, 0, O));

g(x, y, z) =L= v = const., (planes through the z axis);

x

h(x, y, z) =
x2
--2-
+ y2
= W = const., (cones with vertex at (0,0, O)).
*19. z

Let IX: (- 3, O) --t R2 be defined by (Fig, 2-13)

= (O, -(1 + 2)), if t E (-3, -1),

= regular parametrized curve joining p = (O, -1) to q = (~ , O),

if 1 E ( -1, - !),
= (-1, -sin 1.)
t I' ir 1 E (- ~ , O).
Change o, Parameters 69

o x

p ~ (0,-1)

Horizontal scale distinct from vertical scale

Figure 2-13

It is possible to define the curve joining p to q so that all the derivatives of (J, are
continuous at the corresponding points and (J, has no self-intersections. Let e
be the trace of (J,.
a. Is e a regular curve?
b. Let a normalline to the plane R2 run through e so that it describes a "cylin-
der" S. Is S a regular surface?

'-